Measuring Instrument

TEMPERATURE, PRESSURE, FLOW

ME-402
Prepared By………
Prof.Sachin kumar Nikam
Assistant Professor
Department of Mechanical,
L.N.C.T , Bhopal
 Temperature & Measuring Instruments

Temperature definition is - degree of hotness or coldness measured on a definite

scale

Three temperature scales are in general use today. The Fahrenheit (°F) temperature
scale is used in the United States and a few other English-speaking countries. The Celsius
(°C) temperature scale is standard in virtually all countries that have adopted the metric
system of measurement, and it is widely used in the sciences. The Kelvin (K) scale,
an absolute temperature scale (obtained by shifting the Celsius scale by −273.15° so
that absolute zero coincides with 0 K), is recognized as the international standard for
scientific temperature measurement.
 Thermometric property

The property of a substance which changes uniformly with the uniform change in
temperature is known as thermometric property
 DIFFERENT TYPES OF TEMPERATURE MEASURING DEVICES

Following are the most commonly used temperature measuring devices.

➢Liquid in Glass Thermometer
➢Electric Resistance Thermometer
➢Radiation Thermometry
➢Thermocouple
➢Silicon Diode
➢Bimetallic Devices
➢Bulb and Capillary Sensor
➢Constant volume Gas Thermometer
➢Sealed Bellows
➢Constant Pressure Gas Thermometer
 Liquid-in-Glass Thermometer

The Liquid-in-Glass Thermometer is a type of a thermometer used to measure

temperature. The thermal expansion of the liquid is the principle used to measure the
temperature in the thermometer. When the temperature increases, the liquid expands
and then rises in the capillary tube in the thermometer.
 Resistance thermometers

Resistance thermometers, also called resistance temperature detectors (RTDs),

are sensors used to measure temperature. Many RTD elements consist of a length of fine
wire wrapped around a ceramic or glass core but other constructions are also used. The
RTD wire is a pure material, typically platinum, nickel, or copper. The material has an
accurate resistance/temperature relationship which is used to provide an indication of
temperature. As RTD elements are fragile, they are often housed in protective probes.
 Advantages and limitations

The advantages of platinum resistance thermometers include:

1. High accuracy
2. Low drift
3. Wide operating range
4. Suitability for precision applications.

Limitations:

RTDs in industrial applications are rarely used above 660 °C. At temperatures above 660 °C it
becomes increasingly difficult to prevent the platinum from becoming contaminated by impurities
from the metal sheath of the thermometer. This is why laboratory standard thermometers replace the
metal sheath with a glass construction. At very low temperatures, say below −270 °C (3 K), because
there are very few phonons, the resistance of an RTD is mainly determined
by impurities and boundary scattering and thus basically independent of temperature. As a result,
the sensitivity of the RTD is essentially zero and therefore not useful.
 Thermocouple

A Thermocouple is a sensor used to measure temperature. Thermocouples consist of two

wire legs made from different metals. The wires legs are welded together at one end,
creating a junction. This junction is where the temperature is measured. When the junction
experiences a change in temperature, a voltage is created.
THERMOCOUPLE TABLE
 Pyrometer

A pyrometer is a type of remote-sensing thermometer used to measure the temperature of a surface it is a

device that from a distance determines the temperature of a surface from the amount of the thermal
radiation it emits, a process known as pyrometry and sometimes radiometry.

Pyrometer are two types

✓Optical Pyrometer
✓Radiation pyrometer
 ✓Optical Pyrometer

Optical Pyrometer. Definition: The optical pyrometer is a non-contact type temperature measuring
device. It works on the principle of matching the brightness of an object to the brightness of the filament
which is placed inside the pyrometer.
 ✓Radiation Pyrometer

They are non-contact devices, used to measure temperature above 1500 degree Celsius, contact devices
may melt at this temperature The heat energy emitted from the hot body is allowed passed on to the
lens. Which collects it and focused on to the detector with the mirror and eyepiece arrangement.
Now the detector converts the radiation energy into an electrical signal. Thermopiles and photon
multipliers are commonly used detectors. Detectors produce the reading and shows in the temperature
display.

Advantages:
•Low cost
•N need of contact
•Fast response speed

Disadvantages:
•Emissitive error are introduced
•Error due to the obsortion of the radiation by the carbon dioxide , water or other apparently transparent gases
✓Radiation Pyrometer
 Bimetallic
thermometers

Bimetallic thermometers are made up of bimetallic strips formed by joining two different metals having
different thermal expansion coefficients. Basically, bimetallic strip is a mechanical element which can
sense temperature and transform it into a mechanical displacement.
 Constant Volume Gas Thermometer

Constant Volume Gas Thermometer: A constant volume gas

thermometer ususally consists of a bulb filled with a fixed amount of a
dilute gas which is attached to a mercury manometer. The manometer is used to
measure variation in pressure. This thermometer works on the principle of Law of Gay-
Lussac.
PRESSURE MEASURING DEVICES
Pressure is defined as the physical force exerted on an object. The force applied is
perpendicular to the surface of objects per unit area.
The basic formula for pressure is F/A (Force per unit area).
Unit of pressure is Pascals (Pa).
Types of Pressures are Absolute, Atmospheric, Differential, and Gauge Pressure.
Classification of pressure measuring instruments based on construction and working principles

Liquid column elements:

Elastic element gauge:

Electrical transducers:
Force –balanced devices
 Liquid column elements:

Barometer
Manometer –u tube,

BAROMETER:
The barometer is used to measure atmospheric pressure. Atmospheric pressure is the pressure exerted by the air
surrounding the earth that goes on decreasing away from the earth surface.

Working principle:
Barometric liquid balances the atmospheric pressure against vacuum and pressure head reading is obtained in the
absolute units.

Construction and working:

The barometer has a glass tube closed at one end and opened at the other; the length of the tube must be greater than
76.2 cm. the tube is first completely filled with mercury and the open end is temporarily plugged. Then the tube is
inverted so that plugged end is immersed in a mercury pan. When the plug is removed, the mercury in the tube drops
by a certain amount, creating a vacuum at the top of the tube and then reading ‘h’ is noted. The reading ‘h’ is
proportional to atmospheric pressure acting on mercury in the pan. Note that this atmospheric pressure reading is in
absolute units.
 Manometer –u tube

The device used to know about the pressure difference in the pipeline, it is simple in construction, the
basic law of physics is applied for calculation of the pressure drop. It is a glass or metal tube with a 'U'
bend providing with two legs. Manometeric fluids as mercury or carbon tetrachloride etc., where the
density should be higher than the fluid which flows through the pipe, manometeric fluid will be filled in
the tube for the value, the two legs are connected to the points on which we are interested to calculate
the differential pressure, when this done the fluid which flows in the pipe or tube will enter into both
the legs, the pressure on the leg will differ showing the deflection of height in the manomertic fluid.

Principle: all manometers work on the effect of the hydrostatic pressure exerted by a liquid column. In manometer
unknown pressure is determined by balancing it against some known pressure or vacuum.

Construction and working: The U-tube manometer consists of glass U-tube partially filled with a suitable liquid
like water, mercury etc. one of the arms or legs of the manometer, is connected to unknown pressure tap to be
measured while other is connected to other pressure tap or it is left open to atmosphere.
When there is a difference of pressure between two arms of the manometer, liquid levels in the two arms of the
manometer, liquid levels in the two arms do not match. This level difference in the two arms of the manometer
represents differential pressure (P1-P2). The static balance equation is
P2-P1=h ρ g
h=height difference, ρ=mass density of manometer liquid

If the fluid over manometer liquid has appreciable density, then static balance equation can be written as:
P2-P1= h (ρm - ρl) g
h= height difference, ρm = mass density of manometric liquid, ρl = mass density of fluid over manometric liquid
INCLINED –LEG MANOMETER:
The construction is very similar to enlarged leg manometer except that small diameter tube
is inclined to the vertical axis.
When pressure P1 and P2 are applied then liquid rises in the tube, the level of manometeric
liquid inside the tube is measured from zero level along the inclined tube which represents
the differential pressure (P1 – P2) the static balance equation can be written as
P2-P1= ρd sinα[1+(A1/A2)]
α=anlge of inclination of the inclined leg
d= height difference measured
Advantages:
Due to inclined leg, the manometer reading gets amplified. Hence it can be used for measurement of
low pressures of which cannot be measured by other manometers. By reducing angle α, the scale length
and hence the sensitivity can be increased.
 MANOMETRIC LIQUIDS:

Desirable properties of good manometric liquid should have:-

Low-freezing point
High boiling point
Non-wetting characteristics
Low surface tension
Chemically inert
Clear visible interface
Ability to maintain density at various temperatures

MANOMERTIC FLUIDS USED IN PRACTICE ARE:

Mercury: Mercury has a low freezing point(-38F) and high boiling point (675F) but it corrodes
many metals and it is poisonous and expensive.

Water with coloring agents: color agents reduce the surface tension of pure water, that reduce the
capillarity effect in the manometer.

Benzene, Kerosene, CCl4, toluene etc.. to make CCl4 visible a few iodine crystals can be added.
 Advantages and limitations:

Advantages:
➢Simple inexpensive construction
➢High accuracy and sensitivity
➢Can be used for low-pressure measurements
➢The desired span can be obtained just by using suitable manometric liquids
➢Pressure range of manometers is 3 to 100KPa.

Limitations:
❖No over range protection
❖Requires large space
❖Non-portable
❖Levelling is required
❖Condensation of test liquid affects the reading.
 Bourdon tube
Elastic element gauge
Bellows

Diaphragm

Capsule

Transducers are a device that converts one form of energy into some other form. These
pressure gauges have an elastic element that converts pressure signal into proportional
mechanical displacement. In this article, we study Bourdon gauge, bellow
gauge, diaphragm gauge and capsule gauge.
 Bourdon tube

A bourdon tube is a curved, hollow tube with the process pressure applied to the fluid in
the tube. The pressure in the tube causes the tube to deform or uncoil. The pressure can
be determined from the mechanical displacement of the pointer connected to
the bourdon tube. The Bourdon pressure gauge operates on the principle that, when pressurized, a
flattened tube tends to straighten or regain its circular form in cross-section. ... When a gauge is pressurized,
the Bourdon creates the dial tip travel to enable pressure measurement
 Advantages and limitations:

Advantages of Bourdon tube pressure gauge:

✓These Bourdon tube pressure gauges give accurate results.
✓Bourdon tube cost low.
✓Bourdon tube are simple in construction.
✓They can be modified to give electrical outputs.
✓They are safe even for high pressure measurement.
✓Accuracy is high especially at high pressures.

Limitations of bourdon tube pressure gauge:

❖They respond slowly to changes in pressure
❖They are subjected to hysteresis.
❖They are sensitive to shocks and vibrations.
❖Amplification is a must as the displacement of the free end of the bourdon tube is low.
❖It cannot be used for precision measurement.
 Bellows Pressure Gauge

Bellows are thin-walled metallic cylinders, with deep convolutions, of which one end is sealed and the
other end remains open. The closed end can move freely while the open end is fixed.
When pressure is applied to the closed end, such as in the animation below, the bellows will be
compressed. The closed end will move upwards and the link, which is the rod in between the closed end
of the bellows and the transmission mechanism, will go up and rotate the pointer.

ADVANTAGE:
✓It is used to measure absolute &
differential pressure.
✓It is used to measure low or medium
pressure rang.
DISADVANTAGE :
❖It is not useful to measure high value
pressure.
❖Bellows joints can fail
catastrophically.
❖Not in place maintenance or repair
can be performed – they must be
replaced if damaged.
 Diaphragm Pressure Gauge

Diaphragm pressure gauges are used to measure gases and liquids. ... The
measuring element consists of one circular diaphragm clamped between a pair of
flanges. The positive or negative pressure acting on these diaphragms causes
deformation of the measuring element.
Diaphragm pressure gauges Advantages: Applications of the diaphragm
✓Excellent load performance pressure gauge:-
✓Linearity
For measuring points with increased overload
✓Suitable for measuring absolute pressure,
With liquid-filled case suitability for high
differential pressure
dynamic pressure loads and vibrations For
✓Small size, affordable
gaseous, liquid and aggressive media, also in
✓Can be used for viscous, slurry measurement.
aggressive environments With the open
connecting flange option also for contaminated
Diaphragm pressure gauge Disadvantages: and viscous media
❖Seismic, impact resistance is not good
❖Difficulty in maintenance
❖Lower measurement pressure
 Electrical transducers: Resistance-Type Transducers

Resistance-Type Transducers
A strain gauge measures the external force (pressure) applied to a fine wire. The fine wire is
usually arranged in the form of a grid. The pressure change causes a resistance change due to the
distortion of the wire.

R = resistance of the wire grid in ohms

ρ = resistivity constant for the particular type of wire grid
L = length of wire grid
A = cross sectional area of wire grid
As the wire grid is distorted by elastic deformation, its length is increased, and its cross-sectional area
decreases. These changes cause an increase in the resistance of the wire of the strain gauge. This change
in resistance is used as the variable resistance in a bridge circuit that provides an electrical signal for
indication of pressure. Figure 2 illustrates a strain gauge pressure transducer.
 Inductance Type Pressure

Inductance Type Pressure Transducers Principle. The inductance-type transducer consists of three
parts: a coil, a movable magnetic core, and a pressure sensing element. The element is attached to the
core, and, as pressure varies, the element causes the core to move inside the coil.
 Force –balanced devices dead weight tester

A dead weight tester is an instrument that calibrates pressure by determining the weight of
force divided by the area the force is applied. The formula for dead weight testers is
pressure equals force divided by area of where force is applied

Dead weight testers are used to measure the pressure exerted by gas or liquid and can also generate a
test pressure for the calibration of numerous pressure instruments.

In dead weight tester, we put the weight on the weight stand of dead weight tester putting weight is
reference weight which is to be calibrate and further we applied pressure by moving piston ,when
applied pressure and reference weight(Pressure)is equal at this condition reference weight will be
zero(Dead). Therefore it is called dead weigh tester.
A deadweight tester (DWT) is a calibration standard which uses a piston cylinder on which a load is
placed to make an equilibrium with an applied pressure underneath the piston.
The formula to design a DWT is based basically is expressed as follows :
p = F / A [Pa]
Where:
p: reference pressure [Pa]
F : force applied on piston [N]
A : effective area PCU [m2]
 FLOW MEASUREMENT

Flow measurement is the quantification of bulk fluid movement.

A flow meter is a device used to measure the volume or mass of a gas or liquid.
There are two forms of measurement typically used: volume and mass. The devices used
to measure the mass or volumetric flow rate of a liquid or gas include
mechanical flow meters, differential pressure-based meters, variable area meters,
electromagnetic flow meters, thermal mass flow meters,

Different types of fluid flow meters –

✓Orifices,
✓Venturies,
✓Nozzles,
✓Rotameters,
✓Pitot Tubes,
✓Calorimetrics,
✓Turbine,
✓Vortex,
✓Electromagnetic, Doppler, Ultrasonic, Thermal, Coriolis
 FLOW
MEASUREING
DEVICES
 Orifice meter

An Orifice Meter is basically a type of flow meter used to measure the rate of flow of
Liquid or Gas, especially Steam, using the Differential Pressure Measurement principle. It
is mainly used for robust applications as it is known for its durability and is very
economical.
An orifice meter is a conduit and a restriction to create a pressure drop. An hour glass is a
form of orifice. A nozzle, venturi or thin sharp edged orifice can be used as the flow
restriction.
ORIFICE PLATES
 Venturies

A venturimeter is a device used to measure the fluid flow through pipes. This flow
measurement device is based on the principle of Bernoulli's equation. Inside the pipe,
pressure difference is created by reducing the cross-sectional area of the flow passage.
Bernoullis principle states that with the increase in the velocity of the fluid its pressure
decreases (or) decreases the fluid potential energy. Decreasing the fluid pressure in the
areas where flow velocity is increased is called as Bernoulli effect.

The main parts of a venturimeter are:

A short converging part: It is that portion of the venturi where the fluid gets converges.
Throat: It is the portion that lies in between the converging and diverging part of the
venturi.
Diverging part: It is the portion of the venturimeter (venturi) where the fluid gets
diverges.
 NOZZLE FLOW METER

A flow nozzle meter consists of a short nozzle, usually held in place between two pipe
flanges as shown in the diagram at the left.. It is simpler and less expensive than a
venturi meter, but not as simple as an orifice meter. ... A typical flow nozzle discharge
coefficient value is between 0.93 and 0.98.

OPERATIONS:-

1. The fluid whose flow rate is to be measured enters the nozzle smoothly to the section called throat
where the area is minimum.

2. Before entering the nozzle, the fluid pressure in the pipe is p1. As the fluid enters the nozzle,the
fluid converges and due to this its pressure keeps on reducing until it reaches the minimum cross
section area called throat. This minimum pressure p2 at the throat of the nozzle is maintained in the
fluid for a small length after being discharged in the down stream also.

3. The differential pressure sensor attached between points 1 and 2 records the pressure difference
(p1-p2) between these two points which becomes an indication of the flow rate of the fluid through
the pipe when calibrated.
Applications of Flow Nozzle:-
❖It is used to measure flow rates of
the liquid discharged into the
atmosphere.
❖It is usually used in situation where
suspended solids have the property of
settling.
❖Is widely used for high pressure
and temperature steam flows.

Advantages of flow Nozzle:-

✓Installation is easy and is cheaper
when compared to venturi meter
✓It is very compact
✓Has high coefficient of discharge.

Disadvantages of flow Nozzle:-

•Pressure recovery is low
•Maintenance is high
•Installation is difficult when
compared to orifice flow meter.
 ROTA-METER

A rotameter is a device that measures the volumetric flow rate of fluid in a closed tube. It
belongs to a class of meters called variable area meters, which measure flow rate by
allowing the cross-sectional area the fluid travels through to vary, causing a measurable
effect.
It works on the principle of upthrust force exerted by fluid and force of gravity. The
buoyant force exerted on an immersed object is equal to the weight of liquid displaced by
the object. Under this principle, the rotameter works with float-tapered tube system.

WORKING:-
Fluid enters from the bottom of the tapered tube, then some of the fluid strikes directly into the float
bottom and others pass aside the float. Now the float experience two forces in opposite direction,
drag force upward and gravitational force downward.
Fluid flow moves the float upward against gravity. At some point, the flowing area reaches a point
where the pressure-induced force on the floating body exactly matches the weight of the float. The
float will find equilibrium when the area around float generates enough drag equal to weight -
buoyancy.
As the float weight and gravity are constant, the distance float displaced upward is proportional to
the flow velocity of the fluid passing through the tapered tube.
Advantages:

✓No external power needed

✓Simple Reliable Design
✓Can Measure Liquid or Gas Flows
✓Scale is approximately linear
✓It can measure flow rates of corrosive fluid
✓Better rangeability
✓Low cost and low pressure drop

Disadvantages:

▪It should be mounted vertically

▪And requires lining mounting
▪Uncertainty of measurement
▪Difficult to handle the glass type
 THANK YOU

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