LIFE CYCLE ASSESSMENT OF REUSE AND RECYCLE

OF DENIM FABRIC IN THE TEXTILE INDUSTRY

Authors:
Dr Assad Farooq
Department of Fibre and Textile Technology
University of Agriculture, Faisalabad

Sohail Ali Naqvi

Senior Manager ILES/Head of Freshwater Programme
WWF-Pakistan

Co-author:
Ifrah Kamil
Senior Officer Policy and Capacity Building
WWF-Pakistan

Editor:
Rabia Tahir
Head of Communications and Marketing

Designer:
Sana Maqsood

Suggested Citation:
Assad Farooq, Sohail Ali Naqvi and Ifrah Kamil. (2022). Life Cycle
Assessment of Reuse and Recycle of Denim Fabric in the Textile Industry.
WWF-Pakistan.

Cover image copyrights ©Katrin Havia / WWF

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be copied in any way or in any form without the prior written permission
of the publisher.

Disclaimer: This publication has been produced with the assistance of the European Union. The contents of this publication
are the sole responsibility of the authors and can in no way be taken to reflect the views of WWF-Pakistan and European
Union.
European Union
The Member States of the European Union have decided to link together their know-how, resources and destinies. Together,
they have built a zone of stability, democracy and sustainable development whilst maintaining cultural diversity, tolerance and
individual freedoms. The European Union is committed to sharing its achievements and its values with countries and people
beyond its borders.

International Labour Organization

The International Labour Organization (ILO), founded in 1919, is devoted to promote social justice and internationally recog-
nized human and labor rights, pursuing its founding mission that social justice is essential to universal and lasting peace. It is
the only tripartite UN agency, which brings together governments, employers and workers of 187 member states, to set labour
standards, develop policies and devise programmes that promote decent work for all women and men. Today, the ILO’s
Decent Work agenda is helping advance economic and working conditions that give workers, employers and governments a
stake in lasting peace, prosperity and progress.

WWF-Pakistan
WWF’s mission is to stop the degradation of the planet’s natural environment and to build a future in which people and
nature thrive.

International Labour and Environmental Standards (ILES) Application in Pakistan’s SMEs

The ILES project (2016-2024), funded by the European Union and implemented by ILO and WWF-Pakistan, aims to improve
national compliance with international labour and environmental standards. It provides necessary policy and capacity build-
ing support to the federal and provincial governments as well as extends hand holding and capacity building support to the
enterprises from the textile and leather industry. It has introduced its targeted enterprises to different approaches/methodolo-
gies that enable them to reduce waste production, ensure efficient resource utilization as well as have better working condi-
tions, which in turn enables them to increase productivity and be more environment friendly. The project aims to contribute
significantly to increasing competitiveness, as well as promote sustainable and inclusive growth in leather and textile sectors in
Pakistan.
CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION 13
1.1. Sustainability issues in the textile sector 14
1.2. Overview of the global recycling market 16
1.3. Challenges in recycling 16
LIFE CYCLE ASSESSMENT 19
2.1. Phases of LCA 19
2.2. Life cycle impact assessment (LCIA) 22
METHODOLOGY 24
3.1. Introduction 24
3.2. LCA methodology 26
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 32
4.1. Contributory analysis 33
4.2. Sensitivity analysis for scenario A - conventional manufacturing of denim jeans 45
4.3. Comparative analysis 51
4.4. Conclusion and Recommendations 67

5
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1: Additional and avoided processes of different scenarios 27
Table 2: Characteristics of virgin cotton 29
Table 3: Characteristics of recycled cotton 30
Table 4: Comparison of yarn characteristics 31
Table 5: Sources of energy production in Pakistan 33
Table 6: Impact values of different potential categories for cotton production 35
Table 7: Impact values of different potential categories for the shredding process 37
Table 8: Yarn specifications 38
Table 9: Impact value of various categories in the yarn manufacturing process 38
Table 10: Impact value of various categories in rope dyeing 40
Table 11: Impact value of various categories in weaving 41
Table 12: Impact value of various categories in finishing 42
Table 13: Impact value of various categories in cutting and stitching 43
Table 14: Impact value of various categories in denim washing 45
Table 15: Processes included or avoided in three scenarios of manufacturing of denim jeans 51
Table 16: Comparison of the global warming potentials in kg-CO2-Equiv. for denim jeans production in 52
different scenarios
Table 17: Comparison of the acidification potential in kg-SO2-equiv for denim jeans production in different 54
scenarios
Table 18: Comparison of the eutrophication potential in kg-Phosphate-Equiv. for denim jeans production in 56
different scenarios
Table 19: Comparison of the ozone depletion potential in kg-R11-Equiv for denim jeans production in 57
different scenarios
Table 20: Comparison of the abiotic depletion potential for denim jeans production in different scenarios 59
Table 21: Comparison of freshwater and marine water ecotoxicity in kg-DCB-Equiv. potential for denim 62
jeans production for different scenarios
Table 22: Comparison of the human toxicity potential in kg-DCB-Equiv. for denim jeans production in 65
different scenarios

7
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1: Framework of LCA 20
Figure 2: Flow sequence of denim garment manufacturing 24
Figure 3: Scenario A - process flow of conventional manufacturing of denim jeans 28
Figure 4: Scenario B - process flow of manufacturing of denim jeans with 10 per cent recycled cotton 28
Figure 5: Scenario C - process flow of manufacturing with reused denim fabric 29
Figure 6: Pakistan’s energy mix for 2019-20 34
Figure 7: Energy mix for the energy source of the industry where LCA is performed 34
Figure 8: Individual process flow diagram (cotton production) 35
Figure 9: Individual process flow diagram (yarn manufacturing) 37
Figure 10: Individual process flow diagram (rope dyeing) 39
Figure 11: Individual process flow diagram (weaving) 40
Figure 12: Individual process flow diagram (finishing) 42
Figure 13: Individual process flow diagram (cutting and stitching) 43
Figure 14: Individual process flow diagram (denim washing) 44
Figure 15: Global warming potential of conventional manufacturing of denim jeans 46
Figure 16: Acidification potential of conventional manufacturing of denim jeans 46
Figure 17: Ozone depletion potential of conventional manufacturing of denim jeans 47
Figure 18: Eutrophication potential of conventional manufacturing of denim jeans 47
Figure 19: Abiotic depletion elements of conventional manufacturing of denim jeans 48
Figure 20: Abiotic depletion fossil fuels of conventional manufacturing of denim jeans 48
Figure 21: Freshwater aquatic ecotoxicity potential of denim jeans manufacturing 49
Figure 22: Human toxicity potential of conventional manufacturing of denim jeans 50
Figure 23: Marine aquatic ecotoxicity potential of conventional manufacturing of denim jeans 45
Figure 24: Photochemical ozone creation potential of conventional manufacturing of denim jeans 51
Figure 25: Comparison of three model scenarios for global warming potential 53
Figure 26: Share of three model scenarios in global warming potential 53
Figure 27: Comparison of three model scenarios for the acidification potential 55
Figure 28: Share of three model scenarios in the acidification potential 55
Figure 29: Comparison of eutrophication potential in three model scenarios 56
Figure 30: Share of three model scenarios in the eutrophication potential 57
Figure 31: Comparison of ozone depletion potential across three model scenarios 58
Figure 32: Share of three model scenarios in the ozone depletion potential 58
Figure 33: Comparison of abiotic depletion potential (elements) across three model scenarios 60
Figure 34: Share of three model scenarios in the abiotic depletion potential (elements) 60
Figure 35: Comparison of abiotic depletion potential (fossil fuels) across three model scenarios 61
Figure 36: Share of three model scenarios in the abiotic depletion potential (fossil fuels) 61
Figure 37: Comparison of ecotoxicity potential across three model scenarios 63
Figure 38: Share of three model scenarios in the freshwater ecotoxicity potential 63
Figure 39: Comparison of ecotoxicity potential across three model scenarios 64
Figure 40: Share of three model scenarios in marine water ecotoxicity potential 64
Figure 41: Comparison of human toxicity potential across three model scenarios 66
Figure 42: Share of three model scenarios in the human toxicity potential 66
9
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
The present report aims to encompass determination of the environmental impact of textile recycling and reuse, with
special reference to the current situation in the textile industry of Pakistan, by using life cycle assessment as a tool to
calculate the environmental impacts. Internationally, the majority of the studies for the evaluation of the environmental
impacts of recycling and reuse using lifecycle assessment are focused on post-consumer waste. Pakistan being a
leading textile manufacturing and exporting country has different textile recycling and reuse scenario. Here, recycling
and reuse of pre-consumer, i.e., manufacturing waste, is a major challenge. There exists a huge potential for the
textile industry in the country to reduce the environmental impacts of their products through recycling and reuse of
manufacturing waste.

This report constitutes of five chapters. Chapter one provides a general introduction about the topic and focuses on
the sustainability issues of the textile industry. Moreover, an overview of global recycling markets is also included, along
with a brief introduction about the challenges faced in textile recycling and reuse with reference to fabric composition,
technical limitations and economic viability.

Chapter two introduces the terminology of life cycle assessment (LCA). LCA is a powerful tool for the assessment
and analysis of environmental impacts caused by a product throughout its life cycle. The chapter also includes the
description of four main phases of LCA namely, goal and scope definition, inventory analysis, impact assessment and
interpretation. Moreover, life cycle impact assessment (LCIA) categories like global warming potential, acidification
potential, ozone depletion potential and eutrophication potential etc. are also explained.

Chapter three corresponds to the life cycle impact assessment of the conducted LCA for textile recycling and reuse.
In this study, the recycling and reuse of denim waste is considered. The LCA analysis is divided into three scenarios,
which include, firstly, the conventional manufacturing of denim jeans without recycling and reuse. Secondly, the LCIA
scenario of blending of 10 per cent recycled cotton with virgin cotton has been discussed. Thirdly the LCIA of textile
reuse scenario is elaborated. The life cycle assessment is divided into:

• Contributory analysis, i.e., contribution of each processing step towards the environmental impacts;

• Sensitivity analysis, i.e., determination of environmental hotspots within different manufacturing

processes; and

• Comparative analysis, i.e., comparison between the different case scenarios on the basis of the
environmental impacts they are contributing.

Chapter 4 presents the conclusion and recommendations of the study along with the future prospects.

11
1 INTRODUCTION

© Charlotta Järnmark / WWF-Sweden

The global textile industry has a value of US$1.2 trillion per annum, which represents almost 1.4 per cent of the total global
gross domestic product (GDP). Although, it is a major contributor in the global economy, it is also a major source of pollution
and is considered as one of the most polluting industries in the world. During the production of textiles, large amounts of
resources i.e., water, energy, chemicals, etc. are consumed which negatively impact the environment. Textile production is
also generating 1.2 billion tonnes of carbon emissions annually. Moreover, for cotton fibre production, large amounts of
water, pesticides, fertilizers, etc. are required, which have a harmful effect on the environment. Furthermore, spinning and
dyeing are energy-intensive processes and, in the latter, harmful chemicals are released which cause serious health issues
both for aquatic and human life. As far as synthetic fibres are concerned, they also result in carbon emissions due to the
massive usage of fossil fuels as many of them are petroleum based.

To minimize the harmful environmental impacts of textile manufacturing, the focus has been on sustainable changes within
the production cycle. Sustainable textile production has a positive impact on greenhouse gas emissions reduction. However,
due to fast fashion trends and increasing customer demands, sustainable production should be increased to a greater extent
to meet the requirements.

Recycling and reuse have gained attention among scientists and business owners alike due
to the opportunities in this area that allow for minimizing the environmental burden.
13
However, globally, the recycling rate is not significant. In Europe, roughly 25 per cent of textiles are recycled and in the
United States, the rate of textile recycling is just 16.2 per cent. Due to the lack of recycling of textiles, millions of tonnes of
textiles enter into landfills or are incinerated all over the world. An increased rate of recycling would reduce the negative
environmental impacts that occur due to landfilling and incineration, as well as from the use of virgin materials. There
is, therefore, a clear need to focus on circular economy, recycling/reuse of textiles and the life cycle assessment of textile
products.

1.1. Sustainability issues in the textile sector

1.1.1. Water consumption
Textile and other textile related industries are the only industries which have surpassed the agriculture sector in terms of
freshwater consumption and the production of wastewater. A large amount of water is used during the production of textiles
especially during wet processing. According to recent studies, for the processing of one kg of fabric, 80 to 150 litres of water
is used, along with the dyes and chemicals. The textile sector is responsible for the withdrawal of about four per cent of global
freshwater, which corresponds to 93 billion cubic metres of water, and is utilized by the sector annually if cotton cultivation is
included. The apparel sector is responsible for more than 60 per cent of this amount.

© Charlotta Järnmark / WWF-Sweden

1.1.2. Global warming

Since the industrial revolution, the increase in the average temperature of the earth has accelerated. This phenomenon is
referred to as global warming. According to experts, there is a rise of 0.6-0.8° C every year, which is 10 times faster than the
normal calculated rate of increase. Much of this is due to anthropogenic factors, including the emission of greenhouse gases
such as carbon dioxide, chlorofluorocarbons, methane, etc.

As far as apparel and textile production is concerned, it has a major contribution in global warming. In 2015, greenhouse
gas emissions from textile and apparel production were responsible for 1.2 billion tonnes of carbon dioxide. This amount
is greater than the emissions resulted from all the international flights and maritime shipping which are considered the two
fundamental modes of transportation. The transfer of end products produced at apparel units in the developing countries
to the outlets in the developed countries needs long distance maritime shipping which further increases the usage of non-
renewable resources, i.e., fossil fuel. According to an estimate, by 2050, 26 per cent of the budget allocated for permissible
carbon emissions and 300 million tonnes of crude oil will be consumed by the textile and apparel sector which is an alarming
increase when compared to 2 per cent and 98 million tonnes respectively, back in 2015.

14
 © Jiri Rezac / WWF-UK

1.1.3. Environmental pollution

According to recent studies, a quarter of globally produced chemicals are used in the textile industry. Numerous chemicals
are used in the production process, especially at the wet processing stage, and many of them may cause serious health
issues. Some chemicals evaporate into the air while others leave the production site in the form of wastewater which
eventually ends up in the environment, with some chemicals remaining in the product.

Cotton-made products, which are considered natural, comfortable and healthy, call for cotton cultivation which generates
a significant global demand for pesticides and fertilizers. Moreover, chemicals and their residuals from the excessive use of
fertilizers and pesticides negatively affect the physical health of farmers. Cotton production corresponds to the consumption
of 4 per cent of nitrogen and phosphorus fertilizers used around the world which is a major source of freshwater pollution.
When merged with rivers, these toxic chemicals can cause algal blooms which starve the rivers of oxygen.
Post-consumer textile waste is also a major concern these days. Global textile consumption is calculated to be more than 100
million tonnes annually; however, the recycling rate of discarded textiles is too low. Barely 13 per cent of the total material
input is recycled in some way or another after disposal. Out of this 13 per cent, a minuscule amount, i.e. less than one per
cent, replaces the usage of virgin material for the production of new clothing and the rest goes into downcycling.

© Shutterstock / Gorlov-KV / WWF

15
1.2. Overview of the global recycling market
Textile recycling is a process in which discarded clothes and textiles are recovered for reuse and materials are recovered to
limit the usage of virgin material in the production of new clothing. The textile and apparel industry is growing day by day and
the reason is the growth of textile industry itself, which is approximately a US$1 trillion industry.

The recycling of textiles is of utmost importance for a sustainable environment and the disposal of textile and apparel waste
is a major concern for the textile industry these days. According to an estimate, globally, 100 billion garments are produced
each year. Tonnes of apparel products are discarded by consumers which end up in landfills all over the world. Studies
suggest that around 95 per cent of discarded waste could be reused, re-worn, and recycled depending upon the condition of
the product.

According to the US Environmental Protection Agency, textile waste represents about five per cent of all landfill spaces.
However, barely 15 per cent of waste is recycled and thus, 85 per cent ends up in landfills. According to studies, almost 85
per cent of textiles thrown away in the United States, amounting to 13 million tonnes in 2017 were dumped in landfills or
incinerated.

Estimates suggest that an average

American throws away around 37kg
of clothes every year.

As far as the rest of the world is concerned, around 92 million tonnes of textile waste is produced each year which is
equivalent to a truck full of clothes being dumped on a landfill site every second. By 2030, globally discarded waste per year
is projected to be more than 134 million tonnes of textiles. The global market size of recycled textiles was valued at US$5.6
billion in 2019 and is projected to generate US$7.6 billion by 2027. The market is expected to experience growth at a
Compound Annual Growth Rate (CAGR) of 3.6 per cent from 2020 to 2027.

The recycled textiles market is divided based on material type, end-user industry and region. Regarding the type, it is divided
into recycled cotton, recycled wool, recycled polyester, recycled nylon, etc. Based on the end-user industry, it is segmented
into automotive, retail, building and construction, mining, etc. Depending upon the region, it is analysed across North
America, Europe, Asia-Pacific and LAMEA (Latin America, Middle East, and Africa).

1.3. Challenges in recycling

1.3.1. Fabric composition
Fabrics are sometimes a combination of fibres, fixtures, accessories, etc. Different types of blends, like natural and synthetic,
and other accessories i.e., plastics and metals, make it difficult to recycle. Sorting of apparel and textiles based on fibre or
material type is a labour-intensive and slow process, which requires skilled workers. Fast-fashion trends with modern fabric
blends make it difficult to sort out even mechanically.

16
 © WWF-US / Eric Kruszewski

1.3.2. Technological limitations

Lack of technology is one of the main reasons behind the limited recycling of textile waste. Rapidly changing fashion trends
require complex fibre blends, thus making it harder to separate the fibres/yarns. Clothes containing more than two different
types of fibres and more than five per cent of elastane make it harder to separate the clothes. It is also difficult to separate the
dyes and chemicals and other contaminants from the fibres using existing methods.

© Asim Hafeez/WWF

1.3.3. Economic viability

Most of the discarded products when recycled, usually end up in downcycling. Only a minuscule quantity is used for
upcycling, thus limiting its recirculation and use. Downcycled products are of a lower quality and are cheaper than the
original ones. Therefore, it becomes economically unviable to invest in recycling. On the contrary, reuse is a better choice
economically and environmentally.
17
 © Ella Kiviniemi / WWF

18
 2 LIFE CYCLE ASSESSMENT

© Pauliina Heinänen / WWF

The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) has created two LCA standards; ISO 14040:2006 and
14044:2006. Life cycle assessment (LCA), according to ISO standards, is defined as a systematic analysis to identify the
potential environmental impacts of products, processes and services throughout their entire life cycle in terms of sustainability.
During life cycle analysis of a product, every process, including extraction of raw materials, manufacturing and processing,
distribution, use phase and end of life/waste disposal, has an impact on its surroundings which may pose serious health risks
for human and marine life if not treated properly.

LCAs are used by variety of users including governmental and non-governmental organizations, universities, industries, etc.
for various purposes. For example, governmental departments actively work on LCAs around the globe to collect data and
develop better environmental management policies regarding materials and products, whereas universities are developing
LCA data and methodologies with effective research, and various companies around the world use LCAs to identify
environmental hotspots and based on the results, develop effective environmental management policies.

2.1. Phases of LCA

According to the ISO 14040:2006 and 14044:2006, there are four main phases of LCA which are as follows:
1. Goal and scope definition
2. Inventory analysis
3. Impact assessment
4. Interpretation
19
 Figure 1: Framework of LCA

2.1.1. Goal and scope definition

According to the ISO 14040:2006, the first phase of LCA is the definition of goal and scope. In this step, all the decisions for
conducting an LCA are made. The goal and scope definition should be clear and consistent with the intended application.
Due to the iterative nature of this process, the goal and scope can be redefined based on the interpretation of results.
The goal of the study should clearly define the intended application (marketing, strategic planning, product development),
purpose of the study (internal or external use) and the intended audience (company executives, engineers, consumers). In
the definition of scope, the product system under study is characterized, the methodology to be used is clearly defined and
assumptions, if any, are detailed. The following factors need to be determined while defining the scope:

• Functional unit of the product/system

• Reference flow
• System boundaries
• Impact categories and assessment method
• Data assumptions
• Data quality requirements

2.1.2. Inventory analysis

Life cycle inventory (LCI) analysis covers the quantification of all the inputs and outputs associated with the product
throughout its life cycle. Raw materials and different types of energy are considered inputs, while emissions to air, land, water
and waste materials are considered as outputs of the product. Inventory analysis includes the data collection and calculation
of the LCI. Data collection is the most work-intensive phase of LCA as it includes collecting the quantitative and qualitative
data for each process in the product system. Data for each process can be classified as:

• Raw material inputs

• Energy inputs
• Auxiliary inputs
• Products
• By-products
• Wastes
• Emissions to air, land and water
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2.1.3. Calculation of LCI
Before calculation of LCI, the collected data is validated, related to the unit process or functional unit. The LCI of the whole
product system is the sum of all LCIs of involved processes. In Ganzleitlichen Bilanz (GaBi) software, the LCI of the whole
product system is automatically generated once processes are connected with each other. LCIs for numerous processes are
already stored in its database and only have to be connected to model a product system.

2.1.4. Impact assessment

The life cycle impact assessment (LCIA) evaluates the potential environmental impacts based on the LCI analysis. The
inputs and outputs are first assigned to the relevant impact categories and their impacts are quantified according to the
characterization factors. Some impact categories are measured in equivalents e.g., CO2-eq for CO2 equivalent because
several emissions contribute to the same category. For example, climate change or global warming is measured in CO2
equivalent. This does not mean that only CO2 is contributing to global warming, as methane and nitrous oxide also contribute
along with CO2.

Certain elements are mandatory in LCIA, like the selection of impact categories, classification and characterization; while
normalization, grouping, etc. are considered optional.

Several assessment methods can be used to perform an LCIA. These methods are developed over time by academic
institution using scientific approaches. The Institute of Environmental Science (CML) and Tools for Reduction and Assessment
of Chemicals and other environmental Impacts (TRACI) are two renowned methodologies used widely to evaluate
environmental impacts.

2.1.5. Interpretation
According to ISO 14044:2006, in this phase of LCA, significant issues are identified based on the life cycle inventory and
impact assessment phases. The results are then evaluated under the goal and scope definition to reach conclusions and
recommendations.

21
2.2. Life cycle impact assessment (LCIA)
CML methodology has been used in this study for impact assessment. This methodology was developed by the Institute of
Environmental Science (CML) of Leiden University, Netherlands, in 2001. This method is an update of the CML 2 baseline
2000 and released by CML in April 2013. The CML (baseline) method explains the problem-oriented approach. Impact
categories included in the CML baseline method are Global Warming Potential (GWP), Acidification Potential (AP), Depletion
of Abiotic Resources (ADP), Eco-toxicity, Eutrophication Potential (EP), Human Toxicity Potential (HTP), Ozone Layer Depletion
Potential (ODP) and Photochemical Ozone Creation Potential (POCP). Each impact category is briefly explained as follows:

It is a measure of the ability of a greenhouse gas such as

methane, nitrous oxide (N2O) etc. to trap extra heat in the
2.2.1. Global warming potential atmosphere over a time period as compared to carbon dioxide
(CO2). The emissions caused by the greenhouse gases increase
(climate change/carbon footprint) the tendency of the earth to absorb more radiation emitted from
the sun, thereby increasing the greenhouse effect. It is measured
in CO2-equivalent.

It is a measure of emissions that contribute to the increase in

acidic content in the aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems. Ocean
acidification harms marine organisms by reducing the amount of
2.2.2. Acidification potential (AP) carbonate, which is the main building block in water. Terrestrial
acidification adversely affects soil fertility, germination rate of
seeds and the photosynthesis process.

Abiotic depletion refers to the depletion of non-living natural

2.2.3. Abiotic depletion potential resources such as fossil fuels, minerals, clay, and peat. For
elements, it is measured in kilogram antimony equivalent (kg-Sb-
(ADP elements and fossil fuels)
Eq) and for fossil fuels in mega Joules (MJ).

Eutrophication potential is a measure of impacts caused by high

levels of macronutrients, the most important of which include
nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P). Excessive amount of nutrients
can cause an unwanted shift in species composition and elevated
2.2.4. Eutrophication potential biomass production in both aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems
(overfertilization) (e.g., potentially toxic algal blooms). In aquatic ecosystems,
increased biomass production may lead to depressed oxygen
levels because of the additional consumption of oxygen in
biomass decomposition.

It is defined as the impact on humans of toxic substances emitted

2.2.5. Human toxicity potential to the environment. It is measured in kg of dichlorobenzene
(HTP) equivalent (kg-DCB-Eq).

It is a measure of emissions of precursors that contribute to

ground-level smog formation (mainly ozone, O3), produced by
2.2.6. Photochemical ozone
the reaction of Volatile Organic Compounds (VOC) and carbon
creation potential (POCP) (smog monoxide in the presence of nitrogen oxides under the influence
formation) of ultraviolet light. Ground-level ozone can be detrimental to
human health and ecosystems and may also damage crops.

22
 It is a measure of air emissions that contribute to the depletion of
the stratospheric ozone layer (i.e., the ozone hole). Depletion of
2.2.7. Ozone depletion potential (ODP)
the ozone leads to higher levels of ultraviolet rays reaching the
Earth’s surface with harmful effects on humans and plants.

23
3 METHODOLOGY

3.1. Introduction
Denim is a special twill woven fabric generally made of 100 per cent cotton; however, it can be blended with polyester and
spandex to impart specific characteristics in the garments. The annual production of denim fabrics is approximately 15 billion
metres. The global market for the denim products was of worth US$57.3 billion in 2020. An increase of approximately 4.8
per cent is expected from 2020 to 2026. The denim garments manufacturing is divided into different processes shown in
Figure 2.

Figure 2: Flow sequence of denim garment manufacturing

24
Firstly, the cotton fibers are spun into yarns of the coarser counts. Unlike the other conventional textile manufacturing
processes, denim is dyed before the weaving process. This implies that the yarns are converted into rope and dyed commonly
using the indigo dyes in a process called rope dyeing. In the weaving process, the dyed yarns are woven with white weft
yarns. However, the blue color of indigo dyes dominates the color of fabric. The fabric has to pass through different finishing
processes before proceeding to the cutting and stitching for being converted into garment. The type of finishing processes like
Singeing and Sanforizing are selected for the specific type of denim being manufactured. After garment manufacturing, the
garment washing process is employed to impart different softening and aesthetic features in the denim.

This report focuses on providing in-depth knowledge of environmental impacts due to textile recycling and reuse of the
pre-consumer/production waste in the denim industry in Pakistan. The textile industry of Pakistan possesses a huge potential
for recycling and reuse. Many leading textile manufacturers are currently employing recycling and reuse initiatives and thus,
ultimately reducing the environmental impacts of their products. However, this information is not documented yet. This study
explores the environmental impacts created by the denim industry and the reduction in the environmental impacts caused by
recycling and reuse scenarios.

3.1.1. Inventory analysis

Primary data was collected from a leading denim manufacturing industry. It comprises of all the inputs used for each process
i.e., cotton fibre, yarn and fabric produced, dyes, chemicals, auxiliaries and energy (electricity, steam) consumption in all
processes.

3.1.2. Functional unit

The functional unit for this proposed study is the production of a batch of 10,000 jeans made up of 100 per cent cotton.

3.1.3. LCIA methodology

The LCIA results in chapter four are calculated according to the CML methodology. This scenario pertains to the utilization of
virgin cotton and incineration of the produced waste for energy recovery. In the presented case, the thermal energy recovery
is 2,996MJ and electricity recovery is 386kWh.

25
3.1.4. Types of pre-consumer denim wastes
Textile denim wastes that can be used for reuse and recycling may be categorised into pre-consumer wastes and the post-
consumer wastes. Pakistan being a textile manufacturing country and one of the leading denim manufacturers of the world
has to tackle large amount of pre-consumer waste. Pre-consumer waste normally refers to the waste that is produced before
the product reaches the consumer. It is simply referred to as manufacturing waste. The manufacturing waste is commonly
generated at different stages of denim jeans production.

1. Cut and sew waste is generated from the cutting and stitching department and is in a small amount
and uneven format. The waste is normally discarded but it can ideally be used for recycling after the
shredding process. However, due to small sizes, it is very difficult to utilize these for reuse purposes.

2. Fabric wastes can be produced during different stages after weaving and finishing. The fabric is
generally inspected and graded after the finishing process using the four-point inspection system. The
fabric with minor or major defects is separated from the actual production line. This fabric with some
extra efforts can be utilized for reuse purposes instead of recycling.

3. Garment waste is generated due to multiple factors in stitching like short or long measurements,
needle chew, button hole, distorted seams or washing like stains, grinding, off-shades, crease lines,
bleach spots, etc. The types of garments rejected due to the above-mentioned factors are normally
graded as ‘second’ and normally sold for use at local outlets. Therefore, the garments take their
original route of life cycle, hence any kind of recycling and reuse cannot be performed.

The 10 per cent recycled fibres are mixed with the 90 per cent virgin cotton to produce the final garment, while the cutting/
stitching waste, which is in the form of small, uneven formats, is used for recycling.

3.2. LCA methodology

The following section provides information about the LCAs conducted on recycling and reuse and their comparison with the
conventional denim manufacturing process. The LCA was conducted and environmental impacts were recorded. Similarly,
the fabric waste mentioned above was used for conducting the LCA for reused garments. LCA is the most advanced and
powerful tool to compare the recycling and reuse scenarios with conventional denim jeans production. The selection of
parameters is the key element for conducting the LCA. It should be done between the different system boundaries, processes,
and other various parameters. The main approach of the LCA is to explore the consequences of the ways the manufacturing
waste is handled/discarded by the textile industry. In order to make the LCA of different case studies understandable, the LCA
modelling is divided into following three different case scenarios:

Scenario A: Conventional manufacturing of denim jeans

Scenario B: Manufacturing of denim jeans with 10 per cent recycled cotton
Scenario C: Manufacturing of children’s garment with reusable denim fabric

26
3.2.1. Comparison between scenarios on the basis of processes involved
The report addresses three types of scenarios for the garments manufactured from 100 per cent cotton. It includes scenario
A, which is a reference scenario for which the waste is used for marginal energy recovery (incineration), scenario B, which
describes the fibre recycling of pre-consumer (manufacturing waste), while scenario C is for the textile waste reused to
manufacture processable garments. The recycling and reuse scenarios may include or avoid some processes which are listed
in Table 1.

Table 1: Additional and avoided processes of different scenarios

Table 1 depicts the added and avoided processes due to the incineration, recycling and reuse scenarios. In the case of
conventional manufacturing where waste is utilized for incineration, small amounts of heat energy and electricity can be
recovered, while in case of recycling, the discarded fabric waste produced at various stages from spinning to garment
manufacturing can be a substitute for the production of virgin cotton that would be used otherwise. Therefore, the avoided
processes are the production of virgin cotton and the ginning and baling processes. However, the shredding process is added
to convert the pre-consumer waste into fibre form. It is important to mention here that the quality of cotton fibre especially
its length and strength is badly affected by the subsequent mechanical actions. Therefore, only a small percentage of the
recycled fibre can be mixed with the virgin cotton so that the quality of the product should not be affected.

In the case of reuse, the garment is assumed to replace a new product of the same type. The production of cotton along with
the complete manufacturing processes can be avoided without the addition of any production process. However, the type of
waste that can be used for the reuse scenario is far less in comparison with the recycling waste.

The overall process diagram for the recycling scenario is shown in Figure 4.

It is clear from the figure that in the modelled scenario, 10 per cent cotton, approximately
1,383kg, is coming from recycled source while 90 per cent of cotton material, approximately
11,057kg, is coming from the virgin cotton source.

Moreover, the process of incineration is also excluded which was considered as the final destination of the waste in the
previous section, i.e., conventional manufacturing of denim jeans. However, the process of shredding i.e., the conversion of
cutting waste into the recycled fibres is included in the process flow.

27
 Figure 3: Scenario A - process flow of conventional manufacturing of denim jeans

Figure 4: Scenario B - process flow of manufacturing of denim jeans with 10 per cent recycled cotton

28
 Figure 5: Scenario C - process flow of manufacturing with reused denim fabric

3.2.2. Comparison between scenarios on the basis of quality

The quality of cotton fibres is reflected in yarns and fabrics and ultimately, garments. The major fibre characteristics of cotton
like fiber length, strength and fineness and short fibre contents greatly influence the further processing and quality of the
product. In order to produce a batch of 10,000 jeans, 92 bales of cotton having the following characteristics were used
(Table 2).

Table 2: Characteristics of virgin cotton

29
 Pre-consumer/manufacturing waste
in the denim manufacturing industries
may be processed into the fibres to
produce yarn.

Normally, the recyclable waste has to pass through an additional process of shredding (mechanical opening) to be converted
to fibre form again.

The other destinations of this waste are landfills or use for energy recovery. However, the subsequent mechanical processes
damage the fibres and the resultant fibres achieved after shredding are short in length and weaker in strength. Nevertheless,
as the denim is manufactured from coarser count, therefore, the possibility of including these fibres is very valuable, especially
from a sustainability point of view. Table 3 shows the characteristics of recycled cotton fibre.

Table 3: Characteristics of recycled cotton

In this presented recycled scenario, a blend of 10 per cent recycled cotton and 90 per cent virgin cotton was manufactured.
The comparison of the yarn characteristics is presented in Table 4.

30
Table 4: Comparison of yarn characteristics

31
4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The lifecycle assessment is divided into:

1. Contributory analysis, i.e. contribution of each processing step towards the environmental impacts;

2. Sensitivity analysis, i.e. determination of environmental hotspots within different manufacturing

processes; and

3. Comparative analysis, i.e. comparison between the different case scenarios on the basis of the
environmental impacts they are contributing.

32
4.1. Contributory analysis
4.1.1. Constitution of grid mix energy supply
The higher environmental impacts caused by various textile manufacturing processes are due to their high energy and water
requirements. The amount and type of energy used for a specific process greatly influences the environmental impact. For
example, energy produced from hydel sources have less environmental impacts in comparison with hard coal, heavy fuel oil,
etc., whereas solar and wind energy is their green alternative.

In order to find out the impact of energy, grid mix data from Pakistan was not available in the Gabi database. In this
background, the grid mix for Pakistan was designed according to the 2019-20 Annual Report of the National Electric Power
Regulatory Authority (NEPRA). According to the said report, the sources of energy production in Pakistan, along with their
respective share in country electricity production, are given in Table 5.

Table 5: Sources of energy production in Pakistan

33
 Figure 6: Pakistan’s energy mix for 2019-20

This grid energy mix will represent the energy consumed by the denim industry from Water and Power Development Authority
(WAPDA) (Figure 6), whereas the energy sources from the denim industry where LCA was conducted are given in Figure 7.

Figure 7: Energy mix for the energy source of the industry where LCA is performed

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4.1.2. Individual process flow (cotton production)
The environmental impact of cotton production was calculated according to the global cotton production scenario included
in the GABI database which corresponds to the production data provided by Cotton Incorporated (CottonInc).

Figure 8: Individual process flow diagram (cotton production)

The production of cotton is a major contributor in most of the impact categories. The data set used for this study is included
in GaBi software, which is from the data provided by CottonInc. This database includes the impact and production of cotton
fibres from the field up to packed ginned fibre bales. The results of environmental impacts from the said database are given
in Table 6.

Table 6: Impact values of different potential categories for cotton production

35
It can be seen from Table 6 that the global warming potential (GWP) has a negative impact from cotton production.
However, the increased environmental impact is visible in terms of acidification potential, eutrophication potential, freshwater
ecotoxicity and human toxicity potential. The above said impacts are caused by the use of synthetic fertilizers, pesticides and
high volume of water consumption.

4.1.3. Individual process flow (shredding)

The additional process included in this recycling scenario in comparison with the conventional manufacturing is the shredding
process.

Shredding is another dry process

which is included in the process chain
of denim garment manufacturing,
while producing recycled denim jeans.

36
The source and amount of electricity consumed by the process is the major influencing factor in creating environmental
impacts. The total energy consumed for the production of 1,382kg of fibres is 100kWh. The composition of different energy
sources has already been explained in the previous section. The global warming potential is greatly influenced with the
usage of energy. As high amounts of heavy fuel oil are used to produce electricity in the industry therefore, a global warming
potential of 98.8 kg-CO2-Equiv. is calculated.

Table 7: Impact values of different potential categories for the shredding process

4.1.4. Individual process flow (yarn manufacturing)

In order to produce a batch of 10,000 jeans, 92 bales of cotton were used to produce the carded ring spun yarn of two
different counts for utilization in the warp of the fabric, whereas the weft yarn was produced using the rotor spinning system.
The specification for the warp and weft yarns is given in Table 8.

Figure 9: Individual process flow diagram (yarn manufacturing)

37
 Table 8: Yarn specifications

As spinning is considered a dry process, therefore, the major contributor towards the environmental impact is the source and
the amount of energy required to process the yarn. The total energy consumed for the production of the mentioned number
of bags is 24,808kWh. The composition of different energy sources has already been explained in the previous section.

Table 9: Impact value of various categories in the yarn manufacturing process

The global warming potential is greatly influenced with the usage of energy. As high amounts of heavy fuel oil are used to
produce electricity in the industry therefore, a global warming potential of 2.45x104 kg-CO2-Equiv. is calculated. Similarly,
the acidification potential is also high at 273 kg-SO2-Equiv.

38
4.1.5. Individual process flow (rope dyeing)
The warp yarn manufactured from the spinning process is subjected to the process of ball warping and rope dyeing before
the weaving process. The amount of electricity consumed in the process is 9,195kWh. Moreover, 166,000 litres of deionized
reverse osmosis treated water is used as an input to the process. Furthermore, dyes and auxiliaries like acetic acid, indigo
dyes, soaping/wetting agents, sodium dithionite, and caustic soda are used to complete the process.

The global warming potential for ball warping and rope dyeing is determined as 2.98x104 kg-
CO2-Equiv., while acidification potential is determined as 200 kg-SO2-Equiv.

Exploring further into the impact categories, the major contributor for the GWP is electricity followed by sodium hydroxide. In
the impact category of acidification potential, heavy fuel oil is the major contributor, whereas the major contributor for ozone
depletion is the rope opener used for the rope dyeing process. For abiotic depletion of elements, the major contributors are
sodium hydroxide and sodium hypochlorite.

Figure 10: Individual process flow diagram (rope dyeing)

39
 Table 10: Impact value of various categories in rope dyeing

4.1.6. Individual process flow (weaving)

Figure 11: Individual process flow diagram (weaving)

40
 Weaving is another dry process in
the process chain of denim garment
manufacturing.

Therefore, the major contributor towards the environmental impact is the source and the amount of the energy required to
produce the fabric. The total energy consumed for the production of 19,296 metres of fabric is 414kWh. The composition of
different energy sources has already been explained in the previous section.

The global warming potential is greatly influenced with the usage of energy. As high amounts of heavy fuel oil are used to
produce electricity in the industry therefore, a global warming potential of 909 kg-CO2-Equiv. is calculated.

Table 11: Impact value of various categories in weaving

41
 4.1.7. Individual process flow (finishing)

Figure 12: Individual process flow diagram (finishing)

As there is no chemical process involved in finishing, therefore, the major contributor towards the environmental impact is
amount and source of electricity. The total amount of electricity consumed in these processes is 250kWh.

The global warming potential is greatly influenced with the usage of energy. As a high amount of heavy fuel oil is used to
produce electricity in the industry therefore, a global warming potential of 436 kg-CO2-Equiv. is calculated.

Table 12: Impact value of various categories in finishing

42
 4.1.8. Individual process flow (cutting and stitching)

Figure 13: Individual process flow diagram (cutting and stitching)

Cutting and stitching are also considered dry processes in the process chain of denim garment manufacturing, therefore, the
major contributor towards the environmental impact is the amount and source of electricity. The total amount of electricity
consumed for these processes is 10,224kWh. Many impact categories like global warming potential, acidification potential,
eutrophication potential, abiotic depletion of fossil fuels, human toxicity potential, marine aquatic ecotoxicity potential, etc.
are influenced by these processes due to the high consumption of energy sources. The impact values of respective categories
are listed in Table 13.

Table 13: Impact value of various categories in cutting and stitching

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4.1.9. Individual process flow (denim washing)

Figure 14: Individual process flow diagram (denim washing)

44
The garments manufactured from the stitching process are subjected to the process of washing before final inspection and
packing. The amount of electricity consumed in the process is 8,179.2kWh. Moreover, 571,200 litres of deionized reverse
osmosis treated water is used as input to the process. Furthermore, dyes and auxiliaries like sodium hydroxide, sodium
hypochlorite, sodium metabisulphite, detergent, wetting agents, dyes, buffers, and pumice stones are used to complete the
process.

The global warming potential for the washing process is determined as 1.64 104 kg-CO2-Equiv. while the acidification
potential is determined as 167 kg-SO2-Equiv. Moreover, abiotic depletion of fossil fuels for this process is calculated as
2.35x105 MJ. Exploring further into the impact categories, the major contributor for the GWP is electricity followed by sodium
hydroxide. In the impact category of acidification potential, heavy fuel oil is the major contributor. The main contributor for
ozone depletion is the rope opener used for rope dyeing process while the major contributor for abiotic depletion of elements
is sodium hydroxide and sodium hypochlorite.

Table 14: Impact value of various categories in denim washing

4.2. Sensitivity analysis for scenario A - conventional manufacturing of denim jeans

A sensitivity analysis was conducted for scenario A, i.e. conventional manufacturing of denim jeans, and the results are
discussed in the following sections.

4.2.1. Global warming potential (GWP 100 years)

The largest contributor towards the global warming potential (GWP) is the rope dyeing process. This is because the process
is energy intensive as well as water intensive. Moreover, the utilization of different kind of dyes and auxiliaries has added to
GWP values of the process. After rope dyeing, the spinning process is the second largest contributor for GWP due to the
consumption of a large amount of energy. The spinning process is followed by the cutting/stitching and washing processes in
term of GWP environmental impacts.

45
 Figure 15: Global warming potential of conventional manufacturing of denim jeans

4.2.2. Acidification potential (AP)

The term acidification potential (AP) corresponds to the emission of SO2 and NO2 and is mainly associated with the amount
and type of energy sources used for the production of electricity. As the major portion of the electricity is generated through
the use heavy fuel oil hence, the main source of environmental impact in the AP category is due to energy consumed in
spinning, followed by the rope dyeing and cutting/stitching processes. It is also worth mentioning here that the impact shown
in the spinning bar is the combined effect of spinning energy consumption which is about 40 per cent while approximately 60
per cent of the impact is due to cotton production.

Figure 16: Acidification potential of conventional manufacturing of denim jeans

46
4.2.3. Ozone depletion potential (ODP)
The ozone depletion potential is greatly influenced by the rope dyeing process. The impact of energy consumption and cotton
production is marginal.

Figure 17: Ozone depletion potential of conventional manufacturing of denim jeans

4.2.4. Eutrophication potential (EP)

Eutrophication potential (EP) is the measure of environmental impact caused by the high level of micro-nutrients. As shown
in Figure 18, the main contributor is the spinning process, which actually corresponds to cotton production, which is 108
kg-Phosphate-Equiv. out of total 115 kg-Phosphate-Equiv. The effect is mainly caused by the use of synthetic fertilizers and
pesticides for the production of cotton.

Figure 18: Eutrophication potential of conventional manufacturing of denim jeans

47
4.2.5. Abiotic depletion potential (ADP elements and fossil fuels)
The characterization factor being discussed in this section is the abiotic depletion potential (ADP). This factor is derived for
each extraction of elements and fossil fuels and is a relative measure with the depletion of the element ‘antimony’ as a
reference. It is a measure of the use of non-renewable energy resource. It is clear from Figure 19 that the maximum influence
is from the rope dyeing process. The reason behind this impact is the use of elements especially sodium in form of sodium
hydroxide and sodium dithionite. On the other hand, as mentioned above, the ADP fossil fuels is greatly influenced by the
amount of energy required for spinning and rope dyeing process.

Figure 19: Abiotic depletion elements of conventional manufacturing of denim jeans

Figure 20: Abiotic depletion fossil fuels of conventional manufacturing of denim jeans

48
4.2.6. Freshwater aquatic ecotoxicity potential (FAETP)
The freshwater aquatic ecotoxicity potential is the environmental impact created by different
toxic chemicals when they become the part of freshwater, including rivers, etc.
Almost all the impact is attributed to cotton production. The extensive use of pesticides during cotton production can cause
this impact.

Figure 21: Freshwater aquatic ecotoxicity potential of denim jeans manufacturing

4.2.7. Human toxicity potential (HTP)

Human toxicity potential (HTP) is a calculated index that reflects the potential harm of a unit of chemical release to the
environment. As in the case of freshwater ecotoxicity, the main influencing factors are the spinning, rope dyeing and cutting/
stitching processes. A major part of the spinning associated with the human toxicity comes from the cotton production which
is 1.63×103 kg-DCB-Equiv. and can be attributed to the pesticides used in cotton production. Similarly, the source of energy
production also impacts the HTP.

49
 Figure 22: Human toxicity potential of conventional manufacturing of denim jeans

4.2.8. Marine aquatic ecotoxicity potential (MAETP)

The results of marine aquatic ecotoxicity potential (MAETP) are somewhat similar to freshwater ecotoxicity potential. The role
of chemicals used for cotton production and wet processing normally evaluate the values of MAETP. Therefore, the use of
chemicals followed by the use of energy results in MAETP.

Figure 23: Marine aquatic ecotoxicity potential of conventional manufacturing of denim jeans

50
4.2.9. Photochemical ozone creation potential (POCP)
The photochemical ozone creation potential (POCP) scale quantifies the relative abilities of volatile organic compounds
(VOCs) to produce ground level ozone. It is the impact related to ground level smog formation and mainly generated due to
the use of electricity. As the major source of energy production is heavy fuel oil, therefore, large impacts can be seen in the
energy intensive processes.

Figure 24: Photochemical ozone creation potential of conventional manufacturing of denim jeans

4.3. Comparative analysis

Table 15 shows the comparison of processes involved or avoided in the three different scenarios of manufacturing of denim
jeans.

Table 15: Processes included or avoided in three scenarios of manufacturing of denim jeans

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4.3.1. Comparison of the environmental impact of different scenarios
4.3.1.1. Global warming potential (GWP)
Table 16 represents the comparison of three modelled scenarios, i.e., conventional manufacturing, 10 per cent fibre recycling
and reuse with respect to the global warming potential (GWP) for denim jeans production.

Cotton plants being a fibre crop have

a negative global warming potential.

The use of 10 per cent recycled fibres will reduce the amount to virgin cotton included in the LCIA and thus the global
warming impact may be increased marginally. Moreover, the GWP impact of shredding is added to the recycling process.

On the other hand, the impact of incineration is excluded because the waste is being used in recycling instead of
incineration. This results in the combined reduction in GWP of 1.1 per cent of the 10 per cent recycled garments. Reuse
does not require the utilization of virgin cotton material and energy intensive processes like spinning and rope dyeing, etc.
Therefore, a reduction of approximately 70 per cent is recorded here.

Table 16: Comparison of the global warming potentials in kg-CO2-Equiv. for denim jeans production in different scenarios

52
Figure 25: Comparison of three model scenarios for global warming potential

Figure 26: Share of three model scenarios in global warming potential

53
4.3.1.2. Acidification potential
The results pertaining to acidification potential are presented in Table 17. It is evident from the data that about 36 per cent
contribution of the total acidification potential impact is due to cotton production. This implies that cotton production with
use of fertilizer and pesticides is responsible for the increase in the acidification potential. The decrease in the acidification
potential in the case of 10 per cent recycling is about 36 kg-SO2-Equiv. which is 10 per cent of the actual decrease in the
contribution coming from cotton production, whereas the addition of shredding and excluding of incineration has a negligible
environmental impact in terms of acidification potential.

In case of reuse, the overall impact is only 208 kg-SO2-Equiv. The impact of reuse in terms of acidification potential is due to
the energy consumption in the cutting/stitching and washing steps.

Table 17: Comparison of the acidification potential in kg-SO2-equiv for denim jeans production in different scenarios

54
Figure 27: Comparison of three model scenarios for the acidification potential

Figure 28: Share of three model scenarios in the acidification potential

55
4.3.1.3. Eutrophication potential
As discussed earlier, eutrophication potential is an environmental impact generated due to the excessive use of nutrients
in the soil. The main cause for the increase in the eutrophication potential is the use of fertilizers during virgin cotton
fibre production. Approximately 78 per cent share in the total value of eutrophication is from cotton production. In this
backdrop, recycling as well as reuse can potentially reduce the said impact. The use of 10 per cent recycled fibre will
decrease the production of virgin cotton fibers to 10 per cent, thus reducing the use of synthetic fertilizers. A total decrease of
approximately 7 per cent is reported in this case.

On the other hand, in the reuse scenario, as there is no requirement for the virgin fibres, the eutrophication impact is
negligible.

Table 18: Comparison of the eutrophication potential in kg-Phosphate-Equiv. for denim jeans production in different scenarios

Figure 29: Comparison of eutrophication potential in three model scenarios

56
 Figure 30: Share of three model scenarios in the eutrophication potential

4.3.1.4. Ozone depletion potential

Ozone layer depletion causes increased ultraviolet (UV) radiation levels at the Earth’s surface, which is damaging to human
health. Negative effects include increase in certain types of skin cancers, eye cataracts and immune deficiency disorders.
The main cause of ozone depletion and the ozone hole is manufactured chemicals, especially manufactured halocarbon
refrigerants, solvents, propellants, and foam-blowing agents. Cotton production does not necessarily have a major impact on
ozone depletion potential.

Therefore, there is no change in ozone depletion potential as a result of recycling of cotton. However, as the number of
energy consuming processes have decreased for the reuse scenario, the ozone depletion potential for reuse is less than the
other two cases.

Table 19: Comparison of the ozone depletion potential in kg-R11-Equiv for denim jeans production in different scenarios

57
 Figure 31: Comparison of ozone depletion potential across three model scenarios

Figure 32: Share of three model scenarios in the ozone depletion potential

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4.3.1.5. Abiotic depletion potential (elements and fossil fuels)

Abiotic depletion potential is the depletion of non-living resources like elements and the fossil fuels. The textile industry is a
major consumer of abiotic resources both in terms of elements and fossil fuels. The LCIA results for abiotic depletion potential
are presented in Table 20. Energy intensive processes have a greater impact on ADP fossil fuels, while the ADP elements are
mainly influenced by the dyeing process where elements like sodium are being used in the form of caustic soda and sodium
hypochlorite.

In case of recycling, 10 per cent energy is deducted from cotton production and ginning and almost the same amount of
energy is added due to the shredding process. Hence, the impact in this category remains almost the same when compared
with the conventional scenario.

In the reuse case, energy consuming processes are less in number and the dyeing process is also not included, therefore, the
impact of reuse is far less in both categories.

Table 20: Comparison of the abiotic depletion potential for denim jeans production in different scenarios

59
Figure 33: Comparison of abiotic depletion potential (elements) across three model scenarios

Figure 34: Share of three model scenarios in the abiotic depletion potential (elements)

60
Figure 35: Comparison of abiotic depletion potential (fossil fuels) across three model scenarios

Figure 36: Share of three model scenarios in the abiotic depletion potential (fossil fuels)

61
4.3.1.6. Freshwater and marine water ecotoxicity potential

Freshwater ecotoxicity is a potential threat not only to the environment but also to human
health.

Cotton production, both in terms of use of freshwater for irrigation and in terms of pesticide usage, is influencing this
category. As depicted in Table 21, about 87 per cent of the impact is from cotton production. In this respect, the recycling
scenario has reduced the freshwater eco-toxicity potential. Similarly, the reuse of fabric waste has decreased the value by up
to 95 per cent.

On the other hand, in case of marine water ecotoxicity, not only the pesticides and fertilizers used in the cotton production,
but also the chemicals used during different textile wet processing stages, influence this category. Recycling has a reduced
impact in comparison with conventional manufacturing. For the reuse scenario, the two main influencing processes, i.e.,
washing and cutting and stitching are include. Therefore, the impact of reuse in this category is higher in comparison with the
other LCIA categories.

Table 21: Comparison of freshwater and marine water ecotoxicity in kg-DCB-Equiv. potential for denim
jeans production for different scenarios

62
 Figure 37: Comparison of ecotoxicity potential across three model scenarios

Figure 38: Share of three model scenarios in the freshwater ecotoxicity potential

63
 Figure 39: Comparison of ecotoxicity potential across three model scenarios

Figure 40: Share of three model scenarios in marine water ecotoxicity potential

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4.3.1.7. Human toxicity potential

The human toxicity potential (HTP), a calculated index that reflects the potential harm of a unit of chemical released into the
environment, is based on both the inherent toxicity of a compound and its potential dose. The use of toxic chemicals and
consumption of energy from non-renewable resources are the major causes for raising the values of human toxicity potential.

As in this proposed case, the chemicals are used in form of pesticides and dyes and auxiliaries, therefore HTP impact for
cotton production as well as rope dyeing is positive. Similarly, as heavy fuel oil is the major energy source, therefore high
energy consuming processes are also showing high values. The 10 per cent recycling scenario will reduce the impact due
to reduction in pesticide use, by up to 10 per cent. While reuse of waste fabric will not only eliminate the impact of cotton
production but also the impact of dyeing and spinning. Therefore, in terms of HTP, reuse followed by recycling is a better
option than the conventional manufacturing scenario.

Table 22: Comparison of the human toxicity potential in kg-DCB-Equiv. for denim jeans production in
different scenarios

65
Figure 41: Comparison of human toxicity potential across three model scenarios

Figure 42: Share of three model scenarios in the human toxicity potential

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4.4. Conclusion and Recommendations
The LCA in this report highlights the enormous potential of textile recycling and reuse in terms of environmental benefits.

• The creation of waste in textile processes indicates that there is room for sustainable improvement. The processed
textile materials that are disposed in nature carry the potential risk of accumulating hazardous chemicals and fibres in the
environment in the form of microplastics and thus creating significant environmental impacts. While the incineration for
energy recovery can avoid the accumulation of these materials in the environment, producing marginal energy in the process,
it also contributes to global warming potential/climate change.

• The manufacturing of high-quality and high-value products and higher rates of recovery can increase the benefits of textile
recycling and reuse many folds.

• The foremost option for the consumption of textile pre-consumer waste is reuse, whereas recycling can be utilized for
the types of waste that cannot be reused. In the disposal of textile wastes, reuse has a greater potential in comparison with
recycling both in term of environmental and economic benefits. The ‘environmental burden’ of textile manufacturing increases
with every step of processing. As textile reuse avoids more steps than recycling, therefore, reuse is considered better than
recycling.

• In most of the cases, textile recycling has environmental benefits in comparison with incineration or landfilling. However,
only recycling cannot make the textile process chain sustainable because it only reduces the environmental impact related
to fibre production. Therefore, other steps for sustainable production, especially related to energy and use of chemicals, are
also vital along with recycling.

• The environmental benefits of textile recycling and reuse are mainly dependent on the type of material and amount of
material to be replaced by using these approaches. The denim waste recycling and reuse scenarios discussed in this study
replace the use of virgin cotton fibres, which actually reduce the environmental impact of producing virgin cotton fibres.
Similarly, in the recycling case, 10 per cent recycled fibres were used to avoid the related quality problem, thus a reduction
of 10 per cent is depicted in the results. Whereas, for textile reuse, 100 per cent of waste fabrics are used, hence its
environmental benefits were much higher.

• As the waste used for recycling cannot be utilized for textile reuse, therefore, both strategies have their individual
significance and are complementary and important for the circular economy.

• The limitations of recycling, due to shortage of recycling infrastructure for different kinds of fibres, blends, dyestuffs, and
finishes, can be overcome by sustainable product design. This implies the designing of the textile products that are easily
recyclable.

• The exchange of recycled materials between different manufacturing processes like textiles, composites, plastics,
non-woven, etc., can establish an open-loop recycling system which is more resource efficient both in economic and
environmental terms. The use of chemical recycling for the use of polyethylene terephthalate (PET) bottles to produce recycled
polyester fibre is one of the examples.

67
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