Springer Climate

Neloy Khare   Editor

Science, Policies
and Conflicts
of Climate
Change
An Indian Perspective
Springer Climate

Series Editor
John Dodson , Institute of Earth Environment, Chinese Academy of Sciences,
Xian, Shaanxi, China
Springer Climate is an interdisciplinary book series dedicated to climate research.
This includes climatology, climate change impacts, climate change management,
climate change policy, regional climate studies, climate monitoring and modeling,
palaeoclimatology etc. The series publishes high quality research for scientists,
researchers, students and policy makers. An author/editor questionnaire, instructions
for authors and a book proposal form can be obtained from the Publishing Editor.
Now indexed in Scopus® !
Neloy Khare
Editor

Science, Policies
and Conflicts of Climate
Change
An Indian Perspective
Editor
Neloy Khare
Ministry of Earth Sciences
Delhi, India

ISSN 2352-0698 ISSN 2352-0701 (electronic)

Springer Climate
ISBN 978-3-031-16253-4 ISBN 978-3-031-16254-1 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-16254-1

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland
AG 2022
This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether
the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of
illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and
transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by
similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication
does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant
protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publisher, the authors, and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this
book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or
the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any
errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional
claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG
The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
Foreword

The subject of climate change has virtually engulfed the planet and is now seen as
the dominant agenda in both national and international discourse. It transgresses
disciplinary boundaries and constitutes a key element in informing the water–food–
energy policy frameworks that underpin national and international governance
structures required for the implementation of these policy frameworks. It is in this
context that Dr. Neloy Khare has edited the present volume titled ‘Science, Policies
and Conflicts of Climate Change: An Indian Perspective’. In any global and plan-
etary scale consideration, the Indian perspective matters simply because the subcon-
tinent is home to about fifteen per cent of the global population.
This edited volume comprises thirteen thematic Chapters that address the issues
of climate change related science, policies and the geopolitical issues that have
arisen around the world and are the subject of planetary scale interrogation and
conversation.
The enormous consequences of inevitable climate change could be minimized, to
some extent, if the causes of such climate change are properly understood and
attempts made to seed appropriate region-specific mitigation strategies. Awareness
and climate literacy among the masses can encourage people to change their attitudes
and behaviour; it also helps them to make informed decisions. Young budding minds
can be ignited to tackle ongoing and emerging problems of global climate changes,
including the impact of global warming and learn how to adapt to climate change.
Undoubtedly, education empowers all people but especially motivates the young to
act. It is, therefore, imperative that climate change awareness is spread to achieve
sustainability in developing countries through the dissemination of data and the
latest insights on the subject among the masses.
This book is a way forward in this direction to help understand the science behind
climate change in time and space, the impacts of climate change on coupled
environmental–social systems, and the required policy initiatives both in national
and international arena, besides taking into account the associated geopolitical
dimension of such global climate change.

v
vi Foreword

The book begins with a chapter on climate change’s science and policies focus-
sing on the National Perspectives in Global context by Ramesh followed by a chapter
that is dedicated to climate changes over the Indian subcontinent: Scenarios and
impacts by Mall et al. Also, food security is at stake due to the ongoing rise in
temperature and associated climate changes. Praveen et al. made a significant
contribution to assess the historical and future relationship between climatic factors
and the production of different crops in India.
To evaluate the geopolitical aspects of the ongoing climate change, Jayaram and
Sethi detailed the Geopolitics of Climate Change and Water Security in the larger
perspectives of South Asia, including India, with special reference to both conflict
and cooperation.
One among many significant effects of global warming and climate change are
perceived changes in the sea level, and therefore a study by Kankara et al. on the
Vulnerability Analysis of Sea Level Rise (SLR) on a micro-tidal coast from
Nagapattinam Coast has been included. To help understand climate changes in the
geological past, Humane et al. studied the lacustrine records of anthropogenic
change and precipitation in the monsoonal core zone of Central India; also, Akhouri
et al.’s investigations to understand the anthropogenic interference and climatic
changes influencing precipitation, sediment load and sand deposition by Phalgu
River in and around Jahanabad district of Bihar provided additional insights from
a fluvial landscape.
Mir assessed the impact of contrasting climates on the intensity of chemical
weathering and maturity of sediments in different latitudes utilizing geochemical param-
eters, whereas Yadav et al. attempted to study the manganese mineralization in the
manganiferous quartzite in the Boringpadar-Amath area, Odisha, India for their climate
change implications. Interestingly, Sabale has provided archaeological evidence of
climate change trends in the past. Besides, Singh et al. overviewed the scientific
investigations conducted on Youngest Toba Tuff ash, artefacts and vertebrate remains
that are preserved in the Quaternary alluvial sediments of India for their paleoclimatic
implications. Ghatak and Ghatak studied active tectonics – climate interaction in the
structural depo-centres of the Central Indian Tectonic Zone (CITZ) and Singh and
Kumar put forth the significance and utility of cosmogenic radionuclides in the Quater-
nary Sciences using Accelerator Mass Spectrometry.
I am sure this book will receive the attention it deserves and emerge as a ready
reference for obtaining recent insights and knowledge on the subject of climate
change from the Indian perspective.

Indian Institute of Science Prof. Sampat Kumar Tandon

Education and Research
Bhopal, India
July 2022
Preface

It is often believed that climate change or global climate change is a more scientif-
ically sound term than global warming. Such advocacy for the use of climate change
instead of global warming is largely since changes to precipitation patterns and sea
level are expected to have a more profound impact than the higher temperatures
alone.
While global warming refers to the rise in global temperatures due mainly to the
increasing concentrations of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, climate change
refers to the increasing changes in the measures of climate over a long period,
including precipitation, temperature and wind patterns. Climate change can also
impact human health by worsening air and water quality, increasing the spread of
certain diseases, and altering the frequency or intensity of extreme weather events.
The rising sea level threatens coastal communities besides the many adverse impacts
mankind will face. Climate change may aggravate erosion, the decline in organic
matter, salinization, soil biodiversity loss, landslides, desertification and flooding.
The effect of climate change on soil carbon storage can be related to changing
atmospheric CO2 concentrations, increased temperatures and changing precipitation
patterns. Temperatures are rising worldwide due to greenhouse gases trapping more
heat in the atmosphere. Droughts are becoming longer and more extreme around the
world. Tropical storms are becoming more severe due to warmer ocean water
temperatures. The Earth’s climate is influenced and changed through natural causes
like volcanic eruptions, ocean currents, the Earth’s orbital changes, solar variations
and internal variability. The debate over climate change has become so contentious
that many experts often opt to be limited in their claims as far as climate projections
are concerned. Nevertheless, such predictions require a sound understanding of
climate change science which helps evolve climate policies and its geopolitics
globally. The larger the observational data set, climate data both in space and in
time including geological past, the better the reliability of any projected climate
model.
Nevertheless, the IPCC assesses the credibility of scientific research on global
warming and uses that information to advise world leaders and policymakers on

vii
viii Preface

options for adapting to climate change, such as preventing the degradation of forests
or reducing the consumption of gasoline and other fossil fuels. Climate change
science for policy involves being responsive to policymakers. Such evidence-
based scientific inputs on climate change will also help for expert judgment.
Undoubtedly, everyone wants such state-of-the-art climate change assessments to
help mitigate the devastating damages expected of changing climates and their
extremes. Climate change refers to long-term shifts in temperatures and weather
patterns. These shifts may be natural, but since the 1800s, human activities have
been the main driver of climate change, primarily due to the burning of fossil fuels
(e.g. coal, oil and gas), which produces heat-trapping gases. The sun heats the Earth,
which then sends part of that heat back into space as infrared radiation. Certain
gases—‘greenhouse gases’—interact with this outgoing heat radiation, keeping the
surface temperature higher than it would be without them. It remains an enigma
whether the current climate change is a natural trend or an outcome of anthropogenic
influence. It can only be understood when the climate database is enhanced covering
larger geographical localities globally.
In view of the above, it is significant to bring out a detailed compilation of data on
climate change, understand the science behind such changes in the climate and what
could be expected in the geopolitical dimension of such global and regional climate
changes envisaging. Therefore, the present book titled ‘Science, Policies and
Conflicts of Climate Change: An Indian Perspective’ aptly covers all these
aspects from the perspectives of India.
The book begins with the Chapter by Ramesh who provides an exhaustive
account on climate change science related policies with the national perspectives
in the global context. While elaborating on this important topic he mentioned that
India signed this United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
(UNFCCC) in 1992 and ratified it in 1993. In general, UNFCCC efforts supported
the developing countries in combating climate change by providing a platform for
finance, technology transfers, discussions, global partnerships, etc., not seeking
emission reduction commitments in recognition of their small contribution to global
warming as well as low financial and technical capacities. UNFCCC initiatives
helped create public awareness regarding climate change, which is much higher
today than in the late 1990s. Although climate science in the late 1990s was certainly
strong enough to negotiate an international treaty, it is hard to deny that the scientific
understanding of the climate crisis has improved considerably over the past two
decades through IPCC in which UNFCCC played a significant role. The Ministry of
Environment and Forest and Climate Change (MOEF&CC) is the main organization
responsible for climate change policy in India. Kyoto Protocol under the heads of
Common but Differentiated Responsibilities (CBDR) says that the developed coun-
tries should take more responsibility and liability to take care of our degrading
environment and make appropriate rules to save it for future generations by taking
legally binding commitments. A major shortcoming of the Kyoto Protocol was the
non-inclusion of dangerous microscopic environmental air pollutants that come from
car engines and combustion-based power plants. Russia joined the Kyoto Protocol
in 2005, but the USA did not join (and Canada dropped out of the Protocol
Preface ix

subsequently). Now the world has reached almost 1.2 °C warming already,
UNFCCC needs to deal with unsustainable commitments as the Paris 2015 NDC
contributions are found to be inadequate to maintain 2 °C levels. Although low-lying
countries that are facing unsustainable sea levels rises in a warming world argued for
a tougher target of 1.5 °C, a largely unsatisfactory response was seen till the
proceedings of the COP-26 held at Glasgow, UK, in 2021. The main challenge
faced by UNFCCC is to ensure all rich nations pledged to maintain a $100bn a year
funding beyond 2020 to contribute fully from now on at least, although several
Pacific island countries advocated its inadequacy to fully meet the adverse impacts of
climate change.
Mall et al. on the other hand focussed on the climate change exclusively in the
Indian context, and they present shreds of evidence of the impact of climate change
in past, present and future such as extreme events like heat waves, diurnal temper-
ature range, shrinking of Himalayan glaciers, shifting of rainfall pattern, increased
susceptibility to floods and droughts and its impact on some of the important sectors.
Their findings show clear evidence of a decline in crop production and productivity
of some of the important crops such as wheat, rice, sugarcane, maize, potato, tomato,
etc. The recent studies established an increase in morbidity and mortality associated
with extreme temperature and poor air quality associated with increased particulate
matter (PM), NOx, SOx, O3, black carbon and other ambient pollutants. They further
pointed out that the important river basis of India like Gomti, Gandak, Vaigai, Mahi,
Varuna and Ghaghra have shown increased susceptibility to flooding and drought
events that are more likely to be frequent and severe in the future under different
climate change scenarios owing to changes in erratic rainfall patterns and increasing
temperature. This chapter also discusses the potential adaptation and mitigation
strategies that would help policymakers to combat climate change amid the rising
susceptible population.
While assessing the historical and future relationship between climatic factors and
the production of different crops in India, Praveen explores the effects of climate
variations over 15 different food and industrial crop productions in India using the
econometric model and forecasts these crop outputs using the Artificial Neural
Network (ANN) model up to 2030. The unit root test was used to inspect the
stationarity in time series datasets in agricultural crop productions and climatic
variables. The Dynamic Ordinary Least Square (DOLS) and Fully Modified
Dynamic Ordinary Least Square (FMOLS) models were used for testing the accu-
racy of the outcomes. The results showed that land productivity declines if the
annual mean temperature will increase, demonstrating the sensitivity of Indian
agricultural crop production to the temperature variance. Meanwhile, results also
unfold that if the temperature would increase, rainfall would become more unstable
triggering the reduction of rice, wheat, tuar, cotton, and tea crop productions. major
crop productions namely sesamum (til), gram, sugarcane, groundnut, jowar and
bajra would experience a positive impact and subsequently increase slightly up to
2030. The outcomes of the study can aid in insights into sustainable agricultural crop
productions in India, and livelihood patterns, particularly among minor and marginal
agricultural families.
x Preface

The book concludes with a devoted chapter by Jayaram and Sethi on the yet
another important aspect of associated geopolitics with ongoing global climate
changeswith special reference to South Asian region where climate vulnerabilities
have direct and indirect implications for water security. While the effects of climate
change on water access, safety and affordability in the region are becoming increas-
ingly adverse, the transboundary nature of both climate change and water security,
especially on account of shared water resources, complicates responses. The shared
river basins such as the Indus, Ganges, Meghna and Brahmaputra, have been marred
by geopolitical tensions, which renders transboundary climate cooperation to deal
with water-related problems difficult. Although the region has seen different forms
of cooperation in the form of river water sharing treaties/arrangements as well as
regional organisations’ role in advancing cooperation, these efforts rarely take
cognizance of the effects of climate change on water security. In their chapter,
they provide an analysis of the challenges posed by climate change to water security
and geopolitics of transboundary conflicts and cooperation in South Asia, as well as
explores opportunities for cooperation among the countries of the region.
The IPCC sixth assessment report shows that the world will probably reach or
exceed 1.5 °C (2.7 °F) of warming within just the next two decades and the oceans
will rise between 10 and 30 inches (26–77 centimetres) by 2100 (globally). The
report highlights that the sea levels in South Asia could rise by 0.4 m in the low
emissions scenario, about 0.5 m in the current pledge’s scenario and 0.7 m in the
high emissions scenario. Sea levels rise (SLR) has been rapidly increased which will
lead to devastating effects on coastal habitats farther inland because it can cause
destructive erosion, wetland flooding, aquifer and agricultural soil contamination
with salt, and lost habitat for fish, birds and plants. Studies by Indian scientists reveal
that the trends of sea level rise are estimated to be 1.3 mm/year along the Indian
coasts during the past 40–50 years. Also, impacts of storm surges, tsunamis, coastal
floods and coastal erosion in the low-lying coastal area cause gradual loss along with
coastal land. Kankara et al. highlighted the impact of sea level rise on the sandy
coast of the Nagapattinam sector and assessed the devastation incurred in both
physical and socio-economic aspects. They further noted that the exposed vulnerable
sectors to sea level rise are increasing with changing climate. The quantitative SLR
impact assessment method suggested in the study forms the basic framework for
coastal planners in disaster mitigation and building a climate-resilient community.
On the contrary, Humane et al. studied a sediment core from the Navegaon
Bandh Lake (NBL) for diatom fossils and sediment geochemistry to investigate
the anthropogenic impact and climatic variability over the past century. The declined
geochemical concentrations show three major impacts on the NBL coinciding with
the drought events in the foremost parts of India around ~1918, ~1975 and ~1965
and ~1991. The rise in the geochemical content of the NBL core was evident in the
post dam construction period (i.e ~1917–1919) with the two major peaks around
~1975 and ~1998. These major peaks are indicators of the higher rate of soil erosion
and the improved precipitation in the catchment of the NBL. Anthropogenic activ-
ities have brought five major changes in diatom assemblages and ecology in the NBL
around ~1946, ~1956, ~1972, ~1978 and ~2006. The increased agricultural
Preface xi

activities in the catchment of the NBL are evident since ~1906–1966 as the fertilizers
(K, P) are mainly derived other than soil particles of the catchment. Similarly,
deforestation in the region was evident during ~1967–1975 coinciding with the
period of the highest soil erosion. Another major phase of soil erosion caused by
anthropogenic activities was noticed during ~1992–1998. The hypolimnetic oxygen
of the NBL has declined over the past ~80 years indicating increased eutrophication
in the lake till the present. The nutrient input in response to climatic conditions and
anthropogenic activities has played a vital role in the diatom shift of the NBL.
A. granulata was predominant during ~1906–1914, ~1920–1922, ~1941–1943,
~1948–1956, ~1972–1976, and ~1973–1982 in the NBL along with increased soil
erosion and flux, persistent wet period and increased nutrient levels. While the major
period of the profusion of R. musculus in the NBL core was during ~1919–1921,
~1933–1940, ~1956–1972 and ~1978–2004, respectively, indicating mesotrophic,
Meso euhyaline and alkalibiontic condition of the lake linked with the long dry
period/less rainfall prevailed in the NBL watershed. The planktonic form
D. stelligera was common during ~2007–2012 and indicates the existence of
alkaline lake waters with moderate nutrients coinciding with the comparatively dry
period/less rainfall and changing water level and deforestation in the catchment of
the NBL. Overall, the investigation of the past evidence shows the importance of the
study of fossil diatoms and geochemistry to understand the anthropogenic and
precipitation changes along with the trophic status of the lake, which may be mainly
used for the management of the tropical wetlands in India.
Similarly, Akhouri et al. dealt with arriving at the best possible balance resulting
from environmental safety guideline procedures involved in mining, safeguarding
the ecology of the river amidst challenges and ways to minimize the unprecedented
effects of short-term climatic change. Their chapter also highlights aspects like
drivers responsible for the reduced flow, erratic modes of sand deposition vis-a-vis
undisciplined extraction and recommendations towards sustainable exploitation in
tune with the expectation and guidelines served by the Hon’ble National Green
Tribunal in this case along the Phalgu River, in Jehanabad district, Bihar.
Mir et al., on the other hand, attempted to study the impact of contrasting
climates on the intensity of chemical weathering and maturity of sediments in
different latitudes. In their chapter, chemical weathering and sediment maturity
under contrasting climatic conditions from tropical peninsular and temperate extra
peninsular parts of India are investigated. Rocks of peninsular India are moderate to
intensively weathered while rocks of extra peninsular India are moderately weath-
ered. High chemical weathering conditions in south India appear to result from
climate forcing related to high rainfall and temperature. The distribution of
C-values and Sr/Cu ratios collectively indicate a generally humid climate in penin-
sular India and a semi-humid to dry climate in extra peninsular India. There is an
increase in humidity from higher to lower latitudes. The compositional maturity of
the sediments is evaluated by using the ICV and SiO2/Al2O3 ratio. The results
collectively indicate that the sediments in the peninsular area are mineralogically
more mature than the sediments of the extra peninsular area. There is a decrease in
xii Preface

sediment maturity from higher to lower latitudes meaning a high degree of clays and
mineralogical maturity.
Further, Yadav et al. have brought to light an array of manganese mineralization
with promising values, hosted in manganese ore and manganiferous quartzite and
predict the responsible climatic environment for the formation of manganese based
on field observations, ore petrography studies and geochemical inputs. Two bands of
manganese ore and four bands of manganiferous quartzite are mapped to the
southeast of Boringpadar and northeast of Amath area belonging to the Eastern
Ghats Mobile Belt, India. The manganese ores are represented by bluish-black to
brownish-black, massive to foliated, metallic luster, nodular and botryoidal forms
which are mainly bedded and fragmental types. The ore bodies are strata bound
occurring in between calc-silicate granulite and garnetiferous quartzite which defines
a characteristic stratigraphic horizon. Manganiferous quartzite is hard, white to
black, highly jointed, fractured and brecciated which occurs at the contact of
khondalite. Braunite, bixbyite, jacobsite, manganite, pyrolusite and todorokite are
primary minerals that are associated with host rock like quartzite and these minerals
occur as inclusions and anhedral in shape. Secondary minerals are formed by the
process of colloidal influx or metasomatism psilomelane-cryptomelane, pyrolusite
and goethite are secondary minerals which occur in more quantities. A relatively
high temperature metamorphic jacobsite-bixbyite-braunite assemblage, low temper-
ature hydrothermal pyrolusite-psilomelane-cryptomelane assemblage and supergene
pyrolusite-manganite assemblage are recorded which were formed by recycling of
manganese in different stages of mineralization. Replacement and relict textures
are common between braunite-manganite-pyrolusite, jacobsite-braunite-pyrolusite,
pyrolusite-psilomelane-cryptomelane-goethite. A geophysical investigation has
also been carried out in the area to know the subsurface continuity of manganese
mineralization. In Boringpadar, the apparent resistivity values vary from 10 to
240 ohm-m which displays low resistivity and the apparent chargeability contour
map shows high anomaly, indicative of a mineralized zone. In Amath, the apparent
resistivity value varies from 20 to 140 ohm-m and the apparent chargeability contour
map shows a high anomaly. The pseudo-depth sections were prepared over geo-
physical traverses to examine the subsurface distribution of apparent chargeability
and apparent resistivity indicating mineralization prospects. This mineralized body
starts almost from the surface and the contours of this anomaly zone are opening
downward which is suggestive of the depth persistence of the causative source below
35 m. The analytical results of bedrock samples show high values of Mn, Fe, SiO2,
Al2O3, P, S and CaO. The values of Mn and Fe(T) ranged from 0.05 to 28.18 wt. %
and 1.87 to 56.31 wt. %, respectively. In pitting/trenching samples, the Mn value
ranges from 0.05 to 27.77 wt. % and the Fe(T) value ranges from 2.11 to 46.85
wt. %. The highest values of Mn come from manganese ore of the Amath
area and maximum values of Fe(T) were recorded from manganese ore of the
Boringpadar area. All the above-mentioned data indicate that the manganese ores
and manganiferous quartzite might be formed in the freshwater environment.
It is a known fact that each river develops a typical type of topography according
to her reaches because each flowing channel shapes the Earth’s surface through the
Preface xiii

process of erosion, transportation and deposition of sediments. This is achieved by

weathering and erosion of sediment from source areas and deposition of sediment in
low-lying areas and streams modifying the Earth’s surface. The old deposited
sediments during the Quaternary era are immensely important from an archaeolog-
ical point of view because human development has taken place contemporary to this
period. Therefore, most of the contemporary cultural deposit is deposited in these
sediments. In addition, such sediment is rich in flora and fauna which help to
reconstruct the palaeoenvironment of those particular areas with reference to
human development. In the present context, Sabale studied the details of the
palaeoenvironment along with man–land observed in the Upper Reaches of the
Sina by taking the quaternary trenches or excavations at suitable cultural settlement
localities, in parts of south Ahmednagar district of Maharashtra.
A review of Youngest Toba Tuff (YTT) ash, artifacts and vertebrate remains
uncovered in the alluvial deposits of various river basins of India has been attempted
by Singh et al. in order to comprehend paleoclimate and paleoenvironmental
conditions throughout the Quaternary period. The YTT eruption is regarded as the
biggest eruption on the Earth’s surface during the Pleistocene period, and hence is
considered a catastrophe for ecosystem and mass populations. The ash of the same
eruption has been found in laminated, sandy to clay alluvial columns in the form of
light gray to yellowish brown, massive to structured, pockets, lenticles, and contin-
uous to discontinues beds ranging in thickness from 0.2 to >3 m thick. Based on
bedding geometries, preservational characteristics, and physical appearances, the ash
is classified as primary and secondary. Geochemically and geochronologically, it
overlaps elemental composition and isotopic age of the Oldest Toba Tuff (OTT) ash.
Artifacts belonging to the Middle Paleolithic to Microlithic period are retained in the
fluvial profiles that form pre- and post-YTT columns. Based on the typological and
carving similarities, it has been linked to the Middle Paleolithic artifact industry of
Africa, indicating migration of hominids in India. In addition, the majority of
vertebrate remains reported mainly from both pre- and post-tephra successions of
various alluviums reveal existence of herbaceous animal communities, implying the
presence of small to tall grass vegetation and water pools to swamps environments
under humid to temperate climates. Based on preservations of artifacts and verte-
brate remains in both pre- and post-YTT ash strata, the study suggests existence of
hominids and animals in the subcontinent prior to and after the eruption, indicating
negligible effects of the eruption on the living media.
The Late Cenozoic period in the Central Indian Tectonic Zone (CITZ), marked by
several episodes of crustal adjustments, resulted in the development of various
landforms, drainage anomalies and pedosedimentary successions. The fault bound
tectonic basins viz. Tapi, Purna and Narmada flanking the Satpura ranges hold tell-
tale evidence of varying climatic and tectonic regimes. Ghatak and Ghatak in their
chapter summarize data from various literature and the Active Fault Mapping
programme in CITZ and study the fluvial archives to unravel the role of the
tectonics-climate feedback system in shaping landscape architecture in and around
the structurally controlled Quaternary River basins of Purna, Tapi and Narmada. The
cumulative interactions between the deformational events and ongoing surface
xiv Preface

processes are best witnessed by the marker horizons, anomalous river courses, basin
geometry, hill slopes and elevation characteristics and the way these have influenced
its depositional environment. The study suggests that repeated reactivation of older
crustal-scale faults under different stress regimes have been a guiding factor in
landform evolution in CITZ. While tectonics holds the primary key to the overall
landscape development and sedimentation, peninsular climatic or microclimatic
variations have equally been significant as palaeo-climatic proxies mimic all India
monsoon scenarios.
It is well known that the Quaternary Period begins at 2.58 Ma and was defined by
the Global boundary Stratotype Section and Point (GSSP) in 2009. The Quaternary
comprises only 0.4% of Earth’s history but is crucial for humans because of glacial
and interglacial events. The oxygen isotope studies in the microfossils of the deep
marine sediments have revealed the glacial and interglacial cycles at 100 ka, 43 ka,
24 ka and 19 ka for the past 700 ka due to Milankovitch cycles. Therefore, it is
important to reconstruct the past climate and environmental changes and model them
to predict such events which may happen in future. Accelerator Mass Spectrometry
(AMS) is an ultrasensitive technique to handle a very small sample size and provides
isotopic ratios for many elements which help understand the evolution of Quaternary
landforms and climate. Singh and Kumar in their chapter have discussed the AMS
and different cosmogenic radionuclides (CRN) which help reconstruct past climate
and tectonic events. Further, different geomorphological features and landforms
such as loess, lakes, river terraces, ice cores, etc., are also discussed, where cosmo-
genic radionuclide proxy can be applied to understand the past changes in the
climate on a global or regional scale. Denudation rates are an important proxy to
understand the palaeo-humidity and temperature conditions and the role of CRNs to
estimate accurate palaeo-denudation rates has also been discussed in their chapter.
Thus, altogether the present book emphasizes scientifically significant aspects of
ongoing climate change and addresses specific issues of climate change, its science,
policies and associated geopolitics largely from India’s point of view. It is hoped that
this book will serve its purpose and act as a ready reckoner to all policymakers,
researchers and the scientific community.

New Delhi, India Neloy Khare

July 2022
Acknowledgements

It is my great pleasure to express my gratitude and deep appreciation to all contrib-

uting authors. Without their valuable inputs on various facets of climate variability
over the Antarctic and surrounding Southern Ocean region, the book would not have
been possible. Various learned experts who have reviewed different Chapters are
graciously acknowledged for their timely, constructive and critical reviews.
I sincerely thank Dr M. Ravichandran Secretary Ministry of Earth Sciences,
Government of India, New Delhi (India), for their support, and encouragement.
Prof. Govardhan Mehta, FRS has always been a source of inspiration and is
acknowledged for his kind support.
This book has received significant support from Akshat Khare and Ashmit Khare,
who have helped me during the book preparation. Dr Rajni Khare has uncondition-
ally supported enormously during various stages of this book. Shri Hari Dass
Sharma from the Ministry of Earth Sciences, New Delhi (India) has helped
immensely in formatting the text and figures of this book and bringing it to its
present form. Springer Nature has done a commendable job and is sincerely
acknowledged.
New Delhi, India Neloy Khare
July 2022

xv
Contents

Part I Policy and Scenarios

1 Climate Change Science, Policies, National Perspectives
in the Global Context . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
K. J. Ramesh
2 Climate Changes over the Indian Subcontinent: Scenarios
and Impacts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
R. K. Mall, Nidhi Singh, Subhi Patel, Saumya Singh, Aman Arora,
R. Bhatla, R. S. Singh, and P. K. Srivastava
3 Assessing the Historical and Future Relationship Between Climatic
Factors and the Production of Different Crops over India . . . . . . . . 53
Bushra Praveen, Kanak Singh, Pritee Sharma, Shaghla Parveen,
and Swapan Talukdar

Part II Geopolitics and Conflicts

4 Geopolitics of Climate Change and Water Security in South Asia:
Conflict and Cooperation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
Dhanasree Jayaram and Gaurica Sethi

Part III Water (Water/Sea-Level Rise/Precipitation)

5 Vulnerability Analysis of Sea Level Rise (SLR) on a Micro-tidal
Coast: A Case Study of Nagapattinam Coast . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
R S Kankara, Padmini Gunasekaran, and Dhanalakshmi Silamban
6 Lacustrine Records of Anthropogenic Change and Precipitation
in the Monsoonal Core Zone of Central India since
the Last Century . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
Samaya S. Humane, Sumedh K. Humane, and Snehal Juare

xvii
xviii Contents

7 Anthropogenic Interference and Climatic Changes Influencing

Precipitation, Sediment Load and Sand Deposition by the Phalgu
River in and Around Jahanabad District, Bihar: A Case Study . . . 131
Akhouri Bishwapriya, Abhishek Kumar Chaurasia,
and V. Aneesh Kumar

Part IV Land (Geology, Archeology/Paleo/Tectonics)

8 Impact of Contrasting Climate on the Intensity of Chemical
Weathering and Maturity of Sediments in Different Latitudes:
A Geochemical Study from Peninsular and Extra
Peninsular India . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
Ishfaq Ahmad Mir
9 Manganese Mineralization in Manganiferous Quartzite in the
Boringpadar-Amath Area, Eastern Ghats Mobile Belt, Odisha,
India: Implication for Climatic Changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
Pawan Kumar Yadav, Manorama Das, and Sradhanjali Subhadarshini
10 Archaeological Evidence of Climate Change: Potential Source
to Understand the Past Climate Trend . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
P. D. Sabale
11 A Review Study on Youngest Toba Tuff Ash, Artifacts
and Vertebrate Remains Preserved in the Quaternary Alluvial
Sediments of India and Their Significances in Climate
and Paleoenvironment Interpretations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
Ajab Singh, Ashok K. Srivastava, Nura Abdulmumini Yelwa,
and Neloy Khare
12 Active Tectonics–Climate Interaction in the Structural
Depo-Centres of Central Indian Tectonic Zone (CITZ) . . . . . . . . . . 265
Snigdha Ghatak and Mriganka Ghatak
13 Application of Cosmogenic Radionuclides in the Quaternary
Sciences Using Accelerator Mass Spectrometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297
Atul Kumar Singh and Pankaj Kumar

Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321
Contributors

V. Aneesh Kumar Central Ground Water Board, Patna, India

Aman Arora DST-Mahamana Centre of Excellence in Climate Change Research,
Institute of Environment and Sustainable Development, Banaras Hindu University,
Varanasi, India
R. Bhatla Department of Geophysics, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, India
Akhouri Bishwapriya Geological Survey of India, Patna, India
Abhishek Kumar Chaurasia Geological Survey of India, Patna, India
Manorama Das Geological Survey of India, SU: Bihar, Patna, India
Mriganka Ghatak Geological Survey of India, Kolkata, West Bengal, India
Snigdha Ghatak Geological Survey of India, Kolkata, West Bengal, India
Padmini Gunasekaran National Centre for Coastal Research (NCCR), Ministry of
Earth Sciences, Government of India, NIOT-Campus, Chennai, India
Samaya S. Humane Department of Geology, Rashtrasant Tukadoji Maharaj
Nagpur University, Law College Square, Nagpur, Maharashtra, India
Sumedh K. Humane Department of Geology, Rashtrasant Tukadoji Maharaj
Nagpur University, Law College Square, Nagpur, Maharashtra, India
Dhanasree Jayaram Manipal Academy of Higher Education, Manipal, India
Alexander von Humboldt Foundation, International Climate Protection Fellow,
Berlin, Germany
Snehal Juare Department of Geology, Yashwantrao Chawhan Art, Commerce and
Science College, Lakhandur, Maharashtra, India

xix
xx Contributors

R S Kankara National Centre for Coastal Research (NCCR), Ministry of Earth

Sciences, Government of India, NIOT-Campus, Chennai, India
Neloy Khare Ministry of Earth Science, New Delhi, India
Pankaj Kumar Inter-University Accelerator Centre, New Delhi, India
R. K. Mall DST-Mahamana Centre of Excellence in Climate Change Research,
Institute of Environment and Sustainable Development, Banaras Hindu University,
Varanasi, India
Ishfaq Ahmad Mir Geological Survey of India, State Unit: Karnataka and Goa,
Bengaluru, Karnataka, India
Shaghla Parveen Department of Geography, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh,
India
Subhi Patel DST-Mahamana Centre of Excellence in Climate Change Research,
Institute of Environment and Sustainable Development, Banaras Hindu University,
Varanasi, India
Bushra Praveen School of Humanities and Social Sciences, Indian Institute of
Technology Indore, Indore, India
K. J. Ramesh Former Director General, India Meteorological Department,
Bengaluru, India
P. D. Sabale Department of Archaeology, Deccan College Deemed University,
Pune, India
Gaurica Sethi Department of Geopolitics and International Relations, Manipal
Academy of Higher Education, Manipal, India
Pritee Sharma School of Humanities and Social Sciences, Indian Institute of
Technology Indore, Indore, India
Dhanalakshmi Silamban National Centre for Coastal Research (NCCR), Ministry
of Earth Sciences, Government of India, NIOT-Campus, Chennai, India
Ajab Singh Department of Geology, Faculty of Science, University of Malaya,
Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
Atul Kumar Singh Inter-University Accelerator Centre, New Delhi, India
Kanak Singh School of Humanities and Social Sciences, Indian Institute of Tech-
nology Indore, Indore, India
Nidhi Singh DST-Mahamana Centre of Excellence in Climate Change Research,
Institute of Environment and Sustainable Development, Banaras Hindu University,
Varanasi, India
R. S. Singh Department of Geophysics, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, India
Contributors xxi

Saumya Singh DST-Mahamana Centre of Excellence in Climate Change

Research, Institute of Environment and Sustainable Development, Banaras Hindu
University, Varanasi, India
P. K. Srivastava DST-Mahamana Centre of Excellence in Climate Change
Research, Institute of Environment and Sustainable Development, Banaras Hindu
University, Varanasi, India
Sradhanjali Subhadarshini Geological Survey of India, SU: Odisha, Bhubaneswar,
India
Swapan Talukdar Department of Geography, University of Gour Banga, Malda,
India
Pawan Kumar Yadav Geological Survey of India, SU: Bihar, Patna, India
Nura Abdulmumini Yelwa Department of Geology, Faculty of Science,
University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
Department of Geology, Usmanu Danfodiyo University, Sokoto, Nigeria
About the Editor

Neloy Khare presently Adviser/Scientist ‘G’ to the Government of India at MoES

has a very distinctive acumen not only in administration but also in quality science
and research in his areas of expertise covering a large spectrum of geographically
distinct locations like the Antarctic, Arctic, Southern Ocean, Bay of Bengal, Arabian
Sea, Indian Ocean, etc. Dr. Khare has almost 30 years of experience in the field of
paleoclimate research using paleobiology/palaeontology/teaching/science manage-
ment/administration/coordination for scientific programmes (including Indian Polar
Programme), etc. Having completed his doctorate (PhD) in tropical marine regions
and Doctor of Science (D.Sc) in Southern High latitude marine regions towards
environmental/climatic implications using various proxies including foraminifera
(micro-fossil), has made significant contributions in the field of Paleoclimatology of
Southern high latitude regions (the Antarctic and the Southern Ocean) using Micro-
paleontology as a tool. These studies coupled with his paleoclimatic reconstructions
from tropical regions helped understand causal linkages and teleconnections
between the processes taking place in Southern high latitudes with that of climate
variability occurring in tropical regions. Dr. Khare has been conferred Honorary
Professor and Adjunct Professor by many Indian Universities.
He has a very impressive list of publications to his credit (125 research articles in
National and International Scientific journals; 3 Special Issues of National Scientific
Journals as Guest Editor; Edited Special Issue of Polar Science (Elsevier), Journal of
Asian Earth Science (Elsevier), Quaternary International (Elsevier) and Frontiers in
Marine Science as its Managing/Guest Editor. Authored/edited many books,
130 Abstracts have been contributed to various seminars; 23 Popular Science
Articles; 5 Technical reports). The government of India and many professional
bodies have bestowed upon him many prestigious Awards for his humble scientific
contributions to Past climate changes/Oceanography/Polar Science and Southern
Oceanography. The most coveted award is the Rajiv Gandhi National Award in 2013
conferred by the Honourable President of India Others include the ISCA Young
Scientist Award, BOYSCAST Fellowship, CIES French Fellowship, Krishnan Gold
Medal, Best Scientist Award, Eminent Scientist Award, ISCA Platinum Jubilee

xxiii
xxiv About the Editor

Lecture, IGU Fellowship, besides many more. Dr. Khare has made tremendous
efforts to popularize ocean science and polar science across the country by way of
delivering many invited lectures, radio talks and publishing popular science articles.
Dr. Khare has also sailed in the Arctic Ocean as a part of ‘Science PUB’ in 2008
during the International Polar Year campaign for scientific exploration and became
the first Indian to sail in the Arctic Ocean.
 Part I
Policy and Scenarios
Chapter 1
Climate Change Science, Policies, National
Perspectives in the Global Context

K. J. Ramesh

Abstract India signed the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate

Change (UNFCCC) in 1992 and ratified it in 1993. In general, UNFCCC efforts
supported the developing countries in combating climate change by providing a
platform for finance, technology transfers, discussions, global partnerships, etc., not
seeking emission reduction commitments in recognition of their small contribution
to global warming as well as low financial and technical capacities. UNFCCC
initiatives helped creating public awareness regarding climate change, which is
much higher today than in the late 1990s. Although climate science in the late
1990s was certainly strong enough to negotiate an international treaty, it is hard to
deny that the scientific understanding of the climate crisis has improved considerably
over the past two decades through IPCC in which UNFCCC played a significant
role. The Ministry of Environment and Forest and Climate Change (MOEF & CC) is
the main organization responsible for climate change policy in India.
The Kyoto Protocol under the heads of Common but Differentiated Responsibil-
ities (CBDR) says that the developed countries should take more responsibility and
liability to take care of our degrading environment and make appropriate rules to
save it for future generations by taking legally binding commitments. A major
shortcoming of the Kyoto Protocol was the non-inclusion of dangerous microscopic
environmental air pollutants that come from car engines and combustion-based
power plants. Russia joined the Kyoto Protocol in 2005 but the USA was never a
part of it (and Canada subsequently dropped out of the Protocol).
Now the world has reached almost 1.2 °C warming already, and UNFCCC needs
to deal with unsustainable commitments as the Paris 2015 NDC contributions are
found to be inadequate to maintain 2 °C levels. Although low-lying countries that are
facing unsustainable sea level rises in a warming world argued for a tougher target of
1.5 °C, a largely unsatisfactory response was seen till the proceedings of the COP-26
held at Glasgow, UK, in 2021. The main challenge faced by UNFCCC is to ensure
all rich nations that pledged to maintain a $100bn a year funding beyond 2020

K. J. Ramesh (*)
Former Director General, India Meteorological Department, Bengaluru, India

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 3

N. Khare (ed.), Science, Policies and Conflicts of Climate Change, Springer Climate,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-16254-1_1
4 K. J. Ramesh

contribute fully from now on at least, although several Pacific island countries
advocated its inadequacy to fully meet the adverse impacts of climate change.

Keywords Climate change policy shifts · Kyoto Protocol · Paris Agreement ·

Environmental laws · Montreal Protocol · Nationally determined contributions ·
Climate finance

Sustainable management and preservation of the natural environment are now

becoming highly critical for human existence on the planet Earth. The United
Nations recognized this as a paramount issue of global concern and convened the
Stockholm Conference way back in 1972 to inspire and guide global actions
holistically. Since then, several global conferences and summits have been held
and many multilateral agreements/treaties/declarations adopted to promote sustain-
able use and management of natural resources and environmental protection globally
by making the environment a major issue on the international development agenda
and involving developed and developing countries alike as far as the global collec-
tive action is concerned. Consequently, countries across the globe have set up
ministries or departments of the environment to build their respective national
development agenda emphasizing environmental protection. Gradually, countless
national level environmental laws and regulations have been enacted by member
states of the United Nations for shaping the international environmental legal
regimes to reverse environmental degradation on our planet.
The developing countries have always asserted that major environmental issues
of serious concern identified by the Stockholm Conference such as industrial
pollution, uncontrolled urban development, and wilderness degradation, were attrib-
utable to unrestrained industrialization in the United States, Europe and the Soviet
Union. The developing countries have always been concerned about the possible
impacts of industrial pollution on the developed world upon over and above the
legacy issues such as access to clean water, malnutrition, proper sanitation and
economic development. The Stockholm Conference gave birth to the concept of
sustainable development, commonly known as ‘eco-development’ in those days, as a
way of reconciling the competing claims of economic development and environ-
mental protection. The hallmark outcome of the Stockholm Conference is the
establishment of the United Nations Environmental Program (UNEP) within the
United Nations system. UNEP has since served as an institutional catalytic agency
for the promotion and coordination of global environmental activities. The world
owes much to the Stockholm Conference because it was the catalysis for the new
multilateral environmental cooperation and treaty-making era that followed. The
Stockholm Declaration established international political goals and legal principles
that have underpinned environmental discourse and lawmaking. By stressing that
environmental issues are inherently political—not just scientific and technical, as
many policymakers previously thought—and therefore emphasized the need for
political negotiations and decision-making, the Stockholm Conference demonstrated
how global cooperation could take place, even amid Cold War tensions.
1 Climate Change Science, Policies, National Perspectives in the Global Context 5

Development of Environmental Law in India Post-Stockholm

Declaration

This Stockholm Declaration is considered to be the Magna Carta of environmental

law and is a significant parallel to that of the Universal Declaration on Human Rights
of 1948. The Stockholm conference was attended by the then Prime Minister of
India, Mrs. Indira Gandhi and she was greatly inspired by the discussions held,
issues raised and developments that took place during that Conference. The results
have reflected through quick developments that occurred immediately after the
Stockholm Conference. The 42nd Amendment to the Indian Constitution, which
was introduced after the Stockholm Conference of 1972, brought major changes to
the Constitution of India and is considered to be the mini constitution. This Amend-
ment brought changes to various subjects, but when we talk about the changes to the
Environmental law, it introduced responsibility on part of both states and citizens to
protect and improve the environment. Recognition of the right to a pollution free
environment as part of a fundamental right under Article 21 of the Indian constitu-
tion, various rulings and observations of the Supreme Court of India on various
matters on environmental pollution and degradation have also led to the introduction
of various enactments for the protection of various subjects regarding the environ-
ment and air quality; all of which brought needful changes in the governance to
protect the rights of the citizens at large.
To a great extent, in a broader perspective in India, the environmental legislation
enacted after the Stockholm Conference was found to be mere rhetoric and ineffec-
tive in reality due to weak enforcement of laws perceived to inhibit industrial growth
(Chandra 2015). Indeed, in India, even basic laws concerning urban planning and
fundamental hygiene and public health were not given due priority and focus in the
overall governance.
Significant United Nations engagements with environmental sustainability in the
post-Stockholm era until the establishment of an exclusive global negotiating UN
platform for planetary climate include
• The first World Climate Conference (WCC) held in Geneva in 1979 by World
Meteorological Organization (WMO) led to the establishment of the World
Climate Research Program (WCRP) in 1980 to promote global research on
important climate issues, including ozone depletion and global warming.
• The Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer (1985) provided a
global framework to protect the ozone layer from the illeffects of human activities
that subsequently led to the adoption of the Montreal Protocol for global action in
1987 to reduce the production and consumption of ozone depleting substances.
• The Inter-Governmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) was established in
1989 with a functional Secretariat at WMO to build focused activities on scien-
tific assessment of all aspects of climate change and their adverse environmental
and socio-economic impacts to provide robust guidance for the formulation of
realistic response strategies.
6 K. J. Ramesh

• The Second WCC held in 1990 was an important step towards a global climate
treaty (Zillman 2009). The Conference was held at a crucial time in the climate
treaty negotiation process. IPCC Published the First Assessment Report (FAR) in
1990 that warned of the impending threat of global warming and its adverse
impacts on natural and human systems. The report consisted of three volumes
and an overview, namely (1) Climate Change: The IPCC Scientific Assessment,
(2) Climate Change: The IPCC Impacts Assessment, (3) Climate Change: The
IPCC Response Strategies, and (4) FAR Overview. The FAR of IPCC had
provided for the first time all necessary critical inputs for the first session of the
International Negotiating Committee for a Framework Convention on Climate
Change (INC)
• UN Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) (known popularly
as the Earth Summit/Rio Summit) was held in 1992 in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. The
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC)
established an international environmental treaty to combat ‘dangerous human
interference with the climate system’, in part by stabilizing greenhouse gas
concentrations in the atmosphere along with many other agreements such as a
legally binding multilateral agreement on Convention on Bio-Diversity (CBD).
UNFCCC established a Secretariat headquartered in Bonn and came into exis-
tence on 21 March 1994.
• The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) came into
force in 1994 and aimed to prevent, reduce and control pollution of the marine
environment, and protect fish stocks from depletion.
• IPCC released its Second Assessment Report (SAR) in 1995 comprising
(1) Working Group I: The Science of Climate Change, (2) Working Group II:
Impacts, Adaptations and Mitigation of Climate Change: Scientific-Technical
Analyses, (3) Working Group III: Economic and Social Dimensions of Climate
Change, and (4) IPCC Second Assessment. The essential message of the SAR
was that carbon dioxide remains the most important contributor to global climate
change with a warning that uncontrolled human activities led to greenhouse gas
(GHGs) emissions which threatened to alter the Earth’s climate to an unprece-
dented extent in human history with destructive impacts such as sea level rise,
extreme events, etc.

Perspectives of the Global Climate Change Negotiation

Agenda Discourse

While climate change was recognized by the UN General Assembly as the ‘common
concern of mankind’ in 1988, the UNFCCC specifically acknowledges this ‘com-
mon concern’ and placed it at the centre of the international climate change nego-
tiation regime. It promotes a precautionary approach to addressing climate change
and articulating the principle of inter-generational equity by paying special attention
1 Climate Change Science, Policies, National Perspectives in the Global Context 7

to protecting the global climate system in the best interests of future generations.
UNFCCC also incorporates Principle 7 of the Rio Declaration on the Environment
and Development on the principle of ‘common but differentiated responsibilities’ in
addressing climate change.
The basis of the UNFCCC negotiated Convention of 1992 was precisely to note
that the developed countries have historically been responsible for the harmful
greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and remain their main emitters. Always on a per
capita basis, the primary responsibility devolves on them to take the tough measures
needed to address the climate change issue using their strong financial resources and
high technological capacities.
The negotiated Convention envisaged that all of the GHG stabilization in the
environment be achieved within a specific time frame so that the new adapted
environment would not disturb the production of food grains and thereby ensure
the growth of humans and our environment together in a sustainable manner. While
negotiating the convention, although it was very difficult to prove the existence of
ongoing environmental degrading activities all over the world due to lack of
scientific evidence, UNFCCC took inspiration from the Montreal Protocol of 1987
and convinced the member countries to work towards the human safety and protec-
tion that was only possible when our environment is safe from all the polluting
activities. Thus, the Convention maintained a differentiation between the countries
according to their development and their contribution to the GHG emissions by
categorizing them as developed, developing and underdeveloped.
• The Annex 1 parties include the industrialized countries that were members of the
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) in 1992,
plus countries with economies in transition (the EIT Parties), including the
Russian Federation, the Baltic States, and several Central and Eastern European
States. All of these countries were included in Annex 1 because they are devel-
oped and contributed maximum towards the GHG emissions. Annex 1 countries
must make National Policies for their own countries so that they can mitigate
climate change and then reduce the amount of greenhouse gases in the
atmosphere.
• Annex 2 countries include part of the OECD but not part of EIT. These countries
are supposed to provide financial resources and support to the other developing
countries so that they can make their own GHG emission reduction plans and
policies and then help them to adapt to the effects of climate change.
• Then there are the Non-Annex countries that are financially or technically poor
and they cannot handle the effects of climate change; thus, they have to be given
financial support from other countries to bring in new policies for themselves.
India was placed under the category Non-Annex country according to the
UNFCCC. All 197 countries that ratified the 1992 Convention were called Parties
to the Convention. The members of this Convention formed themselves into a
Conference of Parties (herein referred to as COP) so that they can meet every year
and discuss adopting new practices and bringing up new rules so that they can
achieve the goals and objectives of UNFCCC. The COP, the supreme decision-
8 K. J. Ramesh

making body of the Convention, had built in a mechanism to assess the progress of
their actions towards climate change. Annually, all State Parties to the Convention
that were represented at the COP meet and review the implementation of the
Convention and any other legal instruments that the COP adopts and take decisions
necessary to promote the effective implementation of the Convention, including
institutional and administrative arrangements.
The UNFCCC framework continues to undertake assumed responsibility to
reduce GHG emissions and to build consensus to work collectively to avoid dan-
gerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system. So far, the UNFCCC has
been able to provide significantly acceptable guiding principles for world leaders to
make progress through effective solutions for addressing the adverse impact of
climate change.
The expectation at the UNFCCC platform has always been that the developed
world provide new and additional financial resources and technological cooperation
on preferential terms to the developing world; those that are seen to face the adverse
impacts of a global warning generated by historical GHG emissions, to enable many
of them to more effectively respond to climate change. Although the science of
climate change was evolving and expected to improve the assessment of impacts at
global, regional and national scales by successive IPCC Assessment Reports, the
developing/underdeveloped world was seeking due guidance from the subsidiary
bodies of UNFCCC viz. Subsidiary Body for Science & Technology Advice
(SBSTA) and Subsidiary Body for Implementation (SBI), for building appropriate
adaptation measures to minimize the adverse impacts of climate change. At the same
time, it was emphasized that the developing world cannot accept binding mitigation
commitments, although they could consider entering into contractual agreements to
implement mitigation actions provided incremental costs are met by the developed
world so that the requirement to divert scarce resources from their overriding
priorities of poverty eradication and economic development gets avoided.
International climate change negotiations broadly relied on how the world
addresses environmental concerns and shares the costs and benefits of enhanced
environmental protection. Such negotiations have always sought to build an inter-
national consensus on
(a) identification of GHG emission sources responsible for climate change, both
historically and currently;
(b) steps need to be taken under a negotiated umbrella to tackle the problem; and
(c) workout ways and means of bearing the burden of corrective actions between
financially sound, technologically advanced, the industrialized world and not so
well off developing/underdeveloped world.
COP-2 held at Geneva in 1996 saw an important shift with the USA supporting a
‘realistic, verifiable and binding medium term GHG emission target’ as long as
market-based flexible mechanisms would be included in the future climate treaty.
Geneva Ministerial Declaration of COP-2 endorsed the IPCC’s SAR and called upon
Parties to accelerate negotiations for a legally binding treaty that would set GHG
reduction targets and timetable for industrialized (Annex I) countries.
1 Climate Change Science, Policies, National Perspectives in the Global Context 9

However, momentum towards an agreement that set binding emissions limits for
individual countries soon became a hurdle over the argument put forward by most
developing countries that rich countries need to shoulder the entire burden of
reducing emissions. In the late 1990s, such a continued divide prevented the United
States from ratifying the Kyoto Protocol, the main mechanism for reducing global
emissions. The U.S. Senate reasoned that unless China and other large developing
countries agreed to limit their emissions, an international agreement would be
meaningless.
Despite the above, to boost the effectiveness of the UNFCCC, the Kyoto Protocol
was adopted in December 1997 at COP-3 in Kyoto, Japan. It commits industrialized
countries and countries in transition (Central and Eastern Europe and the former
Soviet Union) to a market economy to achieve quantified emissions reduction targets
for a basket of six GHGs by an average of 5% below 1990 levels in 2008–2012. The
Kyoto Protocol entered into force on 16 February 2005 and has 192 parties. Its first
commitment period took place from 2008 to 2012.

Kyoto Protocol a Climate Change Success or a Global

Warming Failure?

The Kyoto Protocol was opened for signature in 1998, but it wouldn’t come into
force until at least 55 parties ratified the treaty and also needed to account for at least
55% of the total CO2 emissions of the Annex I countries. This political process took
7 years, and it was the ratification of Russia that finally brought the treaty into force
in 2005. However, the factual analysis makes everyone believe that the 2005
ratification of the Kyoto Protocol was a calculated political strategy to ensure the
success of the Kyoto Protocol before it had even begun.
It is clear from the below chart that emissions came down rapidly after 1990; in
fact, by 1994 (4 years before the Kyoto Protocol was even open for signatures),
members of the designated group had already reduced emissions by 11.2%, which
was largely attributed to the rapid collapse of energy consumption after 1990. This
was already well ahead of the Kyoto Protocol target of 4.7% CO2 reduction by 2012
(Fig. 1.1). The rapid decline of CO2 emissions during the early 1990s was due to the
collapse of the Soviet Union and associated rapid decline in heavy manufacturing
industries across Russia and the newly formed independent states. The two largest
energy consumers in this group, Russia and Ukraine, had a particularly significant
decline in energy consumption. Further, analysis suggests that the collapse of the
Soviet Union appears to be the key reason for the decline in energy consumption of
the Kyoto Protocol parties as evident from the chart below:
Strikingly, it becomes evident that without Russia and Ukraine (including Canada
which pulled out in 2011) the Kyoto Protocol Parties would only have reduced their
emissions by a mere 2.7%. This is well below their originally envisaged target. It is
only the fact that carbon emissions reduced by Russia + Ukraine together amount to
32.4% that made the headline Kyoto Protocol figures down to a 12.5% reduction
(Fig. 1.2).
10 K. J. Ramesh

Fig. 1.1 Carbon Emissions during 1990–2012 as per Kyoto Protocol Target (Circular Ecology
2015)

Fig. 1.2 Carbon Emissions Targets during 1990–2012 by All Kyoto Protocol Parties, Russia &
Ukraine and All Other Parties

Hence, general headline figures that make the Kyoto Protocol seem like a huge
climate change success and a valuable contribution to environmental sustainability
ultimately appear to be a global warming failure.
The 2012 Doha Amendment established the second commitment period from
2013 to 2020. The Amendment strengthened quantified emission reduction commit-
ments for developed countries and set a goal of reducing GHG emissions by 18%
compared to 1990 levels. The assessment (Kyoto 2020) of the latest information
received from Parties with commitments under the Doha Amendment (Annex B
1 Climate Change Science, Policies, National Perspectives in the Global Context 11

Parties), based on data for the period 1990–2018, shows that total aggregate GHG
emissions in 2018 were 25.3% lower than in 1990. It is to be noted that the above
assessment only applies to a group of some 37 countries that agreed to emission
reduction targets under the Doha Amendment of the Kyoto Protocol. The above
outcome demonstrates the potential of consistently implementing climate change
policies and actions at the national level.
The continued dissociation of the US towards binding emission reduction com-
mitments was finally bridged in a big way during President Obama’s visit to China in
early November, when the world’s two largest emitters, the United States and China,
announced a bilateral agreement in which Washington pledged to reduce emissions
by one quarter below 2005 levels by 2025, and Beijing committed to preventing its
emissions from growing after 2030. The Sino-American agreement came at a critical
time for the global climate negotiations: the Kyoto Protocol, despite America’s
refusal to ratify it, remained the world’s only binding international agreement to
reduce emissions. And it was scheduled to expire in 2020. Most climate experts
believed that a replacement agreement needed to be formulated by the end of 2015 to
allow enough time for it to come into force before 2020, giving the world just 1 year
to overcome decades of stalemate in global climate negotiations. The European
Union has launched its own attempt to jump-start climate negotiations, announcing it
will pursue emissions reductions of 40% below 1990 levels by 2040. Among the
world’s large economies—and big emitters—that left India as the biggest wild card
going into the Lima negotiations of COP-20 in 2014 and the 2015 climate confer-
ence COP-21, scheduled to be held in Paris.
In December 2015, parties adopted the Paris Agreement. Under the terms of the
Agreement, all countries submit Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) and
will review the aggregate progress on mitigation, adaptation, and means of imple-
mentation every 5 years through a Global Stocktake. The Paris Agreement entered
into force on 4 November 2016, and, to date, 193 parties have ratified the Agree-
ment. Through the NDC process, countries have the opportunity to further advance
climate policies and actions and ratchet them up over time.

The Gist of Key Turning Points under UNFCCC Negotiations

and Associated Climate Policy Shifts

(i) Long-term negotiations during 2005–2009: Convening in Montreal, Canada,

in 2005, CMP 1 established the Ad Hoc Working Group on Annex I Parties’.
Further Commitments under the Kyoto Protocol (AWG-KP) which mandated
consideration of Annex I parties’ further commitments at least 7 years before
the end of the first commitment period. In December 2007, COP 13 and CMP
3 in Bali, Indonesia, resulted in an agreement on the Bali Roadmap on long-
term issues. COP 13 adopted the Bali Action Plan (BAP) and established the
Ad Hoc Working Group on Long-term Cooperative Action under the
12 K. J. Ramesh

Convention (AWG-LCA), with a mandate to focus on mitigation, adaptation,

finance, technology, capacity building and a shared vision for long-term
cooperative action. Negotiations on Annex I parties’ further commitments
continued under the AWGKP. The deadline for concluding the two-track
negotiations was 2009 in Copenhagen, Denmark.
(ii) The UN Climate Change Conference in December 2009 was held in Copen-
hagen. The event was marked by disputes over transparency and process.
After a lengthy debate, delegates ultimately agreed to ‘take note’ of the
Copenhagen Accord and to extend the mandates of the negotiating groups
until COP 16 and CMP 6 to be held in 2010. In 2010, over 140 countries
indicated support for the Accord and over 80 countries provided information
on their national mitigation targets or actions.
(iii) The UN Climate Change Conference convened in December 2010 at Cancun,
Mexico, adopted the Cancun Agreements and agreed to consider the adequacy
of the long-term global goal during the 2013–2015 review. The Cancun
Agreements established several new institutions and processes, including
the Green Climate Fund (GCF), the Cancun Adaptation Framework, the
Adaptation Committee and the Technology Mechanism, which includes the
Technology Executive Committee (TEC) and the Climate Technology Centre
and Network (CTCN).
(iv) The negotiating mandate for the Paris Agreement was adopted at the UN
Climate Change Conference in 2011 in Durban, South Africa. Parties agreed
to launch the Ad Hoc Working Group on the Durban Platform for Enhanced
Action (ADP) with a mandate ‘to develop a protocol, another legal instrument
or an agreed outcome with legal force under the Convention applicable to all
Parties’ no later than 2015, to enter into force in 2020. In addition, the ADP
was mandated to explore actions to close the pre-2020 ambition gap
concerning the 2 °C targets.
(v) The UN Climate Change Conference held in 2014 in Lima, Peru, adopted the
‘Lima Call for Climate Action’, which furthered progress on the negotiations
towards the Paris Agreement. It elaborated the elements of a draft negotiating
text and the process for submitting and synthesizing intended nationally
determined contributions (INDCs), while also addressing pre-2020 ambition.
(vi) The UN Climate Change Conference convened in 2015 in Paris, France,
adopted the Paris Agreement on 12 December 2015. The Agreement includes
the goal of limiting the global average temperature increase to well below 2 °C
above pre-industrial levels and pursuing efforts to limit it to 1.5 °C. It also
aims to increase parties’ ability to adapt to the adverse impacts of climate
change and make financial flows consistent with a pathway towards low GHG
emissions and climate-resilient development. The Agreement will be
implemented to reflect equity and the principle of common but differentiated
responsibilities and respective capabilities, in light of different national cir-
cumstances. Under the Paris Agreement, each party shall communicate, at
five-year intervals, successively more ambitious NDCs. The Paris Agreement
also includes a transparency framework and a process known as the Global
1 Climate Change Science, Policies, National Perspectives in the Global Context 13

Stocktake. Beginning in 2023, parties will convene this process at five-year

intervals to review collective progress on mitigation, adaptation and means of
implementation. The Agreement also includes provisions on adaptation,
finance, technology, loss and damage, and compliance. When adopting the
Paris Agreement, parties launched the Paris Agreement Work Programme
(PAWP) to develop the Agreement’s operational details. Parties also agreed
on the need to mobilize stronger and more ambitious climate action by all
parties and non-party stakeholders to achieve the Paris Agreement’s goals.
Several non-party stakeholders made unilateral mitigation pledges in Paris,
with more than 10,000 registered actions.
The Paris Agreement entered into force on 4 November 2016, which was
30 days after the dual entry into force requirement of ratification by at least
55 countries representing at least 55% of global GHG emissions was met. As
of 19 November 2016, 111 countries have ratified the agreement.
(vii) The UN Climate Change Conference took place in 2016 at Marrakech and
adopted several decisions related to the PAWP, the terms of reference for the
Paris Committee on the Capacity building; and initiated a process to identify
the information to be provided following Paris Agreement related to ex-ante
biennial finance communications by developed countries. Other decisions
adopted included approving the five-year work plan of the Warsaw Interna-
tional Mechanism on Loss & Damage (WIM) associated with Climate Change
Impacts, enhancing the Technology Mechanism, and continuing and enhanc-
ing the Lima work programme on gender.
(viii) The Fiji/Bonn Climate Change Conference convened in 2017 at Bonn, Ger-
many, under the COP Presidency of Fiji. The COP launched the Talanoa
Dialogue, a facilitative dialogue to take stock of collective progress towards
the Paris Agreement’s long-term goals. The COP also established the ‘Fiji
Momentum for Implementation’, a decision giving prominence to pre-2020
implementation and ambition. Parties also guided the completion of the
PAWP and decided that the Adaptation Fund shall serve the Paris Agreement.
(ix) The Katowice Climate Change Conference convened in 2018 at Katowice,
Poland, concluded a busy and hectic year of negotiations that featured an
additional negotiation session to advance work on the Paris Agreement Work
Programme (PAWP). Parties adopted the Katowice Climate Package, which
finalized nearly all of the PAWP, including decisions to facilitate common
interpretation and implementation of the Paris Agreement on the mitigation
section of NDCs, adaptation communications, transparency framework,
Global Stocktake, and financial transparency, among others. The COP was
unable to agree on whether to ‘welcome’ or ‘note’ the Intergovernmental
Panel on Climate Change’s (IPCC) Special Report on 1.5 °C of Global
Warming.
(x) The Chile/Madrid Climate Change Conference convened in 2019 in Madrid,
under the COP Presidency of Chile. Decisions were adopted on the review of
the WIM and some finance-related issues, such as guidance to the Global
Environment Facility (GEF) and Green Climate Fund (GCF). Parties also
adopted three decisions each named the Chile/Madrid Time for Action.
14 K. J. Ramesh

(xi) The global COVID-19 pandemic disrupted the normal meeting cycle. Online
sessions were held in June and November 2020 to hear updates from the
constituted bodies and hold mandated events. The Climate Ambition Summit
in December 2020 served as a platform for countries to put forward new
NDCs and net zero pledges. A subsequent online summit was convened in
April 2021 by US President Biden.

India’s Stand at UNFCCC

India consistently highlighted issues relating to equity, historical responsibilities and

per capita emissions as the basis for a differentiated approach to the collective
arrangements being considered. The notions of fairness, justice and equity underly-
ing its differentiation between developed and developing countries in terms of
responsibilities and capabilities remain as relevant today as when first agreed to at
the time of negotiation of the Convention as summarized below (Table 1.1) follow-
ing Mohammad Mohnish (2016).

Climate Change Centric Environment Policy of India: Post

COP-26 Focus

India continued to emphasize that developed nations have not only failed to meet the
US$ 100 billion goals annually of support to developing nations since 2009 but also
continue to present it as the ceiling of their ambition to 2025. India is pursuing the
principle of ‘One Sun, One World, One Grid’ (OSOWOG) intending to harness solar
energy wherever the sun is shining to ensure that generated electricity flows to areas
that need it most. India also pressed the issue of emission reduction to combat
climate change at the 16th G20 Summit held in Naples, where it urged the Group
to bring down per capita emissions to the global average by 2030 given the fast-
depleting available carbon space. Several initiatives are taken to tackle the menace of
toxic air through the National Clean Air Programme (NCAP).
India entered into Climate Action and Finance Mobilization Dialogue (CAFMD)
with the US under the India–US Climate Clean Energy Agenda 2030 that aimed to
provide both countries an opportunity to renew collaborations on climate change
while addressing the financing aspects. Various climate change actions should
address all anticipated adverse impacts on India due to threats emanating from the
higher rate of Indian Ocean warming than other oceans, increased heat waves, heavy
rainfall and flooding. India ratified the Kigali Amendment for phasing out
hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) under the Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete
the Ozone Layer.
1 Climate Change Science, Policies, National Perspectives in the Global Context 15

Table 1.1 Major outcome and India’s during different meetings of Conference of Parties (CoPs)
Conference of
Parties (COP) Key outcomes India’s stance
COP 1 COP-1 initiated a two-year process to India’s stand was based on the
(Berlin, 1995) negotiate another legal instrument to pragmatic view that the emission
galvanize ‘appropriate action for the reduction must be initiated by the
period beyond 2000 by establishing a industrialized countries to provide
special negotiating body, the Ad Hoc necessary space for the developing
Group on the Berlin Mandate (AGBM) countries to increase their emission
India pressed for a 20% cut in GHG
emissions of the industrialized
countries by the year 2005
COP 2 The Geneva Ministerial Declaration India along with other developing
(Geneva, was noted, but not adopted countries has pursued industrialized
1996) A decision on guidelines for the countries’ emission cuts and associ-
national communications to be prepared ated targets
by developing countries was adopted
Also discussed, Are quantified Emis-
sions Limitation and Reduction Objec-
tives (QELROs) (Zillman 2009) for
different Parties and an acceleration of
the Berlin Mandate talks so that com-
mitments could be adopted at COP-3
To evaluate the progress made since
C0P-1
Oil producing countries & industrial-
ized groups were opposed throughout
the meeting
COP 3 The Kyoto Protocol (Chandra 2015) India endorsed the Kyoto Protocol as
(Kyoto, 1997) was adopted by consensus an Annex II member
The Kyoto Protocol includes legally
binding emission targets for a devel-
oped country, (Annex I) Parties for the
six major greenhouse gases, are to be
reached by the period 2008–2012
Most industrialized countries and some
central European economies in transi-
tion (all defined as Annex II countries)
agreed to legally binding reductions in
greenhouse gas emissions of an average
of 6–8% below 1990 levels between the
years 2008–2012, defined as the first
emissions budget period
COP 4 Parties adopted a 2-year ‘Plan of India echoed to support global
(Buenos Aires, Action’ (IPCC 2021) to advance efforts efforts to protect the environment
1998) and to devise mechanisms for without hindering India’s develop-
implementing the Kyoto Protocol, to be ment pathways
completed by 2000
(continued)
16 K. J. Ramesh

Table 1.1 (continued)

Conference of
Parties (COP) Key outcomes India’s stance
COP 5 Primarily it was a technical meet India pointed out that the United
(Bonn, 1999) A focus on the adoption of the guide- Nations Framework Convention on
lines for the preparation of national Climate Change (UNFCCC) (Circu-
communications by Annex I countries, lar Ecology 2015) too acknowledges
capacity-building (IPCC 2018), transfer that development and poverty eradi-
of technology and flexible mechanisms cation are the first and the overriding
priorities of the developing coun-
tries, consequent to which their
greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions
would grow
Further, it was pointed out that the
UNFCCC explicitly underlined the
conspicuous North-South disparities
by recognizing the ‘common but
differentiated responsibilities’
(CBDR) and respective capabilities.
Thus, while underpinning the prin-
ciple of Equity, the Convention dif-
ferentiated the levels of commitment
for the developed and the developing
countries
COP 6 The consensus was finally reached on India supported the resurrection of
(The Hague, the so-called Bonn Agreement the Kyoto Protocol in part II of the
2000) Work was also completed on a number COP
Part II of the of detailed decisions of the Bonn
sixth COP Agreements, including capacity-
(Bonn, 2000) building for developing countries and
countries with economies in transition
COP 7 Parties agreed on a package deal, with India played a major role in the
(Marrakech, key features including rules for ensur- codification of the Kyoto Protocol at
2001) ing compliance with commitments, this meeting for the implementation
consideration of removal of emissions of concrete measures to safeguard
on account of land use, land-use change the climate.
and forestry (LULUCF) Further highlighted the fact that the
Principles in reporting of such data and impacts of climate change will affect
limited banking of units generated by the developing countries more
sinks under the Clean Development adversely than the developed coun-
Mechanism (CDM) tries and called for greater attention
The meeting also adopted the Marra- to be paid globally to targeting the
kech Ministerial Declaration as an input adaptation needs of the developing
into the World Summit on Sustainable countries
Development in Johannesburg
COP 8 The Delhi Ministerial Declaration on India emphasized the need for
(New Delhi, Climate Change and Sustainable financial resources to help develop-
2002) Development reiterated the need to ing countries to adopt to the adverse
build on the outcomes of the World impact of climate change
(continued)
1 Climate Change Science, Policies, National Perspectives in the Global Context 17

Table 1.1 (continued)

Conference of
Parties (COP) Key outcomes India’s stance
Summit India Pointed out that climate
Delegates agreed on principles for the change and sustainable development
financing of a fund to help the poorest are interlinked and it was necessary
nations cope with the adverse effects of to focus on poverty, land degrada-
climate change tion, access to water and food and
The parties approved a mechanism to human health to effectively address
incorporate forest protection into the climate change concerns
effects of the international community As always, India remained firm in its
to combat climate change rejection of emission commitment
for developing countries
India fully embraced CDM
COP 9 Adopted decisions focused on the India called for the removal of
(Milan, 2003) institutions and procedures of the Kyoto obstacles – financial & Intellectual
Protocol Property Rights (IPRs), for the suc-
The formal decisions adopted by the cessful adaptation of emerging tech-
Conference intend to strengthen the nology options in energy efficiency,
institutional framework of both the fuel switching & renewable energy
Convention and the Kyoto Protocol India strongly advocated that all
New emission reporting guidelines facets of sustainable development
based on the good-practice guidance by must contribute positively to the
the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate dominant challenge of our times of
Change (IPCC) were adopted to pro- poverty alleviation
vide a sound and reliable foundation for
reporting on changes in carbon con-
centrations resulting from land-use
changes and forestry
Two funds, the Special Climate Change
Fund and the Least Developed Coun-
tries Fund were developed to support
technology transfer, adaptation projects
and other activities
COP 10 Discussed the progress made since the India stated that the immediate pri-
(Buenos Aires, first Conference of the Parties, till then ority must be to put the Kyoto
2004) over a decade, and its future challenges mechanism fully into operation at
with special emphasis on climate the soonest possible
change mitigation and adaptation Observed that transfer of
The Buenos Aires Plan of Action was environment-friendly technologies
adopted to promote developing coun- to developing countries remained a
tries’ better adapt to climate change major concern
Discussions were made on the Post- Further suggested that technologies
Kyoto mechanisms on how to allocate for mitigation of GHGs & adaption
emission reduction obligations follow- to the impact of climate change be
ing 2012 when the first commitment made freely accessible for use by
period ends developing countries
(continued)
18 K. J. Ramesh

Table 1.1 (continued)

Conference of
Parties (COP) Key outcomes India’s stance
COP 11 The COP agreed on a process for con- India played an important role in
(Montreal, sidering future action beyond 2012 drafting the decision providing fur-
2005) under the UNFCCC ther guidance relating to the CDM
The Montreal Protocol was established
to extend the life of the Kyoto Protocol
beyond its 2012 expiration date and
negotiate deeper cuts in greenhouse-gas
emissions
COP 12 A wide range of decisions was adopted India and other major developing
(Nairobi, at COP-12 designed to mitigate climate countries joined in vigorously chal-
2006) change and help countries adapt to the lenging any dialogue on taking on
impacted adverse effects binding commitments and therefore
There was agreement on the activities were blamed for halting reckonable
for the next few years under the advancement on the road to new
‘NairobiworkprogramonImpacts, agreements on international action
VulnerabilityandAdaptation’, as well as beyond 2012 when the Kyoto com-
on the management of the Adaptation mitments were planned to expire
Fund under the Kyoto Protocol
Parties welcomed the ‘Nairobi Frame
work’ which will provide additional
support to developing countries in suc-
cessfully developing projects for the
CDM
Parties in Nairobi also adopted rules of
procedure for the Kyoto Protocol’s
Compliance Committee, making it fully
operational
COP 13 This COP resulted in the Adaptation of India demanded that the rich coun-
(Bali, 2007) the Bali Action Plan tries compensate developing coun-
It calls for a shared vision for long-term tries for the afforestation drive & for
cooperative action on four key ele- avoiding deforestation, this demand
ments: Mitigation, Adaptation, Finance, was accepted by the key decision
and Technology making Contact Group of the con-
The Ad Hoc Working Group on Long- ference
term Cooperative Action under the Further, India highlighted the poor
Convention (AWG-LCA) was record of rich countries in emission
established as a new subsidiary body to cuts of GHGs, which was backed by
conduct the negotiations aimed at the UN data
urgently enhancing the implementation
of the Convention up to and beyond
2012
COP 14 Adaptation Fund was launched under India’s stand was that developed
(Poznan, 2008) the Kyoto Protocol, to be filled by a 2% countries must sharply reduce their
levy on projects under the CDM emission to release atmospheric
Parties agreed that the Adaptation Fund space for the development of poorer
Board should have the legal capacity to countries in a manner that is consis-
grant direct access to developing coun- tent with the achievements of stabi-
tries lization of GHGs concentration in
the atmosphere
(continued)
1 Climate Change Science, Policies, National Perspectives in the Global Context 19

Table 1.1 (continued)

Conference of
Parties (COP) Key outcomes India’s stance
Also saw Parties endorse an intensified On technology issue, India had
negotiating schedule for 2009 called for strategic support for the
transfer of technology that can
accelerate carbon mitigation in
developing countries and compen-
sation for all additional costs related
to the accelerated transfer of tech-
nology to promote mitigation &
adaptation
COP 15 It produced the Copenhagen Accord The Environment Minister of India
(Copenhagen, which was supported by a majority of stated at the Conference that India’s
2009) countries entire approach is anchored in the
A number of developing countries sanctity of the troika; the UNFCCC,
agreed to communicate their efforts to the Kyoto Protocol and the Bali
limit GHG emissions every 2 years Action Plan. India believes that the
On long-term finance, developed coun- well-known and widely accepted
tries agreed to support a goal of mobi- principles of common but differen-
lizing US$100 billion a year by 2020 to tiated responsibilities (CBDR) and
address the needs of developing historical responsibilities are
countries sacrosanct
COP 16 Produced the Cancun Agreements India along with South Africa and
(Cancun, Parties agreed to: commit to a maxi- other Like-minded countries sub-
2010) mum temperature rise of 2 °C above mitted a proposal calling for Annex I
pre-industrial levels; make a fully parties to agree to at least a 40%
operational technology mechanism by emission reduction commitment by
2012 to boost the development and 2020 as compared to 1990 levels
spread of new climate-friendly technol- Further advocated for the strength-
ogies; establish a Green Climate Fund ening of clean development mecha-
Also agreed on a new Cancun Adapta nism (CDM)
tion Framework, which included setting
up an Adaptation Committee to pro-
mote strong, cohesive action on
adaptation
COP 17 At COP 17, Parties decided to adopt a India proposed three agenda items
(Durban, universal climate agreement by 2015, for consideration by COP. These
2011) with work beginning under a new group were issues of equity, unilateral
called the Ad Hoc Working Group on actions & technology related IPRs
the Durban Platform for Enhanced Played a key role in establishing the
Action (ADP) second commitment period under
Parties also agreed to a second com- the Kyoto Protocol
mitment period of the Kyoto Protocol As it was also decided to begin a
from 1 January 2013. A significantly process for developing legal
advanced framework for the reporting arrangements for enhancing the
of emission reductions for both devel- actions of all parties under the Con-
oped and developing countries was also vention. India ensured that the new
agreed upon, taking into consideration arrangements, which have to be
the principle of common but differenti- decided by 2015 and implemented
ated responsibilities from 2020 are established under the
(continued)
20 K. J. Ramesh

Table 1.1 (continued)

Conference of
Parties (COP) Key outcomes India’s stance
Convention
India highlighted the issues of equity
and CBDR in the climate change
negotiations
With the support of India, the Green
Climate Fund was also established
COP 18 Parties set out a timetable to adopt a India pursued the strategy of work-
(Doha, 2012) universal climate agreement by 2015, to ing together with the Group of 77 &
come into effect in 2020 China to protect the overall interest
Parties also completed the work under of developing countries
the Bali Action Plan to concentrate on Also raised the issue of equity in
new work towards a 2015 agreement climate change related action &
under a single negotiating stream, the commitments, technology-related,
ADP IPRs & unilateral measures taken by
Emphasized the need to increase their some countries in the name of cli-
ambition to cut greenhouse gases and to mate change
help vulnerable countries to adapt Further succeeded in having these
Also saw the launch of a second issues included in the ongoing work
commitment period under the Kyoto of various bodies of the Convention
Protocol, from 1 January 2013 to
31 December 2020, with the adoption
of the Doha Amendment to the Kyoto
Protocol
COP 19 Governments advanced the timeline for India called for CBDR.
(Warsaw, the development of the 2015 agreement India, countered by pointing out that
2013) It was decided to either begin or inten- emission reduction efforts in the
sify domestic preparations for their agricultural sector would affect
Intended Nationally Determined Con- farmers who constitute a large per-
tributions (INDC) towards the agree- centage of the population, and are
ment so that they are ready well before often the poorest, in the developing
December 2015 and ideally by the first world
quarter of 2015. This is an important Also argued that the effort to reduce
part of the timeline of the negotiations emissions should be the focus on
It was also decided that nationally fossil-fuel-based activities that spew
determined contributions would be put out carbon dioxide, the greatest
forward clearly and transparently. contributor to global warming by far
Developed country governments were Indian intervention supported by
urged to provide support to developing many other countries ensured that
countries for this important domestic the talks remained focused on adap-
process tation and only a report on this spe-
Developed countries were keen on cific matter is produced for the
ensuring that climate negotiations focus countries to discuss in future
on reducing emissions in the agricul-
tural sector
(continued)
1 Climate Change Science, Policies, National Perspectives in the Global Context 21

Table 1.1 (continued)

Conference of
Parties (COP) Key outcomes India’s stance
COP 20 For the first time, an agreement was India’s stand was guided by the
(Lima 2014) reached in which all countries will principle of Equity and CBDR,
specify their objectives, and they will which is the bedrock principle of the
submit their CO2 emissions information UNFCCC
by March 2015 (INDC) Regarding submission of INDCs,
The first Multilateral Assessment was India was of the view that the INDCs
held in Lima, providing greater trans- would be mitigation centric and that
parency for actions by developed after countries submit their INDCs,
countries, as they can compare their these would be aggregated to ascer-
degree of compliance with the emission tain whether the total contributions
reduction goals are adequate to achieve the global
The Lima Conference agreed that the goal of containing temperature rise
contribution of countries has to be more to below 2 °C by the end of the
than their current commitments century from pre- industrial levels.
Any gap between the two could
mean pressure on countries to
re-submit their INDCs or enhance
their contributions
However, India and many other
countries of the developing world
were not in favour of such an exter-
nally imposed review as it would
compromise the sovereignty of
Parties in determining their targets as
per their national circumstances.
COP 21 The COP agreed to a set of decisions India was able to secure its interest
(Paris, 2015) with immediate effect to accelerate cli- and that of developing countries in
mate action and to prepare for the the Paris Agreement
implementation of the Paris Agreement The Purpose of the Agreement notes
once it enters into force that the Agreement is to enhance the
Reaffirmed the goal of limiting global implementation of the Convention.
temperature increase well below 2 °C, This was a key demand of India so
while urging efforts to limit the increase that the Agreement remains under
to 1.5 °C the Convention and does not create a
Established binding commitments by completely new regime
all parties to make ‘nationally deter- India called for climate justice (a fair
mined contributions’ (NDCs), and to share of the carbon budget); its
pursue domestic measures aimed at attempt to accommodate ‘differenti-
achieving them ation’ in the agreed outcome and its
Reaffirmed the binding obligation of reluctance to give in on its coal pro-
developed countries under the duction goals had already created an
UNFCCC to support the efforts of atmosphere of disbelief in terms of
developing countries, while for the first attaining a strong legally binding
time encouraging voluntary contribu- agreement
tion by developing countries too
The Agreement also explicitly recog-
nizes that the principles of equity and
CBDR and respective capabilities, in
the light of different national circum-
stances will be respected
(continued)
22 K. J. Ramesh

Table 1.1 (continued)

Conference of
Parties (COP) Key outcomes India’s stance
COP-22 Parties adopted 35 decisions, several India stressed that the Convention,
(Marrakech, related to the Paris Agreement work with its principles of equity and
2016) programme, including that such work common but differentiated responsi-
should conclude by 2018; that the bilities, continues to be the political
Adaptation Fund should serve the Paris and legal basis for parties to enhance
Agreement; the terms of reference for climate action and international
the Paris Committee on Capacity- cooperation in the post-2020 period
building; and initiating a process to India underscored the need to iden-
identify the information to be provided tify sources within and outside the
in accordance with Agreement Article UNFCCC and called for reviewing
9.5 (biennial finance communications the ToR of the ‘financial bodies.’
by developed countries). COP 22 also The allocation of financial resources
adopted decisions, including approving should be based on criteria of justice
the five-year work plan of the WIM for and fairness
Loss and Damage, enhancing the India, on behalf of many developing
Technology Mechanism, and continu- countries and coalitions, stressed
ing and enhancing the Lima work that mechanisms developed under
programme on gender International Civil Aviation Organi-
zation (ICAO) and International
Maritime Organization (IMO)
should align with the principles of
the Convention and COP decisions
COP-23 COP-23 decided that the Adaptation India along with Brazil, South Africa
(Fiji/Bonn) Fund shall serve the Paris Agreement; and China, expressed concern about
assess the technical examination pro- developed countries unilaterally
cess on mitigation and adaptation; take creating new criteria for funding
work forward on long-term finance; and under the GCF, stressing that this
conclude reviews of the Standing practice has no legal basis
Committee on Finance, the Adaptation
Fund, capacity building in countries
with economies in transition, and
developing countries; and give guid-
ance to the Executive Committee of the
Warsaw International Mechanism for
Loss and Damage associated with Cli-
mate Change Impacts
COP-24 This meeting focused on completing India underscored that the PAWP
(Katowice, work on the Paris Agreement Work should support enhanced ambition
2018) Programme (PAWP), a set of decisions without ‘back-sliding’ on rules.
meant to operationalize the Paris Also, emphasized that public finance
Agreement. To this end, parties adopted is ‘at the heart’ of climate action in
the Katowice Climate Package, which developing countries
includes decisions on nearly all of the
issues mandated as part of the PAWP,
including:
(continued)
1 Climate Change Science, Policies, National Perspectives in the Global Context 23

Table 1.1 (continued)

Conference of
Parties (COP) Key outcomes India’s stance
on mitigation: further guidance to
nationally determined contributions
(NDCs), common time frames, and
modalities, work programmes, and
functions under the Paris Agreement of
the forum on the impact of the imple-
mentation of response measures;
on adaptation: further guidance on
adaptation communication;
on finance: identification of the
information to be provided by parties by
Agreement Article 9.5 (ex-ante finance
transparency), matters relating to the
Adaptation Fund, and setting a new
collective quantified goal on finance;
on technology: scope of and modali-
ties for the periodic assessment of the
Technology Mechanism, and the tech-
nology framework
the modalities, procedures, and
guidelines for the transparency frame-
work for action and support;
the global stocktake; and
modalities and procedures for the
effective operation of the committee to
facilitate implementation and promote
compliance
COP-25 The COP had relatively modest ambi- India called for developed countries
(Madrid, 2019) tions in the continuum of the UNFCCC to honour existing financial com-
process: its main task was to finalize the mitments, scale up financial support,
Paris rulebook in anticipation of 2020 and increase the predictability of
when the Paris Agreement comes into support
effect. At the same time, the conference
was a time to reflect on progress made,
and assess if there are the necessary
mechanisms for all countries to enter
into the post-2020 period. Despite some
advances, its outcomes were met with
largely negative reactions, with UN
Secretary-General António Guterres
himself declaring that ‘the international
community lost an important opportu-
nity...to tackle the climate crisis.’
COP-26 The Glasgow Climate Change Confer- India announced five new targets:
(Glasgow, ence convened after a year-long post- (i) increasing non-fossil fuel
2021) ponement due to the global COVID-19 energy capacity to 500 Giga Watts
pandemic. Parties adopted the Glasgow by 2030;
Climate Pact: a series of three over- (ii) fulfilling 50% of energy
arching cover decisions that provide an requirements from renewable
overall political narrative of the sources by 2030;
(continued)
24 K. J. Ramesh

Table 1.1 (continued)

Conference of
Parties (COP) Key outcomes India’s stance
Conference of the Parties (COP). For (iii) reducing one billion metric
the first time in the UNFCCC process, tons of carbon emissions between
there is a reference to phasing down now and 2030;
unabated coal power and phasing out (iv) reducing carbon intensity by
inefficient fossil fuel subsidies. Some of 45% by 2030; and
the substantive aspects of the decisions (v) Achieving net zero emissions
include calls for: by 2070.
developed countries to double their Citing the need to match finance
adaptation finance from 2019 levels, by with increasing ambition, India
2025; and urged developed countries to pro-
parties that have not yet communi- vide USD 1 trillion of climate
cated new or updated nationally deter- finance as soon as possible and pro-
mined contributions (NDCs) to do so posed to set up a tracking system of
before the next COP. climate finance to put pressure on
The Pact also establishes: countries that have not lived up to
an annual high-level ministerial their financial commitments
roundtable on pre-2030 ambition;
the Glasgow Dialogue between
parties on loss and damage, to convene
from 2022 to 2024; and
an annual dialogue to strengthen
ocean-based action.

Analysing Post-COP 26 Possibilities of Limiting the Global

Warming Below 2.0 °C by 2100

Prior to the COP-26, 154 Parties have formally placed 2030 mitigation goals in their
nationally determined contributions and 76 of them have even placed longer-term
pledges. Analysis of the pledges before COP26 suggests a less than 50% possibility
of limiting global warming below 2 °C by 2100. A new perspective (Meinshausen
et al. 2022) is presented on the possibilities of limiting global warming below 2 °C
by 2100 provided all conditional and unconditional pledges are implemented fully.
Peak warming could be limited to 1.9–2.0 °C (5–95% range 1.4–2.8 °C) in the
full implementation case – building on a probabilistic characterization of Earth
system uncertainties in line with the Working Group I Contribution to the Sixth
Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)
(IPCC 2021). By retrospective projection of twenty-first-century warming, it has
become clear that the aggregate level of ambition changed from 2015 to 2021.
Further, the perspective relied on the extrapolation of time-limited targets beyond
2030 or 2050, characteristics of the IPCC 1.5 °C Special Report (SR1.5) (IPCC
2018) scenario database and the full implementation of pledges.
1 Climate Change Science, Policies, National Perspectives in the Global Context 25

Further independent emissions modelling framework suggests that peak warming

of 1.8 °C, supporting the finding that realized pledges could limit warming to just
below 2 °C. However, limiting warming not only to ‘just below’ but to ‘well below’
2 °C or 1.5 °C calls for immediate climate actions/policies to bring about steep
emission reductions during the current decade and fully getting aligned with global
net-zero CO2 emission targets.

References

Chandra M (2015) Environmental concerns in India: problems and solutions. J Int Bus Law 15(1):
Article 1. Available at: http://scholarlycommons.law.hofstra.edu/jibl/vol15/iss1/1
Blog, Carbon Footprint, Energy, News, Sustainability-The Kyoto Protocol: Climate Change Suc-
cess or Global Warming Failure? February 4, 2015 by Circular Ecology
IPCC-Special-Report-on-Global Warming of 1.5 °C (2018)
IPCC AR6 Working Group I Report (2021)
Kyoto’s Second Phase Emission Reductions Achievable-But Greater Ambition Needed, UNFCCC
(17 June, 2020)
Meinshausen M, Lewis J, McGlade C, Gütschow J, Nicholls Z, Burdon R, Cozzi L, Hackmann B
(2022) Realization of Paris Agreement pledges may limit warming just below 2°C. Nature
604(7905):304–309. Available at: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/359936322_Reali
zation_of_Paris_Agreement_pledges_may_limit_warming_just_below_2_C?msclkid=
6b9d9568c2ba11ecafd695b675c4e4c9
Mohnish M (2016) Outcome and Indian stance in COPs, 1–21. Available at: https://www.icwa.in/
view points
Zillman J (2009) A history of climate activities. World Meteorol Org Bull 58(3):141–150.
Available at: http://public.wmo.int/en/bulletin/historyclimate-activities
Chapter 2
Climate Changes over the Indian
Subcontinent: Scenarios and Impacts

R. K. Mall, Nidhi Singh, Subhi Patel, Saumya Singh, Aman Arora,

R. Bhatla, R. S. Singh, and P. K. Srivastava

Abstract It has now been well established that the rise in global mercury has driven
climate change phenomena that have led to extreme temperature events, sea level
rise, change in the hydrological cycle, frequent droughts and floods, and cyclones
and forest fires and caused a myriad of adverse impacts on vital worldwide sectors
such as agriculture, water and health. The impact of climate change is anticipated to
be more adverse for destitute and socioeconomically deprived populations from
developing and underdeveloped nations owing to poor adaptive capacity and higher
sensitivity. The present chapter focuses on the Indian context, where it presents
shreds of evidence of the impact of climate change in the past, present and future
such as extreme events like heat waves, diurnal temperature range, shrinking of
Himalayan glaciers, shifting of rainfall patterns, increased susceptibility to floods
and droughts, and its impact on some of the important sectors. The chapter shows
clear evidence of a decline in crop production and productivity of some of the
important crops such as wheat, rice, sugarcane, maize, potato, tomato, etc. The
recent studies established an increase in morbidity and mortality associated with
extreme temperature and poor air quality associated with increased particulate matter
(PM), NOx, SOx, O3, black carbon and other ambient pollutants. In addition,
important river basins of India, such as Gomti, Gandak, Vaigai, Mahi, Varuna and
Ghaghra, have shown increased susceptibility to flooding and drought events that are
more likely to be frequent and severe in the future under different climate change
scenarios owing to changes in erratic rainfall patterns and increasing temperature.
The chapter also discusses the potential adaptation and mitigation strategies that
would help policymakers to combat climate change amid the rising susceptible
population.

R. K. Mall (*) · N. Singh · S. Patel · S. Singh · A. Arora · P. K. Srivastava

DST-Mahamana Centre of Excellence in Climate Change Research, Institute of Environment
and Sustainable Development, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, India
e-mail: [email protected]
R. Bhatla · R. S. Singh
Department of Geophysics, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, India

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 27

N. Khare (ed.), Science, Policies and Conflicts of Climate Change, Springer Climate,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-16254-1_2
28 R. K. Mall et al.

Keywords Climate change · Impact assessment · Adaptation · Mitigation · Climate

impacts

General Introduction

The unequivocal change in climate has been observed throughout the world with an
average increase in human-induced global surface temperature in 2010–2019 rela-
tive to 1850–1900 of 1.07 [0.8–1.3] °C (IPCC 2021). The increase in global mercury
has contributed to sea level rise, extreme events, and caused adverse impacts on vital
sectors such as agriculture, water and health (Mall et al. 2014; Ghosh et al. 2016;
Mall et al. 2017; Singh et al. 2018). Extreme climate events, in particular heat waves,
floods, droughts, cyclones and wildfires, have put both man-made and natural
ecosystems at risk (Mall et al. 2011; Field et al. 2014; Hari et al. 2021). With the
present trend in warming, many multimodel projections have reported that the global
mean surface temperature is likely to rise by 1.5 °C by the end of the twenty-first
century from 1850–1900 (IPCC 2014; Singh et al. 2018) which may lead to more
severe and frequent extreme events (high confidence) and may thus cause a signif-
icant global impact (Vittal et al. 2013; Field et al. 2014; Singh et al. 2021a, b, c).
India too is expected to witness a rise in global surface temperature by 0.4–2.6 °C
in the next 50 years with more intense and frequent heat waves under 4.5 and 8.5
scenarios (IPCC 2014; Sonkar et al. 2019). Researchers have already found a shift in
the spatial-temporal occurrence of heat waves (HW) in India with three new hotspots
(northwestern, central, and south-central India) and an overall increase in HW during
the past three decades (Sharma and Mujumdar 2017; Singh et al. 2021a). Besides, a
significant decrease in the diurnal temperature range (DTR) in India was observed in
the past three decades owing to an increase in minimum temperature and a decline in
solar radiation which is more prominent over north-west India, parts of Gangetic
plain, north-east and central India. This might have serious repercussions on human
health and agricultural production (Mall et al. 2021).
High-resolution climate models are often used to study climate change phenom-
ena (Bhatla et al. 2019), the performance of which is further enhanced using different
convective parameterization schemes (CPSs) and bias correction methods
(Choudhary and Dimri 2019; Jaiswal et al. 2022). In one such study, the CPSs viz.
Grell and Mix99 (Grell- > Land & Emanuel- > Ocean schemes were found to best
simulate the Indian Summer Monsoon (ISM) rainfall over the Indian subcontinent
for RegCM-4.3 (Bhatla et al. 2019). Also, Grell followed by Kuo CPS performed
best to simulate the Indian summer monsoon (ISM) surface air temperature and
EL_GO performed well in simulating extreme rainfall events. Further, Bhatla et al.
2020 using six Conformal-Cubic Atmospheric Models (CCAM) over India, found
that distribution mapping performed best to correct surface temperature. The inter-
comparison of various climate models to study climate change and associated events
is being undertaken to find the best-performing models (ensemble) to efficiently
cover the spatial variability, magnitude and heterogeneity in various climate vari-
ables (Bhatla et al. 2020a; Mall et al. 2021; Singh et al. 2021d). Climate change is
2 Climate Changes over the Indian Subcontinent: Scenarios and Impacts 29

anticipated to cause substantial alterations in morphometric parameters that may lead

to hydro-meteorological hazards such as an increase in the intensity, duration, and
severity of droughts and floods, along with a shift in the seasonal and inter-annual
precipitation patterns that put water resources and economic and human welfare at
risk (Bhatla et al. 2020b; Mishra et al. 2021; Pandey et al. 2021), particularly to
Indian agriculture that is highly governed by the southwest monsoon (Parthasarathy
et al. 1992).
Climate change, a result of global warming, has accelerated present rates of sea
level rise, inundating many low-lying coastal and inter tidal locations (Uk et al.
2007). In response to the 0.8 °C global warming, the pace of sea level rise has almost
tripled throughout the twentieth century (Galbraith et al. 2002). The North Indian
Ocean Sea level has risen significantly in recent decades due to the weakening of the
Indian summer monsoon. (Swapna et al. 2017). Another indicator of climate change
is glaciers. Based on the upward migration of the glacier, due to temperature
changes, it appears that the Himalayan glaciers in India have been steadily shrinking
since 1980 (Kumar et al. 2021). Mall et al. (2021) has shown an increase in the
diurnal temperature range (DTR) with 0.038 °C per decade over different
agroclimatic regions of India. Also, a significant increase in minimum temperature
over the Himalayan region and Gangetic plain was observed.
Climate change has severely challenged the agricultural system through climate
variability, extreme weather events, increasing water scarcity, issues related to crop
management practices and soil fertility and increased pollution levels (Aggarwal and
Mall 2002; Mall et al. 2006, 2018; Gupta et al. 2017; Sonkar et al. 2019) that have
ultimately raised uncertainties in crop yield and global food security (Burney and
Ramanathan 2014). The important staple crops such as wheat and rice have shown a
significant declining trend in India and other parts of the world which is mainly
attributed to a rise in minimum temperature and declining solar radiation (Pathak
et al. 2003; Challinor et al. 2014; Asseng et al. 2017; Sonkar et al. 2019). Other
important crops such as sugarcane, pigeon pea, and maize, have also observed the
impact of changing climate (Mishra et al. 2017; Tigchelaa et al. 2018; Sonkar et al.
2020). The impact on crop production may further be complicated due to high
concentrations of atmospheric aerosols that may influence many crop physiological
behaviours (Myhre et al. 2013; Gupta et al. 2017).
As per The Lancet Climate Commission, anthropogenic activities driven by
climate change have challenged public health in the past 50 years (Watts et al.
2017) and children may bear 88% of the disease burden, disproportionately affecting
the poorest (Zhang et al. 2007; Singh et al. 2021d) as typical childhood diseases such
as diarrhoea, pneumonia, malaria, malnutrition, are sensitive to climate. The adverse
impact of extreme temperatures like heatwaves and cold spells on human health in
terms of mortality has been studied in different parts of India such as Varanasi,
Ahmedabad and North-West India (Azhar et al. 2014; Nori-Sarma et al. 2019; Singh
et al. 2019). Most of the studies have shown that excess mortality during extreme
temperature events is mainly attributed to cardiovascular diseases (CVD), respira-
tory diseases (RD) and cerebrovascular diseases (Kilbourne 1999; Azhar et al.
2014), especially for people with pre-existing medical conditions. Driven by climate
30 R. K. Mall et al.

change, the rising temperature may further deteriorate the air quality and cause a
plethora of environmental issues, including an increase in public health issues
(Srivastava et al. 2019; Singh et al. 2020a, 2021c).
Other population characteristics such as demographics, socio-economic resil-
ience, vulnerability and physiologic acclimatization may further aggravate the
climate change impacts (Singh et al. 2021d). Therefore, it is imperative to strengthen
the institutional capacity for better mitigation and response strategies, improving
overall resilience (Mall et al. 2019).

An Outlook of Historical Climate Trends and Projected

Climate Change

The enormous increase in greenhouse gas concentrations owing to human activity,

particularly industrialization, fossil fuel burning, and land use/land cover changes is
considered to alter the climate, cause global warming and global energy imbalance
(Huang et al. 2011; Mahmood et al. 2019). Since the mid-twentieth century, human
influence on climate has been the leading driver of observed warming, with the
global average surface temperature rising by 0.85 °C between 1880 and 2012
(Stocker et al. 2018). On account of the changing climatic conditions, several studies
have been completed for the projection of climate change and ongoing research are
continuing using Representative Concentration Pathways (RCPs) where the concen-
tration of greenhouse gases (GHGs) emissions is one of the prime parameters along
with aerosols and other chemically active gases, as well as land use/land cover (Moss
et al. 2008). Different RCPs scenarios, ranging from RCP 2.6 to RCP 8.5, suggest
low (1.0 °C) to extreme temperature (3.7 °C) increase in future, which would lead to
major imbalance in climatic conditions leading to extreme weather situations. In
order to overcome the impact of such disasters, the projection of climatic conditions
& their unpredictable nature in the form of climate extremes are being studied
worldwide (Lewis and King 2017; Tien Bui et al. 2019). In recent years, the climate
models, crop simulation models, hydrological models and weather forecast models
have been developed and used extensively to study climate change and its impacts.
For example, studies have been undertaken to analyse and predict the impact of heat
waves on Europe using the EURO-Coordinated Regional Climate Downscaling
Experiments (CORDEX) project (Vautard et al. 2013), estimate future heat wave
mortality under global climate change (Peng et al. 2011), evaluate CORDEX
products to project heat waves over India (Singh et al. 2021b), and so
on. Similarly, the research focusing on the impacts such as rainfall extremes
(flood/droughts), temperature extremes (heat/cold waves), diurnal temperature
change, dust storms, etc., on a broader scale are also apprehended by utilizing
climate big data, geo big data, robust climate models such as Global Climate Models
(GCMs), Regional Climate Models (RegCM), and other physical as well as statis-
tical models (Asadieh and Krakauer 2017; DeBeer et al. 2016; Kumar et al. 2017;
2 Climate Changes over the Indian Subcontinent: Scenarios and Impacts 31

Lavers et al. 2013; Mall et al. 2021; Singh et al. 2019; Srivastava et al. 2021;
Chaubey et al. 2022). With the advent of Artificial Intelligence (AI) and Machine
Learning (ML) techniques in the modern technology era, mainly in solving the
problems related to classification, regression, and clustering for complicated data
structures henceforth providing the best solution, it has been studied in different
fields and applications of Science and Technology (Das et al. 2015; Greene et al.
2019; Riedl 2019; Thrall et al. 2018; Ullah et al. 2020; Arora et al. 2020; Dey et al.
2021a, b). The use of AI/ML in climate change simulations and impact studies has
only recently begun (Huntingford et al. 2019; Milojevic-Dupont and Creutzig 2020;
Stein 2020; Sanchez-pi et al. 2021), but it is expected that with the increased use of
high-performance computers, improved skill and good data sets, the use of simula-
tion models by professionals, policymakers and decision-makers will increase in the
coming decades for projection of climate change.

Climate Change and Extreme Events: Past Observations

and Future Projections

Globally, a wide range of natural hazards are occurring as extreme events instigated
by climatological, geophysical, and hydro-meteorological events, causing casualties,
injuries, economic loss, property and infrastructure damages, etc. (Lindell 2013). In
the Indian weather chronology, high-impact weather phenomena such as cyclonic
storms (synoptic-scale weather disturbances that last a few days), thunderstorms
(that last less than a day), and short-lived cloudbursts (that last a few hours) that can
produce intense rainfall amounts are classified as severe or extreme weather events
(Ghosh and Krishnan 2020). Natural climatic variability (including events like El
Niño) is responsible for many kinds of weather and climate extremes, and multi-
decadal climate oscillations provide the backdrop for anthropogenic climate change
(Seneviratne et al. 2012). Extreme climatic occurrences, in particular, highlight the
relevance of climate to humanity and highlight associated vulnerabilities. The
number of climate extreme events has steadily increased from 1900 to 2015
(CRED 2016; Mall et al. 2019). According to IPCC (2014) reports, the evidence
suggests that the frequency and severity of high-temperature extremes are increasing
globally, along with more frequent and severe heavy precipitation events, especially
in tropical regions. Multiple studies through future projections modelling confirm
that the number of extreme events would be increased in the coming future (Alex-
ander and Arblaster 2009; CCSP 2008; Orlowsky and Seneviratne 2012). Using
multiple RCMs, a study was steered to determine how heat waves, heavy precipita-
tion, drought, wind storms and storm surges change between the present
(1961–1990) and future (2071–2100) climates; the results show that by the end of
the twentieth century, Europe will experience more hot days, and heavy winter
precipitation will increase over north-eastern Europe (Beniston et al. 2007). Fischer
and Schär (2010) predict that the frequency of ‘heatwave days’ in the Iberian
32 R. K. Mall et al.

Peninsula and the Mediterranean will increase from an average of around two days
every summer from 1961 to 1990 to around 13 days for 2021 to 2050 (and 40 days
for 2071–2100). Similarly, Bhatla et al. (2020a, b) conducted a study to monitor the
temperature changes in India from 1901 to 2010, the temperature increased nearly
double in the 50 years since 1950, and the mean temperature from the 2000s onward
show a continuous warming pattern over the Himalayan region, northern, southwest
and central parts of India. Using data from CMIP5 GCMs and observations, a study
shows that if the global mean temperature rises above 1.5° (2.0°), 3-hourly precip-
itation maxima at 100-year return intervals are anticipated to increase by 20% (25%)
and the short-term precipitation extremes are also expected to increase more in India
(Ali and Mishra 2018). Likewise, several other studies, based on country-specific
areas of interest, focusing on the changes in precipitation patterns and their intensity
in prospects have also been quantified worldwide (Endo et al. 2017; Zarekarizi et al.
2018; Cooper 2019; Duan et al. 2019). A study looked at the temporal and geo-
graphical changes in precipitation extremes for the period 2020–2100 over 9 river
basins in China, based on the results of 18 GCMs with 3 RCPs from the CMIP5
(Xu et al. 2019). The results indicate the amount and intensity of precipitation in
high-latitude and high-elevation regions of China will increase, whereas precipita-
tion frequency will increase in southeastern and southern China. A combination of
10 statistically GCMs and 03 dynamically downscaled GCMs have been utilized to
project past and future climate projections in the Pacific Northwest USA; analysis
showed high values of extreme precipitation clustered in western & northern parts of
the Columbia River Basin for the historical period whereas the northern part is
experiencing a higher degree of change in the indices for future scenario (Zarekarizi
et al. 2018). Another study used five regional climate simulations under CORDEX-
SA to look at changes in precipitation extremes over India in the near (2020–2049)
and far (2070–2099) future under RCPs 4.5 and 8.5, and found a slight increase in
the frequency of wet precipitation extremes over central India in the near
(2020–2049) and far (2070–2099) future, as well as a consistent increase throughout
the twenty-first century (Rai et al. 2019).

Climate Change and Air Pollution: A Reciprocal

Relationship

The relationship between climate change and air quality is interchangeable, both can
impact each other. The changing climate can lead to modifications in local air
quality. For example, associated warming of the atmosphere due to climate change
has the potential to escalate ground-level ozone and related impacts (EPA 2020).
Climate change driven by global warming, on the other hand, is escalated by the
emission of air pollutants mainly greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide (CO2),
methane, nitrous oxide, water vapour and synthetic fluorinated gases (Chauhan et al.
2014). Thus, the present warming of the globe is directly attributable to
2 Climate Changes over the Indian Subcontinent: Scenarios and Impacts 33

anthropogenic activities, primarily the burning of fossil fuels such as coal, oil,
gasoline and natural gas. Though various efforts have been made to curb emissions
and use alternative sources of energy, a lot more efforts are needed to comply with
the commitments made in the Paris Climate Agreement-2015. It is suggested that to
avoid accelerating climate change, a reduction of about 40% in global carbon
emissions is required by 2030 (NRDC 2021).
Global warming is already evident in the melting of glaciers and diminishing
snow covers, warming of the oceans, and sea level rise (Singh and Singh 2012;
Mishra et al. 2014; Jyoti et al. 2019). Global sea levels are projected to rise by at least
44–74 cm by the end of the century relative to the mid-1990s, excluding the risk of
ice-sheet collapse. Sea levels along the Indian coast are not forecast to rise quite as
much as the average, increasing by 20–30 cm compared with current levels (Swapna
et al. 2020). Coastal communities also face more severe storms: cyclones in the Bay
of Bengal are projected to nearly double by 2070–2100, compared to the baseline
period of 1961–1990 (Sarthi et al. 2014). These storms will be characterized by not
only faster wind speeds but also greater storm surges due to higher sea levels.
Low-income urban households are particularly susceptible, as they often live in
dense settlements that lack basic services and infrastructure that could reduce risk:
piped water, storm water drainage, paved roads or decent housing. Many households
also live on hazardous sites such as steep slopes, floodplains and low-lying coastal
areas, where the cost of land is cheaper and/or formal development is prohibited
(Satterthwaite et al. 2020).
Aerosols influence climate in several ways by both scattering and/or absorbing
radiation through interaction with cloud microphysics and other cloud properties
(Srivastava et al. 2019). Atmospheric aerosols are not only a local issue as they can
travel across transboundary to other countries, oceans or even continents, for
example, atmospheric brown clouds (ABCs), from East Asia, spread across the
Pacific and likewise, pollution from North America spreads across the Atlantic
(Ramanathan 2007). Importantly, air pollutants are responsible for global dimming,
whereas greenhouse gases are responsible for global warming. Thus, utmost care is
required in curbing the air pollution that may unmask the solar dimming effect and
might enhance warming (Ramanathan 2007).
Atmospheric aerosols are also involved in producing brighter clouds that are
responsible for less precipitation. Among other pollutants, black carbon aerosols
play an important role in solar dimming. The ABCs might also be responsible for
reduced precipitation during the Indian summer monsoon (Ramanathan et al. 2005).
Overall, aerosol radiation and microphysical effects might be responsible for a
weakened hydrological cycle and fresh water crisis, forming a major environmental
concern of the twenty-first century (Ramanathan 2007).
The Entire Indo-Gangetic Plain (IGP) has been documented to have an excessive
burden of air pollutants with many associated sources like biomass and waste
burning, and automobile emissions that are primarily sensitive to changing climate
(Mall et al. 2018; Sonkar et al. 2019; Banerjee et al. 2021) and pollution-related
health impacts (Singh et al. 2021c). Several studies exist in this region about source
apportionment, size segregation, chemical composition and distribution of
34 R. K. Mall et al.

particulate matter (Singh et al. 2017; Vinjamuri et al. 2020). In one such study, the
vertical distribution of smoke aerosols across South Asia shows abundance over
upper IGP and a strong diurnal variation with abundance at lower heights (<4 km)
during the daytime, indicating primary contribution from the local emission sources
may have greater implications on regional climate, air quality, smoke transport and
AOD-particulate modelling (Vinjamuri et al. 2020). Murari et al. 2020 reported that
fine particulates were observed to be dominant during the post-monsoon and winter.
The molecular distributions of organics indicate both biogenic and anthropogenic
emissions over IGP, whereas both crustal resuspensions and secondary aerosols
were responsible emitters of PM > 2.1 (Singh et al. 2021c).

Climate Change and its Impact on Various Sectors: In Indian

Perspective

Climate Change-Extreme Events-Aerosols-Agriculture Nexus

Climate change poses serious concerns about the agricultural production and liveli-
hood of stakeholders causing a change in quality production and, threatening food
security (Fig. 2.2). The increasing population has urged the need to increase the
availability and affordability of food using the limited land resource. Climate has a
direct impact on agriculture as it affects crop development, quality of products and
ultimately crop yields (Mall et al. 2006). Empirical evidence shows temperature has
a negative association with crop yields while rainfall anomalies are also strongly
linked with yields (Challinor et al. 2014). However, a higher level of CO2 concen-
tration offsets the negative effect of temperature marginalizing the yield losses (Mall
et al. 2017). Weather extremes like drought and heat stress have caused global cereal
production losses of 9–10% (Lesk et al. 2016). In India, the decline in summer
monsoon rainfall in 2002–2003 led to a decline in food grain production that year
(Mall et al. 2006). The influence of other atmospheric components like increased
aerosols, cloud cover, ozone, greenhouse gas accumulation, etc., has also been
accounted for. The effect of atmospheric brown clouds is less certain on agriculture.
A study that couples a statistical rice model to an RCM has reported an increment in
crop yield due to reductions in both carbon dioxide and atmospheric brown clouds
(Auffhammer et al. 2006). Similarly, the vulnerability of wheat crops to rising
temperature and aerosols over five wheat growing zones of India was negative and
spatially inconsistent, particularly in IGP which accounts for India’s major food
production area and sustains around 60% of India’s population ; thus, making them
predominantly sensitive to climate change (Mall et al. 2018; Sonkar et al. 2019). In
future, other factors such as increased surface ozone may also lead to losses in crops
like wheat, maize and soybean (Avnery et al. 2011). Climate change’s impact on the
ground water table, quality of soil, nutrient content of the grain, soil evapotranspi-
ration, pest and disease infestation, and weeds could also lead to a loss in crop yield.
2 Climate Changes over the Indian Subcontinent: Scenarios and Impacts 35

It is projected that global warming will reduce crop production in India by

30–40% by 2080 (Cline 2007). Rice and wheat, the staple diet of the country will
witness losses in yield due to heat stress at end of the twenty-first century (Soora
et al. 2013; Ray et al. 2015; Yadav et al. 2015; Bhatt et al. 2019; Patel et al. 2022)
and production of pulse, oilseed and vegetable crops will also be affected by climate
change (Yadav et al. 2016, 2021). There will be a rise in the evapotranspiration of
rice and wheat in 2040–2061 (Tyagi et al. 2019). Maize, the third most important
cereal, is expecting losses of up to 17% in Mid Indo-Gangetic Plains while in the
southern plateau the yield will reduce by up to 35% by 2080 (Byjesh and Kumar
2010). Cash crops like sugarcane are widely affected by temperature, precipitation,
CO2 and extreme weather events (Srivastava and Rai 2012; Mall et al. 2016; Verma
et al. 2019; Pathak et al. 2019) and sugarcane production and sugar content is
projected to decrease under future climate conditions (Ray et al. 2019; Sonkar
et al. 2019).
Further, a change in the 2 °C rise in temperature and increase in precipitation can
reduce 8.4% of the total revenue for India (Kumar and Parikh 2001). Kahn et al.
(2019) predict that climate change could reduce India’s GDP by around 2.6% by
2100 even if the global temperature increase is held below 2 °C; however, this
increases up to 13.4% in a 4 °C scenario.
Studies have shown that such events can be minimized by the adoption of certain
adaptation strategies at the genetic level as well as crop management levels, such as
the development of heat-tolerant varieties, short growing season varieties, and
improved protein assimilation at elevated temperatures. In addition, crop manage-
ment practices like change in sowing dates to escape heat stress at critical crop
growth stages, climate-smart agriculture, scheduling of irrigation, and fertilizer can
help reduce the negative impacts.

Climate Change and Water Resources: The Costly Affair

With global warming, the hydrological cycle is predicted to become more intense,
potentially increasing the severity of extreme precipitation events and the risk of
flooding across all climate areas as water availability shifts from dry to wet places
(Tabari 2020). The impact of climate change on water, changes in positive, flood, or,
negative, drought, is being quantified by researchers and the assessment of the future
climate change on it is also being practised worldwide (Dai et al. 2018; Mukherjee
et al. 2018; Nagalapalli et al. 2019; Pandey and Srivastava 2019; Srivastava et al.
2020; Pandey et al. 2021; Wasko et al. 2021). Notably, the hydroclimatic predictions
over the Indian Monsoon Region are also being affected by the land cover and land-
use change and for which the study of coupled land-atmosphere interactions is
required to understand the climate change impact on hydroclimatic predictions
(Niyogi et al. 2018). Increasing variations in monsoon cycles and extreme rainfall
have also been witnessed in several places nationwide. Extreme rainfall episodes
across the whole central subcontinent increased threefold in the form of widespread
36 R. K. Mall et al.

extreme rain events over central India between 1950 and 2015 due to increasing
variability of the low-level monsoon westerlies over the Arabian Sea (Roxy et al.
2017). A study systematically assessed the hydrological response to climate change
and projected the future situation of global water resources using 03 global climate
and 08 hydrological models (Hagemann et al. 2013). The findings suggest that
accessible water resources are increasing in many locations, but in Central and
Southern Europe, the Middle East, the Mississippi River basin, southern Africa,
southern China and southeastern Australia, the available water resources are decreas-
ing. On a local level, a study used CMIP5 GCMs under two RCPs 2.6 and 8.5 to
analyse the influence of climate change on flood frequency and flood source area in
the Talar River Basin, Iran (Maghsood et al. 2019). The study found that projected
climate change will likely result in a decrease in average discharge in January,
February and March for both RCPs and an increase in September and October for
RCP 8.5, as well as an increase in maximum and minimum temperature and annual
precipitation for all months in the near future. A study analysed the change of dry
and wet circumstances between the present (1979–2003) and future climates
(2075–2099) using MRI-AGCM3.2 S with a 20-km mesh global atmospheric
model with four alternative sea surface temperature patterns and a 12-month com-
parative standardized precipitation index (SPI) (Hasegawa et al. 2016). The median
of the 12-month cSPI moves to severely dry around the Mediterranean Sea to the
Persian Gulf and to highly wet in the Tibetan Plateau, North and South India, and
around the Yellow Sea, according to one of the study’s findings. Jehanzaib et al.
(2020) show the risk of meteorological drought becoming hydrological drought
increased by 13% and 2%, respectively, under RCP 4.5 and 1.5% and 84%,
respectively, under RCP 8.5 scenarios, demonstrating the impact of climate change
from baseline period 1981–2010 for different future periods, 2011–2040,
2041–2070 and 2071–2099. Mishra et al. (2021) reported that flash droughts
predominantly occur during the summer monsoon season (June–September) and
are driven by the intra-seasonal variability of monsoon rainfall, and their occurrence
is projected to rise by about fivefold in the twenty-first century in India. Recent
studies using ML models for Karnataka state show that more than 50% of areas fall
under very high vulnerability zones (Saha et al. 2021). Important river basins of
India such as Gomti, Gandak, Vaigai, Mahi and Varuna have shown increased
susceptibility to flooding and drought events that are more likely to be frequent
and severe in the future under different climate change scenarios owing to changes in
erratic rainfall patterns and increasing temperature (Bhatt et al. 2020; Chaubey et al.
2021; Maurya et al. 2021; Dey et al. 2021a, b; Bhatt et al. 2022). A recent study has
illustrated a significant amount (12.5% and 27.35%) of flood hazard classes would
be increased under RCP 4.5 & 8.5, respectively, in Mahanadi River Basin, India
(Gusain et al. 2020).
2 Climate Changes over the Indian Subcontinent: Scenarios and Impacts 37

Climate, Air Pollution, Extreme Events and Human Health

Climate change threatens to undermine the advances of improvement in global

health and the attempts that have been made in reducing global mortality over the
past two and a half decades (Philipsborn and Chan 2018). However, the impact will
disproportionately affect the children and SES poor, thus widening the disparities in
existing social determinates of health (Philipsborn and Chan 2018; Singh et al.
2019).

Heat and Cold Wave Related Health Effects

A drastic increase in heat waves over several parts of the world like Russia in 2003
and 2010 (Han et al. 2017; Luterbacher et al. 2004), Europe in 2003, 2007 and 2010
(Åström et al. 2013), in the USA in 2006 (Knowlton et al. 2009), and India in 2010,
2013 and 2015 (Mazdiyasni et al. 2017) had driven several epidemiological research
studies to investigate the extent of association. The extreme events in terms of heat or
cold spells were reported to cause cardiovascular (CVD), cerebrovascular and
chronic respiratory diseases (RD, Hajat et al. 2014; Gosling et al. 2017). Thus, a
better understanding of the effects of extremes temperature on morbidity and
mortality is vital for India, because of its higher vulnerability and low population
resilience to climate change.

Air Pollution and Related Health Effects

Climate change is also expected to influence the concentration and distribution of air
pollutants (Akhtar and Palagiano 2018). Air pollution is already known to negatively
influence lung development and acute or chronic respiratory diseases (Rajak and
Chattopadhyay 2020). Chronic exposure to ambient ozone (O3) may exacerbate
asthma symptoms (Chakraborty et al. 2014). The burden of disease driven by climate
change would likely be relatively high among developing countries that already
suffer from a lack of adequate health infrastructure. Thus, a focused attempt on
reducing these inequities and saving lives are key priorities. Each year the combined
exposure to outdoor and indoor air pollutants kills about 3.7 million people world-
wide and South-East Asia and the Western Pacific Regions witness the highest
health burden owing to air pollution (Nyhan 2015). Particulate matter, mainly fine
particulates (PM2.5), were more frequently used to estimate the association between
health (mortality and morbidity); at global (Janssen et al. 2011; Cao et al. 2012) and
local scale (Chowdhury et al. 2018; Saini and Sharma 2020). Apart from PM2.5,
black carbon (BC) has also shown a high adverse impact that is often regarded as a
more robust estimate of heath impact (Singh et al. 2021c). Other gaseous pollutants
like NO2, SO2 and O3 can also influence health impacts (Singh et al. 2021c). Thus,
understanding the effects of air pollution-induced health risks is imperative owing to
large SES vulnerability and low population resilience to changing climate (Fig. 2.1).
38 R. K. Mall et al.

Fig. 2.1 Pictorial representation of the impact of extreme temperature and air pollution on human
health and possible solutions to combat adverse effects

Fig. 2.2 Pictorial representation of the various impacts of climate change on agriculture
2 Climate Changes over the Indian Subcontinent: Scenarios and Impacts 39

Gastrointestinal Diseases

Globally, GIT related illness is one of the leading causes of mortality and has a death
toll of 450,000 annually (UNICEF 2020). Importantly, a high percentage of deaths
occurred in children under 2 years of age. With the increase in occurrences of storms
or floods, a drastic rise in water and food-borne illnesses such as gastroenteritis and
infectious diarrhoea was observed immediately; children being the most susceptible
due to their developing immune systems. Bacteria, viruses and parasites are consid-
ered the most common causal organism for GI infections (Mohapatra et al. 1989).
Importantly, under the scenario of climate change, an additional 48,000 diarrheal
deaths are expected by 2030, among children under 15 years of age, mostly in
developing and underdeveloped nations (Philipsborn and Chan 2018).

Upper Respiratory Tract Infections

URTI is often linked with high morbidity and mortality cases. Influenza is attributed
roughly to 250,000–500,000 global deaths annually (WHO 2007). Further, the
warmer temperatures were found to have extended the length of the pollen season
and thus increased asthma exacerbation (D’Amato et al. 2002). The warmer tem-
peratures also enhance the ground level O3 production which in turn damages the
lungs and triggers asthma attacks in children and causes breathing problems in
people with pre-existing chronic lung disease (Zhang et al. 2017, 2019). However,
the current estimates of the association between URTI and climate are very limited
for India (Awasthi and Pande 1997). Therefore, future research is needed in tropical
and subtropical countries for a better understanding of the association with change in
climate through a set of observational and experimental studies that shall be further
useful to predict the future dynamics given global climate change.

Lower Respiratory Tract Infections

LRTI is considered the third foremost cause of death worldwide, including high
child mortality in India (WHO 2017). The typical humid subtropical climate in the
northern part of India presents unique pneumonia associated with mortality during
summer between June and August (Farrar et al. 2019). Mycoplasma pneumonia and
Respiratory syncytial virus are attributed as major causes of most pneumonia
infections (Kumar et al. 2018). Due to the association of LRTI with large numbers
of climate variables, the prediction of transmission and epidemics of associated
viruses is a bit challenging. Climate change can modify both the inter-host and
host characteristics. Thus, strong attempts must be made through widespread vacci-
nation and efficient preventive mechanism to combat the increase in LRTI cases in
future.
40 R. K. Mall et al.

Vector-Borne Diseases

Of total disability and related illnesses occurred worldwide, about one-sixth are due
to VBD, and currently, more than 50% of the world’s population is at risk (Lozano
et al. 2012). Much of the risk associated with VBD is typically high among the
economically and socially deprived population with poor environmental and social
conditions and improper medical interventions (Dhiman et al. 2010). VBD is the
most researched disease due to its association with changing climate and owing to its
high sensitivity to climatic factors (Campbell-Lendrum et al. 2015; Mall et al. 2017;
Singh et al. 2020b). The climate change projections for VBDs show an overall
favourable condition in future with large spatial heterogeneity (Astrom et al. 2012).
Therefore, future trends in climate can be expected to amplify the VBD burden in
association with non-climate factors.

Impacts on Other Sectors of Society – an Emerging Area

of Interest

Ramifications of climate change impact are not limited to extreme events, health and
agriculture but also include other sectors like tourism, migration, culture and gender.
Climate change has been identified as one of the macro-economic drivers of tourism.
Research done in the area of tourism climatology shows that tourism is a climate-
dependent activity and hence affected by impacts of climate change, for example,
changes in the aesthetic value of the destination, alterations in environmental
conditions, effect sports tourism and thus influence the travel decisions and economy
of the tourist spots (Scott et al. 2012; Gómez-Martín 2021). The Uttarakhand flood in
2013 and the Kerala flood in 2018 devastated tourist spots causing loss of lives and
livelihoods. A substantial scope lies in comprehensive studies based on the impact of
climate change on tourism in India specifically. Another dimension related to human
movement is migration. As migration is an option to adapt to the negative impacts of
climate change, a new term ‘Climate migrant’ has emerged which refers to people
migrating from their homes due to climate change impacts. Labours from flood-
affected, drought-affected regions migrate from their native region in search of
livelihood opportunities and income generation. It has been observed that in India
the weather extremes have increased rural–urban migration majorly among agricul-
tural labourers, while a reduction is evident in rural–rural and international migration
(Sedova and Kalkuhl 2020). The reason is that climate, agricultural yields and
migration are interlinked and there is a negative relation between agricultural yields
and out-migration of agricultural labours in India (Viswanathan 2015). This migra-
tion also leads to increased exposure to diseases and health issues like mental stress,
heat stress of migrant workers, thus having serious implications on health (Semenza
and Ebi 2019).
2 Climate Changes over the Indian Subcontinent: Scenarios and Impacts 41

Focusing on the societal structural impacts of climate change, it has been

observed that climate change is not gender-neutral and it has implications on the
culture of society also. Climate change has a profound effect on culture or commu-
nity with special emphasis on indigenous communities in which inter-dependence of
humans and the environment is deeply intricate. Climate change impacts affect the
cultural assets, the extent of adaptation, and the effectiveness of policy which needs
to be taken care of while formulating policy and adaptation strategies like migration
or shifting (Adger et al. 2012). Women in rural India are vulnerable to climate
change and also play a pivotal role in the adaptation to climate change in climate-
smart agriculture (Yadav and Lal 2018; Chanana-Nag and Aggarwal 2020). Both of
the above-discussed dimensions have a significant impact on the building up of
climate resilience. This emphasizes a comprehensive consideration of parameters
influencing the adaptations for climate change while outlining and implementing
suitable policies.

Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies

The two strategies for dealing with climate change are mitigation and adaptation.
Mitigation is a strategy for reducing greenhouse gas emissions or increasing green-
house gas sinks. Adaptation is defined as an ‘adjustment in natural or human systems
in response to present or anticipated climatic stimuli or their effects, which mitigates
harm or maximizes benefits’ (IPCC 2001). The difference between climate change
mitigation and adaptation strategies is that mitigation focuses on addressing the
causes of climate change and minimizing the potential impacts, whereas adaptation
focuses on reducing the negative effects of climate change while also taking
advantage of any opportunities that arise. As the issues related to climate change
impact increase in multiple sectors, i.e. agriculture, infrastructure, health, water, etc.
adaptation and mitigation strategies are essential to tackle unforeseen situations and
maintain sustainability. Similarly, when these strategies are adopted in agriculture to
mitigate the potential negative consequences of climate change, essential synergies
must be discovered, as mitigation practices may compete with local agricultural
practices targeted at sustaining production and income (Rosenzweig and Tubiello
2007). In comparison to the earlier studies which were focused on global climate
change, the focus has now shifted to local climate change or in other words urban
climate change. In a study, it is suggested that the use of roadside plantations can act
as the first line of defence to reduce pollution impacts against vehicular emissions
generated by the rapidly increasing number of vehicles, which harms natural eco-
systems, including trees and physical properties, and human health (Singh et al.
2020a). Because cities are prime contributors with 70% of CO2, the adaptation and
mitigation plans for urban climate change are becoming more common as cities
strive to improve climate resilience (Sharifi 2021). Owing to the increasing popula-
tion and the changing urban climate scenarios, extreme events have also increased in
the country. For example, flooding has severely affected metropolitan cities such as
42 R. K. Mall et al.

Fig. 2.3 Role of mitigation and adaptation strategies in climate change

Mumbai and Kolkata where the population has increased multifold in the past two to
three decades. Furthermore, while it is technically difficult to re-plan the city’s
structure in the current situation to combat such hazards (tsunamis, storms and
floods), it is possible to adapt to and mitigate the effects of natural hazards through
appropriate planning and management, with the integrated cooperation and partic-
ipation of citizens and government (Dhiman et al. 2019).
The flow diagram provided in Fig. 2.3 represents the best scenario for Mitigation
and Adaptation strategies.
2 Climate Changes over the Indian Subcontinent: Scenarios and Impacts 43

The Way Forward and Future Challenges

The climate change crisis in India is more than just an environmental concern and
has emerged as the biggest developmental challenge over the years. In this regard,
the government of India in 2008 launched the National Action Plan for Climate
Change (NAPCC) programme outlining eight National Missions on climate change
to mitigate and adapt to the adverse impact of climate change (CCP 2008). Under the
initiative of the National Mission on Strategic Knowledge for Climate Change
(NMSKCC) a series of initiatives have been taken, one of which was the establish-
ment of centres for excellence in climate change research studies all over India.
These initiatives will generate evidence on the past impact and future vulnerability of
various sectors to combat some of the important social and global impacts of climate
change and its devastating effects.
There are a range of options such as stabilizing and reducing GHG emissions by
two thirds by 2050, investing in efficient alternate energy sources, strict environ-
mental law and introducing new regulations for transportation and building codes,
and realization of a carbon tax. Apart from such regulatory steps, the government
institutions such as the India Meteorological Department, Ministry of Earth Science
and State Agricultural Universities/Indian Council of Agricultural Research, etc., are
actively engaged in projects such as the Gramin Krishi Mausam Sewa project
(GKMS) and FASAL (Forecasting Agricultural output using Space, Agro-
meteorology and Land-based) observations for regularly generating weather and
crop forecasts at the district/state/national level and educating and evaluating farmers
perception about climate change issue to combat the losses due to future climate
change along with developing an early warning system. Early warning systems for
health hazards and meteorological hazards are being envisioned for direct societal
development and to address the direct and indirect impacts and prevention and
control of climate risks for an environmentally unsustainable economy in India by
creating local, regional and national evidence of climate change and its impact and
key suggestions to mitigate the future challenges.

Acknowledgements The authors wish to thank the Climate Change Programme, Department of
Science and Technology, New Delhi for providing financial support (Award no.: DST/CCP/CoE/
80/2017(G)).

References

Adger WN, Barnett J, Brown K, Marshall N, Brien KO (2012) Cultural dimensions of climate
change impacts and adaptation. Nat Clim Change 3(2):112–117
Aggarwal PK, Mall RK (2002) Climate change and rice yields in diverse agro-environments of
India. II Effect of uncertainties in scenarios and crop models on impact assessment. Clim
Change 52(3):331–343
Alexander LV, Arblaster JM (2009) Assessing trends in observed and modelled climate extremes
over Australia in relation to future projections. Int J Climatol 29(3):417–435
44 R. K. Mall et al.

Ali H, Mishra V (2018) Increase in subdaily precipitation extremes in India under 1.5 and 2.0 °C
warming worlds. Geophys Res Lett 45(14):6972–6982
Akhtar R, Palagiano C (2018) Climate change and air pollution: an introduction. In: Akhtar R,
Palagiano C (eds) Climate change and air pollution. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/
978-3-319-61346-8_1
Arora A, Arabameri A, Pandey M, Siddiqui MA, Shukla UK, Bui DT, Mishra VN, Bhardwaj A
(2020) Optimization of state-of-the-art fuzzy-metaheuristic ANFIS based machine learning
models for flood susceptibility prediction mapping in the middle ganga plain, India. Sci Total
Environ 750:141565
Asadieh B, Krakauer NY (2017) Global change in streamflow extremes under climate change over
the 21st century. Hydrol Earth Syst Sci 21(11):5863–5874
Asseng S, Cammarano D, Basso B, Chung U, Alderman PD, Sonder K et al (2017) Hot spots of
wheat yield decline with rising temperatures. Glob Chang Biol 23(6):2464–2472
Åström DO, Forsberg B, Ebi KL, Rocklöv J (2013) Attributing mortality from extreme tempera-
tures to climate change in Stockholm, Sweden. Nat Clim Chang 3(12):1050–1054
Auffhammer M, Ramanathan V, Vincent JR (2006) Integrated model shows that atmospheric
brown clouds and greenhouse gases have reduced rice harvests in India. Proc Natl Acad Sci
103(52):19668–19672
Avnery S, Mauzerall DL, Liu J, Horowitz LW (2011) Global crop yield reductions due to surface
ozone exposure: 2. Year 2030 potential crop production losses and economic damage under two
scenarios of O3 pollution. Atmos Environ 45(13):2297–2309
Awasthi S, Pande VK (1997) Seasonal pattern of morbidities in preschool slum children in
Lucknow, North India. Indian Pediatr 34:987–993
Azhar GS, Mavalankar D, Nori-Sarma A, Rajiva A, Dutta P, Jaiswal A et al (2014) Heat-related
mortality in India: excess all-cause mortality associated with the 2010 Ahmedabad heat wave.
PLoS One 9(3):e91831
Banerjee T, Shitole A, Mhawish A, Anand A, Ranjan R, Khan MF, Srithawirat T, Latif MT, Mall R
(2021) Aerosol climatology over South and Southeast Asia: aerosol types, vertical profile and
source fields. J Geophys Res Atmos 126:e2020JD033554. https://doi.org/10.1029/
2020JD033554
Beniston M, Stephenson DB, Christensen OB, Ferro CAT, Frei C, Goyette S, Halsnaes K, Holt T,
Jylhä K, Koffi B, Palutikof J, Schöll R, Semmler T, Woth K (2007) Future extreme events in
European climate: an exploration of regional climate model projections. Clim Change 81
(SUPPL. 1):71–95
Bhatla R, Mandal B, Verma S, Ghosh S, Mall RK (2019) Performance of regional climate model in
simulating monsoon onset over the Indian subcontinent. Pure Appl Geophys 176(1):409–420
Bhatla R, Sarkar D, Verma S, Sinha P, Ghosh S, Mall RK (2020a) Regional climate model
performance and application of bias corrections in simulating summer monsoon maximum
temperature for agro-climatic zones in India. Theor Appl Climatol 142(3):1595–1612
Bhatla R, Verma S, Ghosh S, Gupta A (2020b) Abrupt changes in mean temperature over India
during 1901–2010. Journal of earth system science, 129(1):1–11
Bhatt D, Sonkar G, Mall RK (2019) Impact of climate variability on the rice yield in Uttar Pradesh:
an agro-climatic zone-based study. Environ Process 6(1):135–153
Bhatt D, Kundu A, Mall R, Raju KP (2020) Dynamics of vegetation response to seasonal rainfall in
the Gomati River basin (India) using earth observation data sets. J Sci Res 64(01):20–31
Bhatt D, Mall RK, Raju KP, Suryavanshi S (2022) Multivariate drought analysis for the temperature
homogeneous regions of India: lessons from the Gomati River basin. Meteorological applica-
tions. RMetS 29(2):e2044. https://doi.org/10.1002/met.2044
Burney J, Ramanathan V (2014) Recent climate and air pollution impacts on Indian agriculture.
Proc Natl Acad Sci 111(46):16319–16324
Byjesh K, Kumar SN, Aggarwal PK (2010) Simulating impacts, potential adaptation and vulner-
ability of maize to climate change in India. Mitig Adapt Strat Glob Chang 15(5):413–431
2 Climate Changes over the Indian Subcontinent: Scenarios and Impacts 45

Campbell-Lendrum D, Manga L, Bagayoko M, Sommerfeld J (2015) Climate change and vector-

borne diseases: what are the implications for public health research and policy. Philos Trans R
Soc Lond B Biol Sci 370(1665):20130552. https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2013.0552
Cao J, Xu H, Xu Q, Chen B, Kan H (2012) Fine particulate matter constituents and cardiopulmo-
nary mortality in a heavily polluted Chinese city. Environ Health Perspect 120(3):373–378
CCSP (2008) Weather and climate extremes in a changing climate. Regions of focus: North
America, Hawaii, Caribbean, and US Pacific islands. A report by the US climate change science
program and the subcommittee on global change research, 164
Chakraborty P, Chakraborty A, Ghosh D, Mandal J, Biswas S, Mukhopadhyay UK, Bhattacharya
SG (2014) Effect of airborne Alternaria conidia, ozone exposure, PM 10 and weather on
emergency visits for asthma in school-age children in Kolkata city, India. Aerobiologia 30(2):
137–148
Challinor AJ, Watson J, Lobell DB, Howden SM, Smith DR, Chhetri N (2014) A meta-analysis of
crop yield under climate change and adaptation. Nat Clim Chang 4(4):287–291
Chanana-Nag N, Aggarwal PK (2020) Women in agriculture, and climate risks: hotspots for
development. Clim Change 158(1):13–27
Chaubey PK, Srivastava PK, Gupta A, Mall RK (2021) Integrated assessment of extreme events and
hydrological responses of indo-Nepal Gandak River basin. Environ Dev Sustain 23:8643–8668
Chaubey PK, Mall RK, Jaiswal R, Payra S (2022) Spatio-temporal changes in extreme rainfall
events over different Indian river basins. Earth and space science. AGU 9:e2021EA001930.
https://doi.org/10.1029/2021EA001930
Chauhan BS, Mahajan G, Randhawa RK, Singh H, Kang MS (2014) Global warming and its
possible impact on agriculture in India. Adv Agron 123:65–121
Choudhary A, Dimri AP (2019) On bias correction of summer monsoon precipitation over India
from CORDEX? SA simulations. Int J Climatol 39(3):1388–1403
Chowdhury S, Dey S, Smith KR (2018) Ambient PM 2.5 exposure and expected premature
mortality to 2100 in India under climate change scenarios. Nat Commun 9(1):1–10
Cline WR (2007) Global warming and agriculture: impact estimates by country. Peterson Institute
Cooper RT (2019) Projection of future precipitation extremes across the Bangkok metropolitan
region. Heliyon 5(5):e01678
CRED (2016) EM-DAT | the international disasters database website. In: Centre for Research on the
epidemiology of disasters (CRED). Université Catholique de Louvain. https://www.emdat.be/
D’amato G (2002) Outdoor air pollution, climate and allergic respiratory diseases: evidence of a
link. Clin Exp Allergy 32(10):1391–1393
Dai A, Zhao T, Chen J (2018) Climate change and drought: a precipitation and evaporation
perspective. Curr Clim Change Report 4(3):301–312
Das S, Dey A, Pal A, Roy N (2015) Applications of artificial intelligence in machine learning:
review and Prospect. Int J Comput Applic 115(9):31–41
DeBeer CM, Wheater HS, Carey SK, Chun KP (2016) Recent climatic, cryospheric, and hydro-
logical changes over the interior of western Canada: a review and synthesis. Hydrol Earth Syst
Sci 20(4):1573–1598
Dey S, Shukla UK, Mehrishi P, Mall RK (2021a) Appraisal of groundwater potentiality of
multilayer alluvial aquifers of the Varuna river basin, India, using two concurrent methods of
MCDM. Environ Dev Sustain 23:17558–17589
Dey S, Dey AK, Mall RK (2021b) Modeling long-term groundwater levels by exploring deep
bidirectional long short-term memory using hydro-climatic data. Water Resour Manag 2021.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s11269-021-02899-z
Dhiman RC, Pahwa S, Dhillon GPS, Dash AP (2010) Climate change and the threat of vector-borne
diseases in India: are we prepared? Parasitol Res 106(4):763–773
Dhiman R, Vishnu Radhan R, Eldho TI, Inamdar A (2019) Flood risk and adaptation in Indian
coastal cities: recent scenarios. Appl Water Sci 9(1):1–16
Duan W, Hanasaki N, Shiogama H, Chen Y, Zou S, Nover D, Zhou B, Wang Y (2019) Evaluation
and future projection of Chinese precipitation extremes using large ensemble high-resolution
climate simulations. J Climate 32(8):2169–2183
46 R. K. Mall et al.

Endo H, Kitoh A, Mizuta R, Ishii M (2017) Future changes in precipitation extremes in East Asia
and their uncertainty based on large ensemble simulations with a high-resolution AGCM.
SOLAIAT 13:7–12
EPA (2020) Air Quality and Climate Change Research. Accessed from: https://www.epa.gov/air-
research/air-quality-and-climate-change-research on 6th Aug 2021
Farrar DS, Awasthi S, Fadel SA, Kumar R, Sinha A, Fu SH, Wahl B, Morris SK, Jha P (2019)
Seasonal variation and etiologic inferences of childhood pneumonia and diarrhea mortality in
India. eLife 8:e46202. https://doi.org/10.7554/eLife.46202
Field CB, Levy AN, Mach KJ (2014) Climate change 2014: impacts. Adapt Vulnerabil 107:301–
316
Fischer EM, Schär C (2010) Consistent geographical patterns of changes in high-impact European
heatwaves. Nat Geosci 3(6):398–403
Galbraith H, Jones R, Park R, Clough J, Herrod-Julius S, Harrington B, Page G (2002) Global
climate change and sea level rise: potential losses of intertidal habitat for shorebirds. Waterbirds
25(2):173–183
Ghosh S, Krishnan R (2020) Extreme storms. Assessment of climate change over the Indian region:
a report of the Ministry of Earth Sciences (MoES), Government of India, 155
Ghosh S, Vittal H, Sharma T, Karmakar S, Kasiviswanathan KS, Dhanesh Y, Sudheer KP, Gunthe
SS (2016) Indian summer monsoon rainfall: implications of contrasting trends in the spatial
variability of means and extremes. PLoS One 11(7):e0158670
Gómez-Martín MB (2021) Tourism climatology: past, present, and future. Atmos 12(5):639–643
Gosling SN, Hondula DM, Bunker A, Ibarreta D, Liu J, Zhang X, Sauerborn R (2017) Adaptation to
climate change: a comparative analysis of modeling methods for heat-related mortality. Environ
Health Perspect 125(8):087008
Greene D, Hoffmann AL, Stark L (2019) Better, nicer, clearer, fairer: a critical assessment of the
movement for ethical artificial intelligence and machine learning. Proceedings of the 52nd
Hawaii international conference on system sciences
Gupta R, Somanathan E, Dey S (2017) Global warming and local air pollution have reduced wheat
yields in India. Clim Change 140(3–4):593–604
Gusain A, Mohanty MP, Ghosh S, Chatterjee C, Karmakar S (2020) Capturing transformation of
flood hazard over a large River Basin under changing climate using a top-down approach. Sci
Total Environ 726:138600
Hagemann S, Chen C, Clark DB, Folwell S, Gosling SN, Haddeland I, Hanasaki N, Heinke J,
Ludwig F, Voss F, Wiltshire AJ (2013) Climate change impact on available water resources
obtained using multiple global climate and hydrology models. Earth Syst Dynam 4(1):129–144
Hajat S, Vardoulakis S, Heaviside C, Eggen B (2014) Climate change effects on human health:
projections of temperature-related mortality for the UK during the 2020s, 2050s and 2080s. J
Epidemiol Community Health 68(7):641–648
Han J, Liu S, Zhang J, Zhou L, Fang Q, Zhang J, Zhang Y (2017) The impact of temperature
extremes on mortality: a time-series study in Jinan, China. BMJ Open 7(4):e014741
Hari V, Dharmasthala S, Koppa A, Karmakar S, Kumar R (2021) Climate hazards are threatening
vulnerable migrants in Indian megacities. Nat Clim Chang:1–3
Hasegawa A, Gusyev M, Iwami Y (2016) Meteorological drought and flood assessment using the
comparative SPI approach in Asia under climate change. J Disaster Res 11(6):1082–1090
Huang J, Zhang J, Zhang Z, Xu C, Wang B, Yao J (2011) Estimation of future precipitation change
in the Yangtze River basin by using statistical downscaling method. Stoch Env Res Risk A
25(6):781–792
Huntingford C, Jeffers ES, Bonsall MB, Christensen HM, Lees T, Yang H (2019) Machine learning
and artificial intelligence to aid climate change research and preparedness. Environ Res Lett
14(12)
IPCC (2001) Climate change 2001. Synthesis report (n.d.)
IPCC (2014) Working group II, fifth assessment report of the intergovernmental panel on climate
change, summary for policymakers. Climate change 2014: impacts, adaptation, and vulnerabil-
ity. Part a: global and sectoral aspects. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge/New York
2 Climate Changes over the Indian Subcontinent: Scenarios and Impacts 47

IPCC (2021) In: Masson-Delmotte V, Zhai P, Pirani A, Connors SL, Péan C, Berger S, Caud N,
Chen Y, Goldfarb L, Gomis MI, Huang M, Leitzell K, Lonnoy E, Matthews JBR, Maycock TK,
Waterfield T, Yelekçi O, Yu R, Zhou B (eds) Climate change 2021: the physical science basis.
Contribution of working group I to the sixth assessment report of the intergovernmental panel on
climate change. Cambridge University Press
Jaiswal R, Mall RK, Singh N, Kumar TVL, Niyogi D (2022) Evaluation of Bias correction methods
for regional climate models: Downscaled Rainfall analysis over diverse agro-climatic zones of
India. Earth Space Sci:e2021EA001981. https://doi.org/10.1029/2021EA001981
Janssen NA, Hoek G, Simic-Lawson M, Fischer P, Van Bree L, Ten Brink H et al (2011) Black
carbon is an additional indicator of the adverse health effects of airborne particles compared
with PM10 and PM2. 5. Environ Health Perspect 119(12):1691–1699
Jehanzaib M, Sattar MN, Lee JH, Kim TW (2020) Investigating the effect of climate change on
drought propagation from meteorological to hydrological drought using multi-model ensemble
projections. Stoch Env Res Risk A 34(1):7–21
Jyoti J, Swapna P, Krishnan R, Naidu CV (2019) Pacific modulation of accelerated South Indian
Ocean Sea-level rise during the early 21st century. Climate Dynam 53(7):4413–4432
Kahn ME, Mohaddes K, Ng RNC, Pesaran MH, Raissi M, Yang J-C (2019) Long-term macroeco-
nomic effects of climate change: a cross-country analysis, Cambridge working papers in
economics 1965, Faculty of Economics. University of Cambridge
Kilbourne EM (1999) The spectrum of illness during heat waves. Am J Prev Med 16(4):359–360
Knowlton K, Rotkin-Ellman M, King G, Margolis HG, Smith D, Solomon G, Trent R, English P
(2009) The 2006 California heat wave: impacts on hospitalizations and emergency department
visits. Environ Health Perspect 117(1):61–67. https://doi.org/10.1289/ehp.11594
Kumar KK, Parikh J (2001) Indian agriculture and climate sensitivity. Glob Environ Chang 11(2):
147–154
Kumar M, Raju MP, Singh RS, Banerjee T (2017) Impact of drought and normal monsoon
scenarios on aerosol induced radiative forcing and atmospheric heating in Varanasi over middle
indo-Gangetic plain. J Aerosol Sci 113:95–107
Kumar KJ, Chowdary KA, Usha HC, Kulkarni M, Manjunath VG (2018) Etiology of community-
acquired pneumonia among children in India with special reference to atypical pathogens. Lung
India: Official Organ of Indian Chest Society 35(2):116
Kumar V, Shukla T, Mehta M, Dobhal DP, Singh Bisht MP, Nautiyal S (2021) Glacier changes and
associated climate drivers for the last three decades, Nanda Devi region, central Himalaya, India.
Quat Int 575-576(May):213–226
Lavers DA, Allan RP, Villarini G, Lloyd-Hughes B, Brayshaw DJ, Wade AJ (2013) Future changes
in atmospheric rivers and their implications for winter flooding in Britain. Environ Res Lett 8(3)
Lesk C, Rowhani P, Ramankutty N (2016) Influence of extreme weather disasters on global crop
production. Nature 529(7584):84–87
Lewis SC, King AD (2017) Evolution of mean, variance and extremes in 21st-century temperatures.
Weather Clim Extremes 15:1–10
Lozano R, Naghavi M, Foreman K, Lim S, Shibuya K, Aboyans V, Abraham J et al (2012)
Global and regional mortality from 235 causes of death for 20 age groups in 1990 and
2010: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2010. Lancet
380(9859):2095–2128. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(12)61728-0
Lindell MK (2013) Disaster studies. Curr Sociol 61(5–6):797–825
Luterbacher J, Dietrich D, Xoplaki E, Grosjean M, Wanner H (2004) European seasonal and annual
temperature variability, trends, and extremes since 1500. Science 303(5663):1499–1503
Maghsood FF, Moradi H, Massah Bavani AR, Panahi M, Berndtsson R, Hashemi H (2019) Climate
change impact on flood frequency and source area in northern Iran under CMIP5 scenarios.
Water 11(2):273
Mahmood R, Jia S, Zhu W (2019) Analysis of climate variability, trends, and prediction in the most
active parts of the Lake Chad Basin, Africa. Sci Rep 9(1):6317
Mall RK, Singh R, Gupta A, Srinivasan G, Rathore LS (2006) Impact of climate change on Indian
agriculture: a review. Clim Change 78(2–4):445–478
48 R. K. Mall et al.

Mall RK, Kumar R, Bhatla R (2011) Climate change and disaster in India. J South Asian Disaster
Stud 4(1):27–76
Mall RK, Bhatt D, Sonkar G, Banerjee T (2014) Simulation modeling and climate change: issues
and challenges. Environ Sci Pollut Res 21(19):11605–11608
Mall RK, Sonkar G, Bhatt D, Baxla AK, Singh KK (2016) Managing impact of extreme weather
events in sugarcane in different agro climatic zones of Uttar Pradesh. Mausam 67(1):233–250
Mall RK, Gupta A, Sonkar G (2017) Effect of climate change on agricultural crops. In: Current
developments in biotechnology and bioengineering. Elsevier, pp 23–46
Mall RK, Singh N, Singh KK, Sonkar G, Gupta A (2018) Evaluating the performance of RegCM4.
0 climate model for climate change impact assessment on wheat and rice crop in diverse agro-
climatic zones of Uttar Pradesh. India Clim change 149(3):503–515
Mall RK, Srivastava RK, Banerjee T, Mishra OP, Bhatt D, Sonkar G (2019) Disaster risk reduction
including climate change adaptation over South Asia: challenges and ways forward. Int J
Disaster Risk Sci 10(1):14–27
Mall RK, Chaturvedi M, Singh N, Bhatla R, Singh RS, Gupta A, Niyogi D (2021) Evidence of
asymmetric change in diurnal temperature range in recent decades over different agro? Climatic
zones of India. Int J Climatol 41(4):2597–2610
Maurya S, Srivastava PK, Yaduvanshi A, Anand A, Petropoulos GP, Zhuo L, Mall RK (2021) Soil
erosion in future scenario using CMIP5 models and earth observation datasets. J Hydrol 594:
125851
Mazdiyasni O, Agha Kouchak A, Davis SJ, Madadgar S, Mehran A, Ragno E et al (2017)
Increasing probability of mortality during Indian heatwaves. Sci Adv 3(6):e1700066
Milojevic-Dupont N, Creutzig F (2020) Machine learning for geographically differentiated climate
change mitigation in urban areas. Sustain Cities Soc:102526
Mishra B, Babel MS, Tripathi NK (2014) Analysis of climatic variability and snow cover in the
Kaligandaki River basin, Himalaya, Nepal. Theor Appl Climatol 116(3):681–694
Mishra S, Singh R, Kumar R, Kalia A, Panigrahy SR (2017) Impact of climate change on pigeon
pea. Econ Aff 62(3):455–457
Mishra V, Aadhar S, Mahto SS (2021) Anthropogenic warming and intraseasonal summer monsoon
variability amplify the risk of future flash droughts in India. Npj Clim Atmos Sci 4(1):1
Mohapatra SC, Mohapatra P, Singh IJ, Gaur SD (1989) Epidemiology of gastro-intestinal and
respiratory tract diseases in rural areas of Varanasi (India). Eur J Epidemiol 5(1):117–122.
https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00145058
Moss R, Babiker M, Brinkman S, Calvo E, Carter T, Edmonds J, Elgizouli I, Emori S, Erda L,
Hibbard K, Jones R, Kainuma M, Kelleher J, Lamarque JF, Manning M, Matthews B, Meehl J,
Meyer L, Mitchell J et al (2008) Towards new scenarios for analysis of emissions, climate
change, impacts, and response strategies?: IPCC expert meeting report?: 19–21 September
2007, Noordwijkerhout, the Netherlands. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Geneva
Mukherjee S, Mishra A, Trenberth KE (2018) Climate change and drought: a perspective on
drought indices. Curr Clim Change Report 4(2):145–163
Murari V, Singh N, Ranjan R, Singh RS, Banerjee T (2020) Source apportionment and health risk
assessment of airborne particulates over central Indo-Gangetic Plain. Chemosphere 257. https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2020.127145
Myhre G, Samset BH, Schulz M, Balkanski Y, Bauer S, Berntsen TK et al (2013) Radiative forcing
of the direct aerosol effect from AeroCom phase II simulations. Atmos Chem Phys 13(4):
1853–1877
Nagalapalli S, Kundu A, Mall RK, Thattai D, Rangarajan S (2019) An appraisal of flood events
using IMD, CRU, and CCSM4-derived meteorological data sets over the Vaigai river basin,
Tamil Nadu (India). Sustain Water Resour Manag 5:1–14
Niyogi D, Subramanian S, Mohanty UC, Kishtawal CM, Ghosh S, Nair US, Ek M, Rajeevan M
(2018) The impact of land cover and land use change on the Indian monsoon region
hydroclimate. In: Land-Atmospheric Research Applications in South and Southeast Asia.
Springer, Berlin, pp 553–575
Nori-Sarma A, Anderson GB, Rajiva A, Shah Azhar G, Gupta P, Pednekar MS et al (2019) The
impact of heatwaves on mortality in Northwest India. Environ Res 176:108546
2 Climate Changes over the Indian Subcontinent: Scenarios and Impacts 49

NRDC (2021) Global warming 101. Accessed from - https://www.nrdc.org/stories/global-

warming-101#causes on 6th Aug 2021
Nyhan M (2015) Coping with air pollution in an age of urbanisation. Angle Journal. Retrieved from
http://anglejournal.com/article/2015-06-protecting-urban-populations-from-air-pollution-in-an-
age-of-global-urbanisation/
Orlowsky B, Seneviratne SI (2012) Global changes in extreme events: regional and seasonal
dimension. Clim Change 110(3):669–696
Pandey V, Srivastava P (2019) Integration of microwave and optical/infrared derived datasets for a
drought Hazard inventory in a sub-tropical region of India. Remote Sens (Basel) 11(4):439
Pandey V, Srivastava PK, Singh SK, Petropoulos GP, Mall RK (2021) Drought identification and
trend analysis using long-term CHIRPS satellite precipitation product in Bundelkhand, India.
Sustainability 13(3):1042
Parthasarathy B, Rupa Kumar K, Munot AA (1992) Forecast of rainy season foodgrain production
based on monsoon rainfall. Indian J Agric Sci 62:1–8
Pathak H, Ladha JK, Aggarwal PK, Peng S, Das S, Singh Y et al (2003) Trends of climatic potential
and on-farm yields of rice and wheat in the indo-Gangetic Plains. Field Crop Res 80(3):223–234
Pathak SK, Singh P, Singh MM, Sharma BL (2019) Impact of temperature and humidity on sugar
recovery in Uttar Pradesh. Sugar Tech 21(1):176–181
Patel S, Mall RK, Jaiswal R, Singh R, Chand R (2022) Vulnerability assessment of wheat yield
under warming climate in Northern India using multi-model projections. Int J Plant Prod 1–16.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s42106-022-00208-1
Peng RD, Bobb JF, Tebaldi C, McDaniel L, Bell ML, Dominici F (2011) Toward a quantitative
estimate of future heat wave mortality under global climate change. Environ Health Perspect
119(5):701–706
Philipsborn RP, Chan K (2018) Climate change and global child health. Pediatrics 141(6)
Rai P, Choudhary A, Dimri AP (2019) Future precipitation extremes over India from the CORDEX-
South Asia experiments. Theor Appl Climatol 137(3):2961–2975
Rajak R, Chattopadhyay A (2020) Short and long term exposure to ambient air pollution and impact
on health in India: a systematic review. Int J Environ Health Res 30(6):593–617
Ramanathan V (2007) Global dimming by air pollution and global warming by greenhouse gases:
global and regional perspectives. In: Nucleation and atmospheric aerosols. Springer, Dordrecht,
pp 473–483
Ramanathan V, Chung C, Kim D, Bettge T, Buja L, Kiehl JT et al (2005) Atmospheric brown
clouds: impacts on south Asian climate and hydrological cycle. Proc Natl Acad Sci 102(15):
5326–5333
Ray DK, Gerber JS, Macdonald GK, West PC (2015) Climate variation explains a third of global
crop yield variability. Nat Commun 6:1–9
Ray DK, West PC, Clark M, Gerber JS, Prishchepov AV, Chatterjee S (2019) Climate change has
likely already affected global food production. PLoS One 14(5):0217148
Riedl MO (2019) Human-centred artificial intelligence and machine learning. Human Behav Emerg
Technol 1(1):33–36
Rosenzweig C, Tubiello FN (2007) Adaptation and mitigation strategies in agriculture: an analysis
of potential synergies. Mitig Adapt Strat Glob Chang 12(5):855–873
Roxy MK, Ghosh S, Pathak A, Athulya R, Mujumdar M, Murtugudde R, Terray P, Rajeevan M
(2017) A threefold rise in widespread extreme rain events over Central India. Nat Commun 8(1):
708
Saha S, Gogoi P, Gayen A, Paul GC (2021) Constructing the machine learning techniques based
spatial drought vulnerability index in Karnataka state of India. J Clean Prod 314:128073
Saini P, Sharma M (2020) Cause and age-specific premature mortality attributable to PM2.
5 exposure: an analysis for million-plus Indian cities. Sci Total Environ 710:135230
Sanchez-pi N, Marti L, Abreu A, Maass A (2021) Artificial intelligence, machine learning and
modeling for understanding the oceans and climate change to cite this version?: HAL Id?:
hal-03138712 Artificial Intelligence. Machine Learning and Modeling for Understanding the
Oceans and Climate Change
50 R. K. Mall et al.

Sarthi PP, Agrawal A, Rana A (2014) Possible future changes in cyclonic storms in the Bay of
Bengal, India under warmer climate. Int J Climatol 35(7):1267–1277
Satterthwaite D, Archer D, Colenbrander S et al (2020) Building resilience to climate change in
informal settlements. One Earth 2(2):143–156. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.oneear.2020.02.002
Scott D, Stefan G, Hall CM, Wiley J (2012) International tourism and climate. 3(June):213–232
Sedova B, Kalkuhl M (2020) Who are the climate migrants and where do they go? Evidence from
rural India q. World Dev 129:104848
Semenza JC, Ebi KL (2019) Climate change impact on migration, travel, travel destinations and the
tourism industry. J Travel Med 26(5):1–13
Seneviratne SI, Nicholls N, Easterling D et al (2012) Changes in climate extremes and their impacts
on the natural physical environment. In: Managing the Risks of Extreme Events and Disasters to
Advance Climate Change Adaptation: Special Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on
Climate Change. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge/New York, 9781107025, pp 109–230
Sharifi A (2021) Co-benefits and synergies between urban climate change mitigation and adaptation
measures: a literature review. Sci Total Environ 750(July):141642
Sharma S, Mujumdar P (2017) Increasing frequency and spatial extent of concurrent meteorological
droughts and heatwaves in India. Sci Rep 7(1):1–9
Singh BR, Singh O (2012) Study of impacts of global warming on climate change: rise in sea level
and disaster frequency. In: Global warming impacts and future perspective. IntechOpen. https://
doi.org/10.5772/50464
Singh N, Murari V, Kumar M, Barman SC, Banerjee T (2017) Fine particulates over South Asia:
review and meta-analysis of PM2. 5 source apportionment through receptor model. Environ
Pollut 223:121–136
Singh N, Mall RK, SINGH K, GUPTA A, Sonkar G (2018) Evaluation of RegCM4 climate model
for assessment of climate change impact on crop production. Mausam 69(3):387–398
Singh N, Mhawish A, Ghosh S, Banerjee T, Mall RK (2019) Attributing mortality from temperature
extremes: a time series analysis in Varanasi, India. Sci Total Environ 665:453–464
Singh H, Yadav M, Kumar N, Kumar A, Kumar M (2020) Assessing adaptation and mitigation
potential of roadside trees under the influence of vehicular emissions: a case study of Grevillea
robusta and Mangifera indica planted in an urban city of India. PLoS One 15(1):1–20
Singh N, Singh S, Mall RK (2020a) Urban ecology and human health: implications of urban heat
island, air pollution and climate change nexus. In: Urban ecology. Elsevier, pp 317–334
Singh H, Singh N, Mall RK (2020b) Japanese encephalitis and associated environmental risk
factors in eastern Uttar Pradesh: a time series analysis from 2001 to 2016. Acta Trop 212:
105701
Singh S, Mall RK, Singh N (2021a) Changing spatio? Temporal trends of heatwave and severe
heatwave events over India: an emerging health hazard. Int J Climatol 41:E1831–E1845
Singh S, Mall RK, Dadich J, Verma S, Singh JV, Gupta A (2021b) Evaluation of CORDEX-South
Asia regional climate models for heatwave simulations over India. Atmos Res 248:105228
Singh N, Mhawish A, Banerjee T, Ghosh S, Singh RS, Mall RK (2021c) Association of aerosols,
trace gases and black carbon with mortality in an urban pollution hotspot over central indo-
Gangetic plain. Atmos Environ 246:118088
Singh N, Mall RK, Banerjee T, Gupta A (2021d) Associations between climate, and infectious
diseases among children in Varanasi City, India: A prospective cohort study. Sci Total Environ
796:148769
Sonkar G, Mall RK, Banerjee T, Singh N, Kumar TL, Chand R (2019) Vulnerability of Indian
wheat against rising temperature and aerosols. Environ Pollut 254:112946
Sonkar G, Singh N, Mall RK, Singh KK, Gupta A (2020) Simulating the impacts of climate change
on sugarcane in diverse agro-climatic zones of northern India using CANEGRO-sugarcane
model. Sugar Tech 22(3):460–472
Soora NK, Aggarwal PK, Saxena R, Rani S, Jain S, Chauhan N (2013) An assessment of regional
vulnerability of rice to climate change in India. Clim Change 118(3):683–699
2 Climate Changes over the Indian Subcontinent: Scenarios and Impacts 51

Srivastava AK, Rai MK (2012) Sugarcane production: impact of climate change and its mitigation.
Biodiversitas 13:214–227. https://doi.org/10.13057/biodiv/d130408
Srivastava P, Dey S, Srivastava AK, Singh S, Tiwari S (2019) Suppression of aerosol-induced
atmospheric warming by clouds in the indo-Gangetic Basin, northern India. Theor Appl
Climatol 137(3):2731–2741
Srivastava PK, Singh P, Mall RK, Pradhan RK, Bray M, Gupta A (2020) Performance assessment
of evapotranspiration estimated from different data sources over agricultural landscape in
northern India. Theor Appl Climatol 140(1):145–156
Srivastava PK, Pradhan RK, Petropoulos GP, Pandey V, Gupta M, Yaduvanshi A, Mall RK (2021)
Long-term trend analysis of precipitation and extreme events over Kosi River basin in India.
Water 13(12):1695
Stein AL (2020) Artificial intelligence and climate change. Yale J Regul 37(3)
Stocker TF, Qin D, Plattner GK, Tignor M, Allen SK, Boschung J, Nauels A, Xia Y, Bex V,
Midgley PM (2018) Climate change 2013: the physical science basis. Contribution of Working
Group I to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
Swapna P, Jyoti J, Krishnan R, Sandeep N, Griffies SM (2017) Multidecadal weakening of Indian
summer monsoon circulation induces an increasing northern Indian Ocean Sea level. Geophys
Res Lett 44(20):10,560–10,572
Swapna P et al (2020) Sea-level rise. In: Krishnan R, Sanjay J, Gnanaseelan C, Mujumdar M,
Kulkarni A, Chakraborty S (eds) Assessment of climate change over the Indian region. Springer,
Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-4327-2_9
Tabari H (2020) Climate change impact on flood and extreme precipitation increases with water
availability. Sci Rep 10(1):1–10
Thrall JH, Li X, Li Q, Cruz C, Do S, Dreyer K, Brink J (2018) Artificial intelligence and machine
learning in radiology: opportunities, challenges, pitfalls, and criteria for success. J Am Coll
Radiol 15(3):504–508
Tien Bui D, Shirzadi A, Chapi K, Shahabi H, Pradhan B, Pham B, Singh V, Chen W, Khosravi K,
Bin Ahmad B, Lee S (2019) A hybrid computational intelligence approach to groundwater
spring potential mapping. Water 11(10):2013
Tigchelaar M, Battisti DS, Naylor RL, Ray DK (2018) Future warming increases the probability of
globally synchronized maize production shocks. Proc Natl Acad Sci 115(26):6644–6649
Tyagi S, Singh N, Sonkar G (2019) Sensitivity of evapotranspiration to climate change using
DSSAT model in sub-humid climate region of eastern Uttar Pradesh. Model Earth Syst Environ
5(1):1–11
Uk RJN, Poh P, Hay J, Zealand N, Ragoonaden S, Arblaster J, Uk BB, Canada DF, Uk JH, Uk SK,
Uk JL, Uk SR (2007) Coastal systems and low-lying areas coordinating lead authors. Lead
Authors: Contributing Authors, pp 315–356
Ullah Z, Al-Turjman F, Mostarda L, Gagliardi R (2020) Applications of artificial intelligence and
machine learning in smart cities. Comput Commun 154:313–323
UNICEF. Diarrhoeal disease. Available online: http://data.unicef.org/childhealth/diarrhoeal-
disease.html. Accessed 12 May 2020
Vautard R, Gobiet A, Jacob D, Belda M, Colette A, Déqué M, Fernández J, García-Díez M,
Goergen K, Güttler I (2013) The simulation of European heat waves from an ensemble of
regional climate models within the EURO-CORDEX project. Climate Dynam 41(9–10):
2555–2575
Verma RR, Srivastava TK, Singh P (2019) Climate change impacts on rainfall and temperature in
sugarcane growing upper Gangetic Plains of India. Theor Appl Climatol 135(1–2):279–292
Vinjamuri KS, Mhawish A, Banerjee T, Sorek-Hamer M, Broday DM, Mall RK, Latif MT (2020)
Vertical distribution of smoke aerosols over upper indo-Gangetic plain. Environ Pollut 257:
113377
Viswanathan B, Kavi Kumar K (2015) Weather, agriculture and rural migration: evidence from
state and district level migration in India. Environ Dev Econ 20(4):469–492. https://doi.org/10.
1017/S1355770X1500008X
52 R. K. Mall et al.

Vittal H, Karmakar S, Ghosh S (2013) Diametric changes in trends and patterns of extreme rainfall
over India from pre? 1950 to post? 1950. Geophys Res Lett 40(12):3253–3258
Wasko C, Westra S, Nathan R, Orr HG, Villarini G, Villalobos Herrera R, Fowler HJ (2021)
Incorporating climate change in flood estimation guidance. Phil Trans R Soc A 379(2195):
20190548
Watts N, Adger WN, Ayeb-Karlsson S, Bai Y, Byass P, Campbell-Lendrum D et al (2017) The
lancet countdown: tracking progress on health and climate change. Lancet 389(10074):
1151–1164
WHO. World Health Organization (2007) Health relevance of particulate matter from various
sources: report on a WHO workshop, Bonn, Germany 26–27 March 2007. WHO Regional
Office for Europe, Copenhagen
WHO (2017) World Health Organisation Global health estimates: leading causes of death, cause
specific-mortality 2009–2019. Accessed from https://www.who.int/data/gho/data/themes/
mortality-and-global-health-estimates/ghe-leading-causes-of-death
Xu K, Xu B, Ju J, Wu C, Dai H, Hu BX (2019) Projection and uncertainty of precipitation extremes
in the CMIP5 multimodel ensembles over nine major basins in China. Atmos Res 226:122–137
Yadav SS, Lal R (2018) Vulnerability of women to climate change in arid and semi-arid regions: the
case of India and South Asia. J Arid Environ 149:4–17
Yadav MK, Singh RS, Singh KK, Mall RK, Patel CB, Singh MK (2015) Assessment of climate
change impact on the productivity of different cereal crops in Varanasi, India. J Agrometeorol
17(2):179–184
Yadav MK, Singh RS, Singh KK, Mall RK, Patel C, Yadav SK, Singh MK (2016) Assessment of
climate change impact on pulse, oilseed and vegetable crops at Varanasi, India. J Agrometeorol
18(1):13–21
Yadav SK, Yadav M, Patel C, Singh RS, Singh KK, Mall RK, Singh MK (2021) Assessment of
climate change impact on different pigeon pea maturity groups in north Indian condition. J
Agrometeorol 23(1):82–91
Zarekarizi M, Rana A, Moradkhani H (2018) Precipitation extremes and their relation to climatic
indices in the Pacific Northwest USA. Climate Dynam 50(11–12):4519–4537
Zhang Y, Bi P, Hiller JE (2007) Climate change and disability-adjusted life years. J Environ Health
70(3):32–38
Zhang J, Liu Y, Cui LL, Liu SQ, Yin XX, Li HC (2017) Ambient air pollution, smog episodes and
mortality in Jinan, China. Sci Rep 7(1):1–8
Zhang J, Li Y, Tao W, Liu J, Levinson R, Mohegh A, Ban-Weiss G (2019) Investigating the urban
air quality effects of cool walls and cool roofs in Southern California. Environ Sci Technol
53(13):7532–7542. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.9b00626
Chapter 3
Assessing the Historical and Future
Relationship Between Climatic Factors
and the Production of Different Crops over
India

Bushra Praveen, Kanak Singh, Pritee Sharma, Shaghla Parveen,

and Swapan Talukdar

Abstract This analysis explores the effects of climate variations over 15 different
food and industrial crop productions in India using the econometric model and
forecasts these crop outputs using the Artificial Neural Network (ANN) model up
to 2030. The unit root test was used to inspect the stationarity time series datasets in
agricultural crop productions and climatic variables. The Dynamic Ordinary Least
Square (DOLS) and Fully Modified Dynamic Ordinary Least Square (FMOLS)
models were used to test the accuracy of the outcomes. The results showed that
land productivity declines if the annual mean temperature increases, demonstrating
the sensitivity of Indian agricultural crop production to the temperature variance.
Meanwhile, results also showed that if the temperature increases, rainfall would
become more unstable, triggering a reduction of rice, wheat, tuar, cotton, and tea
crop productions. Major crop productions, namely sesamum (til), gram, sugarcane,
groundnut, jowar, and bajra would experience a positive impact and subsequently
increase slightly up to 2030. The outcomes of the study can add insights into
sustainable agricultural crop productions in India, and livelihood patterns, particu-
larly among minor and marginal agricultural families.

Keywords Climate change · Agriculture productivity · Forecasting · Artificial

neural network · Dynamic ordinary least square (DOLS)

B. Praveen (*) · K. Singh · P. Sharma

School of Humanities and Social Sciences, Indian Institute of Technology Indore, Indore, India
e-mail: [email protected]
S. Parveen
Department of Geography, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, India
S. Talukdar
Department of Geography, University of Gour Banga, Malda, India

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 53

N. Khare (ed.), Science, Policies and Conflicts of Climate Change, Springer Climate,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-16254-1_3
54 B. Praveen et al.

Introduction

Climate change is a hot issue affecting agricultural crop production that is sensitive
to climatic factors and their fluctuations (Kumar and Gautam 2014). Several climatic
factors such as rising temperature, highly unstable rainfall, recurrent drought, sea
level rise and glacier melting have constantly reminded us that climate change has
already impacted ecosystems as well as humans across the world. Although the
fluctuation of climatic factors is natural, anthropogenic activities like the production
of greenhouse gases, deforestation, expansion of urbanization, advanced industrial
development, usage of new machinery and technology, advanced economic enlarge-
ment and transportation have accelerated their fluctuation in recent decades (Ahmad
et al. 2011). Consequently, significant reduction in several crop’s production and
productivity, particularly in developing countries, has led to food insecurity, famine,
malnutrition and other problems as their livelihoods mainly depend on agricultural
crop production (Nath and Behera 2011). However, the climatic factors may be
different in mid-latitude developed countries because of the application of advanced
technology in agriculture, less dependency on agriculture, and awareness of agri-
cultural science like crop rotation, mixed farming, etc. Therefore, investigating the
repercussions of climate variation on agricultural crop production is paramount,
especially for countries like India.
The outturns of climate variance on agricultural productions are being measured
using three approaches: biophysical, hedonic, and panel data. Among the three
approaches, the most important and popular method is the biophysical approach
also known as the crop modeling technique (Adams et al. 2013; Aggarwal 2009;
Kurukulasuriya et al. 2006; Lal 2000; Rao and Sinha 1994; Rosenzweig and Iglesias
1994; Reilly et al. 1994; Aggarwal and Sinha 1993; Kane et al. 1992). Apart from
this, the hedonic or Ricardian approach has been applied to explore the long-term
phenomenal variations of climate in the cropping system of production while
considering adaptation (Mendelsohn 2014; Mendelsohn et al. 2010; (Mendelsohn
and Dinar 2009; Deschênes and Greenstone 2007; Kurukulasuriya et al. 2006;
Kumar and Parikh 2001). Furthermore, the panel data approach is also a popular
method to quantify the reverberations of climate variation upon agricultural produc-
tivity. The change in climate may influence the economy in various ways. For
example, high fluctuation of rainfall leads to irregularity and severity in floods,
resulting in a huge number of crop losses. The interrelation between climate change
and agricultural productivity is quantified through the aforementioned technique.
The increase in surface temperature raises the mean sea level which affects the
livelihood of inhabitants in the coastal regions of the world. IPCC projected that the
temperature will increase by 1–6 °C by 2100. Consequently, the rise in the degree of
heat intensity and irregular precipitation patterns will have a severe impact on crop
productivity. Therefore, climate change has been severely affecting food production
throughout the world including in India, which causes food insecurity (Meeting
2006).
3 Assessing the Historical and Future Relationship Between Climatic. . . 55

There have been many types of research that report the negative consequence of
climate variation over cropping patterns as well as crop production in India, but very
few studies have been performed using empirical techniques regarding this issue.
Kumar and Parikh (2001) have estimated the production of a few prominent crops
like wheat, maize, barley, sorghum, and arhar. These crops were prone to adversity
due to high climate sensitivity; therefore, it is also critical for the security of food in
India. In addition to this, the production of commercial crops such as cotton,
sesamum, and sugarcane have also declined since 1990 (Singh 2012) due to the
elevated temperature. It is estimated by 2060 that the changes in climate would result
in a decline in the production of potatoes and paddy and potentially endanger food
safety for nearly one billion of the country’s population. For food grain, any
fluctuation in temperature below normal has a dismal and numerically noteworthy
influence on linseed production (Singh 2012). Kumar et al. (2011) reported that
irrigated areas of maize, mustard, wheat, rice, and sorghum in the seaside region,
North Eastern Region, and Sahyadri region or the Western Ghats have been declin-
ing because of the negative effects of climate variations. Hundal (2007) stated that as
the mean temperature spiraled by 1–3 ° C above the normal range, it resulted in a
decrease in paddy production and wheat production, respectively, at 3% and 10%
inside the state of Punjab. The unreliability in the pattern of precipitation occurrences
has inimically slowed down the cropping of Jowar in Karnataka which led to food
insecurity among farmers (Kaul and Ram 2009). According to Geethalakshmi et al.
(2011), the production of paddy crops in Tamilnadu has declined by more than 41%
due to the temperature reaching 40 °C. Furthermore, Saseendran et al. projected the
paddy crop and temperature in the state of Kerala up to 2049 and found that
temperature would cross 50 °C which would significantly reduce the production of
paddy in the state. Saseendran et al. reported that each 1-degree temperature increase
would reduce crop production by up to 6. Srivastava et al. argued that the production
of monsoonal crops, i.e., sorghum may decline by 14% and 2%, respectively, by the
year 2020 in regions of central India and southern central India in response to the
phenomenal climatic variance. Empirical evidence indicates that an increase in
atmospheric heat has limited consequences on the production of rice, maize, jawar
(sorghum), bajra, and barley (Kalra et al. 2008; Geethalakshmi et al. 2011). The
agricultural production outlook for gram and ragi is bleak due to an increase in the
maximal degree of heat; however, the produced output of wheat and tuar have
increased firmly due to the increase in the maximal intensity of heat (Kumar and
Parikh 2001; Kaur and Hundal 2007). Kapur et al. (2009) estimated a potential 30%
reduction in crop production in the middle of the twenty-first century as intensifica-
tion occurred in surface warming with a change in the rate of precipitation, which
could lead to a decline in arable land triggering crop production stresses in India.
Evidence shows climate variability has negatively influenced agricultural crop
production. Moreover, most of the empirical studies have either covered single
crops or multiple crops with limited geographical coverage. Therefore, it is imper-
ative to determine the overall effect of climate variability on major food grains along
with a focus on profitable and sustainable crop production choices for ensuring food
security in India (Hollaender 2010). Our study aims at testing the hypothesis which
56 B. Praveen et al.

says, agricultural output in the country of India has a climate-sensitive nature, and
any variation in rainfall precipitation and temperature patterns significantly influence
the production of the food grain. The development of a proper policy guideline
related to the irrigation system could possibly alleviate the detrimental consequences
of climate sensitiveness on wheat, paddy, sorghum, tuar, and bajra, along with
managing food safety in India (Kar and Kar 2008; Singh 2012; Ranuzzi and
Srivastava 2012; Sing 2012).
The development of the agricultural sector executes a pivotal share in the overall
socio-economic well-being of the people in India. Critically, the amount of agricultural
share in Gross Domestic Product (GDP) as well as in employment has reduced,
although the benefit of cropping systems is still highly significant and important for
economic development (Mall et al. 2006). In India, extensive works were done in
previous years assessing the nature and magnitude of crop yield fluctuations with a
focus on climate change issues in the past decade. Nevertheless, those cited works
concentrated on the reverse impact of climate changeability on some of the selected
crops only. Considering limited coverage in earlier studies at the time, we have set two
broad objectives here; the first is to analyze the repercussions of climate variability over
different crops and measure the robustness of the methods using different statistical
techniques. The second objective is to simulate and estimate the future climatic factors
and the trends in different crop production using an Artificial Neural Network (ANN).
In this study, we applied a linear regression model to explore the trend of future
climatic factors and the production of different crops. The application of artificial
neural networks to forecast future production is a comparatively new contribution to
the agricultural sector.

Method and Data Description

Study Area and Data Description

India is in South Asia situated from 8°4 to 37°6 north latitude and 68°70 to 9°25°
east longitude north of the equator, circumambient by water bodies on three sides –
the Arabian Sea on the West, the Bay of Bengal on the East, and the Indian Ocean on
the South. The Indian Meteorological Department (IMD) divided the entire country
into 34 meteorological subdivisions where the climate data were recorded (Fig. 3.1).
In this analysis, we obtained meteorological subdivision wise data on temperatures
and rainfall from the Indian Meteorological Department (IMD), a database of the
Government of India from 1901 to 2015. Under this analysis, the continuous data
was used for a period from 1976 to 2016, with no missing values.
In this study, to examine the effect of climate change on crop productivity,
16 major crops were taken into consideration, including bajra, rice, wheat, barley,
arhar, ragi, maize, jowar, gram, and mustard plus every grain crop that are non-food
such as linseed, sugarcane, groundnut, rapeseed, cotton, til and tea, covering over
75% of the total cropland. To estimate the climate change consequences on the
cropping pattern as well as its production, we considered per unit area as a dependent
3 Assessing the Historical and Future Relationship Between Climatic. . . 57

Fig. 3.1 Geographical location of the study area

variable by using the panel econometric analysis from 1967 to 2016. The Centre
Monitoring Indian Economy (CMIE) provided the production dataset.

Descriptive Statistics of the Climatic Variables and Crops

Production

The data analysis was performed using basic statistical techniques such as mean,
standard deviation, kurtosis, and skewness to explore the real situation of these
variables. In this study, descriptive statistical techniques have been applied to the
climatic variables and agricultural productivity for the period 1967 to 2018.

Innovative Trend Analysis Method

As suggested by Sen, when two similar time series are plotted against each other, all
points on the Cartesian coordinate system (Fig. 3.2) are scattered on the 1:1 line
regardless of their distribution form, sample length, serial dependency, or trend
form. Data points collected on the 1:1 (45°) line in the scatter plot indicates they
were trendless (data without trend). If the data points fall above the upper triangular
area, the line of 1:1, then it is said that the statistic undergoes a trend of upliftment. If
the data points accumulated below the line of 1:1 in the triangular area, it can be
58 B. Praveen et al.

Fig. 3.2 The schematic structure of an artificial neural network (ANN)

concluded that a declining trend was there in the series of time. The value (absolute)
of the distinction between the y and x values of a point horizontal or perpendicular
distance from the one, suggests the amount of an enlarging or a reducing trend. The
key benefits of revolutionary approaches can be understood with the fact that they
are not based on any assumptions such as serial correlation, non-normality, sample
size, and low, medium, and high data trends could be detected with less effort
through the approach. Therefore, it is useful for measuring a trend, as well as the
average climate change and agricultural production variations.
Over the years, a good number of researchers have frequently used ITA for
identifying trends in hydrological and climatological parameters applied the
Mann-Kendall (MK) test and ITA in Kizilirmak River, Turkey to analyzing the
trends of parameters for water quality. The author has used the successful application
of the ITA technique for trend assessment. Kisi implied the ITA method over six
stations in Turkey to assess the trend system on monthly pan evaporation data and
observed the negative and positive trends over the study area. Cui et al. used the ITA
method, MK test, linear regression method, and Sen’s slope estimator to analyze the
trend in annual and seasonal rainfall and temperature of the Yangtze River Basin,
China, and a significant increase in those climatic variables was reported. This
analysis used the ITA method for the first time in India for agricultural research.

Multiple Regression
Artificial Neural Network (ANN)

The ANN is an abstract mathematical and black box model. It has been applied in
countless fields, including decision making, pattern recognition, automatic control-
ling systems, robotics, and others. It can handle complex, non-linear, and unbalanced
3 Assessing the Historical and Future Relationship Between Climatic. . . 59

data sets. Therefore, it can imitate the functioning of the human brain and is even
able to generalize and predict the output from a large number of complex inputs. For
this reason, researchers across the world have widely used it to solve different
problems in different fields. The ANN model can perform like an expert, which
can detect complex predictive patterns, which is not apparent to the non-expert. It
can act on the category, continuous and binary data without violating the assumption
and characters of the data.
Several architectures of the neural network have widely been used. In this study,
the feed-forward based multilayer perceptron (MLP) architecture was used. The
standard MLP consists of three layers, such as an input, one or more hidden and
output layers of non-linear activation nodes (Table 3.1). Each layer contains many
neurons or nodes, which are connected with a certain weight to every node in the
next layer. Their work is to transfer the information. Thus, the neural network has
been formed. The MLP uses the backpropagation algorithm for training the network
until the minimum errors are achieved between the anticipated and output values of
the network. Thus, the ANN model generates the results.

Result and Discussion

Descriptive Statistics Analysis of Climatic Variables

and Different Crop Production

The descriptive statistics are provided in Table 3.2, which summarizes the funda-
mental properties of all the variables under study. The mean annual rainfall and
temperature were measured at 1388.56 mm and 24.87 °C, respectively, for climate
variables. Negative kurtosis was found for all climatic and agricultural variables,
except barley and ragi. The observed kurtosis values for all variables are not above -
1 and 1 except for three variables, so the data is acceptable for further analysis. The
rainfall, rice, jowar, and wheat have negative skewness and the rest of the variables
have positive and moderate skewed distribution and can be called approximate
symmetry data, except for two variables (Table 3.1).

Trend Analysis of the Climatic Variables and Crops Production

Figure 3.3 provides trend analysis results for climatic variables and agriculture
production using the ITA method (Table 3.3). The rainfall and temperature showed
that no trend was detected for rainfall, but the trend was slightly negative for the past
3 years. The high degree of the increasing trend was found in the case of temperature,
which was very high for the past few years. The results of an innovative trend for
cotton, tea, and rice showed a high degree of the positive trend while rapeseed has a
 60

Table 3.1 Calculated parameters of the algorithms for different climates and crops used in the study
Number of inputs Number of Activation function in Number of Learning Learning
(Lag) hidden layer Seed hidden unit iterations algorithm rate Momentum
Rainfall 10 8 15 Sigmoid 2000 Back propagation 0.1 0.2
Temperature 15 8 15 Sigmoid 2000 Back propagation 0.1 0.2
Cotton 10 8 15 Sigmoid 2000 Back propagation 0.1 0.2
Rice 15 8 15 Sigmoid 2000 Back propagation 0.1 0.2
Tea 10 8 15 Sigmoid 2000 Back propagation 0.09 0.2
Rapeseed & 10 8 10 Sigmoid 2000 Back propagation 0.1 0.2
Mustard
Linseed 15 8 10 Sigmoid 1500 Back propagation 0.09 0.2
Maize 10 8 12 Sigmoid 2000 Back propagation 0.1 0.2
Arhar 15 8 20 Sigmoid 2000 Back propagation 0.09 0.2
Sesamum (Til) 15 8 5 Sigmoid 2200 Back propagation 0.1 0.23
Jowar 15 9 20 Sigmoid 42,000 Back propagation 0.19 0.4
Groundnut 10 8 20 Sigmoid 3200 Back propagation 0.19 0.3
Bajra 15 9 20 Sigmoid 50,000 Back propagation 0.19 0.42
Barley 15 8 20 Sigmoid 5000 Back propagation 0.19 0.22
Ragi 10 8 20 Sigmoid 30,000 Back propagation 0.19 0.22
Wheat 15 8 22 Sigmoid 38,000 Back propagation 0.18 0.22
Gram 15 7 20 Sigmoid 1000 Back propagation 0.19 0.22
B. Praveen et al.
3 Assessing the Historical and Future Relationship Between Climatic. . . 61

Table 3.2 Descriptive analysis of the climatic variables and crop production

Climatic variables Descriptive statistics

and production of Standard
various crops Mean Deviation Kurtosis Skewness Minimum Maximum
Rainfall 1388.56 108.11 -0.15 -0.21 1131.86 1611.18
Temperature 24.87 0.86 -1.29 0.63 23.74 26.46
Cotton 591.75 138.15 -0.77 0.37 347.70 893.00
Rice 70172.27 22622.23 -1.29 -0.02 30437.90 106645.50
Tea 728.47 231.10 -0.63 0.37 376.00 1208.70
Rapeseed & 315.71 133.17 -1.00 0.33 125.50 597.80
Mustard
Linseed 6595.12 1437.33 -0.61 0.26 4091.60 9713.90
Maize 6636.81 2057.97 -0.37 0.40 3271.90 12109.30
Arhar 14050.71 3145.08 -0.93 0.28 8347.10 20368.10
Sesamum (Til) 1990.48 2648.94 0.62 1.53 31.80 8178.70
Jowar 54306.49 23826.01 -1.12 -0.01 11392.80 95849.80
Groundnut 6595.12 1437.33 -0.61 0.26 4091.60 9713.90
Bajra 227464.73 81291.28 -1.23 0.10 92826.10 362332.80
Barley 1855.98 546.55 1.04 1.24 1196.10 3503.60
Ragi 10912.51 5693.94 0.07 1.11 4893.60 24259.50
Wheat 54306.49 23826.01 -1.12 -0.01 11392.80 95849.80
Gram 5492.08 1346.31 0.95 0.97 3356.30 9526.30

very low degree of negative trend. Linseed, jowar, maize, groundnut, and bajra have
a high magnitude of the increasing trend of their production. The increasing ten-
dency has been shown for the past few years, which indicates that overall agricul-
tural production has been increasing. In the case of til and barley, however, very low
trends have been detected, which have become more apparent in the past few years.
The increasing trend has been more prominent for the past few years for ragi and
gram. The trend analysis showed that most edible food grains like rice, gram, and
ragi have increased significantly, despite having low agricultural land and very low
technological development. Therefore, due to the rising production of agriculture,
the result of climate change cannot be detected from direct observation.

Relationship Between Climatic Factors and Crops Production

Forecasting of Climatic Parameters and Different Crops

We performed ANN methods for forecasting climatic parameters and production of

different crops up to 2030. It is essential to check the performance of the model by
predicting existing data before it is used for the forecast. It is discussed that if there is
62 B. Praveen et al.

Fig. 3.3 Innovative trend analyses in climatic variables and agriculture production

a close adjacency between actual data and predicted data and error measures suggest
that the performance of the model is good enough, then we can use it for further
work. We predicted climatic parameters and different crops by optimizing the
parameters of ANN and found that there was a very close adjacency between actual
and predicted climatic parameters and different crops (Fig. 3.3). The coefficient of
determination suggests that the performance of the ANN was measured by the error
between actual and predicted values of climatic parameters and different crop
production (Fig. 3.4) in the form of mean absolute error, mean absolute percentage
Table 3.3 Descriptive analy- Variables Trend indicator Slope
sis of the climatic variables
Rainfall 0.42025 0.07595
and crop production
Temperature 0.05126 0.529
Cotton 5.61328 2.69052
Rice 1556.21 7.67065
Tea 15.2262 7.07355
Rapeseed -8.5438 -5.0555
Linseed 45.7965 1.90101
Maize 97.7765 4.51448
Arhar 116 2.30145
Til -84.411 -6.9289
Jowar 1633.41 12.0498
Groundnut 45.7965 1.90101
Bajra 5593.93 8.87696
Barley -28.932 -3.2616
Ragi 335.932 12.509
Wheat 1633.41 12.0498
Gram 54.0624 2.80622

Fig. 3.4 Comparison between actual and predicted values of climatic parameters and different
crops
64 B. Praveen et al.

Fig. 3.4 (continued)

Table 3.4 Multiple regression

Crops Coefficient of determination R2-adjusted Multiple correlation coefficient
Arhar 0.089 0.07 0.298
Bajra 0.62 0.612 0.788
Barley 0.356 0.343 0.597
Cotton 0.442 0.43 0.665
Gram 0.364 0.35 0.603
Groundnut No relation
Jowar 0.664 0.657 0.815
Linseed No relation
Maize 0.385 0.372 0.621
Ragi 0.743 0.738 0.862
Rapeseed 0.699 0.692 0.836
Rice 0.657 0.650 0.811
Til 0.161 0.143 0.401
Tea 0.722 0.716 0.85
Wheat 0.664 0.657 0.815

error, root means squared error, and mean squared error. The results of these errors
suggest that the performance of the model for predicting climatic parameters and
different crop productions is quite good (Table 3.4).
3 Assessing the Historical and Future Relationship Between Climatic. . . 65

Figures 3.5 and 3.6 project that with increasing temperature, precipitation will
slightly decrease up to 2030. On the other hand, production of some crops in future
such as sesamum (til), gram, groundnut, jowar, bajra sugarcane is expected to rise,
while a few crops, for example, wheat, arhar, cotton, rice and tea production, being
climatic sensitive, would be affected the most adversely as temperature increases.
We explored that fluctuation of rainfall and increasing trend of temperature have
impacted different crops in different manners (Table 3.5). The increasing tempera-
ture and rainfall have benefitted arhar, as the favorable conditions during its vege-
tation period are a fairly moist and warm climate (Table 3.5). The analysis also

Fig. 3.5 Forecasting of crops using temperature and rainfall from 2017 to 2030
66 B. Praveen et al.

Fig. 3.6 The trend analysis of future climatic parameters and different future crops production

indicates that about 18–27 °C temperature and 50–100 cm rainfall are favorable for
maize cultivation, and therefore, increasing temperature and fluctuating rainfall will
negatively affect the production of maize in India (Tables 3.5 and 3.6).
3 Assessing the Historical and Future Relationship Between Climatic. . . 67

Fig. 3.6 (continued)

Table 3.5 Model performance evaluation using different error measures
68

Error measures Rainfall Temperature Cotton Rice Tea Rapeseed & Mustard Linseed Maize
Mean absolute error 2.68 0.082 5.47 155 14.01 5.85 23.1 42.63
Mean absolute percentage error 0.19 0.33 0.96 0.85 1.74 2.62 2.86 0.74
Root mean squared error 5.92 0.1 9.13 19 17.49 8.71 11.34 57.96
Mean squared error 35.15 0.011 83.34 380 306.21 76.03 95.36 3359
Error Sesamum
measures Arhar (Til) Jowar Groundnut Sugarcane Bajra Barley Ragi Wheat Gram
Mean 54.32 54.59 85.07 3.76 63.12 84.21 14.58 68.24 39.58 10.08
absolute
error
Mean 0.36 8.02 0.13 0.055 4.78 0.032 0.96 0.65 0.068 0.16
absolute
percentage
error
Root mean 74.88 71.9 104.14 5.03 16.32 98.16 17.77 84.13 64.02 14.29
squared
error
Mean 5607.6 5183.42 1084.5 25.32 152.18 963.6 315.8 7078.65 4099.78 204.45
squared
error
B. Praveen et al.
3 Assessing the Historical and Future Relationship Between Climatic. . . 69

Relationship Between Future Climatic Factors and Crops

Production

Table 3.6 Multiple regression

Crops Coefficient of determination R2-adjusted Multiple correlation coefficient
Arhar 0.534 0.495 0.731
Bajra 0.382 0.331 0.618
Barley 0.952 0.949 0.976
Cotton No relation
Gram No relation
Groundnut 0.977 0.975 0.988
Jowar No relation 0.657 0.815
Linseed 0.972 0.97 0.99
Maize 0.979 0.977 0.989
Ragi 0.959 0.955 0.979
Rapeseed 0.924 0.918 0.961
Rice 0.856 0.844 0.925
Til 0.846 0.833 0.919
Tea No relation
Wheat No relation

Discussion

Mall and Singh (2000) suggest that minor temperature fluctuations during the
growing season of crops have affected annual wheat yield over the years. Pathak
et al. (2003) assessed that intensifying minimum temperature and notable negative
trends in solar radiations have decreased the crop yields of wheat and rice in India’s
Gangetic plains. During the rabi and kharif seasons after 1980, a minimal downward
trend in solar radiation was also observed, which indicated a trend of warming. Since
the production of the crop is largely associated with the incoming radiation of the
sun, any downward trend would have a considerable reduction in agricultural
productivity. Proliferation at the lowest temperatures increases the crop requirements
for maintenance respiration and further decreases net yield and growth (Aggarwal
2003).
Krishna Kumar et al. (2004) assessed Indian crop–climate relationships with
historical crop production data for major crops such as sorghum, rice, wheat, sugar
cane, groundnut oilseed, pulses, and cereals. The aggregate of production in agri-
culture (except sugarcane and sorghum), the production of monsoon agriculture
(except sorghum), and seasons of post-monsoon (excluding rice and sorghum) are
notably associated with summer precipitation in India. The research also manifests
that agricultural productivity has become stagnant with a decreasing course pattern
in some of the regions. This mode of change in temperature perspicuously shows a
reduction in production for rice–wheat cropping patterns.
70 B. Praveen et al.

It is arduous to determine varying climatic conditions for crop productivity in

India due to the change in agricultural cropping structure and the adoption of
technical know-how across the cropping systems. Limited research has been done
in India to assimilate the immensity and phenomena of yield gains or crop failures at
local levels due to CO2 in the atmosphere and associated climatic change (Sinha and
Swaminathan 1991; Abrol et al. 1991; Aggarwal and Sinha 1993; Rao and Sinha
1994; Aggarwal and Kalra 1994; Mathauda and Mavi 1994; Gangadhar Rao et al.
1995; Mohandass et al. 1995; Aggarwal and Mall 2002; Mall and Aggarwal 2002;
Attri and Rathore 2003; Aggarwal 2003; Mall et al. 2004).
An increase in temperature by 2 °C will reduce the probable productivity of wheat
in maximum regions, which varies across rain-fed and irrigated systems. The wheat
performance in India influenced by climatic variance has been observed to be
reduced due to the detrimental consequences of temperature on the crop during the
filling of grain and maturity stage of the growth is stated by Gangadhar Rao and
Sinha (1994). The outcomes here demonstrate that grain filling duration sensitivity
to temperature plays a crucial role in defining the impacts of change in climate on the
productivity of the crop.
Based on previous studies, the effects of change in climate on agriculture in India
can be reported as undefined. The overall average effect can be good or adversely
based on climatic scenarios (temperature increasing in 2 °C, 3 °C, 4 °C, increase in
CO2, and interaction of a rise in temperature and CO2). Therefore, the aftermath of
climate variation on agriculture fluctuates by crop, agronomic management stage,
area, and season both qualitatively and quantitatively. The cropping method of rabi
(winter season) from the central and southern regions of India is most likely to be
riskier than the seasonal impacts. Nonetheless, the overall positive effect of climate
change on Indian agriculture would be important until 2050 as suggested by most
projections. By the year 2080, with an exponential rise in temperature, Indian
agriculture will suffer the most. It can be said, in other words, that the production
of food will not be in danger till 2050. However, by the year 2080, the cropping
pattern and its system in India will be challenged and it is of utmost importance to
confirm the security of food. In the Indian context, the likely effects of change in
climate on agricultural crop production were shown optimistically (Mall et al. 2006).

Conclusions and Policy Implications

This study has analyzed the climatic sensitivity in Indian agricultural crop pro-
ductions using a panel dataset from 1967 to 2016. Crop productions were designed
according to temperature and precipitation datasets. The analysis shows mixed
results in India as the country has diversity in terms of its weather conditions
(or climate change factor). We found a mixed result in India with diverse climatic
variability which also differs because of different geographic, territorial, and socio-
economic facets. Therefore, agricultural crop production also differs throughout the
country due to diverse agro-climatic conditions. The state of West Bengal for
3 Assessing the Historical and Future Relationship Between Climatic. . . 71

instance is comparatively better in rice production compared to other regions of the

country. The findings of this study also echo similar outputs.
We have also executed the ANN model for a particular crop prediction. Com-
paring observed and projected values at the 95% confidence level, the ANN model
provides an admissible result. Inevitably, the model enables us to understand
forthcoming proposals, policy-making, and plan alleviations in agro-based cropping
systems in the country. The outputs of the model are vital for determining crop
calendars based on the local climatic conditions. Meanwhile, crop production is
going through the ill effects of climatic shifting to irregular precipitation occur-
rences, which will lead to an adjustment in the cropping pattern.
Based on the empirical outcome, the aforementioned key suggestions may be
delineated for handling issues of food security in India. First, the intensity of
cropping patterns perhaps may increase the sequence of agro-based products that
will inevitably increase food production in the country. Second, policymakers are
required to increase additional irrigation conveniences to enhance crop production
alongside food safety. Third, the availability of fertilizers and government expendi-
ture in agriculture is essential to pacify ill impacts of climate variance (ADB 2012;
Hollaender 2010). Fourth, the incorporation of substitutes in the consumption of
biotic fertilizers may perhaps enhance the efficiency of agricultural products such as
gram, wheat, rice, arhar, barley, ragi, jowar, and maize. Fifth and last, the predicted
outcome indicates a few crops such as rice, wheat, tea, cotton, arhar, and jowar, some
gram, sesamum (Til), groundnut, bajra, and sugarcane respond positively to the
climatic change as an increase in temperature or rainfall increases their production.
However, future studies are encouraged at the territorial and zonal levels so that they
might assist in regulating sustainable cropping in the long run.

Acknowledgement The authors of the manuscript are grateful to the Indian Meteorological
Department for providing the rainfall data of all subdivisions for undertaking this study. We are
also thankful to the HSS Department of IIT Indore and the Department of Geography, the
University of Gour Banga for providing laboratory space along with other support to bring about
this piece of work.

Conflicts of Interest None

Funding The first author of the article would like to thank the University Grants Commission
(UGC Ref. No.2942/(NET-DEC.2014), New Delhi, India, for providing financial support as Junior
Research Fellowship (JRF) for conducting the research work.

References

Abrol YP, Bagga AK, Chakravorty NVK, Wattal PK (1991) In: Abrol YP et al (eds) Impact of rise
in temperature on the productivity of wheat in India. Impact of global climate changes in
photosynthesis and plant productivity, pp 787–789
Adams HD, Williams AP, Xu C, Rauscher SA, Jiang X, McDowell NG (2013) Empirical and
process-based approaches to climate-induced forest mortality models. Front Plant Sci 4:438
72 B. Praveen et al.

Aggarwal PK (2003) Impact of climate change on Indian agriculture. J Plant Biol New Delhi 30:
189–198
Aggarwal PK (2009) Vulnerability of Indian agriculture to climate change: current state of
knowledge. National Workshop – Review of Implementation of Work Programme Towards
Indian Network of Climate Change Assessment
Aggarwal PK, Kalra N (1994) Simulating the effect of climatic factors, genotype and management
on productivity of wheat in India. Division of Environmental Science, Indian Agricultural
Research Institute, New Delhi
Aggarwal PK, Mall RK (2002) Climate change and rice yields in diverse agro-environments of
India. II. Effect of uncertainties in scenarios and crop models on impact assessment. Clim Chang
52:331–343
Aggarwal PK, Sinha SK (1993) Effect of probable increase in carbon dioxide and temperature on
wheat yields in India. 農業気象 48:811–814
Ahmad J, Alam D, Haseen MS (2011) Impact of climate change on agriculture and food security in
India. Int J Agric Environ Biotechnol 4:129–137
Asian Development Bank (ADB) (2012) Food security and poverty in Asia and the Pacific: key
challenge and policy issues. Mandaluyong City (Philippines)
Attri SD, Rathore LS (2003) Simulation of impact of projected climate change on wheat in India. Int
J Climatol 23:693–705
Deschênes O, Greenstone M (2007) The economic impacts of climate change: evidence from
agricultural output and random fluctuations in weather. Am Econ Rev 97:354–385
Gangadhar Rao D, Katyal JC, Sinha SK, Srinivas K (1995) Impacts of climate change on sorghum
productivity in India: simulation study. Climate change and agriculture: analysis of potential
international impacts, pp 325–337
Geethalakshmi V, Lakshmanan A, Rajalakshmi D, Jagannathan R, Sridhar G, Ramaraj AP,
Bhuvaneswari K, Gurusamy L, Anbhazhagan R (2011) Climate change impact assessment
and adaptation strategies to sustain rice production in Cauvery basin of Tamil Nadu. Curr Sci
101:342–347
Hollaender M (2010) Human right to adequate food: NGOs have to make the difference. CATA-
LYST. Newsletter of Cyriac Elias Voluntary Association (CEVA) 8:5–6
Hundal SS (2007) Climatic variability and its impact on cereal productivity in Indian Punjab. Curr
Sci 92:506–512
Kalra N, Chakraborty D, Sharma A, Rai HK, Jolly M, Chander S, Kumar PR, Bhadraray S,
Barman D, Mittal RB (2008) Effect of increasing temperature on yield of some winter crops
in northwest India. Curr Sci 94:82–88
Kane S, Reilly J, Tobey J (1992) An empirical study of the economic effects of climate change on
world agriculture. Clim Chang 21:17–35
Kapur D, Khosla R, Mehta PB (2009) Climate change: India’s options. Econ Polit Wkly 44:34–42
Kar J, Kar M (2008) Environment and changing agricultural practices: evidence from Orissa, India.
Indus J Man Soc Sci 2:119–128
Kaul S, Ram G (2009) Impact of global warming on production of Jowar in India (special issue:
sustainable agriculture in the context of climate change). Agric Situ India 66:253–256
Kaur P, Hundal SS (2007) Effect of temperature rise on growth and yield of wheat: a simulation
study. J Res 44:6–8
Krishna Kumar K, Rupa Kumar K, Ashrit RG, Deshpande NR, Hansen JW (2004) Climate impacts
on Indian agriculture. Int J Climatol 24:1375–1393
Kumar, R., Gautam, H.R., 2014. Climate change and its impact on agricultural productivity in
India. Journal of Climatology & Weather Forecasting
Kumar KK, Parikh J (2001) Indian agriculture and climate sensitivity. Glob Environ Chang 11:
147–154
Kumar SN, Aggarwal PK, Rani S, Jain S, Saxena R, Chauhan N (2011) Impact of climate change on
crop productivity in the Western Ghats, coastal and northeastern regions of India. Curr Sci 101:
332–341
3 Assessing the Historical and Future Relationship Between Climatic. . . 73

Kurukulasuriya P, Mendelsohn R, Hassan R, Benhin J, Deressa T, Diop M, Eid HM, Fosu KY,
Gbetibouo G, Jain S (2006) Will African agriculture survive climate change? World Bank Econ
Rev 20:367–388
Lal M (2000) Climatic change-implications for India’s water resources. J Soc Economic Develop 3:
57–87
Mall RK, Aggarwal PK (2002) Climate change and rice yields in diverse agro-environments of
India. I. Evaluation of impact assessment models. Clim Chang 52:315–330
Mall RK, Singh KK (2000) Climate variability and wheat yield progress in Punjab using the
CERES-wheat and WTGROWS models. Yayu Mandal 30:35–41
Mall RK, Lal M, Bhatia VS, Rathore LS, Singh R (2004) Mitigating climate change impact on
soybean productivity in India: a simulation study. Agric For Meteorol 121:113–125
Mall RK, Singh R, Gupta A, Srinivasan G, Rathore LS (2006) Impact of climate change on Indian
agriculture: a review. Clim Chang 78:445–478. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10584-005-9042-x
Mathauda SS, Mavi HS (1994) Impact of climate change in rice production in Punjab, India. In:
Climate change and rice symposium. IRRI, Manila, pp 38–39
Meeting, J.F.E.C. on F.A (2006) Residue evaluation of certain veterinary drugs: joint FAO/WHO
expert committee on food additives, 66th meeting 2006. Food & Agriculture Org
Mendelsohn R (2014) The impact of climate change on agriculture in Asia. J Integr Agric 13:660–
665
Mendelsohn RO, Dinar A (2009) Climate change and agriculture: an economic analysis of global
impacts, adaptation and distributional effects. Edward Elgar Publishing
Mendelsohn R, Arellano-Gonzalez J, Christensen P (2010) A Ricardian analysis of Mexican farms.
Environ Dev Econ 15:153–171
Mohandass S, Kareem AA, Ranganathan TB, Jeyaraman S (1995) Rice production in India under
current and future climates. Modeling the Impact of Climate Change on Rice Production in Asia,
CAB International, UK, pp 165–181
Nath PK, Behera B (2011) A critical review of impact of and adaptation to climate change in
developed and developing economies. Environ Dev Sustain 13:141–162
Pathak H, Ladha JK, Aggarwal PK, Peng S, Das S, Singh Y, Singh B, Kamra SK, Mishra B, Sastri
A (2003) Trends of climatic potential and on-farm yields of rice and wheat in the Indo-Gangetic
Plains. Field Crop Res 80:223–234
Ranuzzi A, Srivastava R (2012) Impact of climate change on agriculture and food security. ICRIER
Policy series 16, p 33
Rao GD, Sinha SK (1994) Impact of climate change on simulated wheat production in India. In:
Implications of climate change for international agriculture: crop modelling study 2. EPA, pp
1–10
Reilly J, Hohmann N, Kane S (1994) Climate change and agricultural trade: who benefits, who
loses? Glob Environ Chang 4:24–36
Rosenzweig C, Iglesias A (1994) Implications of climate change for international agriculture. US
Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC
Singh, A., 2012. Impact of sustainable agriculture on food production and challenges for food
security in India
Sinha SK, Swaminathan MS (1991) Deforestation, climate change and sustainable nutrition
security: a case study of India. In: Tropical forests and climate. Springer, pp 201–209
 Part II
Geopolitics and Conflicts
Chapter 4
Geopolitics of Climate Change and Water
Security in South Asia: Conflict
and Cooperation

Dhanasree Jayaram and Gaurica Sethi

Abstract South Asia’s climate vulnerabilities have direct and indirect implications
for water security. While the effects of climate change on water access, safety, and
affordability in the region are becoming increasingly adverse, the transboundary
nature of both climate change and water security, especially on account of shared
water resources, complicates responses. The shared river basins, such as the Indus,
Ganges, Meghna, and Brahmaputra, have been marred by geopolitical tensions,
which renders transboundary climate cooperation to deal with water-related prob-
lems difficult. Although the region has seen different forms of cooperation in the
form of river water sharing treaties/arrangements as well as regional organizations’
role in advancing cooperation, these efforts rarely take cognizance of the effects
of climate change on water security. In this context, the chapter provides an analysis
of the challenges posed by climate change to water security and geopolitics of
transboundary conflicts and cooperation in South Asia, as well as explores oppor-
tunities for cooperation among the countries of the region.

Keywords Low-carbon technology · Early warning systems · Climate services ·

Transboundary framework · Water security

D. Jayaram (*)
Manipal Academy of Higher Education, Manipal, India
Alexander von Humboldt Foundation – International Climate Protection Fellow, Berlin,
Germany
e-mail: [email protected]
G. Sethi
Department of Geopolitics and International Relations, Manipal Academy of Higher Education,
Manipal, India

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 77

N. Khare (ed.), Science, Policies and Conflicts of Climate Change, Springer Climate,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-16254-1_4
78 D. Jayaram and G. Sethi

Introduction

The impacts of climate change such as more frequent and intense extreme weather
events (cyclones, heat waves, etc.), droughts and crop failures, coastal erosion,
climate change-induced migration, and major biodiversity shifts have geopolitical
and geoeconomic implications for South Asia. Climate change coupled with the
global health crisis in the form of the COVID-19 pandemic has led to adverse
consequences for the region. With the complex and unprecedented nature of risks
posed by climate change to the entire world, the level of urgency and immediacy
attached to the phenomenon has increased – leading to heightened demand for
cooperation at all levels, including within regions such as South Asia (Saeed and
Fuentes-Hutfilter 2021). Hence, regional organizations are engaged in the coordina-
tion of joint initiatives, policy alignment, and the establishment of strategies to tackle
climate change-related risks. Despite the existence of common problems and numer-
ous efforts to implement synchronized policies at the regional level (Schoeters
2002), cooperation has largely been hampered by various obstacles, including
political, economic, and technical ones (Das and Bandyopadhyay 2015).
Among the various issues, water security, in particular, is already being affected
in adverse ways in the region. Water security in South Asia is a local, state, national,
and regional issue, as a large proportion of the river basins, including the Indus,
Ganges, and Brahmaputra, are transboundary. The impacts of climate change on
water security have worsened over the years with monsoonal variations and drought-
like conditions becoming more common and unpredictable. Water stress or scarcity
has cascading impacts on food, health, livelihood, and human security. Moreover,
transboundary disputes and conflicts over reducing water levels in the river basins
could also increase, as water demand has increased in all the countries of the region
in recent decades due to growing population, industrialization, agricultural demand,
urbanization, etc. This poses a critical challenge to South Asian countries that need
to be addressed through both the existing bilateral, regional, and multilateral mech-
anisms, apart from generating new platforms that could potentially enhance interac-
tions and collaborations among them.
In this context, this chapter aims to assess climate change concerns with a focus
on water security, particularly transboundary river water sharing. The chapter looks
into both conflictual and cooperative aspects of the climate change–water security
nexus in the region using examples of India’s complex hydro-relations with its
neighbours along transboundary rivers as well as that of efforts taken by regional
organizations such as the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation
(SAARC), Bay of Bengal Initiative for Multi-Sectoral Technical and Economic
Cooperation (BIMSTEC), and International Centre for Integrated Mountain Devel-
opment (ICIMOD). It provides an overview of the challenges to regional and
transboundary cooperation in South Asia, as well as explores opportunities for
cooperation among the countries of the region.
4 Geopolitics of Climate Change and Water Security in South Asia:. . . 79

Major Water Security-Related Climate Change Impacts

in the South Asian Region

The elements of water security are: “(1) water access; (2) water safety; and (3) water
affordability so that every person can lead a clean, healthy and productive life while
ensuring that the natural environment is protected and enhanced” (Mishra et al.
2021). All these elements are hampered by climate change in different ways. Water
has emerged as a scarce commodity in parts of the South Asian region. Besides
physical scarcity, inaccessibility also leads to water insecurity. South Asia has seen a
decrease of 70% in the availability of water resources since the 1950s (Roy 2010).
The per capita availability is also on the decline in most countries, which has
implications for food, livelihood, health, and other sectors of human security
(Lacombe et al. 2019). Many river basins in the region are transboundary, and
they are facing problems related to water scarcity. These include the Indus, Ganges,
and Brahmaputra basins. These rivers are the lifelines of more than 1 billion people
in the region. Climate change has major impacts on these rivers, with geopolitical
implications. Although river water sharing treaties have been signed between the
region’s countries, these arrangements do not consider the climate factor. Moreover,
the stability of these treaties and agreements is continuously challenged by geopo-
litical factors, such as contested borders, cross-border terrorism, and domestic
politics. Hence, as climate change affects water availability, this may spiral into
tensions between the riparian countries, if appropriate frameworks are not
established to tackle this transboundary problem.
Before going further into the geopolitical implications of impacts of climate
change in South Asia in terms of water security, the implications of water insecurity
caused by climate change need to be discussed. Climate change is already affecting
food and livelihood securities in the region due to the negative impacts of climate
change on water availability. An increase in the temperatures and a reduction in
mean annual precipitation during the monsoons in many parts of the region are
linked with low agricultural yields. For example, studies indicate that there was a
reduction in wheat yield by 5.2% during 1981–2009 in India, despite adaptation
measures (Aryal et al. 2019). In another case, Pakistan which depends excessively
on its agricultural sector for economic security is highly climate-vulnerable, render-
ing nearly 37% of its population susceptible to food insecurity, according to a study
(Anwar 2020). Apart from variability in water availability, disasters such as floods
also have wide-ranging impacts on crop yields. Moreover, the dependence of a large
portion of the population on sectors such as agriculture that depend to a large extent
on water causes livelihood insecurities with far-reaching impacts such as poverty,
migration, and gender inequalities.
Besides triggering the visible variability in the South West monsoon, climate
change also threatens water security in South Asia by affecting the glaciers in the
Hindu Kush Himalaya (HKH) region. Although the glaciers of the Tibetan Plateau
are often focused upon, other countries such as Afghanistan which houses nearly
4000 glaciers are also witnessing the adverse effects of climate change. The glaciers
80 D. Jayaram and G. Sethi

are a major contributor to river flows in the entire region; while some river basins
such as the Indus Basin are more dependent on glacial meltwater, others are less
so. In any case, the variability in glacial meltwater due to glacial retreat caused by
rising temperatures has a direct impact on water security. As per a study, glacial
meltwater contributes to nearly “9% of wheat production, 15% of rice, 28% of
cotton, and 17% of sugarcane annually” in the Indus Basin (Lutz et al. 2016).
Variabilities in the meltwater can lead to both floods and droughts in the region.
There are other ways in which climate change affects water security. For instance,
there are many water-related slow and rapid onset disasters that adversely affect
water security with wide-ranging implications for health and other sectors. Disasters
such as extreme precipitation events or floods that are exacerbated by climate change
are known to pollute drinking water sources and/or disrupt water services (Grigg
2016). Slow onset phenomena such as sea level rise, on the other hand, could lead to
intrusion of seawater into fresh water, thereby affecting water quality and rendering
the water unusable for drinking, agricultural, and other purposes (Mills et al. 2021).
These changes have direct and indirect implications for health and livelihood
securities, and they also affect population mobility patterns. For example, subsis-
tence farmers who are constantly affected by these disasters are forced to migrate
from rural to urban areas for better livelihood opportunities. At times, they also
migrate to other countries, as seen in the case of the seasonal migration of people
from Nepal to India (Gautam 2017). Similarly, water insecurity caused by climate
change also affects human health adversely by triggering water-borne diseases such
as cholera, diarrhoea, and typhoid (Sen et al. 2017).

Climate Change, Water Security, and Conflict in South Asia

The nexus between climate change, water security, and conflict are crucial in South
Asia. The region’s countries have a set of interests as far as resources are concerned
that are tied to their historical, geographic, socio-economic, political, and cultural
backgrounds. Often, these interests overlap, merge, or compete with each other –
leading to different dynamics of resource sharing relations, particularly river water
sharing. The Indus, Ganges, and Brahmaputra are three major river basins shared by
many of the region’s countries, indicating a complex interdependence between them.
Even though the Hindu Kush Himalayan region that feeds most of the rivers of South
Asia is one of the world’s largest freshwater reservoirs, many scholars believe that
water scarcity may likely lead to conflictual situations between the region’s coun-
tries. Since the waters of these rivers are critical for hydroelectricity production,
industrial expansion, agricultural stability, urbanization, and other developments,
any form of water scarcity would be seen as a huge security dilemma (Tripathi
2011). Depletion of surface water levels in several parts of the region in light of these
developmental activities has led to over-exploitation of groundwater, which has also
emerged as a major concern. These problems are compounded by the influence of
climate change, which is altering the river flows during both dry and monsoon
4 Geopolitics of Climate Change and Water Security in South Asia:. . . 81

seasons. In such a scenario, the requirement for stable water levels may cause
bilateral water-sharing agreements to be reviewed in the future to incorporate climate
change concerns within the agreements (Dutta 2021). In this section, India’s hydro-
diplomacy with its neighbours provides an overview of the existing disputes over
water sharing and the potential impacts of climate change on these relations.
The Qinghai–Tibetan Plateau in China is the source of water for major river
basins in South Asia. China, being an upper riparian country, has a strategic
advantage over the lower riparian countries as it could control the flow of water
through its engineering projects, especially large-scale dams that it is famous for
constructing all over the country. Despite signing several Memorandums of Under-
standing (MoUs) with the lower riparian countries, China is not very transparent
about its dam constructions on the transboundary rivers. Even though China has
agreed to share hydrological data about transboundary rivers with India, there have
been occasions when China did not share the data with India, citing technical
reasons. For instance, this happened during the Doklam border standoff between
Indian and Chinese armies. If one takes the case of the River Brahmaputra that
originates in Tibet, both India (the north-eastern region) and Bangladesh are depen-
dent on its waters. China has laid out proposals to build several dams on the river that
are sources of concern for the downstream countries (Krishnan 2021). Not only can
it use these dams to create floods or flood-like situations in the downstream coun-
tries, but also pollution and other factors could reduce water quality and affect the
populations. As has been made clear by China already, it could also use this as a
strategic asset during conflictual situations.
In the case of India–Bangladesh river water sharing relations, longstanding
disagreements exist over River Ganges and River Teesta. The two countries share
54 rivers. Although the two countries have signed the Ganges Water Sharing Treaty,
there have been several disputes raised by Bangladesh over sharing of water by India
with Bangladesh during the dry season as well as the low availability of flow at the
Farakka Barrage, which is the centre-point of the Indo-Bangladesh dispute. In fact,
with climate change and other factors, the treaty has failed to assess the future
projected flow appropriately (Rahman et al. 2019). River Teesta is another shared
river that joins the Brahmaputra in Bangladesh, on which India and Bangladesh have
so far not been able to reach an agreement due to domestic political concerns within
India, particularly in West Bengal. Bangladesh has sought an agreement that follows
the principle of equitable distribution of the waters. This river is vital for Sikkim and
West Bengal in India, and the Rangpur region of Bangladesh, especially for the
agricultural sector (Gambhir 2021). Furthermore, China has also entered the fray by
expressing interest in financing Bangladesh Government’s Teesta River Compre-
hensive Management and Restoration Project (Bhattacharjee 2020).
Nepal and India have signed water cooperation agreements on major rivers such
as the Kosi, Gandaki, Karnali, and Mahakali, primarily for hydropower and irriga-
tion projects, including dams or barrages. Most of the projects are still in the
pipeline, with a major exception being the Kosi barrage that has been held respon-
sible for floods in Nepal. Many analysts in Nepal also accuse India of infringing
upon Nepal’s sovereignty by constructing the dam as well as wilful ignorance about
82 D. Jayaram and G. Sethi

the challenges faced by Nepal’s population due to the barrage. The embankments
have not been effective in reducing sedimentation and flooding (Bagale 2020). Since
the signing of the 1994 Kosi Agreement, the disagreements on water rights-related
issues have largely remained unresolved. Rivers with smaller catchment areas have
been overlooked, leading to a non-holistic view of water sharing between the two
countries. River Mahakali forms a natural boundary between India and Nepal
(demarcated during the British colonial era) and this has also long been a source
of contention between the two countries. Although they arrived as the Mahakali
Treaty in 1996, the provisions of the treaty are yet to be implemented. Owing to the
disagreements over interpretations of water entitlements, perceived Indian unilater-
alism in decision-making, and cost-benefit sharing mechanisms, many storage dam
projects have been stalled and Indo-Nepal water cooperation has reached a deadlock
(Bagale and Adhikari 2020). Hence, the scope for further cooperation on issues such
as climate change is contingent on the success of the existing arrangements.
When it comes to India and Bhutan, there have so far not been conflicts. The two
countries have been engaging in hydropower cooperation for over five decades. The
cooperation began with the construction of small-scale hydroelectric projects such as
Tala, Chukha, and Kurichu. Bhutan has a 30,000-megawatt hydroelectric power
producing capability (Shree 2020). Both countries signed a 35-year ‘Power Purchase
Agreement’ in 2006, allowing Bhutan and India to generate and import 1020 MW of
hydropower, respectively. Although the two countries have shared friendly relations,
there have been small-scale opposition to India-funded dam projects in Bhutan due
to their environmental impacts. Furthermore, in 2020, several Assamese farmers
claimed that Bhutan restricted the flow of River Kalanadi’s water to their agricultural
fields, but Bhutan rejected this claim and clarified that the river water supply to
Assam was disrupted due to heavy rains (Yashwant 2020).
Perhaps the most conflictual relationship that exists in South Asia, as far as water
security is concerned, is the one between India and Pakistan. India–Pakistan river
water sharing relations have been marred by disputes despite the signing of the 1960
Indus Waters Treaty. Although some scholars have pointed towards the possibility
of a water war between the two countries, they have so far used the treaty as a
confidence building measure and adhered to the treaty obligations even during wars,
small-scale conflicts, and border skirmishes. The division of the basin between the
two countries follows the model of land partition, which reduces the scope of joint
management of the basin despite it being the need of the hour with worsening
climate change. The Indus is a geopolitical trump card for India, as it is the upper
riparian and all the rivers, including the ones allocated to Pakistan flow through
India. Some literature also points to the linkages drawn between the river water
sharing issue and the Kashmir issue, as the headwaters of major rivers such as the
River Indus flow through Jammu and Kashmir. Most of the disputes over the treaty
are addressed through the dispute resolution mechanisms, but lately with the grow-
ing number of cases of Pakistan-sponsored cross-border terrorism and domestic
rhetoric to not stop the flow of the rivers in response to these attacks (such as Uri,
Pathankot, Pulwama, etc.), the calls for scrapping the treaty have grown stronger in
India. Similarly, in Pakistan too, the demand for reviewing the treaty in light of
4 Geopolitics of Climate Change and Water Security in South Asia:. . . 83

Indian dams on the western rivers (allocated to Pakistan) – River Jhelum and River
Chenab – has gained momentum. While certain disputes such as the one on India’s
Baglihar dam were resolved by the World Bank (that mediated the treaty negotia-
tions), others such as the one on India’s Kishanganga hydroelectric project were
taken by Pakistan to the Permanent Court of Arbitration (PCA). In both these
examples, the verdicts were favourable to India (Jayaram 2020a, b). Yet, for
Pakistan, which is entirely dependent on the Indus basin for its water supply, the
fear that India could restrict the flow of water to its territory is a longstanding one and
will not cease to exist anytime soon (Qamar et al. 2019). At the same time, for Indian
states that are dependent on the western rivers, primarily Jammu and Kashmir, the
ability to use these waters is linked with the capacity to spur developmental and
agricultural activities.

Regional Cooperation on Climate Change in South Asia

As already discussed in the earlier section, several treaties have been signed by the
region’s countries on transboundary rivers. However, these treaties largely fail to
address the newly emerged and future challenges, including climate change. Nev-
ertheless, climate change has emerged as an area of cooperation in regional organi-
zations as well as at the bilateral levels. This section primarily looks into the role of
regional organizations in promoting climate change cooperation.
The South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC), which
includes India, Bangladesh, Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Bhutan, and
Afghanistan, was founded in 1985 to advance economic and social welfare in the
region. The South Asian countries began to focus on environmental issues in the
early 1980s, as evident from the establishment of the South Asia Cooperative
Environment Scheme in 1982. This forms a bedrock of major agreements reached
by the SAARC member states thereafter, including the SAARC Plan of Action on
Climate Change. SAARC recognized the need for a regional approach to addressing
climate change-related concerns through this Action Plan as well as the 2010
Thimphu statement on climate change. As a result, various regional projects were
initiated, including the setting up of regional centres that recognize various aspects
of climate change impacts. For instance, the SAARC Environment Centre was
merged with the SAARC Energy Centre (SEC) to protect and efficiently utilize
natural resources by adopting sustainable natural resource management practices
through cooperation and research among member states. Similarly, the SAARC
Disaster Risk Management Centre (SDMC) was tasked to advance effective disaster
management in South Asia through policy advocacy and capacity-building (Islam
and Kieu 2020).
The 2010 Thimphu statement sought to reinforce the timely implementation of
SAARC’s previous declarations and action plans on climate change. It also laid the
foundation for the establishment of an intergovernmental expert group on climate
change to augment policy making for regional cooperation. Furthermore, the
84 D. Jayaram and G. Sethi

statement focussed on afforestation and reforestation campaigns in the region;

commissioning of a joint study on climate risks in consonance with the social,
economic, and environmental challenges; promotion of low-carbon technology
and renewable energy, etc. Most importantly, it also sowed the seeds of the
SAARC Monsoon Initiative Programme (to study the effects of climate change on
the monsoon patterns), SAARC Marine Initiative (shared water bodies), and
SAARC Intergovernmental Mountain Initiative (shared mountain ecosystems, espe-
cially the glaciers). However, SAARC’s efforts have mostly concentrated on decla-
rations, endorsements, and agreements, indicating a lack of political will among the
member nations to implement them due to geopolitical rivalries (Islam and Kieu
2020).
Another regional organization, the Bay of Bengal Initiative for Multi-Sectoral
Technological and Economic Cooperation (BIMSTEC) also deals with climate
change as a priority area of concern. The South Asian countries belonging to
BIMSTEC are Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Nepal, and Sri Lanka. On the one hand,
the Bay of Bengal region is extremely vulnerable to extreme weather events such as
cyclones that have become more intense in recent years, which is attributed to
climate change. On the other hand, three major river basins – Ganga, Meghna, and
the Brahmaputra – lie in this region, facing the brunt of climate change impacts in the
form of variabilities in monsoon, extreme precipitation events, glacial meltwater, etc.
Sub-regional groupings such as BBIN (Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, and Nepal) have
also been focussing on cooperation in river water sharing through initiatives such as
hydropower generation and water-borne transportation of goods. Proposals to estab-
lish an arrangement that aims at promoting basin-wide water resources management
have also been floated, but they have not taken off yet (Karim 2020). BIMSTEC
countries have shown solidarity with the Paris Agreement in unison and agreed to
cooperate to tackle the effects of climate change. It has also set up the BIMSTEC
Centre on Weather and Climate, of which the first meeting of the Governing Board
and Scientific Advisory Council was held in India in 2018. However, BIMSTEC’s
initiatives have not gained momentum either, despite being seen as a constructive
alternative to the SAARC. While BIMSTEC has made some strides in areas such as
disaster management, the implementation of various initiatives has been delayed
largely due to a reactive approach to climate change (Roy 2017).
The International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development (ICIMOD) is yet
another intergovernmental organization that has targeted programmes for climate
change and water security in the Hindu Kush Himalaya (HKH) region. The organi-
zation is composed of eight countries – Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, China,
India, Myanmar, Nepal, and Pakistan. The ICIMOD works towards building adap-
tive and resilience strategies that could be implemented to protect mountain ecosys-
tems and communities. Considering that the HKH region is not only one of the most
climate-vulnerable regions in the world but also remains backwards in terms of
socio-economic development makes it imperative for regional organizations such as
the ICIMOD to focus on sustainable development by mobilizing multidisciplinary
research on the region’s vulnerabilities and requirements (Macchi et al. 2009).
4 Geopolitics of Climate Change and Water Security in South Asia:. . . 85

The ICIMOD has a River Basins and Cryosphere (RBC) Regional Programme
under which it carries out research on water and cryosphere science; promotes
gender-sensitive climate change, water, and disaster risk reduction initiatives; sup-
ports transboundary cooperation on water security and disaster management, etc.
ICIMOD’s approach is considered to include ‘managing water resources, prioritiz-
ing the sustainable use of water and land resources to enhance livelihoods, under-
standing the role of the cryosphere and scenarios for future water availability,
improving the health of environments, and reducing water-related disaster risks in
river basins.’1 It focusses on a range of activities, including ‘real-time flood outlook,
community-based flood warning, drought monitoring and so on,’ and ‘emphasises
the importance of developing resilient systems to address concerns regarding rapid
urbanisation, water scarcity, migration and food insecurity, and the associated
security challenges’ (Jayaram 2020b). However, the ICIMOD’s effectiveness is
also hampered by geopolitical conundrums, including the recent border conflicts
between India and China in Doklam and Eastern Ladakh. These tensions essentially
impede the prospects of joint research on climate change between them. In addition,
Chinese inroads into South Asian countries such as Nepal, even in terms of natural
resource management through infrastructure (dams) development, leads to compe-
tition with India and renders regional cooperation secondary to national and geopo-
litical interests (Pillai 2021).

The Way Forward: Prospects for Cooperation

Based on the climate change-related water security vulnerabilities in the region,

there is ample scope for transboundary cooperation, despite geopolitical entangle-
ments. The protection and sustenance of the HKH region should be a priority for the
countries of the region that are dependent on the rivers that originate in this region.
This is critical for water, food, livelihood, and energy security. Countries such as
Nepal and Bhutan are excessively dependent on hydropower generation from rivers
of the Ganga–Meghna–Brahmaputra basin for their energy security and economic
development. Hence, sustainable and efficient use of water resources should be the
way forward for natural resource management and climate change adaptation. Any
transboundary efforts towards joint river basin management need to be built upon
nation-level water management policies and practices so that more effective knowl-
edge and data sharing mechanisms and institutional arrangements can be developed
under transboundary frameworks. This would also help gauge each country’s
resource (water, energy, etc.) requirements, thereby also helping build a better
understanding between them in terms of costs and benefits of cooperative resource

1
More information about ICIMOD’s “River Basins and Cryosphere (RBC) Regional Programme”
is available at: https://www.icimod.org/initiative/about-river-basins-and-cryosphere (retrieved on
January 17, 2022).
86 D. Jayaram and G. Sethi

management strategies. In this context, strengthening and sharing technical solutions

such as monitoring systems, early warning systems, and climate services could pave
the way for deepened regional cooperation.
As much as focussing on bottom-up approaches, there is a need for strong
diplomatic and political will at the top for developing trust and designing such
regional and transboundary frameworks in a region like South Asia. This is partic-
ularly relevant in the case of transboundary river water sharing treaties that need to
be climate-proofed. For instance, due to flow variability in the rivers on account of
climate change, all water sharing arrangements should keep allocation mechanisms
more flexible. Similarly, since many disasters are also transboundary, South Asian
countries could design mechanisms and incorporate special provisions on climate
change adaptation and disaster risk reduction within the treaties as areas of cooper-
ation. This could potentially engender initiatives to build adaptive capacities of the
most vulnerable communities, develop locally led programmes on resource man-
agement and climate change adaptation, and reduce conflicts over resource sharing
within and across borders. There needs to be additional focus on groundwater levels
in addition to surface water management, as the former tends to be ignored in
transboundary arrangements. Variabilities in surface water availability have led to
over-extraction of groundwater in several parts of the region that needs to be
addressed urgently. Furthermore, in the HKH region, springs are drying up faster
or are becoming seasonal due to impacts of climate change as well as infrastructure
development, which portends a major threat to water security in the region
(Bhattacharya 2019). Similarly, transboundary river pollution is yet another issue
that brings attention to the need for including aspects of water quality too within such
arrangements. In most cases, data sharing includes hydrological (flow) information
only. Hence, establishing institutions for knowledge creation and joint scientific
assessments, and ultimately for joint river basin management and climate change
adaptation strategies should be a priority for South Asian countries (Jayaram 2019).
Cooperation among South Asian countries is not easy to achieve due to several
hurdles discussed in this chapter, including geopolitical rivalries and the failure of
the regional organizations in scaling up cooperation in various sectors. It is imper-
ative that the existing regional organizations, which have already initiated processes
to develop cooperative climate action mechanisms, are strengthened to find and
implement climate solutions cost-effectively since the region’s countries are either
developing or least developed. One could also argue that the way forward for South
Asian countries in addressing climate change and water security could emphasize a
concerted and coordinated approach towards the goals enshrined under the Paris
Agreement (climate change), the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction
2015–2030 and the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). Individually, these
countries have instituted policies to implement these international frameworks
nationally, but there is scope for scaling them up to the regional level as well as
building synergies between them. When it comes to climate change, the South Asian
countries can achieve more by joining hands with each other rather than acting on
climate change alone.
4 Geopolitics of Climate Change and Water Security in South Asia:. . . 87

Acknowledgements The first author would like to thank Aishwarya R. J., Postgraduate Student in
the Department of Geopolitics and International Relations, Manipal Academy of Higher Education
(MAHE), Karnataka, India, for providing support in copy-editing this chapter.

References

Anwar R (2020, November 4) The impact of climate change on Pakistan’s food security. Centre for
Strategic and Contemporary Research. https://cscr.pk/explore/themes/energy-environment/the-
impact-of-climate-change-on-pakistans-food-security/
Aryal JP, Sapkota TB, Khurana R, Khatri-Chhetri A, Rahut DB, Jat ML (2019) Climate change and
agriculture in South Asia: adaptation options in smallholder production systems. Environ Dev
Sustain 22(6):5045–5075. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10668-019-00414-4
Bagale DR (2020) Nepal–India water cooperation: consequences of mutuality or hegemony? Water
Policy 22(6):1098–1108. https://doi.org/10.2166/WP.2020.135
Bagale DR, Adhikari KD (2020) Mahakali treaty: delay in implementation and resulting impacts
from Nepal’s perspective. Water Policy 22(4):658–669. https://doi.org/10.2166/WP.2020.141
Bhattacharya B (2019, March 29) Water expert Aditi Mukherji: India’s drying Himalayan springs is
a severe crisis. Live Mint. https://lifestyle.livemint.com/news/talking-point/water-expert-aditi-
mukherji-india-s-drying-himalayan-springs-is-a-severe-crisis-111641632484109.html
Bhattacharjee K (2020, August 22) What does Chinese interest in the Teesta mean for India? The
Hindu. https://www.thehindu.com/news/international/the-hindu-explains-what-does-chinese-
interest-in-the-teesta-mean-for-india/article32420205.ece
Das K, Bandyopadhyay RK (2015) Climate change adaptation in the framework of regional
cooperation in South Asia. Law Review 9(1):40–54. https://www.jstor.org/stable/43859672
Dutta V (2021) Water conflicts and resistance: issues and challenges in South Asia. Routledge India
Gambhir M (2021, May 31) Teesta dispute and India-Bangladesh relations. Centre for Land
Warfare Studies. https://www.claws.in/teesta-dispute-and-india-bangladesh-relations/
Gautam Y (2017) Seasonal migration and livelihood resilience in the face of climate change in
Nepal. Mt Res Dev 37(4):436. https://doi.org/10.1659/mrd-journal-d-17-00035.1
Grigg NS (2016) Water security, disasters, and risk assessment. Integrated Water Resource Man-
agement, pp 375–393. https://doi.org/10.1057/978-1-137-57615-6_20
Islam MS, Kieu E (2020) Tackling regional climate change impacts and food security issues: a
critical analysis across ASEAN, PIF, and SAARC. Sustainability 12(3):883. https://doi.org/10.
3390/su12030883
Jayaram D (2019, November 12) Climate-Fragility Risk Brief: South Asia. Adelphi. https://climate-
security-expert-network.org/sites/climate-security-expert-network.com/files/documents/csen_
climate_fragility_risk_brief_-_south_asia_0.pdf
Jayaram D (2020a) India–Pakistan river water sharing: prospects for environmental
peacebuilding. In: Bandyopadhyay S, Magsi H, Sen S, Ponce Dentinho T (eds) Water Man-
agement in South Asia. Springer, Cham, pp 175–202. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-
35237-0_11
Jayaram D (2020b, April 1) How to strengthen climate services and climate diplomacy in South
Asia. Climate Diplomacy. https://climate-diplomacy.org/magazine/cooperation/how-
strengthen-climate-services-and-climate-diplomacy-south-asia
Karim T (2020) BIMSTEC and its future: connecting south and southeast Asia. National Security
3(1):12–17. https://www.vifindia.org/sites/default/files/national-security-vol-3-issue-1-essay-
TKarim.pdf
Krishnan A (2021, March 8) China gives the green light for the first downstream dams on the
Brahmaputra. The Hindu. https://www.thehindu.com/news/international/china-gives-green-
light-for-first-downstream-dams-on-brahmaputra/article34014912.ece
88 D. Jayaram and G. Sethi

Lacombe G, Chinnasamy P, Nicol A (2019) Climate risks and solutions: adaptation frameworks for
water resources planning, development and management in south Asia: review of climate
change science, knowledge and impacts on water resources in south Asia. International Water
Management Institute. https://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/resources/sawi-paper-2.pdf
Lutz AF, Immerzeel WW, Kraaijenbrink PDA, Shrestha AB, Bierkens MFP (2016) Climate change
impacts on the upper Indus hydrology: sources, shifts and extremes. PLoS One 11(11):
e0165630. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0165630
Macchi M, Kollmair M., Sharma E, Dekens J (2009) Strategic framework on climate change
adaptation. International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development. http://www.icimod.
org/resources/575
Mills L, Janeiro J, Martins F (2021) Effects of sea level rise on salinity and tidal flooding patterns in
the Guadiana Estuary. J Water Clim Change 12(7):2933–2947. https://doi.org/10.2166/wcc.
2021.202
Mishra BK, Kumar P, Saraswat C, Chakraborty S, Gautam A (2021) Water security in a changing
environment: concept, challenges and solutions. Water 13:490. https://doi.org/10.3390/
w13040490
Pillai AV (2021, November 18) Reviving South Asian cooperation, climate first. The Third Pole.
https://www.thethirdpole.net/en/regional-cooperation/climate-south-asian-cooperation-saarc/
Qamar MU, Azmat M, Claps P (2019) Pitfalls in transboundary Indus Water Treaty: a perspective
to prevent unattended threats to the global security. Npj Clean Water 2(1). https://doi.org/10.
1038/s41545-019-0046-x
Rahman KS, Islam Z, Navera UK, Ludwig F (2019) A critical review of the Ganges water sharing
arrangement. Water Policy 21(2):259–276. https://doi.org/10.2166/wp.2019.164
Roy S (2010, December 1). Climate change and water sharing in South Asia: conflict or cooper-
ation? The Asia Foundation. https://asiafoundation.org/2010/12/01/climate-change-and-water-
sharing-in-south-asia-conflict-or-cooperation/
Roy A (2017, October 18) BIMSTEC and climate change: setting a common agenda. Observer
Research Foundation. https://www.orfonline.org/research/bimstec-climate-change-setting-com
mon-agenda/
Saeed F, Fuentes-Hutfilter U (2021, January 27) Renewed hope for tackling climate change – could
it boost south asia cooperation? Climate Analytics. https://climateanalytics.org/blog/2021/
renewed-hope-for-tackling-climate-change-could-it-boost-south-asia-cooperation/
Schoeters K (2002) Regional cooperation in South-Asia on climate change: issues and concerns.
Dev Altern 12(10) https://www.devalt.org/newsletter/oct02/of_4.htm
Sen B, Dhimal M, Latheef AT, Ghosh U (2017) Climate change: health effects and response in
South Asia. BMJ:j5117. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.j5117
Shree R (2020) Mapping the water disputes in India: nature, issues and emerging trends. In: Ranjan
A (ed) Water issues in himalayan South Asia, pp 103–123. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-32-
9614-5_5
Tripathi NK (2011) Scarcity dilemma as security dilemma: geopolitics of water governance in
South Asia. Econ Polit Wkly 46(7):67–72. https://www.jstor.org/stable/27918149
Yashwant S (2020, June 26) Assam farmers allege that Bhutan is blocking the flow of the Kalanadi
River to its paddy fields. Scroll. https://scroll.in/article/965781/did-bhutan-really-obstruct-flow-
of-water-to-assam-or-was-it-just-a-misunderstanding
 Part III
Water (Water/Sea-Level Rise/Precipitation)
Chapter 5
Vulnerability Analysis of Sea Level Rise
(SLR) on a Micro-tidal Coast: A Case Study
of Nagapattinam Coast

R S Kankara, Padmini Gunasekaran, and Dhanalakshmi Silamban

Abstract The IPCC sixth assessment report shows that the world will probably reach
or exceed 1.5 degrees C (2.7 degrees F) of warming within just the next two decades and
the oceans will rise between 10 and 30 inches (26–77 cm) by 2100 (Globally). The
report highlights that the sea levels in South Asia could rise by 0.4 m in the low
emissions scenario, about 0.5 m in the current pledges scenario, and 0.7 m in the high
emissions scenario. Sea levels rise (SLR) has been rapidly increasing, with devastating
effects on coastal habitats farther inland, it can cause destructive erosion, wetland
flooding, aquifer and agricultural soil contamination with salt, and lost habitat for
fish, birds, and plants. Studies by Indian scientists reveal that the trends of sea level
rise are estimated to be 1.3 mm/year along the Indian coasts during the past 40–50 years
(Unnikrishnan et al., Curr Sci 90(3), 2006). Also, impacts of storm surges, tsunamis,
coastal floods, and coastal erosion in the low-lying coastal area cause gradual loss of
coastal land. In the present study, the impact of sea level rise on the sandy coast of the
Nagapattinam sector is assessed to understand the devastation incurred in both physical
and socioeconomic aspects. In the analysis, it is further noted that the exposed vulner-
able sectors to sea level rise are increasing with changing climate. The quantitative SLR
impact assessment method suggested in the study forms the basic framework for coastal
planners in disaster mitigation and building a climate-resilient community.

Keywords Sea level rise · Coastal slope · Regional mean sea level rise ·
Geomorphology · Shoreline Retreat · Climate Change

Introduction

Climate change is a global or regional change in weather patterns that lasts for a long
period, and it has become a global concern over the past few decades. Climate
change refers to the change in the environmental conditions of the earth. It is caused

R. S. Kankara (*) · P. Gunasekaran · D. Silamban

National Centre for Coastal Research (NCCR), Ministry of Earth Sciences,
Government of India, NIOT-Campus, Chennai, India
e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 91

N. Khare (ed.), Science, Policies and Conflicts of Climate Change, Springer Climate,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-16254-1_5
92 R. S. Kankara et al.

by many internal and external factors, i.e., by the increased levels of atmospheric
carbon dioxide, which is produced by the use of fossil fuels, such as exhaust from
cars and trucks, burning trash, and factory emissions. These are also contributing to
global warming, which is a gradual increase in the overall temperature of the Earth’s
atmosphere. These climatic changes affect life on the Earth in various ways and have
various impacts on the ecosystem and ecology. Due to these changes, many species
of plants and animals have gone extinct. Another is the loss of sea ice and melting of
ice sheets, which is caused by the increased temperatures. The melting ice sheets are
destroying the wildlife population and increasing the sea level.
Sea level rise is not uniform across the globe. Coastal communities are affected
by their local sea level rise, which reflects global sea level rise, changes in local land
elevation, tides, and winds. Changes in sea level occur for many reasons in different
scenarios. The global average sea level rise, local sea level rise – sometimes called
“relative sea level rise” – happens at different rates in different places. Tide gauges
record “relative sea level” change due to vertical land movements like natural
isostatic movements, sedimentation, tectonic processes, and even anthropogenic
activities. Differences in atmospheric pressure, winds, ocean currents, and density
of seawater cause spatial and temporal variations in sea level concerning the Geoid.
Over these timescales, the most important climate-related factors are likely to be the
thermal expansion of the oceans and melting of land ice (but not floating ice shelves
or sea ice). According to the 6th IPCC report on the Indian Ocean–South Pacific
region, a new tide-gauge based reconstruction finds a Regional Mean Sea Level rise
(RSLR) change of 1.33 [0.80–1.86] mm year-1 over 1900–2018 (Frederikse et al.
2020) compared to a Global Mean Sea Level (GMSL) change of around
1.7 mm year-1. RSLR rates based on satellite altimetry for the period 1993–2018
increased to 3.65 [3.23–4.08] mm year-1 (Frederikse et al. 2020), compared to a
GMSL change of 3.25 mm year-1.
Indian Ocean sea level shows large regional variability in all temporal scales,
interannual to decadal and multi-decadal scales. Regionally, sea level variations can
deviate considerably from the global mean due to various geophysical processes.
These include changes in ocean circulations, which partially can be attributed to
natural, internal modes of variability in the complex Earth’s climate system and
anthropogenic influence. The Indian Ocean sea level trends since the 1960s exhibit
a basin-wide pattern, with sea level falling in the southwest tropical basin and rising
elsewhere. While sea level rises at a faster rate in some oceanic regions, such as in the
north Indian Ocean, sea level has shown a fall in the thermocline ridge region south of
the equator in the Indian Ocean. Since the extreme sea level is projected to increase
with an increase in mean sea level and climate extremes, an extensive network of tide
gauges with co-located GPS systems is needed along the Indian coastline, as our
coastline is among the most vulnerable and densely populated regions of the globe.
Erosion of beaches and coastal lands, salinization of soils and farmlands, and
saltwater intrusion into aquifers. Natural systems may not be able to keep up with the
rapid rates of sea level rise. The salinity of freshwater rivers and wetlands may
increase. Tidal wetlands and mangroves, which have some ability to migrate in
response to rising seas, may find they have nowhere to migrate to because of human
5 Vulnerability Analysis of Sea Level Rise (SLR) on a Micro-tidal Coast: A. . . 93

development that hems them in. When sea levels rise, it is not just those below the
new high tide line that have to worry. Rising seas mean a higher potential for flood
events of all kinds. Tidal flooding, storm surge, and other forms of flooding in
low-lying coastal areas become even more likely; what the IPCC calls “extreme sea
level” events. In the absence of adaptation, more intense and frequent extreme sea
level events, together with trends in coastal development will increase expected
annual flood damages by 2–3 orders of magnitude by 2100.

Study Area

Nagapattinam lies at 10.77°N 79.83°E. The town is bounded by the Bay of Bengal in
the east, Uppanar River in the south, Thiruvarur district in the west, Thanjavur in the
North West and Karaikal & Puducherry in the north. The town lies at sea level. The
study area constitutes the coastal stretch of the deltaic region of the famous east-
flowing river Cauvery (Fig. 5.1). Fluvial-marine interferences and deltaic plains
supporting the agricultural sector influence the region. Paleo strandlines are through-
out the regions south of the coast with dunes at some places. Five prominent E-W
trending sand ridges alternating with tidal flats and mudflats referred to as cheniers
are seen. These strandline deposits mainly comprise sand and salty clay. Beach along
the coast occurs as narrow zones. Monsoon is often observed with cyclonic storms
and flooding of the rivers and canals. The study area has a history of extreme events,
for example, 1992 flooding, 1993 cyclone, and 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami. Tourism
is one of the biggest industries along the coast, which flourishes with domestic and

Fig. 5.1 Study area map

94 R. S. Kankara et al.

international visitors. However, frequent occurrences of tropical cyclones, floods,

and other coastal erosion and tide have constantly affected the life and livelihood of
people. Sea level rise is yet another threat faced by the coast. Climate change-
induced sea level change will increase the impact of storm surges and coastal erosion
on the coast. The study region’s most crucial need is to assess the impact of sea level
rise and identify regions vulnerable to SLR for effective planning and mitigations
measures.

Methodology

In the present study, the erosion trend along the coast is assessed since 1990. Later,
the shoreline change rate determined is used in the modified Brunn rule to map the
inundation extents to assess the impact of sea level rise. Using the sea level change
rate, a coastal exposure index attempts to identify the regions vulnerable to SLR, as
shown in Fig. 5.2. The sections below elaborated on the data used and the method-
ology followed in the study.

Shoreline Change Rate Determination

Data Used

The 30 years of shoreline details since 1990 were obtained from satellite images of
multiple sensors, as shown in Table 5.1. Satellite images of the years 1990 and 2000
are from thematic mapper (TM) and enhanced thematic mapper (ETM) sensors
downloaded from the United States geological survey (USGS) web portal earth
explorer-https://earthexplorer.usgs.gov/. Images for 2006, 2008, and 2012–2019
were procured from the National Remote Sensing Centre (NRSC). For the year
2020, sentinel 2 images downloaded from the earth explorer site were used. Data is
chosen such that it is cloud-free and preferably of the same season in all years. NRSC
provides level 1, i.e., both geometrically and radiometrically corrected data. Though
the data are geometrically corrected, rectification is performed using ground control
points (GCP) collected from the field to overcome possible edge matching errors and
shifts in images, which highly affect the accuracy of the shoreline change study.

Image Rectification

Permanent points (road intersection, bridge corner, and building corner) which were
locatable both in satellite image and field were taken as GCPs, and their position
(longitude & latitude) was collected using a handheld Trimble geoexplorer global
5 Vulnerability Analysis of Sea Level Rise (SLR) on a Micro-tidal Coast: A. . . 95

Fig. 5.2 Methodology workflow

Table 5.1 Details of satellite Satellite data sensor Year Resolution (in m)
images used in the shoreline
TM (Landsat – 4,5) 1990 30
study
ETM+ (Landsat – 7) 2000 30
Pan (Cartosat – 1) 2006 2.5
LISS III (Resourcesat – 1) 2008 23.5
LISS IV (Resourcesat – 2) 2012–2019 5.8
Sentinnel 2 2020 10
96 R. S. Kankara et al.

positioning system (Projection type – WGS 1984, geographic, accuracy <5 m). In
this study, polynomial functions of the second order, as shown in Eq. 5.1 with six
terms for correction to translation in Cartesian axes, rotation, scaling, torsion and
convexity (Mohammed and Eisa 2013) was used in rectification. First, 2013 year
images were considered base images and rectified by second-order polynomial
equations with at least 8–12 well-distributed GCP in Erdas imagine 2014 software.
Rectified images were quality checked (QC) for edge matching, and root means
square errors (RMSE), as shown in Eq. 5.2.

pðx, yÞ = a1 þ a2 x þ a3 y þ a4 x2 þ a5 xy
þ a6 y2 with six coefficients ak ,k = 1,2,3, . . . ::6: ð5:1Þ
rffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
Xh i2
RMSE = ðxs - xr Þ2 þ ðxs - xr Þ2 ; r = 1,2:: . . . n ð5:2Þ

Where xs and ys are geospatial coordinates of the GCPs collected using GPS, xr and yr
are coordinates of the same point on the rectified satellite images. A minimum of six
points was used for each image for RMSE calculation. The total error was maintained
below 1 pixel, approximately 5 m for LISS-IV and 25 m for Landsat and LISS-III
images. Upon passing QC, the base year images were taken as a reference for
rectifying the rest of the images using the image to image registration technique.

Shoreline Delineation

Before analyzing the shoreline change rate, it is necessary to define the shoreline
proxy for any particular scenes used in the analysis. In general, dune line, bluff-top/
cliff top, vegetation line, high water line, debris line, and berm line are the set of
shoreline differentiators. Anyone is followed uniformly throughout the study to
demarcate shoreline and shoreline change. The highest high water line can be used
as a shoreline proxy to reduce errors associated with tidal range (Kankara et al. 2014,
2015; Selvan et al. 2016). In the present study, a semi-automated method (automatic
and manual digitization) was carried out to extract the shoreline. It can reduce the
pixel misinterpretation error, which is more common in the automatic method.
Digitized shorelines were validated using shoreline data collected using a handheld
GPS of 5 m accuracy at the time of the field visit.

Approach to Estimating Shoreline Changes

The shoreline change analysis was carried out using a digital shoreline analysis
system (DSAS) and added to the ArcGIS environment (Thieler et al. 2009). A
baseline (onshore) was created parallel to the shoreline to generate transects
5 Vulnerability Analysis of Sea Level Rise (SLR) on a Micro-tidal Coast: A. . . 97

intersecting the shoreline at every 20-m interval using DSAS. Shoreline change rate
was estimated by statistical methods, viz., EPR and WLR. A short-term analysis that
quantifies decadal and quadrennial changes was carried out using the endpoint rate
(EPR) method. EPR at most supports two shorelines, with the rate of shoreline
change being estimated in m/years by dividing shoreline movement along a transect
and the time duration is taken for the change (Eq. 5.3).

EPR = Distance between Sy and So =Time duration between Sy and So ð5:3Þ

Where sy is the youngest shoreline, and so is the oldest shoreline.

Long-term shoreline change rates were calculated using the WLR method. The
WLR method is similar to the linear regression (LR) method, which involves fitting a
least-squares regression line to all shoreline points for a particular transect so that the
sum of residuals is minimized. The slope of such a regression line is the required
shoreline change rate. The main difference between LR and WLR is the weightage
value assigned to overcome errors that could incur due to the reliability of shoreline
data. While assigning weightage, higher resolution data sets are given greater
emphasis or weightage toward determining the best-fit line compared to unreliable
data sets. The weight is defined as a function of the variance in the uncertainty of the
measurement (Eq. 5.4).

1
w= ð5:4Þ
e2

Where W is weightage and e is shoreline uncertainty value.

Uncertainty in shoreline position (e): Several sources of errors affect the accuracy
of shoreline positions. In the present study, two positional errors, viz., Season (Es)
and tide (Etd), along with three measurement errors, viz., digitization (Ed), rectifica-
tion (Er), and satellite resolution (Ep), are considered while determining the uncer-
tainty value. Uncertainty value is the root mean square of shoreline positional errors
mentioned before (Eq. 5.5).
 
e = √ Es 2 þ Etd 2 þ Ed 2 þ Ep 2 þ Er 2 ð5:5Þ

Accordingly, along the study area, uncertainty values for shoreline obtained from
Landsat, Cartosat, LISS III, LISS IV, and sentinel are determined to be 23 m, 5.8 m,
20 m and 6.1 m and 6.5 m, respectively. Shoreline change rates arrived at in DSAS
using the WLR method for long term change analysis were classified into seven
classes, viz., high erosion (< -5 my-1), moderate erosion (-5 my-1 to -3 my-1),
low erosion (-3 my-1 to -0.5 my-1), stable (-0.5 my-1 to 0.5 my-1), low
accretion (0.5 my-1 to 3 my-1), moderate accretion (3 my-1 to 5 my-1), and high
accretion (>5 my-1). In short-term analysis, EPR values in the range of 0.5 to -
0.5 my-1 were characterized as stable coast. The shoreline changes > +0.5 my-1
were considered accretion, while changes < -0.5 my-1 were categorized as erosion.
98 R. S. Kankara et al.

Shoreline Retreat with Response to Sea Level Rise

The first step toward planning adaptation policies of SLR would be the projection of
SLR at the local level at different time scales and at its different scenarios as devised
by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). A range of values can be
used to develop an appreciation of the potential impact or determine thresholds in the
magnitude of impacts, vulnerabilities, and adaptation options (Parry et al. 2007). In
the sixth Assessment Report of IPCC, the scientists have defined a set of four
scenarios, denoted as Representative Concentration Pathways (RCPs). They are
identified by their approximate total radiative force in the year 2100. It includes
four RCPs with one mitigation scenario leading to a very low force level (RCP 2.6),
two stabilization scenarios (RCP 4.5 and RCP 6.0), and one scenario with very high
greenhouse gas emissions (RCP 8.5), thus the RCPs can represent a range of twenty-
first century climate policies. Climate models play a major role in projecting SLR
under different scenarios and at different time slices. However, RCPs are based on a
combination of integrated assessment models, simple climate models, atmospheric
chemistry and global carbon cycle models under the framework of the Coupled
Model Inter-comparison Project Phase 5 (CMIP5) of the World Climate Research
Programme (Green Facts 2015). To provide SLR projection at different RCPs (i.e.,
RCP 2.6, RCP 4.5, RCP 6.0, and RCP 8.5) of IPCC AR6 on a different time scale
(i.e., 2025, 2050, 2075, and 2100) at the local level using climate models.
Shoreline change rate and Projection of climate change-induced SLR at different
RCPs (2.6, 4.5, 6, and 8.5) of IPCC AR6 on the different time scales (2025, 2050,
2075, and 2100) for the coasts of Nagapattinam are used for calculating Shoreline
retreat. The Bruun Rule of shoreline response to sea level rise was formulated for
shorelines where all sediment is assumed to remain within the active profile and
applies to low-lying shores with sediment covered shore platforms (Bruun 1962).
The Bruun Rule appears to provide shoreline positions that underestimate retreat by
more than an order of magnitude (Nicholls and Stive 2004; Ranasinghe et al. 2007),
even for coastal settings under which it is assumed to work best, dune and barrier
coasts with no sediment transportation in the alongshore direction (Chandramohan
and Nayak 1992). Obstructive assumptions were overwhelmed by adding parame-
ters like dune elevation (B) and proportion of dune sediment, which is sufficiently
large and remains within the active profile (P) (Weggel 1979; Hands 1983). This is
defined as the percentage of sand and gravel within the retreating materials, since the
material of this size is difficult to mobilize and, unlike silt-clay materials, remains
within the active profile rather than being lost offshore and where sediment is
released, a Modified Bruun Rule (Dean 1991) appears more suitable for predicting
shoreline response (Bray and Hooke 1997). Shoreline retreat rates derived from eight
shorelines (1990–2015) response models were tested to know the rates of historical
shoreline retreat. Historical map evidence provided a baseline retreat rate between
1990 and 2015, with which accelerating sea level rise could be predicted. The model
was applied in full spatial mode and was utilized to evaluate future shoreline change.
Using ArcGIS tools, the inundation map was prepared, and the exposure assessment
was carried out. The formula of the Modified Bruun Rule is
5 Vulnerability Analysis of Sea Level Rise (SLR) on a Micro-tidal Coast: A. . . 99

ðS2 - S1 ÞL
R2 = R1 þ ð5:6Þ
PðB þ hÞ

Where,
R2 – Predict future shoreline retreat rate (ma-1),
R1 – Historic shoreline retreat rate (ma-1),
S1 – Historic sea level rise (mma-1),
S2 – Future sea level rise (mma-1),
L – Length of active cross shore profile (m),
h – Depth of closure (m),
P – Proportion of sediment that remains within the active profile (m3/year) and
B – Elevation (m).

Identifying Exposed Areas of SLR

Susceptibility is the extent to which a geophysical, biological, and socioeconomic

setup is affected by a hazard (sea level rise). So exposure to an event can be
quantitatively assessed as a physical, social, and economic liability. While physical
exposure quantifies the effect on the physical environment, social, and economic
exposure elucidate the loss of life, property, infrastructure, and livelihood. For a better
plan for resilience, it is crucial to integrate both physical and socioeconomic aspects.
In this study, the physical exposure is assessed using seven physical–geological
parameters, viz., coastal slope, Elevation, geomorphology, shoreline change, sea
level rise, significant wave height (SWH), and tidal range. The coastal slope and
elevation indicate the areas susceptible to inundation during the sea level rise and the
associated land loss and gain are a direct function of the coastal slope. Geomorphology
is yet another crucial variable in exposing the extent to which the coast is susceptible
to destruction during an event. Waves and tides are the continuous coastal process that
influences shoreline change. Rising sea levels due to climate change pose a great threat
to coastal areas all around the world for land submergence and shoreline retreat. The
entire variables are ranked on a scale of 1–5 as per the threshold collected through a
literature review as shown in Table 5.2. Physical exposure is finally calculated as the
arithmetic mean of the ranks of each variable in Eq. 5.7.

Physical exposure
 
Rslope þ RElevation þ RGeomorphology þ RSWH þ RTide þ RSea level change þ RShoreline change
=
7
ð5:7Þ

In the socioeconomic exposure index, four socioeconomic variables are consid-

ered for analysis, viz., population, land use, connectivity, and significant places.
Population and land use pattern details the loss of life and livelihood which could
incur during a hazard. Connectivity refers to the rail and road networks present in the
 100

Table 5.2 Physical variables used in physical exposure assessment

Very Very
Parameter low low Moderate High high
Rank 1 2 3 4 5 Data source Period/scenario
Physical – Geological
Slope (in degree) >45 20–45 10–20 6–10 <6 C – MAP NA
Elevation (in m) >9 6–9 3–6 0–3 <0 Aster DEM (30 m) NA
Geomorphology Rocky Medium cliff, Estuary, Mangrove, Sandy Landsat OLI 2018
coast Indented coast Lagoon Mudflat beach
Significant wave <0.55 0.55–0.85 0.85–1.05 1.05–1.25 >1.25 TCA Wave Atlas, 2014 At 25 m depth
height (in m)
Tide (in m) <1 1–2 2–4 4–6 >6 Jain et al. (2010) NA
Shoreline change >5 3–5 -3 to 3 -3 to -5 < -5 Analysis of Shorelines 1990, 2000, 2006, 2008,
(in m/year) in DSAS 2012–2020
Sea level change <5 5–10 10–15 15–20 >20 Ramachandran et al. NA
(in mm/year) (2017)
R. S. Kankara et al.
5 Vulnerability Analysis of Sea Level Rise (SLR) on a Micro-tidal Coast: A. . . 101

Table 5.3 Socioeconomic variables used in the assessment

Very Very
Parameter low Low High high Period/
Rank 1 2 3 4 Data source scenario
Socioeconomic
Land use Barren Vegetated Agriculture Urban Sentinel 2 2020
land land or Open or fallow area, Salt
space land pan
Population <50,000 >50,000 & >1 lakh and >2 lakh District wise 2011
<1 lakh <2 lakh Census
report
Connectivity 2 km 1 km buffer 500 m buffer 250 m GIS data –
buffer buffer
Significant NA Absent Present NA GIS data –
places

area, which is essential in emergency conditions for easy mobilization of relief.

Significant places include tourist spots and eco-sensitive areas like mangroves,
corals, etc. Socioeconomic exposure is deduced using these four variables by
ranking them on a scale of 1–4, as shown in Table 5.3, and the social exposure is
calculated as the arithmetic means of their ranks, as in Eq. 5.8.

Socio - economic exposure 

= RLand use þ RPopulation þ RConnectivity þ RSignificant places =4 ð5:8Þ

The physical exposure, socioeconomic exposure index (SEI), and coastal expo-
sure index (combined impact) of the coast is determined as detailed in the workflow
shown in Fig. 5.2. After physical exposure and SEI are estimated, combined impact
is taken as their average, as shown in Eq. 5.9. Thus, the combined impact scores
obtained in the process are grouped into five classes, viz., very low (<=0.75), low
(>0.75 and <=1.55), medium (>1.55 and <=2.35), high (>2.25 and<=3.15), and
very high (>3.15) liability. The combined impact class of very high is the most
vulnerable to SLR.

Combined Impact = ðPhysical exposure þ socioeconomic exposureÞ=2 ð5:9Þ

Results & Discussion

Shoreline Change Rate

Based on shoreline change analysis, the long-term (1990–2020) WLR method was
used and the results showed an erosion state with a maximum rate of -14.57 m/year
and a minimum rate of -0.51 m/year with a mean rate of -2.36 m/year. The
102 R. S. Kankara et al.

accretion state was observed to have a maximum rate of 8.65 m/year and a minimum
rate of -0.6 m/year with a mean rate of 1.29 m/year. The overall long-term analysis
has been analyzed as an erosion state. The EPR method was used for calculating both
short-term and annual analysis. In the short term (2012–2020), the erosion factor was
observed to have a maximum rate value of -62.73 m/year and minimum rate value
of -0.01 m/year with a mean rate of -4.07 m/year, and based on the accretion state,
the maximum rate value was 31.24 m/year and minimum rate value was 0.04 m/year
with a mean rate of 6.06 m/year. The erosion state was observed with a maximum
value of -112.93 m/year with a minimum rate of -0.09 m/year a mean rate of -
12.4 m/year. The accretion rate was observed to be 621.3 m/year with a minimum
rate value of 0.03 m/year with a mean rate of 24.7 m/year in annual (2019–2020)
shoreline change analysis. The overall long-term analysis indicates that 78% of the
coast is in a state of erosion (Fig. 5.3).
The Bruun Rule is observed to have certain limitations; therefore, the modified
Bruun Rule has been used to calculate the inundation in the study area. The
geography of a study area was observed to have an average elevation of 1 m.
Using the modified Bruun Rule, by substituting length, depth, elevation, shoreline
rate, historic and future SLR, sediment transportation, the inundation rate has been
calculated. The shoreline retreat of the Nagapattinam coast with different RCPs (2.6,
4.5, 6, and 8.5) of IPCC AR6 on a different time scale (2025, 2050, 2075, and 2100)

Fig. 5.3 Shoreline change rate

5 Vulnerability Analysis of Sea Level Rise (SLR) on a Micro-tidal Coast: A. . . 103

has been considered in this study. Projected SLR for Nagapattinam range from
17.97 cm (2050) to 36.99 cm (2100) for RCP 2.6, the inundation was observed to
be 10.04 m to 190.8 m; 19.82 cm (2050) to 50.02 cm (2100) for RCP 4.5, inundation
is 10.36 m to 222.7 m; 18.08 cm (2050) to 51.93 cm (2100) for RCP 6, inundation is
10.06 m to 227.37 m; 22.51 cm (2050) to 78.17 cm (2100) for RCP 8.5, inundation is
10.82 m to 291.6 m. The maximum inundation of the coast is observed to be
approximately 300 m (2100) explained in Fig. 5.4. Ramasamy et al. (2017) stated
that the constant shifting of the port city appears to be logical under the proven
phenomenon of sea level rise. The observed MSL trend of the Nagapattinam tide
gauge station is given as a key input to the SimCLIM SLR scenario generator to
project that estimates the SLR with four different scenarios, and the scenario where
RCP 2.6 agrees with our present shoreline has been considered for the coast to
predict the area which is under exposure (Fig. 5.4).

Impact of SLR on Exposed Areas

In the present study, understanding the impact of SLR on the physical–geological

environment and socioeconomic setup of the coast is prima facie for meticulous
mitigation planning. The impact of SLR is determined in terms of exposure area,
which is a function of both physical and socioeconomic aspects in the study area.
Physical exposure is calculated using seven variables, viz., elevation, coastal slope,
significant wave height (SWH), geomorphology, tide, shoreline change rate, and sea
level change rate. Variables like elevation and coastal slope play a crucial role in

Fig. 5.4 Projection of climate change-induced sea-level rise

104 R. S. Kankara et al.

delineating the inundation extent and damage occurrences (Rao et al. 2009; Kumar
et al. 2010). The SWH and tide are continuous physical processes seen on the coast.
Geomorphology highlights the susceptible regions which are likely prone to destruc-
tion during an event. Though shoreline change occurs naturally, in places with
structures like the fishing harbor, breakwater and groins as found in Poompuhar
and Tharangambadi, the shoreline trend alters and increases the coast’s exposure
state (Selvan et al. 2016).
From the Aster DEM (digital elevation model), it can be observed that the study
region’s elevation has a maximum of up to 4 m at some places like near the newly
constructed fishing harbor with an exposure rank of either 1 or 2. The elevation along
the rest of the sector varied with a mean elevation of 1.2 m and was assigned ranks
ranging from 3 to 5. The coastal slope is less than 20°, and the coast has a gentle
slope of <6°. According to the ranking criterion, as shown in Table 5.2, coastal
sectors with a slope < 6° were assigned a very high exposure rank of 5. Regions with
slopes between 6° and 10° were assigned rank 4, and 10°–20° were assigned rank
3, respectively. The overall long-term analysis indicates that 78% of the coast is in a
state of erosion. The areas prone to erosion are considered highly vulnerable
compared to accreting areas. Therefore, they are assigned a high exposure rank of
5 & 4, while accreting areas are assigned the least rank of 1 & 2, respectively.
The coastal features from aeolian, fluvial, and marine influences are seen. The
river Cauvery flows is a deltaic plain with sandy beaches along Poompuhar,
Tharangambadi, and Karaikal. Exposure ranking is given according to the criterion
as discussed in Table 5.2. The sandy beaches of Poompuhar and Tharangambadi
were given a high exposure rank of 5. Significant wave height (SWH) was taken
from TCA of the Indian Coast, in 2014. From the wave atlas, it can be seen that along
the study area, SWH is in the order of 0.5–1 m. Hence, an exposure rank of
3 (Moderate) is assigned. The study area is in the micro-tidal range and does not
fluctuate much in a year. The average tidal range of the region from 2011 to 2015 is
between 0.3 and 0.9 m Priya Rajan et al. (2019) and Jain et al. (2010) also observed
similar tidal ranges. Since the tidal range is well below 1 m, the study sector is
assigned a low exposure rank of 1.
For the sea level change variable, SLR at the regional level in Unnikrishnan et al.
(2006) is taken for the present scenario (1990–2020) and the futuristic scenarios,
viz., 2050 and 2100 uses the SLR obtained by Ramachandran et al. (2017) along the
Nagapattinam coast for RCP 2.6; the medium scenario is taken as the reference and
ranked. Accordingly, for the present scenario, sea level change rank is given as very
low as SLR estimated by Unnikrishnan et al. (2006) is a regional average rise of
1.29 mmy-1, whereas for the futuristic scenarios (2050 and 2100) the observed MSL
trend of the Chennai tide gauge station is given as a key input to the SimCLIM SLR
scenario generator to project the estimates of SLR for the coast of Tamil Nadu by
Ramachandran et al. (2017). The literature is taken as the reference in assigning high
to very high ranks in the SLR exposure calculation. For the physical–geological
exposure assessment, the nine physical–geological variables are given equal
5 Vulnerability Analysis of Sea Level Rise (SLR) on a Micro-tidal Coast: A. . . 105

consideration and the physical exposure score is taken as the arithmetic means of the
sum of the ranks of variables.
Socioeconomic variables are significant in determining the socioeconomic expo-
sure of the coast as they enhance the accuracy of the assessment, which often involves
the effect of hazards to loss incurred in human life and livelihood. Integration of
different socioeconomic variables such population, land use, connectivity (rail and
road network), and significant places are used in the present study. On the Poompuhar,
Tarangambadi, and Karaikal coast, settlements are seen very near to the coast within a
buffer range of 500 m; hence those regions were assigned a very high exposure rank of
5 in the land-use variable. Barren lands seen near the north of fishing harbor are
assigned a very low rank of 1 as damage incurred in these places due to SLR will least
affect the humans and their livelihood. The coast of Poompuhar, Tarangambadi, and
Karaikal being tourist spots are flanked by both national and international travelers.
Hence these locations along the coast are given significant places status and beaches in
the sector are assigned a rank of 4 in the significant places variable.
As per the census of India 2011, the population density of the Poompuhar sector
is more than 200,000 and was assigned a high exposure rank of 4 as the impact
caused by SLR could affect many lives. Similarly, as per the population density
mentioned in Table 5.3, respective exposure ranks were assigned in the study area.
The rail and road networks present in an area help in identifying the economic
development of a region. The destruction caused to these infrastructures can affect
the mobility of people and rescue operations. The exposure rank for the railroad
connectivity variable is assigned by classifying buffers of 250 m, 500 m, 1000 m,
and 2000 m from the coast. Sections of the road/rail in the 250 m buffer near the
coast were assigned a high exposure rank of 4 (high), while the sections in the
2000 m buffer and above were assigned the rank of 1 (very low). In the Poompuhar,
Tarangambadi, and Karaikal sectors, certain pockets of the coast, especially near the
tourist places where road density is increased, are assigned very high to high
exposure rank of either 4 or 5. Socioeconomic exposure is taken as the arithmetic
mean of the sum of the ranks of variables as discussed above.
Ranking the physical–geological and socioeconomic variables and integrating
them into impact exposure assessment helps in understanding their rapid change
spatially. Finally, the combined impact assessment of SLR on the coast is deter-
mined by the arithmetic mean of physical exposure and social exposure, obtained
through the corresponding arithmetic mean of the sum of the ranks of physical and
socioeconomic variables, respectively.

Impact of SLR on Exposed Area Present Scenario

For the present scenario of 1990–2020, the exposure scores computed ranged from a
minimum of 2 to a maximum of 4.5 with a standard deviation of 0.13 and a mean of
106 R. S. Kankara et al.

2.4. The combined impact scores obtained in the process are grouped into five
impact classes, viz., very low (<=0.75), low (>0.75 and<=1.55), medium
(>1.55 and <=2.35), high (>2.25 and <=3.15), and very high (>3.15). The
exposure class of very high is the most vulnerable sector to SLR. Accordingly in
the study area, it can be observed that about 66% and 14% of the coast has high and
very high exposure to the impacts of SLR, respectively. Certain pockets near the
southern Poompuhar and the north are seen to exhibit a moderate impact on SLR.
Based on the exposure score and the statistics it can be noted that the study region is
highly vulnerable at the present.

Impact of SLR on Exposed Area Futuristic Scenario (2050 &

2100)

Assessing the impact of SLR in the futuristic scenarios of 2050 and 2100 in RCP 2.6
force under medium conditions helps in understanding the exposure areas of SLR in
the possible realistic future climatic projections. In 2050, exposure scores are seen to
increase in comparison with the present scenario. The 2050 scores ranged from a
minimum of 2.2 to a maximum of 4.6 with an average of 2.5. Approximately 67%
and 18% of the coast are seen to exhibit high and very high impacts on exposed areas
to SLR, respectively. This is a significant increase in comparison to the present day
scenario, as shown in Fig. 5.5. The impact of SLR on the physical–geological
environment and socioeconomic setup of the coast is further seen to increase in
2100; wherein about 72% and 22% of the coast is seen to exhibit high and very high
vulnerable sectors to sea level rise, respectively.

Conclusions

In this study, a methodology is conceptualized and demonstrated to quantitatively

assess the impact of climate change-driven sea level rise. The example of the sandy
coast of the Nagapattinam sector gives an initial warning that the coastal ecosystem,
infrastructure, populations, and shore coast need to be preserved. Using different
time frames and scenarios for the projected SLR gives source information for coastal
policy planning and decision-makers to take SLR adaption. Since the Bruun rule is
not full-fledged, the modified Bruun rule has been compared to demarcate the coastal
disaster. The horizontal inundation overlaid on geomorphic landforms and land
use/land cover features help in identifying the exposure areas during sea level rise.
This study is useful for stakeholders, policymakers, coastal managers, scientists, and
coastal livelihoods. This study provides an interactive means to identify the exposure
zone. The output maps can be used to visualize the affected areas spatially.
5 Vulnerability Analysis of Sea Level Rise (SLR) on a Micro-tidal Coast: A. . . 107

Fig. 5.5 Exposed area to SLR in 2050 and 2100

References

Bray JM, Hooke JM (1997) Prediction of soft-cliff retreat with accelerating sea-level rise. J Coast
Res 13(2):453–467
Bruun P (1962) Sea level rise as a cause of shore erosion. J Waterw Harb Div, Proc Am Soc Civil
Eng 88:117–130
108 R. S. Kankara et al.

Chandramohan P, Nayak BU (1992) Longshore sediment transport model for the Indian west coast.
J Coast Res 8(4):775–787
Dean RG (1991) Equilibrium beach profiles: characteristics and applications. J Coast Res 7(1):
53–84
Frederikse T, Landerer FW, Caron L et al (2020) The causes of sea-level rise since 1900. https://doi.
org/10.1038/s41586-020-2591-3
Green Facts (2015) Climate change IPCC 2013 update. http://www.greenfacts.org/en/climate-
change-ar5-science-basis/l-3/5-climatesystemfuture.html
Hands EB (1983) The Great Lakes as a test model for profile responses to sea-level
changes. In: Komar PD (ed) Handbook of coastal processes and erosion. CRC Press, Boca
Raton, Florida, pp 176–189
Jain I, Rao AD, Jitendra V, Dube SK (2010) Computation of expected total water levels along the
East Coast of India. J Coast Res 264:681–687. https://doi.org/10.2112/08-1170.1
Kankara RS, Selvan SC, Rajan B, Arockiaraj S (2014) An adaptive approach to monitor the
shoreline changes in ICZM framework: a case study of Chennai coast. Ind J Mar Sci 43(7):
1266–1271
Kankara RS, Selvan SC, Markose VJ et al (2015) Estimation of long and short term shoreline
changes along Andhra Pradesh coast using remote sensing and GIS techniques. Procedia Eng
116:855–862
Kumar TS, Mahendra RS, Nayak S, Radhakrishnan K, Sahu KC, Kumar TS et al (2010) Coastal
vulnerability assessment for Orissa State, East Coast of India. J Coast Res 263:523–534. https://
doi.org/10.2112/09-1186.1
Mohammed NZ, Eisa E (2013) The effect of polynomial order on georeferencing remote sensing
images. Int J Eng Innov Technol 2:5–8
Nicholls RJ, Stive MJF (2004) Society and sea-level rise requires modeling. Sci E Lett 303:5665
Parry ML, Canziani OF, Palutikof JP, Van der Linden PJ, Hanson CE (2007) Climate change 2007:
impacts, adaptation and vulnerability. Contribution of Working Group II to the Fourth Assess-
ment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge University Press,
Cambridge, 976p
Priya Rajan SM, Nellayaputhenpeedika M, Tiwari SP, Vengadasalam R (2019) Mapping and
analysis of the physical vulnerability of coastal Tamil Nadu. Hum Ecol Risk Assess 0:1–17.
https://doi.org/10.1080/10807039.2019.1602752
Ramachandran A, Khan AS, Palanivelu K, Prasannavenkatesh R (2017) Projection of climate
change-induced sea-level rise for the coasts of Tamil Nadu and Puducherry, India using
SimCLIM: a first step towards planning adaptation policies. J Coast Conserv 21(23):1–12.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s11852-017-0532-6
Ramasamy SM, Saravanavel J, Kumanan CJ, Gunasekaran S (2017) Coordinates and chronology of
the ancient port city of Poompuhar, South India. Curr Sci 112(6):25
Ranasinghe R, Watson P, Lord D, Hanslow D, Cowell P (2007) Sea level rise, coastal recession,
and the Bruun rule. Proceedings of coasts and ports ‘07, Melbourne, VIC, Australia. On CD rom
produced by engineers Australia
Rao KN, Subraelu P, Rao TV, Malini BH, Ratheesh R, Bhattacharya S, Rajawat AS (2009) Sea-level
rise and coastal vulnerability: an assessment of Andhra Pradesh coast, India through remote
sensing and GIS. J Coast Conserv 2008:195–207. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11852-009-0042-2
Selvan SC, Kankara RS, Markose VJ et al (2016) Shoreline change and impacts of coastal
protection structures on Puducherry, SE coast of India. Nat Hazards 83:293–308
Thieler ER, Himmelstoss EA, Zichichi JL, Ergul A (2009) The Digital Shoreline Analysis System
(DSAS) version 4.0-an ArcGIS extension for calculating shoreline change
Unnikrishnan AS, Kumar KR, Fernandes SE et al (2006) Sea level changes along the Indian coast:
observations and projections. Curr Sci 90(3)
Weggel JR (1979) A method for estimating long term erosion rates from a long term rise in water
level. Coast Engineering Tech Aid (CETA) 79-2. U.S. Army Coastal Engineering Research
Center, Fort Belvoir, VA
Chapter 6
Lacustrine Records of Anthropogenic
Change and Precipitation in the Monsoonal
Core Zone of Central India since the Last
Century

Samaya S. Humane, Sumedh K. Humane, and Snehal Juare

Abstract A sediment core from the Navegaon Bandh Lake (NBL) was studied for
diatoms and sediment geochemistry to investigate the anthropogenic impact and
climatic variability over the past century. The declined geochemical concentrations
show three major impacts on the NBL coinciding with the drought events in the
foremost parts of India around 1918, 1975, 1965 and 1991. The rise in the geo-
chemical content of the NBL core was evident in the post dam construction period
(i.e., ~1917–1919) with the two major peaks around 1975 and 1998. These major
peaks are indicators of the higher rate of soil erosion and improved precipitation in
the catchment of the NBL. Anthropogenic activities have caused five major changes
in diatom assemblages and ecology in the NBL around 1946, 1956, 1972, 1978 and
2006. The increased agricultural activities in the catchment of the NBL are evident
since ~1906–1966 as the fertilizers (K, P) are mainly derived other than soil particles
of the catchment. Similarly, deforestation in the region was evident during
~1967–1975 coinciding with the period of the highest soil erosion. Another major
phase of soil erosion caused by anthropogenic activities was noticed during
~1992–1998. The hypolimnetic oxygen of the NBL has declined for the past
~80 years indicating increased eutrophication in the lake till the present. The nutrient
input in response to climatic conditions and anthropogenic activities has played a
vital role in the diatom shift of the NBL. Aulacoseira granulata was predominant
during ~1906–1914, ~1920–1922, ~1941–1943, ~1948–1956, ~1972–1976
and ~1973–1982 in the NBL signifying the increased soil erosion and flux, persistent
wet period and increased nutrient levels. While the major period of the profusion of
Rhopaloidea musculus in the NBL core was during ~1919–1921, ~1933–1940,
~1956–1972 and ~1978–2004, respectively, indicating a mesotrophic, Meso

S. S. Humane · S. K. Humane (*)

Department of Geology, Rashtrasant Tukadoji Maharaj Nagpur University, Law College
Square, Nagpur, Maharashtra, India
S. Juare
Department of Geology, Yashwantrao Chawhan Art, Commerce and Science College,
Lakhandur, Maharashtra, India

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 109
N. Khare (ed.), Science, Policies and Conflicts of Climate Change, Springer Climate,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-16254-1_6
110 S. S. Humane et al.

euhyaline and alkalibiontic condition of the lake linked with the long dry period/less
rainfall prevailed in the NBL watershed. The planktonic form Discostella stelligera
was common during ~2007–2012 and indicates the existence of alkaline lake waters
with moderate nutrients coinciding with the comparatively dry period/less rainfall
and changing water level and deforestation in the catchment of the NBL. Overall, the
investigation of the past evidence shows the importance of the study of fossil
diatoms and geochemistry to understand the anthropogenic and precipitation
changes along with the trophic status of the lake, which may be used for the
management of the tropical wetlands in India.

Keywords Diatoms · Geochemistry · Soil erosion · Tropical Lake sediments ·

Eutrophication · Central India

Introduction

The sediments deposited at the bottom of a lake provide a variety of information that
can be used to understand the past conditions of a lake, its watershed, and climate
(Meyers and Teranes 2001). Lakes are mostly fed by some rivers or streams and
hence the lake consists of autochthonous and allochthonous sediments (Smol 2008).
A stream serves as the major source of allochthonous sediments. The allochthonous
sediments carry with them the dissolved chemicals and particulate inorganic and
organic matter (OM). The autochthonous sediments on the other hand have with
them a significant assemblage of remains of macrophytes, phytoplankton, zooplank-
ton, bacteria, microorganism and aquatic invertebrates, which thrive in that environ-
ment. Hence, the source of autochthonous material includes biological activity and
chemical precipitation within the lake (Smol 2008). The geology of the lake’s
watershed, climate and land use, including anthropogenic activities, directly affect
the quality and quantity of material that enters a lake ecosystem (Cohen 2003). The
past changes in the pH, salinity, nutrient status, climatic changes and lake level
fluctuations can be inferred by studying the sediment geochemistry and diatoms
from the core extracted from the lakes/reservoirs (McFadden et al. 2005; Mullins
et al. 2011). The paleolimnological studies were also done using diatoms owing to
their sensitivity to environmental changes (Batterbee et al. 1999; Bennion et al.
1995; Liu et al. 2012; Schroeder et al. 2016).
The Indian economy is mainly based on agricultural production which depends
upon favourable monsoonal conditions. The central Indian region has been
experiencing unreliable climatic conditions with low precipitations for the past few
decades affecting the farmers depending upon agricultural produce. The increasing
agricultural practices in the region have also been impacting the water quality of the
area. Thus, the present chapter provides a good insight into the shift in the past
climatic patterns mainly the hydrologic conditions in the parts of the central Indian
region determined based on the study of sediment geochemistry and diatoms from
the core sediments of the Navegoan Bandh Lake (NBL), Central India. The NBL is
one of the major lakes of the Gondia district present in the eastern part of the
6 Lacustrine Records of Anthropogenic Change and Precipitation in. . . 111

Fig. 6.1 (a) Map of Maharashtra State, India, showing the location of Gondia District, (b) Map of
Gondia District showing the location of Navegaon Bandh Lake (NBL), (c) Satellite Image of NBL
and (d) Bathymetric map of the NBL

Maharashtra state, India (Fig. 6.1a–c). The NBL (latitude 20°53′ to 20°56′N and
longitude 80°06′ to 80°09′E) has a circumference of ~27 km and a water surface of
~20 km2. The average depth of the lake is about 21 m with a catchment area of about
90 km2 (Fig. 6.1d). Various factors such as adjoining lithology, soils, agricultural
practices, animal excrements, aquatic plants and vegetal matter influence the water
quality of the Navegaon Bandh Lake.

Climate and Rainfall

The Gondia district has tropical climatic conditions and experiences very hot
summers and cold winters with temperature variations from ~7 °C to 48 °C,
respectively. The summer starts in March and continues till mid-June, while the
winter begins in October end and continues till February with December being the
coldest month. The district receives rainfall from southwest summer monsoonal
winds mainly from June to September. The maximum rainfall generally occurs
during July and August with an average annual rainfall of 1197 mm (Gondia District
Gazetteer 2013).
112 S. S. Humane et al.

Land Use Pattern

The land use pattern of the major portion of the NBL watershed shows the presence
of the deciduous forest, agricultural land (mainly used for kharip crop and a very
small part used for rabi crops), some wastelands associated with the dense scrubs and
very little land is covered by rural build-up (Fig. 6.1c). Fishing takes place in the lake
with no other human activities. However, a zoological garden was developed near
the lake and has been used as a recreational centre which attracts tourists thereby
increasing the plastic pollutants around the lake.

Geological Setting

The Navegaon Bandh Lake is geologically surrounded by the granitic gneiss of the
Tirodi gneissic complex, quartzite-gritty quartzite, amphibolites and hornblende
schist of the Amgaon gneissic complex. It is also surrounded by the meta gabbros
and quartz veins of the Mesoproterozoic age. There are occurrences of phyllites,
pelitic schist and basic tuffaceous andesite of the Khairagarh group around it. The
pockets of laterites are also distinctly seen around the lake (DRM 2000).

Materials and Methods

Core Sampling, Processing and Chronology

In January 2013, a sediment core (Latitude: N 20° 54′ 55.8″ and Longitude: E 80° 7′
3.4″) of 78 cm length was recovered in the polycarbonate barrel from the deepest
part of the NBL using a gravity corer. The total weight of the retrieved sediment core
was calculated in the laboratory. Further, the sediment core was vertically cut into
two halves and photographed in addition to the description of the core profile. One of
the halves of the core was sub sectioned at an interval of 1 cm for the bottom sections
and an interval of 0.5 cm for the top 20 cm. It was used for diatom processing and
other analyses. The other half of the core was retained as an archive in the laboratory.
The chronology for the present study of the NBL follows the already published paper
(Humane et al. 2016). The results of the Constant Rate Supply (CRS) model for the
sediments of each depth of the NBL core were further used to calculate the bulk
sediment accumulation rates of the geochemical elements (g/m2/year) by the related
amount (mg/g) of each component in the bulk sediment (Fig. 6.2; Garrison and
Laliberte 2010). The uncertainty of the age prevails in the older sediments deeper
than ~50 cm of the core. Therefore, the ages of the NBL sediment core up to 48 cm
were considered for the calculation of the accumulation rate of geochemical ele-
ments at various depths and discussed in this chapter (Fig. 6.3). Diatom analysis was
6 Lacustrine Records of Anthropogenic Change and Precipitation in. . . 113

Fig. 6.2 Sediment Years

accumulation rate
(g m-2 year-1) of NBL 2013.15
since 1861, using constant 2012.48
rate supply (CRS) model
2012.03
2008.51
2007.98
2007.39
2002.56
2001.92
2001.24
1986.4
1984.77
1968.25
1965.9
1942.89
1938.42
1861.3

0 4 8 12 16 20

done by processing some uncrushed core samples. The accumulation rate of geo-
chemical elements for a sediment core is shown in the vertical diagram prepared by
the computer program C2, version 1.5 (Juggins 2007).

Maceration for Diatom Study

About 1 gm of a core sample obtained through conning and quartering at 1 cm

intervals was used for the maceration to prepare diatom slides following the standard
methods (Batterbee et al. 2001). The prepared slides were studied for diatom
identification and enumeration under a Leica microscope (DM-350) at 630× and
1000× (oil immersion) along with the microphotography of each species. Minimum
300 valves were measured wherever possible in the slides. The occurrences of
individual species were converted into a percentage. The identification of diatom
species was done with the help of important literature (John 2012; Karthick et al.
2013; Liu et al. 2017; Metzeltin et al. 2005; Metzeltin and Lange-Bertalot 2007).
The recognition of the diatom groups was made based on their division in the
complete length of the core and the constrained incremental sum of squares
(CONISS) by the computer program TILIA (Grimm 1991).
114 S. S. Humane et al.

Fig. 6.3 Distribution of sand, silt and clay in the sediment cores of NBL

Results

Description of NBL Core Section

The colour of the entire core varies from light brown to dark brown with a smooth
transition. The overall grain size of the core lies in between clayey silt, with
intermediate variation from slight sandy-silt to silty clay (Fig. 6.4). The higher
organic matter content in the core was demarcated by dark bands representing
increased soil erosion coinciding with the wet periods. A few fragments of rotten
plant roots/stems are also observed along with a few fish scales and shell fragments.
The annual laminations are quite distinct in the core, although not very prominent in
the photograph.
6 Lacustrine Records of Anthropogenic Change and Precipitation in. . . 115

Fig. 6.4 Vertical profile of accumulation rate of the geochemical element in a sediment core of
NBL (M – moderate; C – Calamitous)

Geochemical Analysis

The trophic status and changing precipitation patterns were investigated using major
and trace elemental content of the NBL core. The past changes in the precipitation
trends and the trophic condition of the NBL have been inferred employing the
varying accumulation of geochemical elements. The impact of anthropogenic activ-
ities other than soil erosion on the trophic status of the NBL is also interpreted
(Fig. 6.5).

Chemical Weathering Intensity (CWI)

The deforestation and the enhanced agricultural practices in the catchment have
affected the NBL by augmenting the weathering and erosion of soils of the region. In
this context, the chemical weathering intensity (CWI) in the catchment of this lake is
calculated using the formula {(CaO+MgO+Na2O)/Al2O3} to know the strength of
weathering and soil erosion (Sun et al. 2009; Fig. 6.6).

Diatom Stratigraphy

The stratigraphic data shows the abundant diatom species in the NBL (Fig. 6.7). The
four diatom assemblage zones (DAZ)/units and ten sub-zones were identified for
major species abundance and the constrained cluster analysis for the NBL core using
116 S. S. Humane et al.

Fig. 6.5 Vertical profile of sediment core of NBL showing K: Al, P: Al, Zn: Al and Fe: Mn

Fig. 6.6 Chemical weathering intensity (CWI) and CaO/MgO ratio of sediment core of NBL
6 Lacustrine Records of Anthropogenic Change and Precipitation in. . . 117

Fig. 6.7 Diatom succession in NBL between (1906 and 2012 A. D.). Only the major taxa (Species
with ≥1% in at least one sample) were shown. The right is the constrained incremental sum of
squares (CONISS)

the program TILIA (Grimm 1991). A total of 62 diatom taxa were observed in the
NBL core of which 20 attained a maximum abundance of >1% in at least one
sample. Diatom assemblages were categorized as 1) Planktonic diatoms, such as
Aulacoseira granulata (Ehr.) Simonsen (4–65%), Discostella stelligera (Cleve &
Grun.) Houk & Klee (2–14%), Aulacoseira distans (Ehr.) Simonsen (1–12%),
Stephanodiscus niagarae Ehrenberg (0.8–13%) and 2) with benthic diatoms such
as Rhopalodia musculus Müllar (6–57%), Rhopalodia gibberula Müllar (3–35%),
Gomphonema undulatum Hustedt (3–25%), Fragilaria rumpens (Kutzing) Carlson
(3–18%), Nitzschia palea (3–10%), Encyonema minutum (Hilse) Mann (4–26%),
Gomphonema parvulum Kutzing (2–25%), Navicula cryptocephala Kutzing
(0.6–10%) and Eunotia bilunaris (Ehr.) Schaarschmidt (1–15%).
The planktonic diatoms were dominated by A. granulata (Fig. 6.8a, b) and
D. stelligera (Fig. 6.8k), whereas benthic diatoms were represented by
R. musculus (Fig. 6.8e, i), R. gibberula (Fig. 6.8j), Gomphonema undulatum
(Fig. 6.8g), Encyonema minutum (Fig. 6.8h), Amphora ovalis (Fig. 6.8c), Diploneis
ovalis (Hilse) Cleve (Fig. 6.8f, g) and Cocconeis placentula Ehrenberg (Fig. 6.8d).
A. granulata was abundant during ~1906–1980 and progressively decreased on the
top of the core (~1983 and above), while R. musculus dominated the core with the
decline in A. granulata. The other benthic diatoms present in the NBL core are
Ulneria ulnabiseriata Liu et al., C. placentula, D. ovalis, A. ovalis Kutzing,
Epithemia adnata (Kutzing) Brebisson, Cymbella affines Kutzing, Cymbella
lanceolata (Agardh) Kirchner and Rhopalodia gibba Müllar. There are four Diatom
Assemblage Zones (DAZ)/units identified in the NBL core (Fig. 6.7).
Unit I (48–43 cm; ~1906–1922) was categorized into two sub-zones. This zone is
characterized by the dominance of planktonic diatoms in the entire core. Unit I-a
(48–46 cm; ~1906–1918) shows an abundance of the planktonic species A. granulata
118 S. S. Humane et al.

Fig. 6.8 (a) Aulacoseira granulata; (b) Aulacoseira granulata; (c) Amphora ovalis; (d) Cocconeis
placentula; (e) Rhopaloidea musculus; (f) Diploneis ovalis; (g) Gomphonema undulatum; (h)
Encyonema minutum; (i) Rhopaloidea musculus; (j) Rhopaloidea gibberula; (k) Discostella
stelligera

(~13% on average) and benthic species (~10%) present in this zone. The ratio of
Planktonic and benthic taxa (P/B) had an average of 2.63. Unit I-2 (45–43 cm;
~1919–1922) was represented by an abundance of benthic diatom species
R. musculus (~10% on average) and G. undulatum (~8% on average). The plank-
tonic diatoms present are A. granulata (~6%), A. distans (~7%) and Discostella
stelligera (~2%). The ratio of Planktonic and benthic taxa (P/B) had an average of
0.82. Unit II (42–32 cm; ~1921–1956) is classified into three subzones. Unit II-a
(42–40 cm; ~1921–1933) represents the abundance of benthic diatom taxa
6 Lacustrine Records of Anthropogenic Change and Precipitation in. . . 119

G. undulatum (~14%), R. gibberula (~ 7%) and Eunotia bilunaris (~4%). The only
planktonic diatom species present in this zone is A. granulata (~12%). The ratio of
Planktonic and benthic taxa (P/B) had an average of 1. Unit II-b (39–36 cm;
~1932–1946) shows the dominance of benthic diatom taxa R. gibberula (~14%),
R. musculus (~13%) and Encyonema minutum (~9%). The planktonic diatom spe-
cies present in this zone are A. granulata (~13%) and Stephanodiscus niagarae (~
4%). The ratio of Planktonic and benthic taxa (P/B) had an average of 0.76. Unit II-c
(35–32 cm; ~1945–1956) has an abundance of planktonic diatom taxa A. granulata
(~ 30%) and A. distans (~12%). The benthic diatom species present in this zone is
G. undulatum (~23%). The ratio of Planktonic and benthic taxa (P/B) had an average
of 1.71. Unit III (31–20 cm; ~1955–1983) is represented by the four subzones. Unit
III-a (31–29 cm; ~1955–1966) shows an abundance of benthic diatom taxa such as
G. undulatum (~17%), R. gibberula (~ 17%) and R. musculus (~11%). The other
benthic diatom taxa are Nitschia palea and Eunotia bilunaris. The planktonic diatom
species present in this zone is A. granulata (~23%). The ratio of Planktonic and
benthic taxa (P/B) had an average of 0.29. Unit III-b (28–25 cm; ~1967–1972) has
an abundance of the benthic diatom taxa R. gibberula (~ 15%), R. musculus (~33%)
and Fragilaria rumpens (~5%). The common planktonic diatoms present in this
zone are A. granulata (~23%) and Stephanodiscus niagarae (~11%). The ratio of
Planktonic and benthic taxa (P/B) had an average of 0.52. Unit III-c (24–22 cm;
~1973–1978) shows the presence of the abundant planktonic diatom taxa such as
A. granulata (~40%). The benthic diatom species present in this zone is E. minutum
(~16%). The ratio of Planktonic and benthic taxa (P/B) had an average of 1.71. Unit
III-d (21–19 cm; ~1979–1983) shows the dominance of the benthic diatom taxa
R. musculus (~ 16%) and R. gibberula (31%). The other associated benthic diatom
taxa are F. rumpens, N. palea and G. parvulum. The planktonic diatom species
present in this zone is A. granuata (~16%). The ratio of Planktonic and benthic taxa
(P/B) had an average of 0.18. Unit IV (18-0 cm; ~1982–2012) is divided into four
subzones. This zone shows the maximum concentration of benthic diatom species.
Unit IV-a (18–16 cm; ~1982–1991) indicates an increase in R. musculus (~38% on
average) with a decrease in A. granulata (~ 13% on average). The other prominent
benthic diatom species are N. palea (~11% on average) and E. binularia (~7% on
average) and the other planktonic species commonly present is A. distans. The
Planktonic and benthic ratio of taxa (P/B) had an average of 0.28. Unit IV-b
(15–12 cm; ~1990–1998) was characterized by dominant benthic species
R. musculus (~33% on average) and planktonic diatom species A. granulata
(~19% on average). The second dominant benthic diatom species was Encyonema
minutum (~18% on average) followed by Fragilaria rumpens (~10% on average)
and Navicula cryptocephala (~10% on average). The planktonic and benthic (P/B)
ratio is 0.21. Unit IV-c (11–6 cm; ~1999–2006) prominently shows an abundance of
the benthic species R. musculus (~40% on average) and planktonic species
A. granulata (~18% on average). The other benthic diatom taxa present in this
zone are R. gibberula, G. undulatum, F. rumpens, N. palea, E. minutum,
G. parvulum and E. binularis. The other planktonic diatom species present in this
zone are D. stelligera and S. niagarae. The ratio of P/B is 0.34. Unit IV-d (5–0 cm;
120 S. S. Humane et al.

~2007–2012) indicates a decline in R. musculus (~17% on average) and

A. granulata (~6% on average). Other planktonic species D. stelligera (~11% on
average), A. distans (~2% on average) and S. niagarae (~3% on average). The other
benthic forms present in this zone are R. gibberula (~7% on average), G. undulatum
(~3% on average), F. rumpens (~12% on average) and N. palea (~6% on average).
The ratio of planktonic and benthic taxa (P/B) had an average of 0.27.

Discussion

The sediment core of the NBL, Central India is studied to investigate soil erosion,
trophic state and past rainfall since the last century using some proxies. The
watershed of the NBL is present in the tropical region and has had a nearly stable
temperature since the last century. Hence, the amount of rainfall in the catchment
area of the lake has been the controlling factor for the soil erosion, accumulation of
geochemical elements and diatom assemblage. Therefore, various proxies such as
(1) Geochemical elements and their normalized ratio with erosional indicators,
(2) Chemical weathering intensity (CWI) and (3) Diatoms are studied from the
sediment core of the NBL of Central India.

Soil Erosion and Trophic State

The intensity of the impact on the lakes of a different watershed can be analysed
using geochemical variables (Table 6.1; Garrison and Laliberte 2007, 2010). The
chemical elements titanium (Ti) and aluminium (Al) are derived from detrital
aluminosilicates and thereby the fluctuations in their profiles will suggest the
transformation in the rate of soil erosion (Garrison and Laliberte 2010). Phosphorous
and nitrogen are important nutrients for the growth of aquatic plants and algae. The
synthetic fertilizers and soils contain potassium (K). Thus, soil erosion and the input
of commercial fertilizers in the watershed can be distinguished from the variation in
the profile of potassium (K) (Garrison and Laliberte 2010). The urban runoff is
mostly accompanied by zinc (Zn) as it is a component of galvanized roofs and tires

Table 6.1 Important chemi- Process Chemical elements

cal indicators of catchment or
Soil erosion Aluminium, potassium, titanium
lake processes
Synthetic fertilizer Potassium
Urban Zinc, copper
Ore smelting Zinc, cadmium, copper
Nutrients Phosphorus, nitrogen
Lake productivity Organic matter
After Garrison and Laliberte (2010)
6 Lacustrine Records of Anthropogenic Change and Precipitation in. . . 121

(Garrison and Laliberte 2007). The addition from the smelting of lead–zinc ores is
seen in the zinc (Zn) profile of the cores (Dean 2002). Similarly, the use of soil
modifications for the development of amenities is reflected in the calcium
(Ca) profiles and the changes in the oxygen levels in the bottom waters are indicated
by the manganese (Mn) profiles (Garrison 2008).
The accumulation rate gives information about the impact of watershed processes
on the lake ecosystem (Garrison and Laliberte 2010). The calculation of the rate of
accumulation of some geochemical elements of the NBL was done by adding the
geochemical concentrations with the rate of sedimentation (Calculation by 210Pb
dating and CRS model). The elemental deposition in the NBL through time was
determined from the accumulation rate. The accumulation rate of phosphorous was
similar to the erosional indicators (Ti, Al) in the NBL. The phosphorus content has
been progressively increased since ~1919 and reached its highest level in ~1998,
with its further decline since ~2000 till present at the top of the core (Fig. 6.4).
Therefore, it can be surmised that the phosphorous content of the NBL is mostly
derived from the sediment and soils from the watershed and played an important role
as a major source of the nutrient. The profile of phosphorous and nitrogen may not
reflect the lakes eutrophication history due to diagenesis (Anderson and Rippey 1994
and Fitzpatrick et al. 2003) and the breakdown of phosphorous and nitrogen into the
inorganic components with some of the material then recycled into the water column
and removed out of the sediments (Garrison and Laliberte 2010). The calcium
content of the NBL is similar to the titanium till the top of the core and indicates
that the major part of it was derived from the sediments and soils of the watershed
(Fig. 6.4). The geochemical elements such as silica, manganese and sodium also
show a similar increasing trend like Ti and Al, which reflects that the major
concentration of these elements is derived from the sediments and soils in the
watershed of the NBL (Fig. 6.4).
The selected geochemical elements from the NBL are normalized to aluminium
(Al) to distinguish the anthropogenic inputs other than mineral sediments. Thus, the
factors which influence the lake in addition to sediment/soil input from the water-
shed can be known. The anthropogenic impact both from the concerned watershed
and atmospheric transport through time on the sediments of the NBL have been
observed from the elemental profiles normalized to Al (Fig. 6.5). The ratio of these
elements would be the same throughout the core if soil particles/sediments were the
only sources of potassium, as both aluminium (Al) and potassium (K) are found in
sediments/soil particles in the watershed (Garrison and Laliberte 2007). There is a
gradual depletion in the K: Al ratio in the NBL since ~1906–1966(Fig. 6.5). This
decline in the ratio till ~1966 indicates that potassium was not mainly derived by the
erosional processes in the watershed considering the increase in the concentration of
erosional indicators (Ti and Al) (Fig. 6.4) and other anthropogenic sources in the
form of potash fertilizers in the nearby agricultural lands of the NBL. The K: Al
shows an increasing trend during ~1967–~1975 similar to the profile of Al. This
indicates that K is an important source derived from soil particles or sediments from
the catchment of the NBL. The phosphorous content shows a declining trend, while
the K: Al ratio slightly increased during ~1976–1991 indicating the mixed source
122 S. S. Humane et al.

of K, i.e. from soil particles along with some anthropogenic origin. The K: Al ratio
once again shows a rising trend during ~1992–1998 similar to the profile of K. This
points to the increased maximum rate of soil erosion in the NBL watershed. From
~1999 till ~2009 the rise and decline in K: Al ratio indicates mix origin of K, i.e. soil
particles and potash fertilizers used in the agricultural lands in the catchment of the
NBL (Figs. 6.4 and 6.5).
Phosphorous and nitrogen are important nutrients for algal growth (Garrison and
Laliberte 2010). The ratio of phosphorous to aluminium (P: Al) shows a continuous
decline from ~1906 to ~1956, while the P profile shows a continuous rise in its
content during this period. It shows that during this period P was mainly derived
through the excessive use of synthetic fertilizers in the agricultural land of the
catchment area of the NBL rather than soil particles mainly after the construction
of the rockfill dam in ~1917. The P: Al ratio shows a peak during ~1957–1975 more
or less similar to the P profile indicating its origin through soil particles or sediments
of the catchment area of the NBL. There is little rise in the ratio of P: Al during
~1976–1991 in contrast to the major decline of the P profile suggesting the possible
mixed origin of the P. The trend of the P: Al ratio has declined from ~1992 till
~1998 with the highest peak of the P profile. It indicates that most of the P was
derived from the erosion of soils or sediments from the catchment of the NBL during
this period. The P: Al ratio from ~1999 to ~2009 shows a mixed origin of the P
(Figs. 6.4 and 6.5).
The Zn: Al ratio in the NBL core is highest post ~1917 coinciding with the year of
the dam construction till ~1933 similar to the Zn profile indicating an increased rate
of soil erosion in the catchment area (Figs. 6.4 and 6.5). The increased rate of soil
erosion could be attributable to the clearing of forest area for the development of the
agricultural fields in the catchment of the NBL. A more or less uniform profile of
the Zn: Al ratio is observed from ~1934 to ~1991 pointing to a consistent moderate
level of supply of Zn mainly through soil erosion in the catchment. The profile of the
Zinc concentration remained highest from ~1992 to ~2009 with its highest content in
~1998. The Zn: Al ratio declined a little from ~1992 to ~1998 indicating some part
of the Zn could have derived from a source other than the soil particles. This Zn
could have possibly derived from unknown sources and transported through the air
and precipitated in the NBL basin during this period. The increasing trend of the Zn:
Al ratio post ~1999 similar to a higher Zn profile could be attributed to a rise in soil
erosion in the catchment of the NBL (Figs. 6.4 and 6.5).
The manganese (Mn) preferentially migrates to iron once the bottom water loses
oxygen (Engstrom et al. 1985). This manganese generally moves from the sediments
into the deepest water causing the environment of manganese in the deeper waters
sediments (Garrison 2008). The iron and manganese tend to remain in suspension for
a long period with their preferential movement together (Jones and Bowser 1978).
Thus, the ratio of iron to manganese (Fe: Mn) declines (Mn increases) with the loss
of oxygen (Garrison 2008). The profile of iron (Fe) to manganese (Mn) in the core of
the NBL shows an increasing trend from ~1906 to ~1933 (Fig. 6.5), which shows the
existence of a fairly good oxygenated environment during this period. However, the
ratio of Fe: Mn started showing a declining trend after ~1933 till ~2009. This
6 Lacustrine Records of Anthropogenic Change and Precipitation in. . . 123

indicates that the bottom water of NBL had started losing oxygen progressively after
~1933 and the lake bottom became more and more anoxic till ~2009. Thus, the
hypolimnetic oxygen of the NBL has declined for the past 80 years indicating
increased eutrophication in the lake till the present.

Paleo-Rainfall and Droughts

The Indian sub-continent experiences >80% of rainfall as a result of the seasonal

monsoon, which is the lifeline of Indian agriculture (IPCC 2007). Therefore, it is
vital to forecast the future climate, particularly rainfall trends considering global
warming and its adverse effects (Church and white 2006). Hence, the investigation
of the past monsoonal fluctuations is highly essential to forecasting rainfall and
understanding past extreme weather events. The paleoclimatic studies in India
particularly from the last ice age to the present add comprehensive knowledge on
rainfall and droughts (Singhvi and Kale 2008). The different proxies have been used
by the various workers to investigate past monsoonal fluctuations. The responses of
the diatom community to climate change have been studied by several workers
(Anderson et al. 2012; Chen et al. 2014). The other proxies used are chemical
weathering intensity and geochemical ratios normalized with erosional indicators
like Ti and Al (Colin et al. 1998; Achyuthan et al. 2007; Kotlia et al. 2010 and Veena
et al. 2014).
The sediment accumulation rate of the NBL was increased after the construction
of a small rockfill dam in ~1917 (Fig. 6.4). The sediment input in the NBL is
dependent upon the amount of rainfall that occurred in its catchment area. A higher
rainfall is coupled with an enhanced deposition of sediments into the lake. The
reduced deposition of sediments in the NBL till ~1919 is coeval with calamitous and
moderate drought events that occurred in major parts of India during 1918 and 1920,
respectively (De et al. 2005; Fig. 6.4). The exceptional flood in India in ~1933 coin-
cides with the initial rise in the concentration of the geochemical elements of the
NBL (Fig. 6.4). The gradual rise in the accumulation of the majority of the geo-
chemical elements was continued and reached peaked in ~1956. This continuous rise
of the geochemical elements could be attributed to improved precipitation in the
catchment of the NBL. There was a gradual decline in the geochemical content from
~1957 till ~1966. The maximum fall in the concentration of a geochemical element
in ~1966 is again coinciding with the other moderate drought event in India in
~1965. Another rise in the geochemical content started in ~1967 and reached its
peak in ~1975 (Fig. 6.4). Another decline in the concentrations of geochemical
elements of the NBL was noticed after ~1976 and the same trend was continued till
~1991. Many parts of India experienced severe drought in 1987 (De et al. 2005).
Thus, the central Indian region in general and the catchment area of the NBL, in
particular, had suffered a major drought from ~1987 to ~1991. The highest level of
deposition of the geochemical elements in the NBL was observed in ~1998 and
possibly could be attributed to the occurrence of maximum rainfall or flood event in
124 S. S. Humane et al.

the eastern part of the Vidarbha region of Maharashtra, Central India (Fig. 6.4). The
post ~1998 period showed a gradual reduction in the rainfall till ~2004 and the low
rainfall condition prevailed up to ~2009 (Fig. 6.4). The peaks of the geochemical
elemental content also suggest the increased soil erosion in the catchment of the
NBL during ~1933, ~1956, 1975 and 1998, respectively (Fig. 6.4). The increased
agricultural practices have led to deforestation in the NBL catchment resulting in a
rise in soil erosion coupled with varying strength of rainfall in the monsoonal core
zone of Central India.

The Chemical Weathering Intensity (CWI)

The oxide such as Al2O3, TiO2 and SiO2 is used as the most resistant and insoluble
elements in the environment during weathering and erosion, whereas CaO, MgO and
Na2O are more soluble and mobile (Engstrom and Wright 1984; Veena et al. 2014;
Garrison and Laliberte 2007). The chemical weathering intensity (CWI) is calculated
to know the fluctuations in weathering intensity (Sun et al. 2009). The higher value
CWI points to more weathering. This corresponds to wetter conditions and heavy
monsoonal rainfall in the study area (Central India). The more intense development
of anthropogenic carbonate in the soil of the sediment source area corresponds to
higher CaO/MgO ratios in sediment, which points to warm climate with alternating
wet and dry periods (Veena et al. 2014; Wang et al. 1990; Wang 1992).
The CWI and CaO/MgO ratio with the depth (cm) of the NBL core are compared
for the past 100 years (Fig. 6.6). The CWI and CaO/MgO ratio started declining after
~1918 till ~1933 coinciding with the one calamitous drought event in ~1918 and a
moderate drought event in ~1920 in many parts of India. The further decline in the
ratio of the CWI and CaO/MgO after ~1920 till ~1933 points to a gradual reduction
of rainfall (dry period) in Central India. The further decline in this ratio from
~1934 to ~1975 indicates the prevalence of low rainfall in the catchment of the
NBL. The moderate drought event of ~1965 and the severe drought event of
~1972 in India (De et al. 2005) also corroborate our findings of low rainfall
conditions from ~1934 to ~1975. The CWI, CaO/MgO ratio further shows a
declining trend after ~1984 indicating the reduction in the rainfall till ~1991. The
severe drought event in India during ~1987 also supports the present finding. The
CWI and CaO/MgO ratios show increasing trends after ~1992 indicating moderate
to high rainfall in Central India till ~2009 (De et al. 2005; Fig. 6.6).

Diatom Analysis

The significant shift of diatoms from benthic to planktonic assemblage has been
attributed to climate warming (Chen et al. 2014). Lake sediments from stratification
during summer and climate warming periods and thus more stratification would
6 Lacustrine Records of Anthropogenic Change and Precipitation in. . . 125

point to increased length and strength of warm/dry periods (Wang 2012). The small
size and fast-growing planktonic diatoms in the sediment cores indicate longer and
stronger thermal stratification (Smol et al. 2005; Rühland et al. 2010; Chen et al.
2014). The NBL falls in the tropical climatic region. Thus, the temperature variation
in the region has not been significant since the last century. However, the diatom
species may respond to fluctuations in the precipitation (rainfall) and dry periods
(droughts) existing in the region. The changing patterns of planktonic to benthic
diatom assemblage (P/B) are recorded in the NBL core from ~1906 to
~2012 (Fig. 6.7). The planktonic diatom A. granulata is dominate throughout the
NBL core along with the appearance of another planktonic diatom taxa D. stelligera
after ~2004. However, the comparative decline in abundance of A. granulata was
associated with the increase in the concentration of benthic diatoms such as
R. musculus, R. gibberula and G. undulatum. The concentration of A. granulata
remained higher since ~1906 and more or less constant till ~1961. A major shift in
speciation was seen at ~1920, ~1933, ~1966 and ~ 1983 till ~2005 with the
preponderance of the benthic species R. musculus coeval with a decline in planktonic
forms. The abrupt disappearance of R. gibberula was observed from ~1983 to
~2005. The nutrient input in response to climatic conditions and anthropogenic
activities has played a vital role in the diatom shift of the NBL. The aridity/low
rainfall mainly affects the water chemistry and inflicts salinity (Winder et al. 2009).
D. stelligera indicates changing water levels and deforestation, while A. granulata
exists in varying trophic status (Costa-Bödeker et al. 2012). R. musculus is a
mesohalobus and alkalibiontic species found in the swamp, swampy lakes, springs
and oozing areas (You et al. 2009). The major period of the profusion of R. musculus
in the NBL core was during ~1919–1921, ~1933–1940,
~1956–1972 and ~ 1978–2004, respectively. Thus, the NBL water was mainly
mesotrophic, Meso euhyaline and alkalibiontic. The longer dry/less rainfall period
that prevailed in the NBL watershed could have possibly developed swampy
conditions in the lake during these years. The existence of a low rainfall/dry period
also corroborates several drought events recorded in India, for example, in ~1918,
~1920, ~1965, ~1972 and ~1987 (De et al. 2005; Fig. 6.7). A. granulata was
predominant during ~1906–1914, ~1920–1922, ~1941–1943, ~1948–1956,
~1972–1976 and ~ 1973–1982. The increased concentration of A. granulata during
these periods in the NBL mainly points to the accelerated soil erosion and flux,
persistent wet period and increased nutrient levels. It also clearly signifies that the
NBL was highly eutrophic with high phosphorus and nitrogen values. A decline in
the A. granulata population is linked with an increase in the population of
R. gibberula and G. undulatum also coincides with dry/low rainfall periods
(De et al. 2005; Fig. 6.7). The major dominance of R. musculus was observed on
the top of the core during ~1983–2006. The prevalence of the longer dry/low rainfall
periods could have again led to swampy conditions in the NBL with the mesotrophic
waters. R. musculus and A. granulata both decreased drastically at the top of the core
during ~2007–2012, while other small benthic and planktonic forms became pre-
dominant during this period (Fig. 6.7). D. stelligera was the common abundant form
observed during this period. Diatom assemblages dominated by D. stelligera
126 S. S. Humane et al.

indicate a thermally stable environment and alkaline conditions (Cardozo et al.

2014). The abundance of D. stelligera also indicates a decline in the nutrient
concentration due to enhanced stratification in response to the warming trend in
the region (Stone et al. 2010). Thus, the abundance of planktonic diatom species,
D. stelligera during this period suggests low nutrient, mesotrophic, alkaline lake
waters with comparatively dry/less rainfall period indicating changing water level
and deforestation in the catchment of the NBL. Thus, differences in aquatic habitat,
duration and strength of dry and wet periods could have resulted in the different
diatom responses in the NBL.

Conclusions

Nutrients such as phosphorous are mostly derived from the sediment and soils from
the watershed of the NBL. The concentration of geochemical elements like K, Si, Fe,
Mn, Zn and Na are also mainly derived from the sediments and soils in the watershed
of the NBL. From ~1906 to ~1956, P was mainly derived through the excessive use
of synthetic fertilizers in the agricultural land of the catchment area of the NBL rather
than soil particles mainly after the construction of the rockfill dam, i.e. ~1917. The
hypolimnetic oxygen of the NBL has declined for the past 80 years indicating
increased eutrophication in the lake till the present. The decline in the deposition
of the geochemical elements till ~1919 was coeval with the calamitous and moderate
drought events that occurred in major parts of India during 1918 and 1920. Similarly,
the exceptional flood in India in ~1933 coincides with the initial rise in the concen-
tration of the geochemical elements of the NBL. The gradual rise in the accumulation
of the majority of the geochemical elements till ~1956 could be attributed to
improved precipitation in the catchment of the NBL. The maximum fall in the
concentration of a geochemical element in ~1966 again coincides with the other
moderate drought event in India in ~1965. The central Indian region in general and
the catchment area of the NBL, in particular, had suffered a major drought period
from ~1987 to ~1991. The highest level of deposition of the geochemical elements
in the NBL in ~ 1998 possibly could be attributed to the occurrence of maximum
rainfall or flood event over Central India. The post ~1998 period showed a gradual
reduction in rainfall till ~2004 and the low rainfall conditions existed up to ~2009.
The CWI record of the NBL shows that the accumulation of the geochemical
elements was mainly controlled by the changing climatic conditions, namely wet
and dry periods in the catchment area along with the enhanced soil erosion caused by
anthropogenic activities. The changes in the aquatic conditions are mainly caused by
varying duration and strength of dry and wet periods over the central Indian region
and enhanced anthropogenic activities such as deforestation, use of synthetic fertil-
izers, etc., in the catchment area and could have resulted in the diverse diatom
responses in the NBL.
6 Lacustrine Records of Anthropogenic Change and Precipitation in. . . 127

Acknowledgements SKH and SSH thank University Grants Commission (UGC), New Delhi for
the funding to the department under UGC-SAP DRS- II (No.F.550/2/DRS-II/2016; SAP-I; 03/05/
2016) and the Department of Science and Technology (DST), Government of India for providing
financial support to the department under the DST-FIST I program.

References

Achyuthan H, Kar A, Eastoe C (2007) Late quaternary environmental changes and evolution of the
Tal Chhapar salt lakes, Rajasthan. J Paleolimnol 38:493–507
Anderson NJ, Rippey B (1994) Monitoring lake recovery from point source eutrophication: the use
diatom-inferred epilimentic total phosphorus and sediment chemistry freshwater biology.
Hydrobiologia 32:625–639
Anderson NJ, Foy RH, Engstrom DR, Rippey B, Alamgir F (2012) Climate forcing of diatom
productivity in low land, eutrophic lake: White Lough revisited. Freshw Biol 57:2030–2043
Batterbee RW, Charles DF, Dixit SS, Renberg I (1999) Diatom as indicators of surface water
acidity. In: Stoermer EF, Smol JP (eds) . Sciences Cambridge University Press, pp 85–127
Batterbee RW, Jones VJ, Flower RJ, Cameron NG, Bennion H, Carvalho L, Juggins S (2001)
Diatoms. In: Smol JP, Birks HJB, Last WM (eds) Tracking environmental change using Lake
sediments: terrestrial, algal, and siliceous indicators, vol 3. Kluwer Academic Publishers,
Dordrecht, pp 155–202
Bennion H, Wunsam S, Schmidt R (1995) The variation of diatom-phosphorus transfer functions:
an example of Mondsee, Austria. Freshw Biol 34:271–283
Cardozo AZY, Gomes DF, Silva E, Da M, Duque SRE, Rangel JOC, Sifeddine A, Turcq B,
Albuquerque ALS (2014) Holocene Paleolimnological reconstruction of high altitude Colom-
bian tropical lake. Palaeogeogr Palaeoclimatol Palaeoecol:1–10. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.
palaeo.2014.03.013
Chen C, Zhao L, Zhu C, Wang J, Jiang J, Yang S (2014) Response of diatom community in Lugu
Lake (Yunnan–Guizhou plateau China) to climate change over the past century. J Paleolimnol
51(3):357–373. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10933-013-9760-4
Church J, White N (2006) A 20th-century acceleration in global sea-level rise. Geophys Res Lett.
https://doi.org/10.1029/2005GL024826
Cohen AS (2003) Paleolimnology. Oxford University Press, 500p
Colin C, Kissel C, Blamart D, Turpin I (1998) Magnetic properties of sediments in the Bay of
Bengal and the Andaman Sea: impact of rapid North Atlantic Ocean climatic events on the
strength of the Indian Monsoon. Earth Planet Sci Lett 160:623–635
Costa-Bödeker S, Bennion H, Jesus TA, Albuquerque ALS, Figueira RCL, Bicudo DC (2012)
Paleolimnologically inferred eutrophication of a shallow, tropical, urban reservoir in Southeast
Brazil. J Paleolimnol 48:751–766
De US, Dube RK, Prakasa Rao GS (2005) Extreme weather events over India in the last 100 years.
Indian Geophy Union 9:173–187
Dean W (2002) A 1500-year record of climatic and environmental change in Elk Lake, Clearwater
County, Minnesota II: geochemistry, mineralogy, and stable isotopes. J Paleolimnol 27:301–
319
DRM (2000) District Resource Map of Bhandara and Gondia Districts. Geological Survey of India
Engstrom DR, Wright HE (1984) Chemical stratigraphy of lake sediments as a record of environ-
mental change. In: Lund H, Jm WC (eds) Lake sediments- environmental history. Leicester
University Press, pp 11–67
Engstrom DR, Swain EB, Kingston JC (1985) A paleolimnological record of human disturbance
from Harvey’s Lake, Vermont: geochemistry, pigments, and diatoms. Freshw Biol 15:261–288
128 S. S. Humane et al.

Fitzpatrick FA, Garrison PJ, Fitzgerald SA, Elder JF (2003) Nutrient, trace-element, and ecological
history of Musky Bay, Lac Courte Oreilles, Wisconsin, as inferred from sediment cores. US
Geologic Survey Water-Resource Investigation Report 02-4225: 141p
Garrison PJ (2008) Paleoecological study of Grindstone Lake, Sawyerl County. Wisconsin Depart-
ment of Natural Resources, Bureau of Integrated Science Services 1–16
Garrison PJ, Laliberte GD (2007) Paleoecological study of Big Round Lake, Polk County.
Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources, Bureau of Integrated Science Services 1–17
Garrison PJ, Laliberte G (2010) Paleoecological Study of lake Chetac, Sawyer Country. Wisconsin
Department of Natural Resources, Bureau of Integrated Science Services 1–17
Gondia District Gazetteer (2013) Government of Maharashtra, India
Grimm E (1991) Tilia. Version 2.0. Illinois State Museum, Illinois
Humane SS, Humane SK, Juare S (2016) 210Pb dating and trace metal accumulation study of
sediment cores from Navegaon Bandh and Bodhalkasa Lakes, Gondia District, Maharashtra,
India. Environ Earth Sci 75(7):1–26
IPCC (2007) Climate change 2007: the physical science basis. In: Solomon S, Qin D, Manning M,
Chen Z, Marquis M, Averyt KB, Tignor M, Miller HL (eds) Contribution of a working group to
the fourth assessment report on the intergovernmental panel on climate change. Cambridge
University Press, 996p
John J (2012) Diatoms in the Swan River estuary, Western Australia: taxonomy and ecology.
Koeltz Scientific Books, 456p
Jones BF, Bowser CJ (1978) The mineralogy and related chemistry of lake sediments. In: Lerman A
(ed) Lakes: chemistry, geology, physics. Springer, New York, pp 179–235
Juggins S (2007) C2 version 1.5.0: a program for plotting and visualizing stratigraphic data.
University of Newcastle
Karthick B, Hamilton PB, Kociolek JP (2013) An illustrated guide to common diatoms of
Peninsular India. Gubbi labs, 206p
Kotlia BS, Sanwal J, Phartiyal B, Joshi LM, Trivedi A, Sharma C (2010) Late quaternary climatic
changes in the eastern Kumaun Himalaya India as deduced from multi-proxy studies. Quat Int
213:44–55
Liu J, Zhangwen L, Huanjun Z, Han BP (2012) Hydrodynamic change recorded by diatoms in
sediments of Liuxihe Reservoir, southern China. J Paleolimnol 47:17–27
Liu B, Williams DM, Tan L (2017) Three new species of Ulneria (Bacillariophyta) from the Wuling
Mountains Area, China. Phytotaxa 306(4):241–258. https://doi.org/10.11646/phytotaxa.306.4.1
McFadden MA, Patterson WP, Mullins HT, Anderson WT (2005) Multi-proxy approach to long-
and short-term Holocene climate-change: evidence from eastern Lake Ontario. J Paleolimnol
33:371–391
Metzeltin D, Lange-Bertalot H (2007) Tropical diatoms of South America, 2. In: Lange-Bertalot H
(ed) Iconographia diatomologica, annotated diatom micrographs, vol 15. Koeltz Scientific
Books, Sttutgart, 736p
Metzeltin D, Lange-Bertalot H, Garcia-Rodriguez F (2005) Diatoms of Uruguay. Iconographia
Diatomologica 15:1–736
Meyers PA, Teranes JL (2001) Sediment organic matter. In: Last WM, Smol JP (eds) Tracking
environmental changes using lake sediment – vol. 2: physical and geochemical methods, pp
239–270
Mullins HT, Patterson WP, Teece MA, Burnett AW (2011) Holocene climate and environmental
change in Central New York (USA). J Paleolimnol 45:243–256
Rühland KM, Paterson AM, Hargan K, Jenkin A, Clark BJ, Smol JP (2010) Reorganization of algal
communities in the Lake of the Woods (Ontario, Canada) in response to turn of – the-century
damming and recent warming. Limnol Oceanogr 55:2433–2451
Schroeder L, Martin SC, Kerns GJ, McLean CE (2016) Diatom assemblages in a reservoir sediment
core track land-use changes in the watershed. J Paleolimnol 55(1). https://doi.org/10.1007/
s10933-015-9860-4
6 Lacustrine Records of Anthropogenic Change and Precipitation in. . . 129

Singhvi AK, Kale VS (2008) Paleoclimate studies in India: last ice age to the present, IGBP-
WCRP-SCOPE report series. Indian National Science Academy, New Delhi, p 4
Smol JP (2008) Pollution of lakes and Rivers: a Paleoenvironmental perspective, 2nd edn. Black-
well Publishing, Oxford, 383p
Smol JP, Wolfe AP, Birks HJB, Douglash MSV (2005) Climate-driven regime shifts in the
biological communities of arctic lakes. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 102:4397–4402
Stone J, Westover K, Cohen A (2010) Late Pleistocene paleohydrography and diatom paleoecology
of the central basin of Lake Malawi, Africa. Palaeogeogr Paleoclimatol Paleoecol 303:51–70
Sun Q, Wang S, Zhou J, Chen Z, Shen J, Xie X, Wu F, Chen P (2009) Sediment geochemistry of
lake Daihai, north-Central China: implications for catchment weathering and climate change
during Holocene. J Paleolimnol 43:75–87
Veena MP, Achyuthan H, Eastoe C, Farooqui A (2014) A multi-proxy reconstruction of monsoon
variability in the late Holocene, South India. Quat Int 325:63–73
Wang SM (1992) Lake records of the Holocene climatic change in China. In: Shi YF (ed) The
Holocene climatic optimum and associated environment in China. Science Press, Beijing
(in Chinese), pp 146–152
Wang Q (2012) Environmental evolution of Lugu Lake, Yunnan and response to Southwest
monsoon climate since LGM. Nanjing Institute of Geography and Limnology, CAS, University
of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Nanjing China, PhD thesis, 128p
Wang SM, Tu YS, Wu RJ, Freng M (1990) The Daihai Lake: environment evolution and climate
change. University of Science and Technology of China Press, Hefei, pp 1–191. (in Chinese)
Winder M, Reuter JE, Schladow SG (2009) Lake warming favours small-sized planktonic diatom
species. Proc R Soc Britain Biol Sci 276:427–435
You Q, Liu Y, Wang Y, Wang Q (2009) Taxonomy and distribution of diatoms in the genera
Epithemia and Rhopalodia from the Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region, China. Nova
Hedwigia 89(3–14):397–430
Chapter 7
Anthropogenic Interference and Climatic
Changes Influencing Precipitation,
Sediment Load and Sand Deposition by
the Phalgu River in and Around Jahanabad
District, Bihar: A Case Study

Akhouri Bishwapriya, Abhishek Kumar Chaurasia, and V. Aneesh Kumar

Abstract The peninsular bound rivers in the state of Bihar join the median principal
drainage, River Ganga along its south bank flowing from south to north. These
emanate mostly from the rocky uplands of the Chotanagpur Gneissic Complex, a
few from the Vindhyans, Bihar Mica Belt, Gondwanas and other geological forma-
tions. Amongst them, River Falgu has its emergence from the Chotanagpur Gneissic
Complex and is a promising repository for sand used for construction purposes.
Understandably, there is a composite licence awarded by the state government to
harness the sand potential of the river along its fertile stretches which is sometimes
unchecked from the point of view of mining complying with the requisites of
existing guidelines. The region which experiences hot and humid climate conditions
has suffered irreversible vagaries in the past few decades with a conspicuous
decrease in the overall precipitation, thus influencing the groundwater conditions.
The recent past is replete with climatic surprises from unexpected rainfall in a couple
of seasons to intimidating drought-like conditions in others. Undoubtedly, these
events cannot be segregated from short-term climatic changes which are now
affecting different parts of the country with a certain amount of regularity. This
has influenced the sedimentation pattern and carrying capacity of the river. The
aspect of sedimentation in a stretch of one of the peninsular bound rivers viz. Phalgu,
originating from Chotanagpur Gneissic Complex (CGC) and debouching into the
River Ganga near Patna district, forms the soul of the present study in light of
fluctuation in sedimentation pattern, anthropogenic interference (particularly aber-
rations in sand mining), the effect of cross drainage structures (viz. barrage, bridge,
weir) and diversion of the streamflow for various irrigational purposes which
together or in isolation have greatly influenced the ecological health of the river.

A. Bishwapriya (*) · A. K. Chaurasia

Geological Survey of India, Patna, India
V. Aneesh Kumar
Central Ground Water Board, Patna, India
e-mail: [email protected]

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 131
N. Khare (ed.), Science, Policies and Conflicts of Climate Change, Springer Climate,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-16254-1_7
132 A. Bishwapriya et al.

The study has been carried out on 11 no Sand Mining ‘Ghats’ officially identified as
lease areas for minor minerals in Jehanabad district, Bihar along the course of River
Phalgu. Studies reveal that anthropogenic activities are significantly affecting the
river bed morphology by influencing sediment supply and transportation in the river
basin. Transportation of sediment is the predominant work of the river through
various hydrological processes such as a solution, suspension, saltation and traction
under highly fluctuating hydrodynamic conditions, but decreased precipitation has
affected the carrying capacity of the river. This chapter deals with the tight rope
walking in arriving at the best possible balance resulting from environmental safety
guideline procedures involved in mining, safeguarding the ecology of the river
amidst challenges and ways to minimize the unprecedented effects of short-term
climatic change. It also highlights aspects like drivers responsible for the reduced
flow, erratic modes of sand deposition vis-a-vis undisciplined extraction and recom-
mendations towards sustainable exploitation in tune with the expectation and guide-
lines served by the Hon’ble National Green Tribunal in this case along Phalgu River,
in Jehanabad district, Bihar.

Keywords Fluvial ecosystem · River adjustment · Channel evolution · Land

dereliction · Global positioning system

Introduction

The recent past is replete with incidences of disaster arising out of climatic surprises
that create havoc and wide-scale catastrophe in their aftermath. The flood disaster of
Himachal Pradesh and Uttarakhand (2013), the incessant rainfall leading to wide-
spread inundation in Chennai and Kerala (2015 and 2018, respectively) and the
recent abnormally high rainfall within the span of 3–4 days in parts of Bihar (2019),
changed the perspective with which such vagaries in climatic condition need to be
seen. Undoubtedly, these events cannot be segregated from short-term climatic
changes which are now affecting different parts of the country with a certain amount
of regularity.
The aspect of sedimentation in a stretch of one of the peninsular bound rivers viz.
Phalgu, originating from the zone of rocky upland comprising Chotanagpur Gneissic
Complex (CGC) and ultimately debouching into the river Ganga near Patna district,
forms the soul of the present study in light of fluctuation in sedimentation pattern,
anthropogenic interference (particularly aberrations in sand mining), the effect of
cross drainage structures (viz, barrage, bridge, weir) and diversion of the streamflow
for various irrigational purposes which together or in isolation have greatly
influenced the ecological health of the river. The study has been carried out on
11 no Sand Mining ‘Ghats’ officially identified as lease areas for minor minerals in
Jehanabad district, Bihar along the course of River Phalgu.
Climatic change in this part of the country in terms of rainfall has conspicuously
experienced a sustained shift in precipitation from high to low and excessive
dependence on groundwater resulting in over drafting has influenced the fluctuation
in sedimentation pattern and carrying capacity of the river.
7 Anthropogenic Interference and Climatic Changes Influencing Precipitation,. . . 133

Anthropogenic activities are significantly affecting the river bed morphology by

influencing sediment supply and transportation in a river basin. The fluvial ecosys-
tem like others is vulnerable to changes emerging from the increased human
occupation of an area and climatic changes (Cincotta et al. 2000). The variations
in sedimentation regime also affect the ecological integrity of the river channel by
altering the channel’s stability, bed and bank erosion, and aquatic habitats of the
riverine ecology (Comiti et al. 2011). Sediment extraction from river beds is one of
the detrimental anthropogenic activities responsible for altering the river bed mor-
phology and ecological degradation (Petit et al. 1996; Arnaud et al. 2015; WyZga
2007). The impact of sediment flux and extraction has been widely studied in
different parts of the world (Gaillot and Piegay 1999; Batalla et al. 2006; Surian
1999; Scorpio et al. 2015). In some cases, sediment extraction is an important
driving force for river adjustment and channel evolution (Warner 2000). Gaillot
and Piegay (1999) have studied sedimentation patterns and the impact of sediment
lifting. The impact of sediment abstraction and sediment fluctuation is also depen-
dent on the magnitude of the anthropogenic intervention and the timescale of the
sediment extraction activity (Surian and Rinaldi 2003; Belletti et al. 2015). In the
monsoon phase, most of the Indian rivers obtain a high amount of water mass (Singh
1996; Gupta 1997; Goswami 1998; Kale et al. 1997; Liebault and Piegay 2002;
Starkel et al. 2008; Wiejaczka 2016; Ayaz et al. 2018). Transportation of sediment is
the predominant work of the river during monsoon through various hydrological
processes such as a solution, suspension, saltation and traction under highly fluctu-
ating hydrodynamic conditions and sediment loads.
This paper deals with the tight rope walking in arriving at the best possible
balance resulting from environmental safety guideline procedures involved in min-
ing, safeguarding the ecology of the river amidst challenges and ways to minimize
the unprecedented effects of short-term climatic change. It also highlights aspects
like drivers responsible for the reduced flow, erratic modes of sand deposition vis-a-
vis undisciplined extraction and recommendations towards sustainable exploitation
in tune with the expectation and guidelines served by the Hon’ble National Green
Tribunal in this case along Phalgu River, in Jehanabad district, Bihar.

About the Drainage

The Phalgu River, which flows past Gaya, India, in the state of Bihar, is a sacred
river for Hindus and Buddhists. The name Phalgu is believed to be a combination of
phala (merit) and gau (wish-fulfilling cow). The etymology implies that the river
manifests the highest power of piousness and merit. In ancient scriptures, it is called
the Nairañjanā in Sanskrit. Hindu pilgrims from different parts of India gather on the
banks of the river during monsoon (September – October) for a religious ritual –
‘Pitrapaksh Tarpan’ when pilgrims take a dip in the seasonal holy river ‘Phalgu’
(Vikram Kumar 2019).
134 A. Bishwapriya et al.

Phalgu River is formed by the confluence of Lilajan (also called Niranjan or

Nilanjan) and the Mohana, two large hills originated streams each of which is over
250 m wide. The confluence is marked ~3 kilometres d/s of Bodh Gaya. The higher
stream flows further to the north, past the town of Gaya, where it attains a width of
over 820 m (Vikram Kumar 2019). Phalgu River is known for having minimal
surface flow and most of the water content is known to occur superficially.
Diversion of water through manmade canals/distributaries by means of water
interception civil structures like weirs, barrages and dams for irrigation has rendered
the active channel of the stream almost devoid of water. Excessive dependency on
surface flow and somewhat poor management of water resources are also responsible
factors for depleting water content.
The short-term climatic changes (severity in heat spells and reduced or
unpredictable precipitation) have also influenced the surface runoff in the river
channel. The decreased surface runoff in turn is increasing the pressure on the
available freshwater resources in south Bihar which is also a phenomenon in several
rain-starved states of India. Water levels are falling to the tune of 4–6 mm/year in the
Indus Basin and the Ganges-Brahmaputra Basin (Vikram Kumar 2019). The disap-
pearance or drying up of River Saraswati due to the effect of climatic changes and
tectonism is an enigma environmentalists are dealing with. In the state of Uttar
Pradesh, the Gomti River has dried up in its upper catchment as the river has lost its
tributaries in almost all the districts it flows through. Likewise, the Behta River
(UP) has shrunk to ponds. Streams like Bhainsi and Tareuna in Shahjahanpur district
UP have turned dry to the extent that for ~16 km in the upstream reaches, no signs of
the river are visible. Chhota and Andhra Chhoha in the Lakhimpur area have almost
dried up owing to the acute fall of groundwater levels in nearby areas. With a
baseline water stress score of 4.15, India’s Palar River is placed at 15th rank on
WRI’s list of the world’s most water-stressed rivers (Vikram Kumar 2019). Nayyal
is another river in Tamil Nadu that is endangered along with the waterways of
Chennai (Cooum and Adyar River).
India accounts for about 17% of the world’s population but has only 4% of the
world’s freshwater with the per capita annual availability of 1544 cubic meters
placing it as an already water-stressed country, inching rapidly towards severe
water scarcity. The downwards trends in the availability of fresh water in rivers
have become a serious concern globally posing questions about sustainability.
Experts have predicted that water availability will be one of the major challenges
faced by human society and the lack of water would be a key factor limiting
development. (Vikram Kumar 2019).

Location and Study Area

The Phalgu River is a dominantly south to northbound drainage flowing through the
middle of Gaya district; Bihar (Fig. 7.1); however, it is pushed to the eastern fringe
when it enters Jehanabad district. The higher-order derives its name from the two
7 Anthropogenic Interference and Climatic Changes Influencing Precipitation,. . . 135

Fig. 7.1 District resource map showing location of the area of study
136 A. Bishwapriya et al.

tributaries Lilajan and Mohana River which join to make the higher order drainage
(Phalgu River). The Lilajan (flowing SW-NNE) and Mohana River (flowing SE to
NNW) emanate from the rocky uplands of Chotanagpur Gneissic Complex in the
south and make a confluence, immediately south-east of Gaya township. Further
downstream, it nearly flows in a northerly direction rechristened as the Falgu River
and it further bifurcates as Mohana Nadi near the Gaya Jehanabad district boundary.
The average span of the river is decreased in Jehanabad district as compared to
Gaya district. The newly constructed barrage near Udherasthan (~2016) could be
another obstacle intercepting the runoff and allowing more deposition to its upstream
unless the water is released in the downstream areas. In this stretch, 11 no sand
mining ‘ghats’ identified as mining lease areas, have been studied for their existing
sand content. Incidentally, 10/11 sand ‘ghats’ under consideration lie to the north of
the engineering structure near Udherasthan (a barrage), thus limiting the fresh supply
of sediments along the river further downstream of Udherasthan also implying that
the existing sand repository downstream of the barrage has been largely harnessed
during the past few seasons without commensurate replenishment (Fig. 7.2).

Fig. 7.2 Study area map

7 Anthropogenic Interference and Climatic Changes Influencing Precipitation,. . . 137

Geology

The districts of Gaya and Jehanabad have about 80% of its surface area under cover
of alluvium. The southern part of the Gaya district constitutes mainly Precambrian
rocks while the northern part together with the present territorial boundary of the
Jehanabad district is represented by quaternary sediments. The rocky upland com-
prising hilly tract as well as inselbergs in the southern periphery is composed of
Chotanagpur Gneissic Complex (mainly granites and its variants) along with older
metamorphic comprising mica schist, quartz mica schist and phyllite. Migmatites
and augen gneiss are also present.
Amphibolites, hornblende schist, epidiorites, etc., are exposed along hills north-
east of Gaya. The younger quartzites and Mica schists of Munger Group of Middle
Proterozoic age are exposed east of Gaya along NE-SW trending ridges. Intrusive
granites and pegmatites are present along the eastern border of the district. Gond-
wana Group of Rocks in limited exposure is present in the southern part of the
district.
The quaternary sediments overlying the Precambrian rocks are expressed as
alluvial uplands characterized by fluvial imprints like levees, channel bars, etc.,
the northern part of the district is covered by older flood plain sediments which have
a marginally higher relief as compared to younger flood plain sediments.
The whole of Jehanabad district and the northern part of Gaya district contain a
high yielding aquifer zone while the southern part of Gaya district is covered with
hard rock or a thin cover of alluvium with the low yielding aquifer. The high yielding
aquifer dwindles in thickness in the terrain south of the main railway line passing
through Gaya town. In the blocks south of Gaya town viz. Dobhi, Bodh Gaya,
Wazirganj, etc., high to moderate yielding zones are found in pockets where aquifers
occur within the shallow zone of 30 m in the form of saturated sand extending widely
on either side of the course of Phalgu, Morhar and other perennial rivers.

Material and Methodology

River channel morphology results from a complex interplay of tectonics, geomor-

phic and anthropogenic processes that occur in a basin at various spatial and
temporal scales (Achyuthan 2003; Lbisate et al. 2011; Wolf and Faust 2016;
Prizomwala et al. 2015). Scientific observations have been taken at independent
sites (11 no ghats) on the parameters viz. river morphology & flow regime, identi-
fication pillars (if any), over-excavation/exploitation (if any) in the area, impact
assessment, proximity to major engineering structures, land dereliction, bank erosion
and/or other salient features, the status of the available sand horizon.
To assess the combined impact of the geomorphic processes and anthropogenic
activities on river morphology, Global Positioning System (GPS), Google Earth
(GE) imagery, and ecological species assessment has been tentatively made using a
138 A. Bishwapriya et al.

L-profile of River Falgu in toposheet no.72G/4 depicting gradient of the river and location of Sand Ghats

S N S40W N40E
S10W N10E
S65W N65E S20W N20E S N

West of Nandihau
80 m
Bauri
75 m Shaho Bigha
Ginji

70 m Dumri

Khirauti
65 m
Elevation Banghuganj Maiawan
(m) 60 m

55 m Ghazipur

50 m

45 m

40 m
1 km 2 km 3 km 4 km 5 km 6 km 7 km 8 km 9 km 10 km 11 km 12 km 13 km 14 km 15 km 16 km 17 km 18 km 19 km 20 km 21 km 22 km 23 km 24 km 25 km 26 km 27 km 28 km 29 km 30 km 31 km

Scale: Distance
(km)
Vertical: 1cm = 5m
Horizontal: 1cm = 500m

Note:
1. The stretch between Udersathan and Bauri Ghat has a flatter gradient which also explains higher deposition of sediment by the river. Prepared by:
2. The gredient is marginally higher between Ginji and Ghzipur Ghat but the span of river becomes narrower in the stretch. 1.Shri Akhouri Bishwapriya
3. In view of errection of Barrage at Udersathan the transport of sediment in the downstream is evidently checked. 2. Shri Abhishek Kumar Chaurasia
4. The river gredient in the stretch is 30 m in 32 km or 1m per every 1km (1 in 1000 slope). 3. Shri Aneesh Kumar
4. Shri Bimal Kumar

Fig. 7.3 Longitudinal profile of the area

measuring tape and graduated bamboo stakes. The data in regard to longitudinal
river profile (Fig. 7.3), stream water velocity, river bank breaches, etc., was obtained
using high-resolution satellite data supported by detailed field measurements.
With an exaggerated scale along the Y-axis symbolizing the height of the terrain,
the drop in gradient could be depicted. It also iterates the fact that the gradient for this
peninsular bound river is almost negligible which further establishes the fact that any
deposition of sand in a colloidal state will depend on the available water in the river
and its carrying capacity.
As indicated in the flowchart in Fig. 7.4, sediment extraction from the river
regime has offsite and onsite impacts. Though offsite impacts only relate to
transport-related problems, the latter may result in depletion and sometimes day-
lighting of groundwater table, increased salinity and turbidity. On a parallel flow,
excavation of sediments in an unsystematic manner may result in bank erosion, bed
degradation, caving phenomenon, definite bed lowering, channel instability, widen-
ing to even change in watercourse within the river system. In the present case, bed
degradation, bank erosion, caving, the threat to embankments, civil structures,
widening and migration of pits and change in watercourse within the banks has
been observed and documented.

Analysis & Discussion

River morphology studies suggest that spatial variations in climatic conditions,

geomorphology, downstream changes in bedrock lithology, tectonic processes and
anthropogenic activities along a river stretch can lead to steeper, or flatter longitu-
dinal river profiles (Selander 2004; Hossain et al. 2013; Besné and Ibisate 2015;
Yanagida 2016; Žibret and Žibret 2017).
7 Anthropogenic Interference and Climatic Changes Influencing Precipitation,. . . 139

Fig. 7.4 Sediment extraction impacts

A site investigation was done on the Phalgu River and the site coordinates are
given in Table 7.1 below.

Observations at Individual Sand ‘Ghats’

Location 1: Sultanpur: The river flows in the N20°E direction. The location is
slightly upstream of the bifurcation of Phalgu River into Mohana River
(Fig. 7.5a–f). The span of the river (bank to bank) is ~550–600 m. The river
channel had water present in it but not in flowing condition. Conspicuous
excavations on the ground as a result of quarrying were noticed mostly in
irregular fashion forming pits as deep as 7–8 ft. below bed level (Fig. 7.5f).
Compared to the general river bed profile, a relief difference of about 3–4 m within
the channel has been observed implying that sand has been drafted with norm
140 A. Bishwapriya et al.

Table 7.1 Location details of sand mining ghats

S. no. Location name Latitude Longitude Toposheet no.
1. Sultanpur Ghat 25°00′01.02” 85°05′30.47″ 72G/4
2. Veera Godiha Ghat 25°02′08.59″ 85°06′00.70″ 72G/4
3. Bauri Ghat 25°04′47.54″ 85°06′13.55″ 72G/4
4. Kairwa Saho Ghat 25°06′59.15″ 85° 07′04.58″ 72G/4
5. Ginji Ghat 25°08′04.28″ 85°07′14.83″ 72G/4
6. Sharvan Dumri Ghat 25°09′41.08″ 85°07′10.51″ 72G/4
7. Damuo Ghat 25°11′14.66″ 85°07′12.17″ 72G/4
8. Khirauti Ghat 25°11′44.00″ 85° 07′ 33″ 72G/4
9. Jhunki Bandhuganj 25°12′46.00″ 85° 08′ 50.6″ 72G/4
10. Maiawan Ghat 25°14′ 6.56″ 85° 09′ 3.5″ 72G/4
11. Sudaspur-Ghazipur Ghat 25°15′23.47″ 85°08′54.46 72G/4

Fig. 7.5 (a) The Google Image is of 18 April 2019. Within the lease area, prima facie, sand horizon
can be observed but on the date of observation the entire stretch has water cover. The flow path is
mainly towards the middle and right bank. The banks do not provide confirmatory evidence on
depth of sand; however, a few available sections on the left bank indicate pre-sense of more than
3 m sand column. (b) The excavated section is within an active channel of the river and the height of
the person is 6.1 ft, implying that the height of the section is nearly 10 ft. or > 3 m. Moreover, the
coordinates of this location falling much outside the lease area indicating the possibility of
excavation outside the lease area. (c) Irregular pits observed along the Phalgu River channel
(Near Sultanpur). (d) Sand mixed with clay within active channel (Phalgu River; Near Sultanpur).
(e) Thick column of piled up sand within river section (Phalgu River; Near Sultanpur). (f) Irregular
shaped pits indicating quarry activity in the river section (Near Sultanpur)
7 Anthropogenic Interference and Climatic Changes Influencing Precipitation,. . . 141

Fig. 7.5 (continued)

violation of going beneath 3 m. Within the river bed also, irregular puddles of water
were noticed (Fig. 7.5f). Thus, overexploitation could be in practice. Several isolated
water pools have been created within the river bed giving rise to undulating
topography leading to some amount of land dereliction within the active channel
(Fig. 7.5e). This is the only site that lies upstream of the barrage at Udherasthan,
implying that it has a good chance of being replenished during the monsoon period.
Understandably, voluminous sand quantity but more on the bank fringes is still
available at the site.
Location 2: Veera and Godhiya: The river flows in the N30°E direction. The location
is downstream of the barrage location (1.2 km) on Phalgu River near Udherasthan
(Fig. 7.6a). The span of the river (bank to bank) is ~300 m. The river channel at
the time of observation had extensive water but was not in flowing condition. No
Identification pillars for exploration were observed on the ground at the time of
observation. The barrage at Udherasthan is ~1.2 km in upstream (Fig. 7.6b). The
142 A. Bishwapriya et al.

Fig. 7.6 (a) The Google image is of 18 April 2019. Within the lease area, prima facie, sand horizon
cannot be observed but on the date of observation the stretch has water cover. The flow path is
mainly towards the middle and right bank. The banks do not provide confirmatory evidence on
depth of sand; however, a few available sections on the left bank indicate pre-sense of sand mixed
with clay. (b) Upstream view of the barrage at Udherasthan from Veera-Godhiya Ghat. (c)
Observation taken from right bank of the river. A distinct embankment on the right bank acting
as a levee with a height of about 1–2 m. A path developed for vehicular movement observed (Near
Veera Godiya; River Phalgu). (d) The ghat at the time of observation appeared sand starved
although heaps of sand on the right bank of the Phalgu River at levee portion were observed
(Near Veer Godiya)
7 Anthropogenic Interference and Climatic Changes Influencing Precipitation,. . . 143

eastern face of the area under exploitation is 280–373 m from the bridge on
Garbhi Nadi. Sand is sparsely present on the ground but doesn’t appear to be of
high quality and is mixed with appreciable clay (Fig. 7.6c, d). Dark bands of the
intervening clay sequence can be observed. Depth of sand can only be ascertained
by a scout or exploratory drilling/auguring.

Location 3: Bauri: The river flows in a northerly direction at the site. The span of the
river (bank to bank) is ~300 m (Fig. 7.7a). The river bed is dry and wet with
extensive grass growth (~5–6 ft) (Fig. 7.7b). Small puddles of the water zone are
present and they could be covering the areas of the river channel from where sand
is derived. At the site, the area shows signatures of past quarrying activity, and it
is observed that sand has been derived from the beyond the defined boundary
(Fig. 7.7e). The river bed is eroded and there is unmistakable evidence of
unsystematic quarrying. Irregular fashioned pits are observed though the depth
of pits is less than 1 m (Fig. 7.7f), but land dereliction is evident. Gully erosion
and subsequent sand retrieval are also present. A fresh column of riverine sand
(> = 7–8 ft) is observed in the river section but it is not universally present. An
appreciable amount of sand has been extracted from the location.

Location 3: Bauri: The river flows in a northerly direction at the site. The span of the
river (bank to bank) is ~300 m (Fig. 7.7a). The river bed is dry and wet with
extensive grass growth (~5–6 ft) (Fig. 7.7b). Small puddles of the water are
present and they could be covering the areas of the river channel from where sand
is derived. At the site, the area shows signatures of past quarrying activity, and it
is observed that sand has been derived from the beyond defined boundary
(Fig. 7.7e). The river bed is eroded and there is unmistakable evidence of
unsystematic quarrying. Irregular fashioned pits are observed though the depth
of pits is less than 1 m (Fig. 7.7f).

Location 4: Khairwa Sahu Bigha: The river flows in the N10° E direction. The site
area lies along the left bank of the river. The span of the river (bank to bank) is
~250 m (Fig. 7.8a). The river channel at the time of observation had a pool of
stagnant water (not in flowing condition). No active mining or quarrying activity
was observed (Fig. 7.8b, c). Extensive vegetation (mainly tall grasses) was
observed within the river section (Fig. 7.8c). The left bank area is generally dry
and undulating leading to the abutments. No prima facie signs of land dereliction
or bank erosion. On the left bank covering the site area, the sand on the surface is
minimal. The surface appears to be clayey/muddy.

Location 5: Ginjee: The river flows in a northerly direction. The mining area
occupies the centre of the river and the right bank. The span of the river (bank
to bank) is ~180 m (Fig. 7.9a). The river bed has extensive grass growth (~4–5 ft)
(Fig. 7.9e). Small puddles in the water zone are present and they could be
covering the areas of the river channel from where sand is derived. No active
mining or quarrying activity is evident. There is sand presence on the banks of the
144 A. Bishwapriya et al.

Fig. 7.7 (a) Sand distribution on river bed near Bauri Ghat, Jehanabad. (The quarry area demar-
cated on the map with coordinates). (b) Thick grass growth along river bed. Signatures of past
quarrying in the area evident (Near Bauri; Phalgu river). (c and d) Evidence of (c) land dereliction
owing to sand extraction; (d) the relief difference depicted by the section also indicates sand
extraction at different levels. (e) Signatures of vehicular movement in study area (Bauri Ghat). (f)
Irregular excavated pits resulting from unscientific extraction of sand (Bauri Ghat)
7 Anthropogenic Interference and Climatic Changes Influencing Precipitation,. . . 145

Fig. 7.7 (continued)

river but as such, it is not superficially present in the river section. The river bed is
sand starved, eroded and there is unmistakable evidence of past quarrying.
Puddles of water suggest quarrying from these zones (Fig. 7.9f). Dereliction is
evident within the river bed.
On the surface, the sediment is mostly clayey or muddy (minimal sand). One
striking feature is that in the past year’s imageries, the presence of sand could be
made out but the replenishment has not been commensurate with the exploitation.
For instance, in an image dated 7 March 2014, the sand repository in the river bed
was extensive (Fig. 7.9a). Subsequently, in the image dated 16 November 2015, the
flow was found confined to the right bank and in channels through the centre of the
river, but overall a marked decrease in the sand volume has been observed
(Fig. 7.9b). Again, in the image dated 22 January 2017, there is a further decrease
in the volume of sand and the flow of the water has now shifted more towards the left
bank (Fig. 7.9c). Thus the excavation has visibly affected the channel flow. Finally,
in the image dated 18 April 2019, the river channel appears flattened and the river
starved of its sand content as compared to earlier temporal images (Fig. 7.9d).
Location 6: Sharwan Dumri Ghat: The river flows in a northerly direction. The area
of study occupies the major portion of the right bank, taking a convex loop
towards the left bank at its northern extremity and tapers considerably at its
southern end, towards the right bank giving it a sickle shape. The span of the
river (bank to bank) is ~300 m (Fig. 7.10a). The river bed has extensive grass
growth (~4–6 ft) (Fig. 7.10c). Small but extensive puddles of stagnant water zone
are present and they could be covering the areas of the river channel from where
sand is derived (Fig. 7.10c, f, h). The river channel is more clayey but the
sediment beneath the water column is sand. Sand is also exposed on the river
bed at a few locations (Fig. 7.10b). No active mining or quarrying activity was
observed. The area had signatures of past quarrying activity. There is sand present
on the bank of the river and is also observed in the levee cut section with an
intervening sequence of clay and silt. The bank has an elevation difference of
3–4 m from the river bed (Fig. 7.10e).
146 A. Bishwapriya et al.

Fig. 7.8 (a) The Google image is of 18 April 2019. Within the lease area, prima facie, sand horizon
can be observed but on the date of observation the entire stretch has stagnant water. The banks do
not provide confirmatory evidence on depth of sand; neither are there cut sections to ascertain that.
(b, c) No active mining or quarrying activity is observed. (b) Extensive vegetation (mainly tall
grasses) observed within the river section. (c) The water in the channel may be filling up earlier
formed pits

On the right bank, there is a good quantity of sand available but with an
intervening sequence of clay. There is a second tier of abutment also within the
river channel. The right bank has been exploited leaving an exposed section of
4–5 feet. The exposed section has ~70 cm of clay, followed by 1.2 m of sand which
has probably been exploited as inferred from site observation. The dereliction is
evident within the banks (Fig. 7.10g). The river bed is eroded and there is evidence
of past quarrying. Puddles suggest quarrying from these zones. Water pools are
observed with stagnant water within the river channels. Sand is available on the
abutments mixed with clay. Sand is also available within the river channel as
observed at a few locations but spatial consistency and depth continuity cannot be
exactly ascertained.
7 Anthropogenic Interference and Climatic Changes Influencing Precipitation,. . . 147

Fig. 7.9 (a) Around Ginjee Ghat, in an image dated 7 March 2014, the sand repository in the river
bed was extensive. (b) Subsequently, in the image dated 16 November 2015, the flow was found
confined to the right bank and in channels through the centre of the river, but overall a marked
decrease in the sand volume has been observed. (c) In the image dated 22 January 2017, there is
further decrease in the volume of sand and the flow of the water has shifted more towards the left
bank. Thus, the excavation has visibly affected the channel flow. (d) Finally, in the image dated
18 April 2019, the river channel appears flattened and the river starved of its sand content as
compared to earlier temporal images. (e) River bed under dense vegetation comprising grasses and
shrubs. Generally sand. (f) Puddles of water within river bed indicating excavation. (g) Films of
water-covered areas within the river bed. (h) Intermittent stretches of water covered zones on the
river bed
148 A. Bishwapriya et al.

Fig. 7.9 (continued)

7 Anthropogenic Interference and Climatic Changes Influencing Precipitation,. . . 149

Fig. 7.9 (continued)

Location 7: Dumao Ghat: The river flows in the N10°E direction. The area occupies
a major portion of the left bank, extending to the centre of the river. The area has a
roughly rectangular shape. The span of the river (bank to bank) is ~450 m
150 A. Bishwapriya et al.

Fig. 7.10 (a) The Google image is of 18 April 2019. The image shows the lease area boundary.
However, independent observation locations (coordinates indicated in blue) suggest that there is
some quarrying activity outside the boundary limits. It needs to be ascertained whether the river
bank is included in the mining lease area, as the location in red is outside the river regime. The banks
do not provide confirmatory evidence on depth of sand, but there are cut sections to ascertain that.
(b) The top soil comprising clay has also been exploited along with the sand which comprises the
underlying sequence of strata. A thin layer of clay follows the sand layer immediately beneath. (c)
Wild grass growth within the river channel. Pools of stagnant water observed. (d) Land dereliction.
Sand column mixed. (e) Land dereliction due to exploitation resulting in loss of one tier of surface
on the banks. (f) Water pools of stagnant water created due to land erosion. (g) Riverbank
aggradations and extensive. (h) Water pools observed in river section. On the periphery lies a
veneer of the sand horizon. Sand may have been derived from these zones

(Fig. 7.11a). Observation has been made from the left bank. The river bed (more
towards the middle portion) has extensive grass growth (~4–6 ft). The left bank
area is adversely affected by signatures of earlier mining leaving pools of stagnant
water, river bed erosion and dereliction (Fig. 7.11d). The flow regime appears to be
affected in segments. The area had fresh signatures of quarrying activity. GPS
7 Anthropogenic Interference and Climatic Changes Influencing Precipitation,. . . 151

Fig. 7.10 (continued)

152 A. Bishwapriya et al.

Fig. 7.10 (continued)

7 Anthropogenic Interference and Climatic Changes Influencing Precipitation,. . . 153

Fig. 7.11 (a) The Google image is of 18 April 2019. The image shows the lease area boundary.
However, independent observation locations (coordinates indicated in blue) suggest that there is
some quarrying activity outside the boundary limits. This precisely is the observation of the
committee as these quarry locations lie on the banks leading to land dereliction. The banks do
not provide confirmatory evidence on depth of sand, but there are cut sections to ascertain that. (b)
Pools of water created as a result of pit formation and unsystematic mining. (c) Vertical cut section
of the bank for sand exploitation. (d) Evident sand quarrying from river bed affecting river bed
topography. (e) After sand removal, the clay layer has been exposed along the banks
Fig. 7.11 (continued)
7 Anthropogenic Interference and Climatic Changes Influencing Precipitation,. . . 155

coordinates suggest that mining has taken place outside the lease boundary as well
as suggesting anthropogenic interference outside norms. There is extensive sand
present on the bank of the river and is also observed in the levee cut section with an
intervening minor sequence of clay and silt (Fig. 7.11c). The left bank has been
exploited unsystematically outside the river channel regime with apparently a lot of
material being excavated from the area, leaving the area disturbed and adversely
aggraded creating an undulating to irregular surface topography.
The river bed is aggraded, eroded and there is evidence of past quarrying.
Irregular small and large pits have been created making water covered zones
suggesting quarry operations in these areas. On the left bank, a continuous sequence
of sand is observed. River bed profile, topography and flow regime are disturbed due
to the unsystematic derivation of sand. The topsoil has also been exploited as could
be made out from the section. Sand is available on the abutments mixed with
marginal clay. Sand is also available within the river channel as observed at a few
locations with substantial depth continuity (Fig. 7.11c).
Location 8: Khirauti Ghat: The river flows in the N60°E direction. The area is
located at a point where the river takes a turn towards the NE direction. The
span of the river (bank to bank) is ~320 m (Fig. 7.12a). The river bed is absolutely
dry and tall grasses are observed (Fig. 7.12b). Evidence of sand quarrying is
observed within the boundary limit towards the upstream portion. An appreciable
amount of sand is observed on the right bank of the river (Fig. 7.12c). The area
had signatures of past quarrying activity. Sand is present on the bank of the river
which is also clearly observed in the river section. The levee portion of the
apartment has been quarried for sand recovery. The bank is disturbed owing to
land erosion. Uneven pits are also present in the upstream part, from which sand
might have been derived (Fig. 7.12e). An extensive sand deposit is observed on
the right bank of the river. Though clay admixture with sand is not ruled out.

Location 9: Jhunki-Bandhuganj Ghat: The river flows in the N20°E direction. The
lease area is located on the right bank of the river. The span of the river (bank to
bank) is ~110 m (Fig. 7.13a). The river bed is dry and in patches wet with extensive
grass growth (~5–6 ft). An appreciable volume of water is observed in the river
channel from where sand is derived (Fig. 7.13b). The river had substantial water
accumulated due to the retention of water by the Mandai weir downstream (about
1.2 km from the Banduganj Bridge). No active mining or quarrying activity is
observed. However, a huge pile of stacked sand is observed on the right bank of the
river almost at the mid-point of the area (Fig. 7.13c). The stacked repository also
included reddish clay which may also have been exploited as a by-product. Sand
mixed with clay (inferior quality sand) has also been observed in the area.

Location 10: Maiwan Ghat: The river flows in a northerly direction. The span of the
river (bank to bank) is ~60 m (Fig. 7.14a). The river has water (not in flowing
condition). The right levee portion is at a height of 4–5 m from the river bed (Fig.
7.14b). Sand may have been derived from water-covered areas of the river
channel. There are signs of sand excavation observed within the area, as observed
156 A. Bishwapriya et al.

Fig. 7.12 (a) Google Image of the lease area obtained on 18th April 2019 indicates a flat river bed
with dying remnants of sand. Understandably, after mining/quarry operation, not much sand has
been replenished on the river bed. The red pinned locations are the ones having remnants of
quarrying and also shown to the committee. The same indicates quarrying outside lease boundary.
(b) Near Khirauti Ghat, river bed is dry with tall grasses. Evidence of sand quarrying is observed
within the boundary limit towards the upstream portion. (c) Appreciable amount of sand is observed
on the right bank of the river. Sand is present on the banks and in the river section. (d) The levee
portion of the abutment has been quarried for sand recovery. The bank is disturbed owing to land
erosion as visible in the photograph. (e) Uneven pits are also present in the upstream part, from
which sand might have been derived
7 Anthropogenic Interference and Climatic Changes Influencing Precipitation,. . . 157

Fig. 7.13 (a) Google Image of the lease area obtained on 18th April, 2019 indicates a flat river bed
with dying remnants of sand. Understandably, after mining/quarry operation, not much sand has
been replenished on the river bed. The water flow is confined to the left bank although on the date of
observation, the entire river section was under water on account of retention of water by the Mandai
weir further downstream. (b) The Falgu river at Jhunki sand ghat is full of water and there is
extensive foliage on the banks. (c) Extensive foliage on the right bank and heaps of sand stacked
along the river in the mid-portion of the lease area. Heaps of sand were observed

in the exposed cut sections. Sand is also present in the river bed (Fig. 7.14e).
Extensive slope failure and deep gully erosion have been observed on the right
bank of the river, which might have developed during the exploitation
(Fig. 7.14f). The left bank of the river has a relatively lower relief difference, as
158 A. Bishwapriya et al.

Fig. 7.14 (a) Two comparative Google images are depicted for comparison. In the figure above,
the red pinned locations are the ones shown to the committee. They fall well outside the lease
boundary area suggesting exploitation outside the lease area. The fig below shows the distance of
the southern boundary from the Mandhai weir (the stone throw distance is ~550 m). (b) Exploitation
along banks is leading to slope failure of the levee portion as depicted in the image around Maiwan
Ghat on the Phalgu River. (c, d) Water within river channel observed from the river road bridge. The
arrows indicate the flow direction. (e) Sand exposed on river bed mixed with clay. The river bridge
has been seen further downstream. (f) Gully erosion along the right bank of the Phalgu River
probably aggravated by human interference
7 Anthropogenic Interference and Climatic Changes Influencing Precipitation,. . . 159

Fig. 7.14 (continued)

compared to the right bank. No signs of sand quarrying are observed on the left
bank. The cut section on the right bank has greater clay content as compared to
sand. However, an intervening sequence of sand is present within clay layers.

Location 11: Sudaspur-Ghazipur Ghat: The river flows in a northerly direction at this
location. The span of the river (bank to bank) is ~120 m (Fig. 7.15a). The river is
completely dry and thick and a potential sand column in the river bed is observed.
A fresh layer of good quality coarse to medium-grained riverine sand covering the
entire river bed is present (Fig. 7.15b). The thickness of river bed sand is 4 to 6 ft.
The appearance of the sand layer provides unmistakable evidence that no quar-
rying has been done at this location. The fertility of the ecology, sand column and
its spatial continuity is preserved.
160 A. Bishwapriya et al.

Fig. 7.15 (a) The Google Image dated 18 April 2019 is worth a million words. The sand layer on
the river bed is intact and is an eye opener to the contrast earlier dated (archive) images indicate in
regard to the health of the river in absence of anthropogenic interference. The fertility of the river in
terms of sand content at other sites is either lost or is severely affected as compared to this site. (b)
Ocean of orange to pink coloured sand on the river bed with the extensive spatial extent and the
river bed depicting no signs of any quarrying in the past

Timeline Comparison of the Area

Temporal data for the ghats has been compiled to see the changes between 2014 and
2019 which give unmistakable evidence of the changing sedimentation pattern in the
context of minor minerals (sand). The wavering water flow path as seen in various
images also conforms to the erratic removal and deposition of sand for the period
under consideration (Table 7.2).
 7

Table 7.2 Timeline comparison of area boundary

Sl. No. Location Image as on 07 March 2014 Image as of 22 January 2017 Image as on 18 April 2019
1 Sultanpur

2 Veera & Godiha

3 Bauri
Anthropogenic Interference and Climatic Changes Influencing Precipitation,. . .

(continued)
161
Table 7.2 (continued)
162

Sl. No. Location Image as on 07 March 2014 Image as of 22 January 2017 Image as on 18 April 2019
4 Kairwa Sahobigha

5 Ginjee

6 Sharwan Dumri
A. Bishwapriya et al.
7 Anthropogenic Interference and Climatic Changes Influencing Precipitation,. . . 163

(continued)
Jhunki Bandhuganj
Damaua

Khirauti
7

9
Table 7.2 (continued)
164

Sl. No. Location Image as on 07 March 2014 Image as of 22 January 2017 Image as on 18 April 2019
10 Maiwan

11 Sudaspur Ghazipur
A. Bishwapriya et al.
7 Anthropogenic Interference and Climatic Changes Influencing Precipitation,. . . 165

Rainfall analysis: There are several studies available on the observed trends and
variability of rainfall with extreme rainfall events, which are based on data for the
past 100 years or more (Warwade et al. 2018; Guhathakurta et al. 2015;
Guhathakurta et al. 2011; Guhathakurta and Rajeevan 2008 etc.). In the observed
rainfall variability and changes over the state of Bihar, the analysis of rainfall
patterns, trends and variability has been done based on the data for the past
30 years (1989–2018). The recent data of the past three decades has helped to
present an idea of the recent changes to the state authorities for climate change
adaptation and management (IMD 2020).
Figures 7.16 and 7.17 show the time series of annual rainfall in mm for June, July,
August, September and the onset of the southwest monsoon season, respectively.
The trend lines are also displayed for each series. The southwest monsoon season
rainfall shows a significant decreasing trend, but neither monthly rainfall nor annual
rainfall shows any significant increasing/decreasing trend. Although, a decreasing
trend is observed in all the southwest monsoon months along with a decrease in the
seasonal and annual mean.
During the past 30 years, the highest rainfall in June, July, August and September
has been recorded in the years 2008 (291.8 mm), 2007 (548.9 mm), 1998
(377.1 mm) and 2016 (357.9 mm), respectively and the lowest rainfall of June,
July, August and September have been recorded in the year 2009 (69.4 mm), 2013
(158.7 mm), 2016 (150.9 mm) and 1992 (86 mm), respectively. The highest
southwest monsoon rainfall of 1349.3 mm and annual rainfall of 1516.8 mm were
recorded in the year 2007 and the lowest southwest monsoon rainfall of 539.5 mm
and annual rainfall of 632.5 mm in 2010 (IMD 2020).

Fig. 7.16 Time series of rainfall in mm for June, July, August, September and trends
166 A. Bishwapriya et al.

Fig. 7.17 Time series of rainfall in mm for the southwest monsoon season and annual trends

If we observe the linear trend in Figs. 7.16 and 7.17, a conspicuous decline in the
annual precipitation in the past three decades is observed, which has several spikes of
annual lows vis-a-vis highs as compared to the average annual precipitation. This
establishes the fact that a shift in the climatic regime has been experienced by most
districts in Bihar which has undoubtedly affected the surface runoff in major streams
and also the groundwater recharge conditions within confined (shallow–deep) aquifers.
A significant rainfall reduction in districts of Bihar from 1957 to 2002 during the
monsoon season has been observed (Warwade et al. 2018). The changing pattern of
precipitation may influence further water availability for agricultural purposes. The
average rainfall of 102 years (1901–2002), 56 years (1901–56) and 46 years
(1957–2002) have been critically analysed. Overall, 26 out of 102 years experienced
extreme negative rainfall, i.e. >10% decrease while 24 years experienced a positive
event of rainfall of >10% change. From 1957 to 2002, 19 out of 46 years showed
negative events which reflected a significant reduction of rainfall in recent years.
The study indicated that the frequency of negative extreme events was signifi-
cantly higher from 1957 to 2002 having continuous 10 years of rainfall reduction.
Uncertain and erratic distribution of precipitation has been a major limitation to crop
production. Annual monsoonal rainfall showed significant variability and rainfall
decline was most prominent during the period 1992–2002. The study shows decreas-
ing rainfall trends at all 37 weather stations in Bihar. Overall a declining trend in
rainfall magnitude was found between 1901 and 2002. The resultant annual decrease
was -18.92% from 1957 to 2002. The average monsoonal rainfall declined up to -
21.84% from 1901 to 2002 and -0.18% from 1957 to 2002. The annual percentage
change in Jehanabad district was -28.69%, in monsoon (-34.93%), pre-monsoon
(30.71%), and post-monsoon (7.86%) and winters (7.47%) from 1957 to 2002.
7 Anthropogenic Interference and Climatic Changes Influencing Precipitation,. . . 167

The declining trend in the past decade has changed the overall scenario of rainfall
and the rainfall variability may impact future climatic conditions bringing about a
conspicuous shift in the wake of climate change (Warwade et al. 2018).

Groundwater Status

In 2019, the groundwater level for Jehanabad District was 3.38 meters below ground
level. Though the groundwater level of the district fluctuated substantially in recent
years, it tended to decrease from 2015 to 2019 ending at 3.38 meters below ground
level in 2019. In Jehanabad district in 2015–2016, 29% of wells showed a rise in
water table, whereas 71% showed a drop during pre-monsoon, whereas in post-
monsoon season 100% of wells showed a drop in water level (GWYB, Bihar;
2015–16). It has been observed that though the piezometric surface usually restores
its average depth level, it is now the pressure on deeper confined aquifers that is
causing a decline in groundwater repository with increasing population, tube well
revolution, limited surface repositories and uncertain avenues of recharge.

Conclusions

The chapter brings to light the shifting climatic regime during the past three decades
resulting in increasing temperatures and decreasing precipitation. The shift in the
mood of the regional climate has given rise to unpredictability in weather conditions
viz. overall precipitation, erratic and incessant rains having a bearing on the surface
runoff, sedimentation pattern within the active channel of the river, groundwater
condition and likewise.
The role of anthropogenic activities in affecting the ecological status of the rivers
cannot be understated. The norms of mining and the guidelines therein thus need to
be strictly followed for optimizing the natural resources in the present case, for
example, sand (minor mineral) which has a huge economical utility.
The comparative temporal study also highlights the fate of a lease area continu-
ally worked out for its sand content and those allowed to replenish with time. The
Google Image dated 18 April 2019 in regard to Sudaspur- Ghazipur sand ghat is
worth a million words. The sand layer on the river bed is intact and is an eye-opener
to the contrast earlier dated (archive) images show in regard to the health of the river
in absence of anthropogenic interference. The fertility of the river in terms of sand
content at other sites along the Phalgu River is either lost or is severely affected as
compared to this site.
Whether the quantity of minor minerals extracted from the leased out area is
replenished in totality is not known. In view of the erection of the barrage at
Udherasthan, the release of water downstream is regulated. This needs to be clarified
with a seasonal study carried out by the Irrigation department. Few of the sand ghats
168 A. Bishwapriya et al.

looked starved of the requisite sand content indicating reduced replenishment

overexploitation.
Stray pits of irregular size and fashion have been observed which generally do not
comply with planned excavation. The formation of benches of a height of 1 m and
width of 0.9 m to prevent slope failure was not readily observed.
Comparative timeline imageries for the sand lease area have been studied in
detail, and it is observed that there is a diminishing sediment load in the river channel
from 2014 to 2019. It implies that the rejuvenation/replenishment has not been at par
with the exploitation which is a critical environmental aspect to be addressed in
regard to the effect of mining on the river.
As per State Level Environment Impact Assessment Authority (SEIAA) guide-
lines, Mining shall be done in layers of 1 m depth to avoid the ponding effect and
after the first layer is excavated, the process is to be repeated for the next layers.
However, this approach to excavation was not observed, rather the formation of
irregular pits, a few shallow to even deep have affected the land topography and
profile leading to the ponding effect.
The present excavation area is from the active river channel. But at a few sand
ghat locations, the buffer of 3 m has not been maintained from the river bank.
Recommendations as a road map for preventive measures include:
• The absence of a distinct/clear boundary will leave loose ends to prevent rightful
exploitation. Flagging the boundary of the area of interest is paramount to mining
under open cast conditions as per norms.
• Assessment of the mineable sand in the defined area may be made mandatory. As
the depth of interest doesn’t go beyond 2–3 m, the same can also be ascertained
by improvised hand auguring by physically lowering hollow pipes of 1 m, 2 m
and 3 m to obtain core samples following which grain size analysis can yield the
percentage of sand particles.
• Ground Penetration Radar is a non-invasive, non-destructive geophysical tech-
nique very useful for deciphering shallow subsurface conditions and may be used
as a constructive tool for sub-surfaced condition investigation.
• Random drone aided surveys could be useful to check over-exploitation if any
and maintain regular monitoring.
• The river carries sand to provide the resource and thus it is necessary to ascertain
the rate of replenishment of the mineral. A regular replenishment study needs to
be carried out to keep a balance between deposition and extraction.
• Mining within or near the river bed has a direct impact on the stream’s physical
characteristics, such as channel geometry, bed elevation, substratum composition
and stability, in-stream roughness of the bed, flow velocity, discharge capacity,
and sediment transport capacity, turbidity, temperature, etc. Alteration or modi-
fication of the above attributes may cause an impact on the ecological equilibrium
of the riverine regime, and disturbance in channel configuration and flow paths.
This may also harm instream biota and riparian habitats. Thus, staggered replen-
ishment surveys must be carried out to ascertain the extent of sediment revival.
7 Anthropogenic Interference and Climatic Changes Influencing Precipitation,. . . 169

Here also services of geoscientific and engineering-based scientific organizations

can be sought.
• There is a need to develop a Standard Operating Procedure (SOP) that would be
terrain specific for harnessing minor minerals through systematic river auditing.
This will have room for a mechanism to evaluate loss to the ecology and to
recover the cost of restoration of such damage through well-devised mechanisms.
• As per State Level Environment Impact Assessment Authority (SEIAA) guide-
lines, no quarrying is to be done within 5 m from both banks of the river, the
quarrying is to be prohibited within 100 m u/s and d/s from any dam, weir or
diversion structure erected for irrigation purposes. No quarrying would be per-
mitted within a 46 m distance from the flood control embankment. The quarrying
of sand is to be prohibited within 300 m on both sides of the railway bridge or
bridge falling under the National Highway/State Highway and also 100 m on both
sides of any other bridge. These guidelines are relevant to the area of study;
however, the exhaustive stipulations are documented in the SEIAA document,
Bihar. Enforcement & Monitoring Guidelines for Sand Mining from the Ministry
of Environment, Forest and Climate change, 2020 brings out the norms for strict
adherence.

Acknowledgements The authors wish to express their gratitude to Shri R.S. Garkhal, Director
General, GSI for extending support to carry out the work. Special thanks to Dr Ranjit Rath, DG,
GSI, (formerly) for his continued support and encouragement. Dr Rajesh Asthana, Dy. D.G., State
Unit Bihar (formerly), Eastern Region, GSI, has been the main motivating factor for realizing this
publication and without his support, it would not have been feasible. Gratitude goes to Shri Sanjay
Kumar Dutta, Deputy Director General (Additional Charge), State Unit Bihar, GSI, Patna who has
been a source of real encouragement and support towards all academic endeavours.
Special thanks to the District Administration, Jehanabad district, Bihar, DGM, Government of
Bihar, Director, CGWB and Shri Bimal Kumar, Superintending Engineer, Irrigation Department,
Govt. of Bihar for their contribution at various stages of work and final accomplishment.

References

Achyuthan H (2003) Bedrock Channel incision in the arid tracts of Jaisalmer, Rajasthan. Proc
Indian Natl Sci Acad Part A 69(2):241–250
Arnaud F, Piegay H, Schmitt L, Rollet A, Ferrier V, Beal D (2015) Historical geomorphic analysis
(1932–2011) of a by-passed river reaches in process-based restoration perspectives: the old
Rhine downstream of the kembs diversion dam (France, Germany). Geomorphology 236
(Supplement C):163–177. http://www.ciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0169555X15000
926
Ayaz S, Biswas M, Dhali MK (2018) Morphotectonic analysis of alluvial fan dynamics: a
comparative study in Spatio-temporal scale of Himalayan foothill, India. Arab J Geosci.
Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12517-017-3308-2
Batalla R, Vericat D, Martínez T (2006) River-channel changes downstream from dams in the lower
Ebro River. Z Geomorphol 143(Suppl. B):1–14
170 A. Bishwapriya et al.

Belletti B, Dufour S, Piégay H (2015) What is the relative effect of space and time to explain the
Braided River width and island patterns at a regional scale? River Res Appl 31:1–15. https://doi.
org/10.1002/rra.2714
Besné P, Ibisate A (2015) River channel adjustment of several rivers reaches on Ebro basin. Quat Int
364:44–53
Cincotta RP, Wisnewski J, Engelman R (2000) Human population in the biodiversity hotspots.
Nature 404:990–992
Comiti F, Da Canal M, Surian N, Mao L, Picco L, Lenzi M (2011) Channel adjustments and
vegetation cover dynamics in a large gravel-bed river over the last 200years. Geomorphology
125:147–159
Gaillot S, Piegay H (1999) Impact of gravel-mining on stream channel and coastal sediment supply:
example of the Calvi Bay in Corsica (France). J Coast Res 15(3):774–788
Goswami DC (1998) The fluvial regime and flood hydrology of the Brahmaputra River, Assam. In:
Kale VS (ed) Flood studies in India, vol 41. Geological Soc India Memoir, Bangalore, pp 53–76
Guhathakurta P, Rajeevan M (2008) Trends in rainfall pattern over India. Int J Climatol 28:1453–
1469
Guhathakurta P, Sreejith OP, Menon PA (2011) Impact of climate changes on extreme rainfall
events and flood risk in India. J Earth Syst Sci 120(3):359–373
Guhathakurta P, Rajeevan M, Sikka DR, Tyagi A (2015) Observed changes in southwest monsoon
rainfall over India during 1901–2011. Int J Climatol 35:1881–1898
Gupta S (1997) Himalayan drainage patterns and the origin of fluvial megafans in the Ganges
foreland basin. Geology 25:11–14
Hossain MA, Gan TY, Baki ABM (2013) Assessing morphological changes of the Ganges River
using satellite images. Quat Int 304:142–155
India Meteorological Department (2020) Observed Rainfall Variability and Changes over Bihar
State, Met Monograph No.: ESSO/IMD/HS/Rainfall Variability/04(2020)/28
Kale VS, Hire P, Baker VR (1997) Flood hydrology and geomorphology of monsoon dominated
rivers: the Indian Peninsula. Water Int 22:259–265
Lbisate A, Ollero A, Diaz E (2011) Influence of catchment processes on fluvial morphology and
river habitats. Limnetica 30(2):169–182
Liebault F, Piegay H (2002) Causes of 20th-century channel narrowing in mountain and Piedmont
Rivers of southeastern France. Earth Surf Process Landform 27:425e444
Petit F, Poinsart D, Bravard J-P (1996) Channel incision, gravel mining and bedload transport in the
Rhone River upstream of Lyon, France (“Canal de Miribel”). Catena 26(3):209–226. http://
www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/034181629500047X
Prizomwala SP, Gandhi D, Ukey VM, Bhatt N, Rastogi BK (2015) Coastal boulders as evidences of
high-energy marine events from Diu Island, west coast of India: storm or palaeotsunami? Nat
Hazards 75(2):1187–1203
Scorpio V, Aucelli PP, Giano SI, Pisano L, Robustelli G, Rosskopf CM, Schiattarella M (2015)
River channel adjustments in southern Italy over the past 150 years and implications for channel
recovery. Geomorphology 251:77–90
Selander J (2004) Chapter 4: Influences on river morphology in a sediment-dominated system,
University of Oregon B.S. thesis, Eugene, Oregon, Chapter Four, pp 1–13
Singh M (1996) The Ganga River: fluvial geomorphology, sedimentation, processes and geochem-
ical studies. Ruprecht-Karls- Universitat, Heidelberg
Starkel L, Sarkar S, Soja R, Prokop P (2008) Present-day evolution of the Sikkimese Bhutanese
Himalayan Piedmont. In: Geographical studies, vol 219. Institute of Geography and Spatial
Organization PAS, Warsaw
Surian N (1999) Channel changes due to river regulation: the case of the Piave River, Italy. Earth
Surf Process Landf 24:1135–1151
Surian N, Rinaldi M (2003) Morphological response to river engineering and management in
alluvial channels in Italy. Geomorphology 50(4):307–326
Vikram Kumar (2019) The mighty Phalgu River dries up. Acta Sci Agric 3(9):01–02
7 Anthropogenic Interference and Climatic Changes Influencing Precipitation,. . . 171

Warner RF (2000) Gross channel changes along the Durance River, southern France, over the last
100 years using cartographic data. Regul Rivers Res Manag 16(2):141–157
Warwade P, Tiwari S, Ranjan S, Chandniha SK, Adamowski J (2018) Spatio-temporal variation of
rainfall over Bihar State, India. J Water Land Dev 36:183–197. https://doi.org/10.2478/
jwld2018-0018
Wiejaczka L (2016) Riverbeds level changes in the margin and foreland of the Darjeeling Himalaya
during the years with a normal monsoon rainfall. In: Singh RB, Prokop P (eds) Environmental
geography of South Asia, advances in geographical and environmental sciences. https://doi.org/
10.1007/978-4-431-55741-8_5
Wolf D, Faust D (2016) River braiding caused by rapid floodplain deformation–insights from
Holocene dynamics of the Jarama River in Central Spain. Quat Int 407:126–139
WyZga B (2007) 20 a review on channel incision in the polish Carpathian rivers during the 20th
century. In: Habersack H, Piegay H, Rinaldi M (eds) Gravel-bed Rivers VI: from process
understanding to river restoration, Developments in earth surface processes, vol 11. Elsevier,
pp 525–553
Yanagida M (2016) Landform development of mountains and rivers in Japan. Quat Int 397:223–
233
Žibret G, Žibret L (2017) River gradient anomalies reveal recent tectonic movements when
assuming an exponential gradient decrease along a river course. Geomorphology 281:43–52
 Part IV
Land (Geology,
Archeology/Paleo/Tectonics)
Chapter 8
Impact of Contrasting Climate
on the Intensity of Chemical Weathering
and Maturity of Sediments in Different
Latitudes: A Geochemical Study from
Peninsular and Extra Peninsular India

Ishfaq Ahmad Mir

Abstract Chemical weathering and sediment maturity under contrasting climatic

conditions from tropical peninsular and temperate extra peninsular parts of India are
investigated. Rocks of peninsular India are moderate to intensively weathered, while
rocks of extra peninsular India are moderately weathered. High chemical weathering
conditions in south India appear to result from climate forcing related to high rainfall
and temperature. The distribution of C-values and Sr/Cu ratios collectively indicate a
generally humid climate in peninsular India and a semi-humid to dry climate in extra
peninsular India. There is an increase in humidity from higher to lower latitudes. The
compositional maturity of the sediments is evaluated by using the ICV and SiO2/
Al2O3 ratio. The results collectively indicate that the sediments in the peninsular
area are mineralogically more mature than the sediments of the extra peninsular area.
There is a decrease in sediment maturity from higher to lower latitudes meaning a
high degree of clays and mineralogical maturity.

Keywords Geochemistry · Sediments · Climate · Weathering · Maturity

Introduction

Geochemical investigations carried out from stream and slope wash sediments are
used in understanding the geology of the catchment area, mineralization, environ-
ment, agriculture, land use studies, and in understanding the sedimentary processes
like weathering, erosion, sediment sources, depositional mechanisms and tectonics
(Mir and Mir 2019). Under the National Geochemical Mapping (NGCM) program,
the Geological Survey of India (GSI) is carrying out geochemical mapping of the
entire country intending to generate a multi-elemental database finding use in multi

I. A. Mir (*)
Geological Survey of India, State Unit: Karnataka and Goa, Bengaluru, Karnataka, India

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 175
N. Khare (ed.), Science, Policies and Conflicts of Climate Change, Springer Climate,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-16254-1_8
176 I. A. Mir

geoscientific applications. In pursuance of this program in the year 2014–15 and

2017–18, geochemical mapping was carried out on a 1:50,000 scale in SOI
toposheet nos. 43 J/11 and 43 J/12 (part) covering Bandipora–Ganderbal areas,
Kashmir valley, western Himalaya and in toposheet no. 48I/11 covering parts of
Belgaum, Dharwad and Uttar Kannada districts of Karnataka state of peninsular
India, respectively.
The climatic conditions under which weathering and erosion take place influence
the sediment composition (Pattan et al. 2012; Mir et al. 2013). Chemical weathering
brings changes in compositions, mineral phases and textural features compared to
the fresher parental rock and is mainly related to geology, vegetation, temperature,
precipitation and geomorphological conditions (Scarciglia et al. 2008). Over a longer
geological time scale, chemical weathering is influenced by tectonism and climate
and is an important feature of the global element cycles (Giovanoli et al. 1988).
Labile minerals, like feldspars, are easily chemically weathered under hot and humid
conditions in lower latitudes while physical weathering is more intense under semi-
arid and glacial conditions in higher latitudes. The geochemistry of the weathered
rocks gives important information about the degree of weathering recorded in
different geochemical proxies such as the Chemical Index of Alteration (CIA;
Nesbitt and Young 1982), Chemical Index of Weathering (CIW; Harnois 1988),
Plagioclase Index of Alteration (PIA; Fedo et al. 1995), the Weathering Index of
Parker (WIP; Parker 1970), the ratio of Rb/Sr (McLennan et al. 1993); climatic
conditions recorded by geochemical proxies of C-value (Zhao et al. 2007), and Sr/Cu
(Meng et al. 2012); and the sediment maturity recorded in proxies of the Index of
Composition Variability (ICV; Cox et al. 1995), and the ratio of Si/Al (Potter 1978).
In the present study, an attempt is made to understand the impact of contrasting
climatic conditions on the degree of chemical weathering and sediment maturity in
peninsular and extra peninsular India by investigating the geochemical characteris-
tics of the stream and slope wash sediments. The Dharwad-Belgaum area from the
peninsular part of Karnataka state and the Bandipora–Ganderbal area from the extra
peninsular part of the union territory of Jammu and Kashmir within the republic of
India are selected for this study.

Previous Work

Only a limited number of geochemical studies of sediments have been carried out in
the valley of Kashmir (VOK). Kapoor (1963) carried out geochemical studies of
Lidder stream sediments. Rashid et al. (2013) studied the geochemistry of the Wular
Lake sediments. Bhat and Bhat (2014) carried out geochemical studies of the recent
sediments of the Pulwama district to understand the mineralogy, environment and
sedimentary processes. Mir and Jeelani (2015) studied the geochemical characteris-
tics of the bottom sediments of the River Jhelum to understand the pollution and
other geochemical characteristics of river sediments. The sediments of the Manasbal
and Wular lakes have been studied recently by Rashid et al. (2015) for
8 Impact of Contrasting Climate on the Intensity of Chemical Weathering. . . 177

environmental aspects. Babeesh et al. (2017) carried out a geochemical study of the
Manasbal lake sediments to understand the sedimentary processes such as
weathering, provenance, sorting, maturity and the tectonic setting of the catchment
area. Shah et al. (2017) studied the physicochemical characteristics of the Wular lake
sediments to understand the geological processes in the lacustrine setup. Mir and Mir
(2015, 2019) carried out inorganic geochemical spatial distribution studies from the
Bandipora–Ganderbal area to understand the mineralization, geo-environment,
geo-hazards, provenance, weathering, sorting and maturity of recent sediments.
In the Belgaum–Dharwad area, there are only a limited number of geochemical
studies of sediments carried out. Bruce Foote (1876, 1888) had described the major
lithology of the Dharwar Group of rocks as schistose. Slater (1906) described these
rocks as pseudo-greywacke associated with beds of magnetite quartzite and mica
schists. Gururaja Rao and Sinha (1976) mapped a large area in the Dharwar district
and described the metasedimentary sequence of greywacke, shale, ferruginous shale,
phyllite, quartz-mica schist as geosynclinal flysch sediments. Iyengar (1976) mapped
the stratigraphy, structure and correlation of the Dharwar Supergroup. Hegde and
Chavadi (2008) studied the geochemistry of the late Archaean meta-greywacke from
the Western Dharwar Craton for understanding implications for the provenance and
nature of the Late Archaean crust. Bhat et al. (2019) studied the geochemical compo-
sition of stream and slope wash sediments of the Belgaum, Dharwad and Uttar
Kannada areas to understand the mineralization, geo-environment, geo-hazards, prov-
enance, weathering, sorting and maturity of recent sediments.

Study Area

The extra peninsular study area covers parts of the Bandipora and Ganderbal districts
of Kashmir valley, India. The study area lies between 34′10° to 34′30°N latitudes
and 74′30° to 74′45°E longitudes. The area of investigation covers an area of about
800 km2 within toposheet number 43 J/11 and part of 43 J/12 (Fig. 8.1). The
topography of the study area consists of flat to hilly areas. The N-NE hilly area
reaches the height of 5142 meters above sea level (masl) whereas the W-SW flat area
drops to an elevation of 1550 masl. The Jhelum River and its tributaries like Sindh,
Erin, Madhumati and Ningli form the major drainage network of the study area. The
study area also consists of many water bodies and wetlands. Wular and Manasbal are
the major lakes, whereas the Haigam, Takia, Tulmul and Naugam are the other
wetlands of the area.
The peninsular study area covers the parts of the Belgaum, Dharwad and Uttar
Kannada districts in the Western Ghats of Karnataka, India. The study area is
bounded by 15°15′ to 15°30′N latitudes and 74°30′ to 74°45′E longitudes. The
area of investigation covers an area of about 800 km2 within the toposheet number
48I/11 (Fig. 8.1). The mapped area is an NW-SE trending hilly terrain with steeply
rising hills and narrow valleys towards the western side and plain land towards the
eastern side, forming a part of Western Ghats. The highest elevation is 891 masl and
178 I. A. Mir

Fig. 8.1 Location map of the study areas. The location of sampling points from the Bandipora–
Ganderbal area (extra peninsular India) is shown in the top right and the Belgaum–Dharwad–Uttar
Kannada area (peninsular India) is shown in the bottom right side of the figure

the lowest elevation is 526 masl. The area is mainly drained by the Kali River and its
tributaries, Barchi, Pandhari, Karkia, Tatti and Gundoli Hallas.

Geological Setting

The extra peninsular study area is covered on the northern side by the Pohru group of
rock formations, including limestone, siltstone, shale and arenite of the Cambrian–
Silurian and agglomeratic slates of the Upper Carboniferous age (Singh 1982). The
Panjal volcanic and Triassic limestone formations are exposed on the NE and NW
sides, whereas the Quaternary Karewa deposits and recent alluvium are present in
the SE, S and SW. Panjal volcanics are of the Permian age and consist mainly of
distinctly layered andesitic to basaltic lava flows. Triassic limestone consists of a
thick sequence of compact blue limestone, slates and dolomites (Wadia 1931). The
low-lying area is filled with sediments of the Karewa group composed of fine silty
clays with sand and boulder gravel conglomerates and recent alluvium (De Terra and
Paterson 1939) made up of fine particles of silt and clay and coarser particles of sand
and gravel. The geological map of the study area modified after Thakur and Rawat
(1992) is shown in Table 8.1.
The peninsular study area lies in Western Dharwar Craton (WDC) of the Indian
shield (Swami et al. 1976) and consists of gneissic rocks of the Peninsular Gneissic
Complex (PGC); quartzite, limestone, phyllite, argillite, banded iron formation
(BIF), Dharwar supergroup schist belts of the late Archean age, dolerite intrusives
8 Impact of Contrasting Climate on the Intensity of Chemical Weathering. . . 179

Table 8.1 Stratigraphic set up of study area, SOI toposheet no. 43 J11 and part of 43 J12, after
Thakur and Rawat (1992)
Age Group Formation Lithology
Holocene – Recent Deposit Alluvium, Scree
Lower Pliocene- Karewa Dilpur Loess, Silt
Pleistocene
Upper Permian-Triassic Vihi Khrew Limestone, Dolomite, Quartizite
Permian Panjal Volcanics Andesite, Basalt
Upper Carboniferous Agglomeratic Pebbly Slate, Quartz Arenite,
Slate Congalomerate
Trehgam Limestone, Siltstone, Shale
Camberian-Silurian Pohru Natnus Shale, Siltstone, Arenite

Table 8.2 Stratigraphic set up of study area, SOI toposheet no. 48I/11, after Murthy and Mehrotra
(1979)
Age Supergroup Group Formation Lithology
Palaeo- Younger Basic Dolerite
Proterozoic Intrusives Intrusives
Archean Dharwar Chitradurga Ranibennur Quartz-Sericite Schist, Quartzite,
Argillite.
Joldal Banded Iron Formation, Argillite,
Limestone, Manganiferous Phyllite.
Jhandimatti Ortho-Quartzite.
Peninsular Gneissic Complex Granite Gneisses-I type.
(Basement)

of the Palaeo-Proterozoic age. The PGC forms much of the WDC and is made up of
tonalitic-trondhjemitic gneiss with many inclusions of older sedimentary and igne-
ous rocks. The geological map of the study area after Murthy and Mehrotra (1979) is
shown in Table 8.2.

Climate

The extra peninsular Bandipora–Ganderbal area has a temperate climate and is

classified as ‘Cfb’ as per the Köppen climate classification (Koppen 2011). The
climate here falls under the sub-Mediterranean type with four distinct seasons (Mir
and Mir 2019). The climate is hot in summer, cold in winter and mild in spring and
autumn seasons. The hottest month is July with an average temperature of 21.3 °C
and the coldest month is January with a minimum temperature of 0.3 °C (https://en.
climate-data.org). Precipitation occurs throughout the year and no month is partic-
ularly dry. Precipitation in the winter months usually falls in the form of snow. In
winters, precipitation occurs from the western disturbances originating from the
Mediterranean Sea and during the summer season precipitation occurs from south-
180 I. A. Mir

Fig. 8.2 Annual rainfall °C mm

and temperature (month
wise) data for Srinagar 30 450
station (left) and Dharwad
station (right). (Data source: 25 375
https://en.climate-data.org)
20 300

15 225

10 150

5 75

0 0
01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
°C mm
35 210
30 180
25 150
20 120
15 90
10 60
5 30
0 0
01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12

west monsoon (SWM) winds (Mir and Mir 2019). The area receives the highest
rainfall of 450 mm in March making it the wettest month and October is the driest
month with an average rainfall of 92 mm (https://en.climate-data.org, Fig. 8.2).
The peninsular Belgaum–Dharwad–Uttar Kannada area has a tropical climate and
is classified as ‘Aw’ as per the Köppen climate classification (Koppen 2011). The
hottest month is April with an average temperature of 27.8 °C and the coldest month
is December with an average temperature of 22.5 °C (https://en.climate-data.org).
Precipitation in this area occurs mostly from SWM during the summer season and
slightly during other seasons from local mango showers and northeast retreating
monsoon (NEM) winds. The area receives the highest rainfall of 194 mm in July
making it the wettest month and January is the driest month with an average rainfall
of 1 mm (https://en.climate-data.org, Fig. 8.2).
8 Impact of Contrasting Climate on the Intensity of Chemical Weathering. . . 181

Materials and Methods

The sample collection from both peninsular and extra peninsular areas was carried
out by following the guidelines as per the standard operating procedure (SOP 2014)
of the Geological Survey of India (GSI) for the National Geochemical Mapping
(NGCM) mission. For sampling purposes, the 2x2 gridded toposheets were used as
the base maps. Stream sediment (SS) samples were collected from the first and
second second-order streams and in the area devoid of streams, slope wash
(SW) sampling was carried out. The fine-to-medium grained sediments (~5 kg)
were collected at each sampling site, and actual coordinates and other field-related
information such as lithology, land-use land cover, sample material type and other
details were recorded. A total of 200 sediment samples along with 10 duplicate
samples for cross-check analysis were collected from both of the study areas. The
samples were air-dried, deplumed, powdered and sieved to 120-micron mesh size.
The samples were then coned, quartered and packed into two sets each of 500 g
quantity. One set was submitted to GSI, Chemical Laboratory, Lucknow (northern
region) and Hyderabad (southern region) for chemical analysis, whereas the other set
has been stored in the sample repositories maintained at GSI, Jammu and GSI
Bengaluru offices.
The major oxides and a few trace elements of the composite samples were
measured by M/S Panalytical; MAGIX, 2.4 KW Sequential XRF Spectrometer
instruments at GSI chemical laboratories located at Lucknow and Hyderabad. The
details are discussed in Mir and Mir (2019) and Bhat et al. (2019). The detection
limit is 0.1% for major elements and 1.00 ppm for trace elements. Total iron is
determined as Fe2O3. The precision of the instrument is ±10%. A few trace and rare
earth elements (REE) were analysed using a Perkin Elmer Sciex ELAN 6100
inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometer (ICP-MS) facility of GSI chemical
laboratories at Lucknow and Hyderabad. The fusion method was performed for
analysis. The details are discussed in Bhat et al. (2019). The method has quantifica-
tion limits from 0.1 to 1 ppm and the precision of the instrument is ±10%. Standard
reference material (SRM) (GSD10) with known element concentrations was
analysed after each batch of 20 samples for accuracy and duplicate samples after
each batch of 10 samples were analysed for repeatability. The accuracy of the
measurement is ±3% and the precision is ±5%. Geochemical data processing,
statistical analysis and plotting were carried out by using the M/S Excel and Origin
Pro 2016 software.
The Plagioclase Index of Alteration (PIA; Fedo et al. 1995) and the ratio of Rb/Sr
(McLennan et al. 1993) have been calculated to understand the intensity of chemical
weathering in the study area; climatic conditions in the area have been calculated
from geochemical proxies of C-value (Zhao et al. 2007) and Sr/Cu (Meng et al.
2012); and the sediment maturity is calculated from the proxies of the Index of
Composition Variability (ICV; Cox et al. 1995), and the ratio of Si/Al (Potter 1978).
182 I. A. Mir

PIA = ½ðAl2 O3 - K2 OÞ=ðAl2 O3 þ CaO þ Na2 O - K2 OÞ × 100 ð8:1Þ

C - value
= Σ ðFe þ Mn þ Cr þ Ni þ V þ CoÞ=Σ ðCa þ Mg þ Sr þ Ba þ K þ NaÞ
ð8:2Þ

ICV = Fe2 O3 þ K2 O þ Na2 O þ CaO þ MgO þ TiO2 =Al2 O3 ð8:3Þ

CaO* represents the amount of CaO added in the silicate fraction of the rock
(Zhao et al. 2007).

Results

The geochemical results of major and trace elements of the surface sediments of the
Bandipora–Ganderbal area are discussed in Mir and Mir (2019) and the results from
the Belgaum–Dharwad–Uttar Kannada area are discussed in Bhat et al. (2019). The
descriptive statistics of weathering indices, climate proxies and sediment maturity
indicators used in this study are given in Table 8.3. In the northern Bandipora–
Ganderbal area CIA varied from 26.41 to 77.79 with a mean of 65.29, PIA varies
from 24.76 to 85.59 with a mean of 70.63, Rb/Sr varies from 0.10 to 1.48 with a

Table 8.3 Descriptive statistics of weathering indices, climate proxies and sediment maturity
indicators used in this study, CIA: *Mir and Mir (2019), #Mir et al. (2021)
Standard
deviation Variance Skewness Kurtosis Minimum Maximum Mean
Bandipora area data
CIA* 11.25 126 -1.69 2.47 26.41 77.79 65.29
C-Value 0.11 0.01 1.20 3.72 0.25 1.01 0.50
Sr/Cu 4.74 22.53 4.66 28.56 1.75 44.7 5.08
SiO2/ 0.44 0.19 -0.96 0.91 2.94 5.14 4.37
Al2O3
ICV 0.51 0.26 3.05 10.19 0.91 3.88 1.29
PIA 14.50 210 -1.47 1.60 24.76 85.59 70.63
Rb/Sr 0.29 0.08 -0.49 0.02 0.10 1.48 0.84
Dharwad area data
CIA# 5.07 25.71 0.24 -0.13 67.69 94.01 80.76
C-Value 0.43 0.19 3.29 14.71 0.18 3.41 0.70
Sr/Cu 3.11 9.70 1.37 1.72 0.25 15.14 4.50
SiO2/ 0.98 0.96 -0.26 -0.13 1.77 6.82 4.66
Al2O3
ICV 0.16 0.02 1.04 3.91 0.45 1.64 0.78
PIA 5.16 26.68 -0.09 -0.65 74.58 97.26 86.95
Rb/Sr 0.49 0.24 1.28 1.28 0.13 2.47 0.70
8 Impact of Contrasting Climate on the Intensity of Chemical Weathering. . . 183

mean of 0.84, C-value varies from 0.25 to 1.01 with a mean of 0.50, Sr/Cu varies
from 1.75 to 44.7 with a mean of 5.08, ICV varies from 0.91 to 3.88 with a mean of
1.29 and SiO2/Al2O3 varies from 2.94 to 5.14 with a mean of 4.37. In the southern
Belgaum–Dharwad–Uttar Kannada area CIA varied from 67.69 to 94.01 with a
mean of 80.76, PIA varies from 74.58 to 97.26 with a mean of 86.95, Rb/Sr varies
from 0.13 to 2.47 with a mean of 0.70, C-value varies from 0.18 to 3.41 with a mean
of 0.70, Sr/Cu varies from 0.25 to 15.14 with a mean of 4.50, ICV varies from 0.45
to 1.64 with a mean of 0.78 and SiO2/Al2O3 varies from 1.77 to 6.82 with a mean of
4.66.

Discussion

Sediment geochemistry based on major and trace elements is the most practicable for
defining the weathering degree of source sediment to interpret the weathering
intensity, sediment maturity and climatic conditions. In this work, surface sediment
geochemical data of granitic terrain of peninsular India (Belgaum–Dharwad–Uttar
Kannada area of Karnataka) were compared to those of basaltic and carbonate terrain
of extra peninsular India (Bandipora–Ganderbal area of Kashmir) to evaluate the
generalized picture of weathering history in the drainage basins from lower and
higher latitudes instead of direct and quantitative proxies. Degree of weathering,
sediment maturity and climate of the area were determined based on selected major
and trace element proxies. The geochemical weathering parameters (PIA and Rb/Sr),
sediment maturity parameters (ICV and SiO2/Al2O3) and climate reconstruction
parameters (C-value and Sr/Cu) for the considered area are given in Table 8.3.

Weathering Variations

The litho-units in the study areas experienced diverse weathering conditions

recorded by CIA (derived from Mir and Mir 2019; Mir et al. 2021), PIA and
Rb/Sr (Fig. 8.3). The Belgaum–Dharwad–Uttar Kannada area shows medium to
high CIA values (67.69 to 94.01; Table 8.3), and the area has experienced a
moderate to very intensive chemical weathering alteration. The Bandipora–
Ganderbal area shows low to medium CIA values (26.41 to 77.79; Table 8.3), the
area has experienced a low to moderate chemical weathering alteration, some parts
have not experienced any chemical weathering as evidenced by CIA values of <50.
Similarly, PIA and Rb/Sr values from this study (74.58 to 97.26 and 0.13 to 2.47;
Table 8.3) for the Belgaum–Dharwad–Uttar Kannada area confirm moderate to very
intensive chemical weathering alteration. On the other hand, the Bandipora–
Ganderbal area shows low to moderate PIA and Rb/Sr values (24.76 to 85.59 and
0.10 to 1.48; Table 8.3) confirming low to moderate chemical weathering alteration.
PIA values in unaltered rocks are between 0 and 50 and for altered rocks are between
184 I. A. Mir

Fig. 8.3 Comparison of PIA (left) and Rb/Sr ratio (right) from different latitudes of India as a proxy
for variation in chemical weathering intensity

50 and 100. The PIA index is used to evaluate the degree of weathering of
plagioclase minerals in host rocks. The PIA values of the Belgaum–Dharwad–
Uttar Kannada area are between 74.58 and 97.26 and for the Bandipora–Ganderbal
8 Impact of Contrasting Climate on the Intensity of Chemical Weathering. . . 185

area sediments are between 24.76 and 85.59, indicating extra peninsular sediments
contain better-preserved plagioclase than the peninsular sediments. PIA values are
higher than CIA values in sediments from both areas due to differential rates of
K-feldspar and plagioclase weathering (Goldich 1938). Strong chemical weathering
of rock increases the Rb/Sr ratio; therefore, ratios >1 are indicators of intense
chemical weathering (McLennan et al. 1993). The Rb/Sr values of the Belgaum–
Dharwad–Uttar Kannada area are between 0.13 and 2.47 and for the Bandipora–
Ganderbal area sediments are between 0.10 and 1.48, supporting the low to moderate
chemical weathering for extra peninsula sediments and moderate to high chemical
weathering for peninsula sediments of granitic rocks of south India.

Climate Conditions

Latitudinal differences in climate are an important factor for the variations in the
intensity of chemical weathering of the source area for the Indian peninsular and
extra peninsular sediments. The weathering index values of the peninsular sediments
are higher, and the climate is likely more humid in the Belgaum–Dharwad–Uttar
Kannada area in comparison with the Bandipora–Ganderbal area. The composition
and distribution of a few major and trace elements in the sediments can show the
climatic variations (Hu et al. 2017). Mn, Fe, Cr, Co, Ni and V are relatively enriched
in sediments under humid conditions and Ca, Mg, K, Na, Sr and Ba are relatively
enriched under arid conditions (Cao et al. 2012). Zhao et al. (2007) successfully
performed the C-value (Eq. 8.2) as a proxy for climate change. The C-values for the
Bandipora–General area sediments range from 0.25 to 1.01 and for the Belgaum–
Dharwad–Uttar Kannada area sediments range from 0.18 to 3.41 (Table 8.3). The
C-value results reflect a generally semi-arid to the semi-moist climate in the
Bandipora–Ganderbal area and semi-arid to the moist climate in the Belgaum–
Dharwad–Uttar Kannada area (Fig. 8.4). There is an increase in humidity from
higher to lower latitudes. The climate in tropical areas is more humid than in
temperate areas. Similarly, the Sr/Cu ratio has been used for climatic studies of
different regions (Meng et al. 2012). A low Sr/Cu ratio indicates a warm and humid
climate, whereas a high Sr/Cu ratio indicates a cold and semi-humid climate (Jia
et al. 2013). The ratio of Sr/Cu between 1.3 and 5.0 indicates a warm and humid
climate, whereas the ratio of Sr/Cu >5.0 indicates a hot to cold and arid to semi-arid
climate (Lerman 1978). The Sr/Cu ratios of the Bandipora–General area sediments
range from 1.75 to 44.7 and for the Belgaum–Dharwad–Uttar Kannada area sedi-
ments range from 0.25 to 15.14 (Table 8.3). This distribution of Sr/Cu ratios
indicates dry to semi-arid and cold to wet climate conditions in extra peninsular
India and semi-arid to humid and warm climate conditions in peninsular India
(Fig. 8.4). From the Sr/Cu plot, it is also evident that there is an increase in humidity
from higher temperate to lower tropical latitudes. The C-values and Sr/Cu ratios
collectively indicate generally humid climate conditions in southern India and semi-
humid climate in northern India. The climate proxies based on C-values and Sr/Cu
186 I. A. Mir

Fig. 8.4 Comparison of C-value (left) and Sr/Cu ratio (right) from different latitudes of India as a
proxy for variation in climate
8 Impact of Contrasting Climate on the Intensity of Chemical Weathering. . . 187

match very well with the meteorological data of the area (Fig. 8.2, https://en.climate-
data.org). The impact of varying climates is very well reflected in the weathering
indices also (Fig. 8.3), confirming a very important role of regional climatic condi-
tions on the intensity of chemical weathering in the different parts of the world.

Sediment Maturity

The compositional maturity of the sediments is evaluated by using the Index of

Compositional Variability (ICV; Cox et al. 1995) and the SiO2/Al2O3 (Potter 1978)
ratio. An approach to assessing detrital mineralogy is to use the ICV (Eq. 8.3).
Matured sediments with more clayness show lower ICV values (<1.0), such sedi-
ments are mostly derived from a cratonic environment (Cox et al. 1995). The results
of the ICV in the Bandipora–Ganderbal area range between 0.91 and 3.88 and in the
Belgaum–Dharwad–Uttar Kannada area range between 0.45 and 1.64 (Table 8.3)
indicating that the sediments in the peninsular area are mineralogically more mature
than the sediments of extra peninsular area (Fig. 8.5). In this study, there is a
decrease in ICV values from higher to lower latitudes meaning a high degree of
clays and mineralogical maturity. Tropical area sediments are rich in clay minerals,
due to the alteration of feldspars into clay minerals under hot and wet climatic
conditions, and have lower ICV values (Cox et al. 1995) than sediments rich in
non-clay silicate minerals of temperate area sediments. Immature sediments have
high ICV values (>1.0) indicating a single weathering cycle, whereas the mature
sediments have low ICV values (<1.0) suggesting multiple cycles of chemical
weathering, erosion and redeposition (Cox et al. 1995). Highly weathered sediments
show low ICV values and high PIA values (Figs. 8.5 and 8.3). The maturity of the
sediments is also reflected by the ratio of SiO2/Al2O3 (Potter 1978). The higher the
SiO2 content in sediments, the lower the degree of clays. A high ratio of SiO2/Al2O3
indicates mineralogically mature sediments and a low ratio indicates chemically
immature sediments. The Belgaum–Dharwad–Uttar Kannada area has SiO2/Al2O3
values between 1.77 and 6.82 (Table 8.3), indicating that the sediments are formed
under humid conditions tending towards increasing chemically maturity. The
Bandipora–Ganderbal area shows SiO2/Al2O3 values between 2.94 and 5.14
(Table 8.3), suggesting that the sediments are formed under semi-arid to semi-
humid conditions tending towards decreasing chemically maturity. High ratios
indicate peninsular sediments are mineralogically mature, while low ratios indicate
extra peninsular sediments are chemically immature (Fig. 8.5). The ratio between
SiO2 and Al2O3 is also used in the Ruxton Ratio (RR; Ruxton 1968). Low RR values
suggest intense chemical weathering, whereas high RR values suggest moderate to
weak chemical weathering. In our study, there is a decrease in the ratio of SiO2/
Al2O3 from higher temperate to lower tropical latitudes indicating an increase in
chemical weathering, humidity, sediment maturity and clay mineral development
(Fig. 8.5).
188 I. A. Mir

Fig. 8.5 Comparison of ICV (left) and SiO2/Al2O3 ratio (right) from different latitudes of India as a
proxy for variation in mineralogical maturity and clay mineral formation
8 Impact of Contrasting Climate on the Intensity of Chemical Weathering. . . 189

Discussion on Relationships Between Chemical Weathering,

Sediment Maturity and Climatic Conditions

In this study weathering indices, temperature proxies and sediment maturity indices
reflect a generalized picture of weathering history in the drainage basins from lower
and higher latitudes instead of direct and quantitative proxies. The tropical climatic
conditions in the Belgaum–Dharwad–Uttar Kannada area (south India) and temper-
ate climatic conditions in the Bandipora–Ganderbal area (north India) (Figs. 8.2 and
8.4) influence the variations in the chemistry of sediments. The basaltic and carbon-
ate terrain of Bandipora–Ganderbal area under climate characterized by moderate
precipitation and low temperature (10.8 °C, yearly average) experienced low to
moderate chemical weathering but relatively intensive physical weathering (<50
PIA and CIA values), whereas the granitic terrain of the Belgaum–Dharwad–Uttar
Kannada area developed under climate characterized by high precipitation and
temperature (25.15 °C, yearly average) experienced moderate to intense chemical
weathering (>50 PIA and CIA values). The chemical weathering and sediment
maturity processes are faster at higher temperature and moisture conditions (Binkley
and Fisher 2019). High precipitation and temperature in tropical areas promote the
dissolution of minerals by supplying more moisture to mineral surfaces and accel-
erating the net dissolution reactions forward (Ferrier et al. 2012). Thus, heavy
rainfalls coupled with higher temperatures increase the rate of chemical weathering.
This phenomenon is supported by many works from climatically diverse areas of the
world (Bluth and Kump 1994; Rasmussen et al. 2011). Other factors such as
lithology, physical erosion rates, vegetation, land use–land cover, and anthropogenic
activities also influence the rate of chemical weathering and erosion (Ferrier et al.
2012). There is a very good correlation between chemical weathering indicators
(CIA, PIA, Rb/Sr, Fig. 8.3); mean annual precipitation (Fig. 8.2) and geochemical
climate proxies (C-value, Sr/Cu, Fig. 8.4); and sediment maturity proxies (ICV,
SiO2/Al2O3, Fig. 8.5) all collectively indicating an increase in the degree of chemical
weathering and maturity of sediments with an increase in precipitation and
temperature.

Factors Controlling Weathering

The composition of the rocks and minerals and the climate of an area are the major
factors controlling the weathering rates. In a particular region under a uniform
climate, different rock types weather at different rates (Raymo and Ruddiman
1992). Under a uniform climate, granitic rocks weather more slowly than basalt
and limestone because basalt and limestone are softer and it is easy for weathering
agents to impact and manipulate their structures (Daniel et al. 2016). In the present
study, granitic rocks of southern India are more highly weathered than the basaltic
and carbonate rocks of the Kashmir valley. Here the climate plays a more important
190 I. A. Mir

role in weathering rate than lithology. The climate of a region is determined by the
temperature and precipitation. At high temperatures and precipitation, chemical
reactions become more intense and increase weathering (White and Blum 1995)
than in cold and dry climates (Curtis 1990). A warmer climate also supports
vegetation growth which also helps in weathering. In southern India, a hot and
humid climate and dense evergreen vegetation weather the granites more than the
basalt and limestone of Kashmir valley. The CIA, PIA and Rb/Sr content of stream
sediments in southern and northern India have good correlation with temperature,
precipitation and latitude reflecting the dominant control of the south-west monsoon
climate on chemical weathering in southern India and western disturbances climate
in the Kashmir valley. Li and Yang (2010) had cautioned against using weathering
indices as a direct and quantitative proxy for evaluating the intensity of chemical
weathering in the continents. In this study, weathering indices, temperature proxies
and sediment maturity indices reflect a generalized picture of weathering history in
the drainage basins from lower and higher latitudes instead of direct and quantitative
proxies. We cannot deny the role of anthropogenic activities in enhancing the
human-induced weathering in the study area, but further investigations are needed
to understand the role of human activities in increasing the rate of weathering.

Conclusions

This work presents the processes of chemical weathering and sediment maturity
under contrasting climatic conditions from different latitudes in the tropical
(Belgaum–Dharwad–Uttar Kannada area of Karnataka) and temperate (Bandipora–
Ganderbal area of Kashmir valley) parts of India. The main findings of this work are
summarized below:
(a) In this study weathering indices, temperature proxies and sediment maturity
indices reflect a generalized picture of weathering history in the drainage basins
from lower and higher latitudes instead of direct and quantitative proxies.
(b) Chemical weathering conditions have been characterized in terms of variations
of CIA, PIA and Rb/Sr of granitic terrain of peninsular and basaltic-carbonate
terrain of extra peninsular India. All weathering indices closely resemble each
other and show variations mainly related to the different climatic conditions.
Rocks of the Belgaum–Dharwad–Uttar Kannada area of Karnataka state are
moderate to intensively weathered, while rocks of the Bandipora–Ganderbal
area of Kashmir valley is moderately weathered. High chemical weathering
conditions in south India appear to result from climate forcing related to high
rainfall and temperature.
(c) The distribution of C-values and Sr/Cu ratios collectively indicate a generally
humid climate in south India and a semi-humid to dry climate in north India.
There is an increase in humidity from higher to lower latitudes. The climate
proxies based on C-values and Sr/Cu match very well with the meteorological
8 Impact of Contrasting Climate on the Intensity of Chemical Weathering. . . 191

data of the area. The impact of varying climates is very well reflected in the
weathering indices confirming a very important role of regional climatic condi-
tions on the intensity of chemical weathering in the different parts of the world.
(d) The compositional maturity of the sediments is evaluated by using the ICV and
SiO2/Al2O3 ratio. The results collectively indicate that the sediments in the
peninsular area are mineralogically more mature than the sediments in the
extra peninsular area. There is a decrease in sediment maturity from higher to
lower latitudes meaning a high degree of clays and mineralogical maturity.

Acknowledgements The author wishes to thank the Director-General, GSI, for devising the
National Geochemical Mapping program and for providing the necessary facilities to carry out
this work. IAM thanks the Additional Director General, GSI, Hyderabad (SR) and Lucknow (NR),
and Deputy Director-General, State Unit: Karnataka and Goa and State Unit: Jammu and Kashmir
for providing logistic and financial support to carry out this work. I.A.M. is also thankful to the staff
of the geochemical laboratory of GSI, Hyderabad and Lucknow for sample analysis.

References

Babeesh C, Lone A, Achyuthan H (2017) Geochemistry of Manasbal Lake sediments, Kashmir:

weathering, provenance and tectonic setting. J Geol Soc India 89:563–572
Bhat AA, Bhat NA (2014) Report on geochemical mapping of Kashmir nappe and Karewa group of
rocks covering parts of Anantnag, Baramulla and Srinagar districts, Jammu & Kashmir in
toposheet no. 43K13 and 14, Geological Survey of India, SU: J&K, NR, Field Season
2013–2014
Bhat AA, Mir IA, SreePrabash M, Sridhar V, Maruthi KV (2019) Report on geochemical mapping
in toposheet no. 48I/11 in Belgaum, Dharwad and Uttar Kannada districts, Karnataka, Geolog-
ical Survey of India, SU: K&G, SR, Field Season 2017–2018
Binkley D, Fisher RF (2019) Ecology and management of forest soils, 5th edn. Wiley-Blackwell,
p 456
Bluth GS, Kump LR (1994) Lithologic and climatic controls of river chemistry. Geochim
Cosmochim Acta 58:2341–2359
Bruce Foote R (1876) The geological features of the South Maharatta country and adjacent districts.
Mem Geol Surv India 12:1
Bruce Foote R (1888) Dharwar system, the chief auriferous series in south India. Rec Geol Surv
India XXI:40
Cao J, Wu M, Chen Y, Hu K, Bian LZ, Wang LG, Zhang Y (2012) Trace and rare earth element
geochemistry of Jurassic mudstones in the northern Qaidam Basin, Northwest China. Chemie
Erde-Geochem 72:245–252
Cox R, Lowe DR, Cullers RL (1995) The influence of sediment recycling and basement compo-
sition on evolution of mudrock chemistry in the southwestern United States. Geochim
Cosmochim Acta 59:2919–2940
Curtis CD (1990) Aspects of climatic influence on the clay mineralogy and geochemistry of soils,
palaeosols and clastic sedimentary rocks. J Geol Soc 147:351–357
Daniel EI, Jeremy KC, Seulgi M, Dana LT, Jens H, Chamberlain CP, Kate M (2016) Differential
weathering of basaltic and granitic catchments from concentration–discharge relationships.
Geochim Cosmochim Acta 190:265–293
De Terra H, Paterson TT (1939) Studies on the ice age in India and associated human cultures, vol
493. Carnegie Inst, Washington, DC, pp 1–354
192 I. A. Mir

Fedo CM, Nesbitt HW, Young GM (1995) Unraveling the effects of potassium metasomatism in
sedimentary rocks and paleosols, with implications for paleoweathering conditions and prove-
nance. Geology 23:921–924
Ferrier KL, Kirchner JW, Finke RC (2012) Weak influences of climate and mineral supply rates on
chemical erosion rates: measurements along two altitudinal transects in the Idaho batholith. J
Geophys Res 117:20–26
Giovanoli R, Schnoor JL, Sigg L, Stumm W, Zobrist J (1988) Chemical weathering of crystalline
rocks in the catchment area of acidic Ticino Lakes, Switzerland. Clay Clay Miner 36:521–529
Goldich SS (1938) A study in rock-weathering. J Geol 46:17–58
Gururaja Rao TP, Sinha PA (1976) Geology of parts of Kalghatgi, Shiggaon and Hubli taluks,
Dharwar District, Karnataka state (unpublished Progress report of GSI for FS-1975-76)
Harnois L (1988) The CIW index: a new chemical index of weathering. Sediment Geol 55:319–322
Hegde VS, Chavadi VC (2008) Geochemistry of late Archaean metagreywackes from the Western
Dharwar craton, South India: implications for provenance and nature of the late Archaean crust.
Gondwana Res 15:178–187
Hu J, Li Q, Song C, Wang S, Shen B (2017) Geochemical characteristics of the Permian
sedimentary rocks from Qiangtang Basin: constraints for paleoenvironment and paleoclimate.
Terr Atmos Ocean Sci 28:271–282
Iyengar S (1976) The stratigraphy, structure and correlation of the Dharwar Supergroup, GSI Misc.
Publication No. 23, Part-II, pp 415–456
Jia J, Liu Z, Bechtel A, Strobl SAI, Sun P (2013) Tectonic and climate control of oil shale
deposition in the upper cretaceous Qingshankou formation (Songliao Basin, NE China). Int J
Earth Sci 102:1717–1734
Kapoor HM (1963) A note on the geochemical study of the stream sediments from Liddar river,
Anantnag district Jammu & Kashmir state; Geological Survey of India, Operation: J&K, NR,
Field Season 1962–1963
Koppen W (2011) The thermal zones of the earth according to the duration of hot, moderate, and
cold periods and the impact of heat on the organic world. Meteorol Z 20:351–360
Lerman A (1978) Lakes: chemistry, geology, physics. Springer, New York
Li C, Yang S (2010) Is chemical index of alteration (CIA) a reliable proxy for chemical weathering
in global drainage basins? Am J Sci 310:111–127
McLennan SM, Hemming S, McDaniel DK, Hanson GN (1993) Geochemical approaches to
sedimentation, provenance, andtectonics. Processes controlling the composition of clastic
sediments. Geol Soc Am Special Paper 284:21–40
Meng Q, Liu Z, Bruch AA, Liu R, Hu F (2012) Palaeoclimatic evolution during Eocene and its
influence on oil shale mineralisation, Fushun basin, China. J Asian Earth Sci 45:95–105
Mir RA, Jeelani G (2015) Textural characteristics of sediments and weathering in the Jhelum River
basin located in Kashmir Valley, western Himalaya. J Geol Soc India 86:445–458
Mir IA, Mir RA (2015) Report on geochemical mapping of Srinagar, Pampur and Ganderbal areas
of Srinagar and Ganderbal districts, Jammu and Kashmir in toposheet nos. 43J/11 and part of
43J/12, Geological Survey of India, SU: J&K, NR, Field Season 2014–2015
Mir IA, Mir RA (2019) Geochemistry of surface sediments in parts of Bandipora-Ganderbal areas,
Kashmir valley, western Himalaya: implications for provenance and weathering. J Earth Syst
Sci 128(223):1–16
Mir IA, Pattan JN, Matta VM, Banakar VK (2013) Variation of paleo-productivity and terrigenous
input in the eastern Arabian Sea during the past 100 ka. J Geol Soc India 81:647–654
Mir IA, Bhat AA, SreePrabash M, Sridhar V, Maruthi KV (2021) Surface sediment geochemistry
for understanding the recent sedimentary environment in northwestern Karnataka, South India.
Geosci J (under review)
Murthy TSS, Mehrotra SC (1979) Geology of manganiferous Formations in parts of North Kanara
and Belgaum districts, Karnataka. Geological Survey of India, Unpublished Report
(FS 1976–77)
8 Impact of Contrasting Climate on the Intensity of Chemical Weathering. . . 193

Nesbitt HW, Young GM (1982) Early proterozoic climates and plate motions were inferred from the
major element chemistry of lutites. Nature 299:715–717
Parker A (1970) An index of weathering for silicate rocks. Geol Mag 107:501–504
Pattan JN, Parthiban G, Gupta SM, Mir IA (2012) Fe speciation and Fe/Al ratio in the sediments of
southeastern Arabian Sea as an indicator of climate change. Quat Int 250:19–26
Potter PE (1978) Petrology and chemistry of modern big river sands. J Geol 86(4):423–449
Rashid AS, Ather M, Farid AK (2013) Sediment water interaction at higher altitudes: examples
from the geochemistry of Wular Lake sediments, Kashmir Valley, northern India. Procedia
Earth Planet Sci 7:786–789
Rashid SA, Ganai JA, Masoodi A, Khan FA (2015) Major and trace element geochemistry of lake
sediments, India: implications for weathering and climate control. Arabian J Geosci 8:5677–
5684
Rasmussen C, Brantley S, Richter D, Blum A, Dixon J, White AF (2011) Strong climate and
tectonic control on plagioclase weathering in granitic terrain. Earth Planet Sci Lett 301:521–530
Raymo ME, Ruddiman WF (1992) Tectonic forcing of late Cenozoic climate. Nature 359:117–122
Ruxton BP (1968) Measures of the degree of chemical weathering of rocks. J Geol 76:515–527
Scarciglia F, De Rosa R, Vecchio G, Apollaro C, Robustelli G, Terrasi F (2008) Volcanic soil
formation in Calabria (southern Italy): the Cecita Lake geosol in the late quaternary geomor-
phological evolution of the Sila uplands. J Volcanol Geotherm Res 177:101–117
Shah RA, Achyuthan H, Lone AM, Ramanibai R (2017) Diatoms, spatial distribution and physi-
cochemical characteristics of the Wular lake sediments, Kashmir valley, Jammu and Kashmir. J
Geol Soc India 90:159–168
Singh I (1982) Report on petrological, volcanological and stratigraphical studies of Panjal Volca-
nics in Liddar and Sind valleys and Bandipora area, Anantnag, Srinagar and Baramulla districts,
Jammu & Kashmir State; Geological Survey of India, Operation: J&K, NR, Field Season
1981–1982
Slater HK (1906) Memories of Mysore geological department, vol I
Standard Operation Procedure for National geochemical mapping & quality management. Revised
and updated 2014, Mission-I: Baseline Geosciences Data Generation of Geological Survey of
India
Swami NJ, Ramakrishnan M, Viswanatha MN (1976) Dharwar stratigraphic model and Karnataka
craton evolution. Geol Surv India Rec 107:149–175
Thakur VC, Rawat BS (1992) Geological map of the Western Himalaya; Survey of India
Wadia DN (1931) The syntaxis of NW Himalaya, its rocks, tectonics and orogeny. Rec Geol Surv
India 65:189–220
White AF, Blum AE (1995) Effects of climate on chemical weathering rates in watersheds.
Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 59:1729–1747
Zhao Z, Zhao J, Wang H, Liao J, Liu C (2007) Distribution characteristics and applications of trace
elements in Junggar Basin. Nat Gas Explor Dev 30:30–33
Chapter 9
Manganese Mineralization
in Manganiferous Quartzite
in the Boringpadar-Amath Area, Eastern
Ghats Mobile Belt, Odisha, India:
Implication for Climatic Changes

Pawan Kumar Yadav, Manorama Das, and Sradhanjali Subhadarshini

Abstract The chapter brings to light an array of manganese mineralization with

promising values, hosted in manganese ore and manganiferous quartzite and predicts
the responsible climatic environment for the formation of manganese based on field
observations, ore petrographic studies and geochemical inputs. Two bands of manga-
nese ore and four bands of manganiferous quartzite are mapped to the southeast of
Boringpadar and northeast of the Amath area belonging to the Eastern Ghats Mobile
Belt, India. The manganese ores are represented by bluish-black to brownish-black,
massive to foliated, metallic luster, nodular and botryoidal forms which are mainly
bedded and fragmental types. The ore bodies are strata bound occurring in between
calc-silicate granulite and garnetiferous quartzite which defines a characteristic strat-
igraphic horizon. Manganiferous quartzite is hard, white to black, highly jointed,
fractured and brecciated which occurs at the contact of khondalite. Braunite, bixbyite,
jacobsite, manganite, pyrolusite and todorokite are primary minerals that are associ-
ated with host rocks like quartzite and these minerals occur as inclusions and anhedral
in shape. Secondary minerals are formed by the process of colloidal influx or meta-
somatism psilomelane-cryptomelane, pyrolusite and goethite are secondary minerals
which occur in higher quantities. A relatively high temperature metamorphic
jacobsite-bixbyite-braunite assemblage, low temperature hydrothermal pyrolusite-
psilomelane-cryptomelane assemblage and supergene pyrolusite-manganite assem-
blage are recorded which were formed by recycling of manganese in different stages
of mineralization. Replacement and relict textures are common between braunite-
manganite-pyrolusite, jacobsite-braunite-pyrolusite and pyrolusite-psilomelane-
cryptomelane-goethite. A geophysical investigation has also been carried out in the
area to know the subsurface continuity of manganese mineralization. In Boringpadar,

P. K. Yadav (*) · M. Das

Geological Survey of India, SU, Bihar, Patna, India
e-mail: [email protected]
S. Subhadarshini
Geological Survey of India, SU, Odisha, Bhubaneswar, India

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 195
N. Khare (ed.), Science, Policies and Conflicts of Climate Change, Springer Climate,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-16254-1_9
196 P. K. Yadav et al.

the apparent resistivity values vary from 10 to 240 ohm-m which displays low
resistivity, and the apparent chargeability contour map shows high anomaly, indicative
of a mineralized zone. In Amath, the apparent resistivity value varies from 20 to
140 ohm-m and the apparent chargeability contour map shows a high anomaly. The
pseudo-depth sections were prepared over geophysical traverses to examine the
subsurface distribution of apparent chargeability and apparent resistivity indicating
mineralization prospects. This mineralized body starts almost from the surface and the
contours of this anomaly zone open downward which is suggestive of the depth
persistence of the causative source below 35 m. The analytical results of bedrock
samples show high values of Mn, Fe, SiO2, Al2O3, P, S and CaO. The values of Mn
and Fe(T) ranged from 0.05 to 28.18 wt. % and 1.87–56.31 wt. %, respectively. In
pitting/trenching samples, the Mn value ranges from 0.05 to 27.77 wt. % and the Fe
(T) value ranges from 2.11 to 46.85 wt. %. The highest values of Mn come from
manganese ore of the Amath area and maximum values of Fe(T) were recorded from
manganese ore of the Boringpadar area. The above-mentioned data indicate that the
manganese ores and manganiferous quartzite might be formed in the freshwater
environment.

Keywords Manganese ores · Manganiferous quartzite · Mineralogy · Eastern Ghats

Mobile Belt (EGMB) · India

Introduction

Manganese (Mn) is a silver metallic element with an atomic number of 25 which is

not found as an element in nature. Manganite (MnO), purpurite (MnPO4), pyrolusite
(MnO2), rhodonite [(Mn, Fe, Mg, Ca, (SiO3)], rhodochrosite (MnCO3) and sugilite
[KNa2(Fe, Mn, Al)2 Li3Si12O30] are manganese minerals. Manganese mineral is also
found in association with mineraloids like psilomelane and wad and is an important
element for steel and non-alloying industries (Gandhi 2010; Singh and Biswas
2017). In Archean greenstone belts, the manganese mineralization occurs predom-
inantly with the association of Banded Iron Formation (BIF) which is mainly
reported from the Barberton greenstone belt of South Africa, the Sebakwian-
Bulawayan-Shamvaian belt of Zimbabwe, the Isua Formation of Greenland, the
Superior and Slave provinces of Abitibi belt, Canada, the Rio das Velhas deposit of
Brazil, the Yilgarn and Pilbara blocks of Western Australia, the Bababudan and
Chitradurga belt of South India and the Iron Ore Group (IOG) of the Singhbhum
Craton (Goodwin 1973; Ramakrishnan et al. 1976; DeWit et al. 1980; Anhaeusser
and Wilson 1981; Chadwick et al. 1981a, b; Condie 1981; Hallberg and Glikson
1981; Roy 1981; Dimroth et al. 1982; Windly 1982; Gross 1986; Schidlowski 1988,
1993; Machado and Carnerio 1992; Myers and Kröner 1994; Saha 1994; Teixeira
et al. 1996; Martin et al. 1997; Ghosh et al. 2015). Continental crustal growth,
decreasing mantle heat flux leading to diminished outgassing, along with suitable
tectonic evolution, sedimentary environment, and biosphere–atmosphere–hydro-
sphere interaction has usually been cited as a source of initiation of sedimentary
9 Manganese Mineralization in Manganiferous Quartzite in. . . 197

Mn deposition during the late Archaean (Acharya et al. 1994; Roy 2000). The
manganese accumulations predominantly occur in the Archean and Proterozoic
periods and few occurrences were also noticed in the Phanerozoic Era. The
Archaean–Proterozoic transition in the Earth system involved the rapid burial of
organic matter, increased weathering on tectonically amalgamated supercontinents,
reduction of reduced gases from a gradually oxygenated mantle, and the net increase
in photosynthetic O2 (Roy 2006; Mishra 2015). The formation of manganese rocks
and ores on many geological boundaries was closely connected with global climatic,
tectonic restructurings, and biological events (Kuleshov 2017). However, manga-
nese rocks and ore were also derived from volcanogenic and/or hydrothermal and
freshwater sources which are also reported from different parts of the world
(Acharya et al. 1994; Roy 2000, 2006; Mishra 2015).
In Odisha, the manganese ore is found to occur in three stratigraphic horizons and
widely spatially distributed, i.e. Iron Ore Group in Bonai-Keonjhar belt, Gangpur
Group in Sundergarh, and Eastern Ghats Mobile Belt in Rayagada-Kalahandi-
Bolangir belt. The geology, classification, mode of occurrence and genetic aspects
of manganese ore deposits of the Jamda-Koira belt have been dealt with by many
workers viz. Former 1909; Spencer 1948; Sen 1951; Ray 1954, 1955; Engineer
1956; Prasad Rao and Murty 1956; Mohapatra and Bagchi 1961; Mookherjee 1966;
Basu 1969; Murty and Ghosh 1971; Ajmal 1990; Mishra 1994; Dasgupta et al. 1999;
Mohapatra et al. 1989, 2009, 2010 and Mishra et al. 2016. The Jamda-Koira belt of
the Noamundi basin contains more than 130 million tonnes of total manganese ore
reserve (Ghosh et al. 2015). Manganese ores are predominantly reported in the
Vizianagaram-Visakhapatnam sector in Andhra Pradesh belonging to the Eastern
Ghats Mobile Belt (EGMB) (Straczek and Krishanswamy 1956; Krishna Rao 1963;
Rao 1969; Siddiquie and Raza 2008; Siddiquie and Shaif 2015; Siddiquie et al.
2015). In contrast, only a few such occurrences have been reported from the EGMB
in Odisha by the Geological Survey of India (Jayaram 1956; Jena and Devdas 1994;
Dash et al. 2005; Yadav et al. 2017).
The study aimed to assess the manganese mineralization and predict the respon-
sible climatic environment for the formation of manganese based on field observa-
tions, ore petrographic studies and geochemical inputs in Boriningpadar and Amath
areas in the Eastern Ghats Granulite Belt belonging to the Eastern Ghats Mobile
Belt, Odisha, India.

Geological Setting

The Eastern Ghats Mobile Belt encompassing an area of over 50,000 sq. km broadly
trends NE-SW and extends from Brahmani River in Odisha to Ongole in Andra
Pradesh for a distance of over 900 km with a maximum width of 300 km in Odisha in
the north. It tapers down to a few tens of km in width in Andra Pradesh. The EGMB
is a distinct geological entity and is known for its regionally developed granulite
facies lithopackage, intense polyphase ductile deformation, metamorphism,
198 P. K. Yadav et al.

migmatization and Meso to Neoproterozoic magmatism (Ramakrishna et al. 1998).

It consists of granulite facies metapelitic and meta-psammatic gneisses, mafic and
felsic orthogneisses/granulites and S-type granites. Massif-type anorthosite-
leuconorite complexes and alkaline complexes are significant products of Meso to
Neoproterozoic magmatism. In addition, the Eastern Ghats Granulite Belt has drawn
the attention of various workers to study its stratigraphy, structure and tectono-
thermal aspects (Murty and Ghosh 1971; Narayanswami 1975; Chetty and Murthy
1994; Bhattacharya et al. 1998; Ramakrishna et al. 1998) except a few exploration
programmes for its economic mineral association such as graphite, manganese and
bauxite, etc., mainly by the GSI. Ramakrishna et al. (1998) have divided EGMB into
four longitudinal lithozones based on the dominant litho-suite present, viz. Eastern
Khondalite Zone (EKZ), Central Charnockite-Migmatite Zone (CMZ), Western
Charnockite Zone (WCZ) and Western Khondalite Zone (WKZ). In the northwest-
ern corner of the belt in the Bolangir-Khariar region, the WKZ has possibly moved
westward to produce a nappe like structure overriding and resting over the passive
margin of Bastar Craton due to the westerly verging Vamsadhara, Nagavalli and
Mahanadi shear zone (Ramakrishna et al. 1998). The prominent NE-SW trending
Tel lineament running sub-parallel with the Tel River course possibly separates the
main belt from the nappe block. Former (1909) and Pascoe (1950) were the pioneers
who proposed the stratigraphic classification for the Eastern Ghats.
The manganese ore bodies are confined to the Khondalite Group of rocks of the
Eastern Ghats Granulite Belt in Odisha. The prominent known areas are the 32 km
long Kutinga-Nishikhal zone in Rayagada district and the 30 km long Kanaital-
Uchhabapalli zone in Bolangir district. All the important manganese deposits of the
region are found confined to these two small narrow zones as proved by exploration
activities of GSI for manganese (Jena and Devdas 1994; Dash et al. 2005; Dash and
Behera 2009). The manganiferous zone/horizon is characterized by the association
of quartzite ± garnet (psammitic facies) and calc-silicate granulite (calcareous facies)
with manganese ore bodies lying in between the two along with garnetiferous
quartzo-feldspathic sillimanite schist/gneiss ± graphite (psammo-pelitic facies). In
general, manganese ore bodies are intimately associated with calc-silicate granulite
with profuse quartz veins in the vicinity of garnetiferous quartzo–feldspathic silli-
manite schist/gneiss ± graphite. The litho members constitute a narrow but persistent
manganiferous zone/horizon within the Khondalite zone. The zones occur as roof
pendants, cuspate and lensoidal bodies, keels and often as scattered outcrops on
coarse-grained, mesocratic, inequigranular and coarsely porphyritic granitoid but
without the signature of mechanical stirring. In domal outcrops, granitoids and
gneisses contain all the litho-variants of the manganiferous zone/horizon as enclaves
usually in the proximity of the rich deposits of manganese. The present area
(Boringpadar-Amath block) forms a part of the Western Khondalite Zone in the
proximity of the Tel lineament zone. The dominant rock type exposed in this block is
calc-silicate granulite, quartz + K-feldspar + sillimanite + garnet + biotite ± graphite
(khondalite), Mn ore/manganiferous quartzite/ferruginous quartzite and garnetifer-
ous quartzite (Khondalite Group), garnetiferous granite-gneiss and megacrystic
garnetiferous granite-gneiss.
9 Manganese Mineralization in Manganiferous Quartzite in. . . 199

Fig. 9.1 Generalized geological map of the Eastern Ghats Mobile Belt, Odisha showing the
location of the study area. (Modified after Ramakrishna et al. 1998)

In this chapter, two bands of manganese ore (200 × 50–70 m; 250 × 40 m) and
four bands of manganiferous quartzite (150 × 10 m; 230 × 10 m; 150 × 5 m;
100 × 5 m) have been delineated in detail for the first time to the southeast of
Boringpadar and northeast of Amath area in the Eastern Ghats Mobile Belt,
Kalahandi district, Odisha (Fig. 9.1).

Geology of the Study Area

The study area forms a part of the Western Khondalite Zone (WKZ) in the proximity
of the Tel lineament zone. The dominant rock type exposed in this block is calc-
silicate granulite, quartz + K-feldspar + sillimanite + garnet + biotite ± graphite
(khondalite), Mn ore/manganiferous quartzite/ferruginous quartzite and garnetifer-
ous quartzite (Khondalite Group), garnetiferous granite-gneiss and megacrystic
garnetiferous granite-gneiss (Fig. 9.2; Yadav et al. 2017).
200 P. K. Yadav et al.

Fig. 9.2 Geological map of the study area showing the occurrence of manganese ore and
manganiferous quartzite towards the southeast of Boringpadar and northeast of Amath Kalahandi
district, Odisha. (Modified after Yadav et al. 2017)

Two bands of manganese ore have been observed in the mapped area near
Boringpadar and Amath in parts of toposheets no. 64P/4 and 64P/7 (Fig. 9.2). The
first band of manganese ore is mapped in the western flank of Sundari Dongri hill,
southeast of Boringpadar which occurs in the lower flank of the hill. The manganese
ore is bluish-black to brownish-black, massive to foliated, has a metallic luster and
has nodular and botryoidal forms (Fig. 9.3a, b). The manganese minerals are mostly
pyrolusite and psilomelane and the ore body is mainly bedded and fragmental type.
The strike length of this ore body is 200 m having a width of 50–70 m on a hill slope
at an elevation of 270 m which is trending in the N20°W–N40°E direction. At
places, tight to isoclinals F1 folds are also observed within it. The second band of
manganese ore has been mapped towards the northeast of Amath having a dimension
of 250 m and 40 m trending in the N10°W–N30°E direction. The manganese ore is
mainly bluish-black, massive to foliated, has a metallic luster and has botryoidal and
nodular forms (Fig. 9.3c, d).
Four bands of manganiferous quartzite have been mapped on the western flank of
Sundari Dongri hill, southeast of Boringpadar with dimensions as follows:
(i) 150 × 10 m trending NNE–SSW (ii) 230 × 10 m trending N40°E–S40°W, (iii)
150 × 5 m trending N40°E–S40°W and (iv) 100 × 5 m trending N–S to N45°E–S45°
W. It is hard, white to black, highly jointed, fractured (Fig. 9.3e) and brecciated
(Fig. 9.3f). A small band of ferruginous quartzite is observed at the contact of
9 Manganese Mineralization in Manganiferous Quartzite in. . . 201

Fig. 9.3 (a, b) Outcrop of massive manganese ore (bluish to brownish), which shows size
variations of botryoidal form, southeast of Boringpadar. (c, d) Massive manganese ore in bluish-
black displaying the botryoidal form, northeast of Amath. (e) Highly fractured and jointed
manganiferous quartzite, southeast of Boringpadar. (f) Highly fragmented and brecciated pieces
of manganiferous quartzite embedded in the matrix of manganese ore, Boringpadar. (g) Outcrop of
ferruginous quartzite, southeast of Boringpadar. (h) Contact between manganiferous quartzite and
ferruginous quartzite, southeast of Boringpadar

manganiferous quartzite and khondalite southeast of Boringpadar. It is hard, massive

to foliated, chocolate, fine to medium-grained and consists of quartz as an essential
mineral (Fig. 9.3g). The strike length of this band is 50 m and with a width of 10 m
trending in the north-south direction. At places, sharp contact between
manganiferous quartzite and ferruginous quartzite is also noticed (Fig. 9.3h).
202 P. K. Yadav et al.

Geophysical Study in Boringpadar and Amath Area

The Geophysical data was acquired on a 20 × 100 m grid and anomaly maps were
prepared on a 1:12,500 scale in accordance with the Standard Operational Procedure
(SOP) of the Geological Survey of India (GSI) Telford et al. (1976), Ramazi and
Mostafaie (2013), Moreira et al. (2012) and Vieira et al. (2016). The base line in the
Boringpadar area was laid along N40°E and the centre of the base line was marked as
base station 0/0 (20°09′50″ N and 83°12′ 42″ E) for this investigation. In the Amath
block the baseline was laid along N30°W and 0/0 was marked at the centre of the
baseline (20°17′32″ N and 83°18′27″ E). The base line was 1000 m in the North and
400 m in the South to a base station, covering a total length of 1400 m. The Induced
Polarization (IP) survey is considered a suitable method for disseminated sulphide-
bearing zones while Self-Potential (SP) and Resistivity methods are utilized to
supplement IP anomalies for the identification of mineralized zone. The interpreta-
tion methodology is largely based on qualitative analysis of anomaly maps. The
Induced Polarization (chargeability) effect reflects the degree to which the subsur-
face is able to store electric charge, analogous to a leaky capacitor. It occurs when an
electric current passes through a rock/soil. If the current is interrupted, a difference in
potential, which decays with time, is observed. The rate of decay of this potential
(induced polarization potential) depends on the lithology of the rock, its pore
geometry and the degree of water saturation. Similar to the resistivity method, the
IP survey measures variation in characteristics of subsurface materials. Since the
measurement techniques of both methods are the same, IP and resistivity measure-
ments were carried out simultaneously. The correlation of chargeability and resis-
tivity values provides the subsurface structure of the target zones, and one of the
most important objectives of this investigation is to delineate lateral as well as
vertical extensions of mineralized zones. IP (time-domain) and resistivity methods
are used to prepare pseudo sections for obtaining the sub surface information over
the mineralized zone.
In Boringpadar, the apparent resistivity values in the survey area vary from 10 to
240 ohm-m. The resistivity survey has delineated significant low resistivity (con-
ductive zone marked as zone C in Fig. 9.4a) over the exposed area of manganese
over the traverses S4, S5, S6, S7 and S8. The NE-SE contact is represented by a
black dotted line between the low and high resistivity zone. The significant low
resistivity zone is indicative of a mineralized zone (Fig. 9.4a). The apparent
chargeability contour map (Fig. 9.4a) shows a high anomaly which is marked as
zone C along the lines S4, S5, S6, S7 & S8 with a magnitude of 20–42 mV/V over
the background of 2–20 mV/V near the exposed area. Again, the high apparent
chargeability zone almost follows the NE-SW trend. The zone with significantly
high apparent chargeability indicates a mineralized zone.
In Amath, the apparent resistivity value in the survey area varies from 20 to
140 ohm-m. The resistivity survey has delineated significant low resistivity (con-
ductive zone) over the exposed area of manganese over the traverses N3, N2 & N1.
The low resistivity zone (marked as zone A) almost follows the NW-SE trend. The
9 Manganese Mineralization in Manganiferous Quartzite in. . . 203

Fig. 9.4 (a, b) Apparent resistivity anomaly map and apparent chargeability anomaly map of
Boringpadar and Amath area. (c) Magnetic, SP, IP and resistivity profile (top) along with pseudo-
section of (middle) apparent chargeability and (bottom) apparent resistivity over traverse number
N2 in Amath area

significant low resistivity zone is indicative of a mineralized zone (Fig. 9.4b). The
apparent chargeability contour map shows a high anomaly along the lines N3, N2 &
N1 having a magnitude of 35–75 mV/V over the background of 5–35 mV/V near the
204 P. K. Yadav et al.

exposed area. Again, the high apparent chargeability zone almost follows the
NW-SE trend which indicates the presence of a mineralized zone. The pseudo-
depth sections were prepared over one traverse to examine the subsurface distribu-
tion of apparent chargeability and apparent resistivity indicating mineralization
prospects (Telford et al. 1976). The results of the pseudo section with dipole-dipole
array (a = 20 m, N = 1 to 5) along traverses N2 along with magnetic, SP,
chargeability and resistivity profiles are presented in Fig. 9.4c. The IP/chargeability
profile shows that an anomaly zone varies from E20 to E46 (up to 60 mV/V) and a
well-matched low resistivity anomaly zone (20 ohm-m). This zone appears to be
significant from the mineralization point of view. The SP profile is moderately
corroborated with magnetic, IP/chargeability anomaly. The detectable chargeability
pseudo-depth section shows prominent high chargeability between stations E2 to
E46. This high anomaly zone having a magnitude of 40–68 mV/V over the back-
ground of 8–40 mV/V may be a potential zone of mineralization (Fig. 9.4c). This
mineralized body starts almost from the surface and the contours of this anomaly
zone open downward which is suggestive of depth persistence of the causative
source below N = 5 level (i.e. >35 m). This zone is well supported by a low
resistivity profile and moderately corroborates with the SP profile (Fig. 9.4c). The
apparent resistivity pseudo section indicates that one prominent low resistivity
10–25 ohm-m zone from E30 to E40 is bounded by two higher contours of
175–225 ohm-m from station E40 to E46. Further, the resistivity anomaly zones
have the support of a high chargeability zone suggesting a good zone, favourable for
the occurrence of mineralization.

Mineralogy and Texture of Manganese Ore

and Manganiferous Quartzite

In the Boringpadar-Amath area, the mineral assemblages of manganese ore and

manganiferous quartzite and their textures suggest the occurrence of different
metamorphic activity and depositional environments. The mineral assemblages
and texture of manganese ore and manganiferous quartzite are discussed below.

Manganese Ore

Braunite, bixbyite, jacobsite and pyrolusite are primary minerals that are associated
with host rocks like quartzite and these minerals occur as inclusions and anhedral in
shape. The minerals of manganese ore are identified as pyrolusite, psilomelane,
goethite and quartz gangue. Pyrolusite occurs as subhedral and relict pyrolusite and
exhibits white, bluish grey, anisotropism with shades of grey and weak pleochroism,
moderate reflectivity in the association of psilomelane and goethite. The contact is
9 Manganese Mineralization in Manganiferous Quartzite in. . . 205

irregular, concave and contorted with secondary manganese ores and it has one set of
cleavage. Coliform and spheroidal forms of pyrolusite, cryptomelane, psilomelane,
goethite, quartz and these spherules sizes occur invariably at places. Spotted/porous
textures are noticed in pyrolusite, cryptomelane-psilomelane. Psilomelane displays
bluish grey, light grey to bluish-grey anisotropism along with fibrous cryptomelane
(bluish-grey), and it subsequently altered to goethite with grey and dark brown
internal reflection. A few secondary pyrolusite veins also occur along with the
fractures in quartz. Manganese ore band exhibits replacement, colloform/spheroidal
and vein textures (Fig. 9.5a). Braunite, manganite, pyrolusite, psilomelane-
cryptomelane mineral assemblages are also noticed. Replacement and vein textures
are common in it. Altered braunite is medium grained, grey and exhibits low
reflectivity, weak pleochroism and anisotropism with one set of cleavage present.
Subhedral braunite has greyish white to light grey with brownish-grey anisotropism
and contains silicate gangue; it occurs as a vein and exhibits spotted/porous texture.
Manganite, an alteration product of braunite, exhibits grey, weak pleochroism/
anisotropism with low reflectivity in association with braunite and pyrolusite.
Pyrolusite shows cream white to light grey, moderate reflectivity with an abundance
of pores and one set of cleavage. Psilomelane-cryptomelane pyrolusite ore minerals
(Fig. 9.5b) exhibit bluish-grey with strong anisotropism (bluish-grey to light grey)
and fibrous. A few fibrous cryptomelane occur at the wall between silica and
pyrolusite (Fig. 9.5c). In a few samples, manganese ore consists predominantly of
todorokite and pyrolusite-psilomelane as an accessory along with quartz and garnet
as gangues. Todorokite occurs as fibrous/fine bands (Fig. 9.5d), grey with dark
brownish-grey anisotropism alternating with silica. Pyrolusite is light grey and
occurs as non-crystalline or amorphous forms replacing todorokite. Sub-idioblastic
garnets are replaced by psilomelane-goethite and their void spaces are occupied by
quartz grains. Many garnets contain sub-rounded to rounded inclusion of braunite
(Fig. 9.5e) which is light grey with a yellowish tint, strong pleochroic (brownish-
grey to bluish grey) and moderate brown internal reflection. All these ores are cross-
cut by ferruginous quartz veins (Fig. 9.5d). Idiomorphic manganite (Fig. 9.5f) occurs

ä
Fig. 9.5 (continued) Photomicrographs of manganese ore and manganiferous quartzite under
reflected light (RL): (a) Colloform and spheroidal textures of pyrolusite-psilomelane-cryptomelane
in manganese ore. (b) Replacement of bixbyite to pyrolusite in manganese ore. (c) Fibrous
cryptomelane at the wall between pyrolusite and silicate gangue in Mn ore. (d) Fibrous todorokite
crosscutting by siliceous vein with garnets in Mn ore. (e) Inclusion of braunite in garnet where the
garnet is completely replaced by manganese oxide in manganese ore. (f) Idiomorphic manganite
and quartz gangue within manganese ore. (g) A thick vein of manganese ore (colloform texture)
displays crosscutting relationship with the quartz. (h) Manganese ore showing colloform texture. (i)
Brecciated braunite in manganiferous quartzite. (j) Manganese ore and quartz showing vein texture
in manganiferous quartzite. (k) Veined manganese ore in brecciated quartzite. (l) Jacobsite and
bixbyite occur within the secondary manganese ore seen in brecciated quartzite. (m) Concave and
contorted contact of goethite and pyrolusite occur with secondary ore minerals. (n) Colloform
texture well preserved along the manganese ore vein. (o) Zonal texture between manganite,
pyrolusite and cryptomelane-psilomelane has been seen in manganiferous quartzite.
(p) Sub-idiomorphic manganite with secondary manganite was noticed in manganiferous quartzite
Abbreviations: Bix Bixbyite, Jac Jacobsite, Brn Braunite, Mng Manganite, Pyr Pyrolusite, Psil
Psilomelane, Crp Cryptomelane, Tod Todorokite, Goe Goethite, Grt Garnet, Qtz Quartz
206 P. K. Yadav et al.

Fig. 9.5 (continued)

9 Manganese Mineralization in Manganiferous Quartzite in. . . 207

Fig. 9.5 (continued)

208 P. K. Yadav et al.

within secondary manganese ore and quartz which exhibits medium grey, weak
anisotropic & pleochroism with strong blood-red internal reflection. In a few sam-
ples, it is mainly composed of bixbyite, braunite, pyrolusite, cryptomelane,
psilomelane, goethite and quartz gangue. Bixbyite occurs as inclusion (Fig. 9.5b)
within pyrolusite, and it is subsequently altered to psilomelane-cryptomelane and
goethite and forms colloform texture (Fig. 9.5h).

Manganiferous Quartzite

Highly brecciated and elongated braunite (Fig. 9.5i) shows light grey with reddish-
brown internal reflection, and it occurs in the manganiferous quartzite. Subhedral to
anhedral braunite shows medium grey, brown internal reflection and irregular
contact with pyrolusite is also observed within this unit at places. Cross-cutting
relationship between the psilomelane-cryptomelane veins and the braunite-
pyrolusite veins is also seen. The quartz grains occur as angular within the manga-
nese ore matrix and a few manganese ore veins are also seen along the fracture of
quartz (Fig. 9.5j). Manganiferous quartzite (sample BA/XRD/3 – Boringpadar) is
made up of bixbyite, jacobsite, pyrolusite, psilomelane, goethite and quartz
(Fig. 9.5k). These ore minerals interstitially occur between quartz grains, and a
few angular quartz grains also occur within. Psilomelane and goethite occur together
within the veins as the major minerals, and it has some primary minerals like
jacobsite and bixbyite (Fig. 9.5l). Psilomelane shows bluish grey to cream white
with strong brown internal reflection occurring with goethite and quartz. Goethite
has a grey with bluish tint with a strong yellow-reddish brown internal reflection and
is fibrous (colloform texture). Cream white with shades of grey-bluish grey anisot-
ropism is seen in pyrolusite and jacobsite occurs as anhedral and is characterized by
light grey, isotropic with concave and contorted contacts with psilomelane and
quartz gangue (Fig. 9.5m). A thick manganese ore vein traversing in quartzite of
sample BA/26 (Boringpadar) is seen which is represented by colloform texture
(Fig. 9.5n) and defines the minerals assemblages like pyrolusite, psilomelane-
cryptomelane, goethite and quartz gangue. A zonal patchy occurrence of darker
grey manganite (bluish-brown internal reflection) and cream white pyrolusite is
replaced by fibrous cryptomelane (Fig. 9.5o). Idiomorphic manganite shows
medium grey with dark brown-red internal reflection, and it has remobilized along
the fracture plane of quartz as psilomelane (Fig. 9.5p).

Analytical Techniques

Appropriate care has been taken in selecting samples for chemical analysis and
157 nos. of samples including bedrock samples (BRS), pitting/trenching samples
(PTS) and soil samples (SS) from the manganese ore and manganiferous quartzite
9 Manganese Mineralization in Manganiferous Quartzite in. . . 209

were collected for analysis of Mn, Fe, SiO2, Al2O3, P, S and CaO. These samples
were analysed using an X-Ray Fluorescence (XRF) instrument at the Geological
Survey of India, Eastern Region, Kolkata, India. The analytical results are given in
Tables 9.1 and 9.2.

Results and Discussion

Mode of Occurrence and Nature of Mineralization

Two bands of manganese ore and four bands of manganiferous quartzite are delin-
eated southeast of Boringpadar and northeast of Amath. The manganese ore bodies
occur as fragmental and discontinuous bands, pockets and stringers which are
mainly restricted to the contact between calc-silicate granulite and garnetiferous
quartzite. The ore is closely interbanded within calc-silicate granulite with diffused
contact and very often shows pinch and swell structure along the strike. Manganese
ore bands are generally noticed parallel to the prominent foliation of khondalite,
calc-silicate granulite and garnetiferous quartzite. The schistosity and fracture planes
probably represent small-scale paths for incompetent ductile flowage of manganese
minerals to form cavity filling and replacement type of deposits. Lenticular bodies
and discontinuous pockets of manganese ore are also recorded along joints and
fractures planes. The first band of manganese ore is mapped to the southeast of
Boringpadar which occurs on the lower flank of the hill. The Mn ore is bluish-black
to chocolate (Fig. 9.3a), massive to foliated, has a metallic luster and has nodular and
botryoidal forms (Fig. 9.3b). The manganese minerals are mostly cryptomelane,
pyrolusite and psilomelane. The strike length of this ore body is 200 m having a
width of 50-70 m which is trending in the N20°W-N40°E direction. The second
band of manganese ore has been mapped towards the northeast of Amath having a
dimension of 250 m and 40 m trending in the N10°W-N30°E direction. The
manganese ore is mainly bluish black (Fig. 9.3c), massive to foliated, has a metallic
luster and has botryoidal and nodular forms (Fig. 9.3d). At places, fragments of
quartzite are embedded in a matrix of manganese ore. Four bands of manganiferous
quartzite have been mapped to the southeast of Boringpadar which is hard, white to
black, highly jointed, fractured (Fig. 9.3e) and brecciated (Fig. 9.3f). At places, the
thin band of manganese ore occurs in the fracture plane of manganiferous quartzite.
The geophysical investigation has been carried out in the Boringpadar and Amath
areas to know the subsurface continuity of manganese mineralization. The apparent
resistivity values vary from 10 to 240 ohm-m which displays low resistivity and the
apparent chargeability contour map shows a high anomaly, indicative of a mineral-
ized zone in the Boringpadar area. In Amath, the apparent resistivity value varies
from 20 to 140 ohm-m and the apparent chargeability contour map shows a high
anomaly. The pseudo-depth sections of Amath were prepared over geophysical
traverses to examine the subsurface distribution of apparent chargeability and
210 P. K. Yadav et al.

apparent resistivity which is suggestive of the depth persistence of the causative

source below 35 m (Fig. 9.4c).

Controls of Mineralization and Types of Manganese Deposits

Manganese mineralization is usually controlled by stratigraphy, lithology and struc-

ture. In the studied area, it is mostly controlled by lithology and structure. The
manganese ore bodies are strata bound occurring in between calc-silicate granulite
and garnetiferous quartzite which define a narrow characteristics stratigraphic hori-
zon within vast litho sequences of the Khondalite Group of rocks. Structurally, the
ore-bodies are well preserved in F1 synformal keels within the granitoid and
gneisses, at F2 fold closures and F3 synforms. Richer concentrations are confined
to schistosity, cleavage and fracture planes related to S1 and S2. On examination of
trench and pits of Amath and Boringpadar areas, it is noted that the manganese ore
and manganiferous quartzite bearing horizon is dominantly observed between calc-
silicate granulite and garnetiferous quartzite of the Khondalite Group of rocks
belonging to the Eastern Ghats Granulite Belt, thus indicating the stratigraphic
control of manganese ore mineralization in the area.
Bands of manganese ore and manganiferous quartzite are delineated which show
a predominantly syngenetic type of deposit, and these bodies occur in the form of
fragmented bands and lenses at the contact of calc-silicate granulite and garnetifer-
ous quartzite probably suggesting their syngenetic nature. Field evidence like sharp
contact between these two litho-units and parallel alignment of manganese mineral-
ization along these litho-units indicates that the manganese mineralization is of
syngenetic type. In places, the epigenetic nature of mineralization is also noticed
within these ore bodies which is mainly inferred from the replacement type of ore
occurring as lenses, box-work, streaks, reticulate veins and discontinuous patches
within the host rock along foliation/cleavage, fracture, joints and shear planes in the
rocks as noted at some places towards the southeast of Boringpadar (Fig. 9.3e, f).

Paragenesis of Manganese Ore and Manganiferous Quartzite

The manganese ore minerals of Boringpadar-Amath areas show distinct textures due
to the presence of different mineral associations. The texture of manganese ores is
identified as a replacement, colloform/spheroidal, veined and brecciated textures.
Based on textural evidence of manganese ore in the study area, it is concluded that
pyrolusite, psilomelane-cryptomelane has a wide distribution in all the grades of
metamorphism and all manganese ore horizon of different formation. Braunite,
and jacobsite are recorded in many samples of manganese ore. Bixbyite, jacobsite
and braunite are followed by manganite, pyrolusite, psilomelane-cryptomelane and
goethite which are spotted in a few manganese ore. These are high-grade
9 Manganese Mineralization in Manganiferous Quartzite in. . . 211

Table 9.1 Analytical value (wt. %) of bedrock samples (BRS) and soil samples (SS) from the
Boringpadar-Amath area
Sl.
No Sample No. Rock name SiO2 Al2O3 Fe(T) Mn CaO P2O5
1 BA/CH/1/1 Mn ore 10.59 2.84 20.88 27.65 2.37 2.37
2 BA/CH/1/2 Mn ore 14.22 3.16 18.57 28.18 2.45 1.77
3 BA/CH/2/1 Mn ore 27.60 5.30 36.88 2.26 0.52 1.89
4 BA/CH/2/2 Mn ore 32.94 5.20 31.09 3.22 0.42 2.52
5 BA/CH/3/1 Mn ore 20.10 4.69 42.39 0.58 0.27 2.36
6 BA/CH/3/2 Mn ore 28.78 5.04 32.53 5.81 0.27 2.1
7 BA/CH/3/3 Mn ore 40.78 2.78 31.89 1.21 0.49 1.7
8 BA/CH/3/4 Mn ore 30.41 4.72 29.51 7.50 0.75 2.10
9 BA/CH/3/5 Mn ore 15.31 5.46 39.68 5.26 1.06 2.81
10 BA/CH/3/6 Mn ore 18.28 13.39 28.17 9.17 0.62 2.19
11 BA/CH/3/7 Mn ore 18.72 12.72 28.28 9.14 0.63 2.25
12 BA/CH/3/8 Mn ore 17.77 15.97 26.88 9.28 0.46 1.47
13 BA/CH/4/1 Mn ore 31.79 2.04 16.21 20.04 3.29 2.73
14 BA/CH/4/2 Mn ore 29.99 3.12 13.08 23.78 2.67 1.95
15 BA/CH/4/3 Mn ore 54.50 1.79 10.60 14.82 1.09 0.77
16 BA/CH/4/4 Mn ore 34.95 2.95 14.56 19.33 2.79 1.86
17 BA/CH/4/5 Mn ore 49.58 1.97 11.98 16.46 1.26 0.99
18 BA/CH/4/6 Mn ore 30.44 3.29 17.08 20.33 1.95 1.71
19 BA/CH 5/1 Mn ore 24.68 4.47 39.49 1.93 0.55 –
20 BA/CH 5/2 Mn ore 20.92 2.91 45.32 1.13 0.43 –
21 BA/CH 5/3 Mn ore 23.02 4.14 41.87 1.51 0.67 –
22 BA/CH 5/4 Mn ore 37.73 6.33 30.60 0.77 0.41 –
23 BA/CH 5/5 Mn ore 29.95 6.17 34.54 1.14 0.78 –
24 BA/CH 5/6 Mn ore 31.33 4.77 36.73 1.36 0.38 –
25 BA/CH 5/7 Mn ore 30.84 7.6 32.72 0.47 1.35 –
26 BA/CH 5/8 Mn ore 34.73 5.52 32.59 1.02 0.81 –
27 BA/CH 5/9 Mn ore 33 2.35 37.30 1.53 0.54 –
28 BA/CH 6/1 Mn ore 35.88 3.34 33.23 1.36 0.50 –
29 BA/CH 6/2 Mn ore 37.22 1.22 37.62 0.78 0.30 –
30 BA/CH 6/3 Mn ore 32.34 2.74 35.31 1.53 0.72 –
31 BA/CH 6/4 Mn ore 23.95 5.83 39.47 1.64 0.53 –
32 BA/CH 6/5 Mn ore 16.55 4.90 46.56 0.53 0.18 –
33 BA/CH 6/6 Mn ore 20.76 3.32 42.57 1.22 1.02 –
34 BA/CH 6/7 Mn ore 34.28 6.32 32.52 1.41 0.34 –
35 BA/CH 6/8 Mn ore 31.83 6.05 33.56 0.80 1.00 –
36 BA/CH 6/9 Mn ore 14.51 12.25 38.48 0.19 0.8 –
37 BA/CH Mn ore 30.8 3.15 36.84 1.50 0.47 –
6/10
38 BA/CH Mn ore 8.62 1.47 56.31 1.16 0.63 –
6/11
(continued)
212 P. K. Yadav et al.

Table 9.1 (continued)

Sl.
No Sample No. Rock name SiO2 Al2O3 Fe(T) Mn CaO P2O5
39 BA/BRS/1 Manganiferous 41.95 2.19 24.49 9.60 0.09 –
quartzite
40 BA/BRS/2 Manganiferous 58.46 1.43 25.04 0.26 0.05 –
quartzite
41 BA/BRS/3 Manganiferous 61.07 2.56 20.16 0.88 0.09 –
quartzite
42 BA/BRS/4 Manganiferous 92.12 2.29 1.87 1.23 0.11 –
quartzite
43 BA/BRS/5 Manganiferous 31.21 2.81 23.04 16.57 0.20 –
quartzite
44 BA/BRS/6 Manganiferous 77.64 1.58 11.67 0.19 0.12 –
quartzite
45 BA/BRS/7 Manganiferous 37.09 1.01 39.09 0.12 0.03 –
quartzite
46 BA/BRS/8 Manganiferous 77.70 2.79 10.92 0.09 0.17 –
quartzite
47 BA/BRS/9 Manganiferous 33.98 1.06 43.93 0.05 0.01 –
quartzite
48 BA/BRS/10 Manganiferous 72.03 3.75 14.27 0.26 0.17 –
quartzite
49 BA/BRS/11 Manganiferous 72.03 10.11 4.82 2.22 0.23 –
quartzite
50 BA/BRS/12 Manganiferous 72.3 7.31 5.76 4.40 0.4 –
quartzite
51 BA/BRS/13 Mn ore 38.09 20.80 10.86 8.81 0.33 –
52 BA/BRS/14 Manganiferous 26.73 9.80 35.03 0.51 0.08 –
quartzite
53 BA/BRS/15 Mn ore 18.72 9.67 38.92 0.95 0.08 –
54 BA/BRS/16 Manganiferous 28.39 12.59 26.00 6.25 0.15 –
quartzite
55 BA/BRS/17 Mn ore 31.91 10.20 16.38 12.28 1.49 –
56 BA/BRS/18 Mn ore 34.42 7.34 26.57 0.48 4.73 –
57 BA/BRS/19 Mn ore 39.01 3.86 29.81 1.30 0.55 –
58 BA/BRS/20 Mn ore 21.4 2.25 42.84 1.85 0.59 –
59 BA/BRS/21 Mn ore 32.04 3.07 35.06 2.19 0.54 –
60 BA/BRS/22 Mn ore 8.45 3.05 30.49 20.09 2.86 –
61 BA/BRS/23 Ferruginous quartzite 74.78 4.50 8.30 0.64 0.01 –
62 BA/SS/1 In situ soil 51.93 20.21 6.25 0.23 0.82 0.20
63 BA/SS/2 In situ soil 53.35 18.92 5.98 0.20 0.57 0.16
64 BA/SS/3 In situ soil 54.46 17.71 5.59 0.24 0.75 0.20
65 BA/SS/4 In situ soil 54.04 18.08 5.17 0.22 0.98 0.26
66 BA/SS/5 In situ soil 51.13 19.43 6.27 0.27 1.18 0.25
67 BA/SS/6 In situ soil 52.97 19.83 6.17 0.23 0.80 0.38
68 BA/SS/7 In situ soil 52.77 20.03 6.04 0.24 1.15 0.34
(continued)
9 Manganese Mineralization in Manganiferous Quartzite in. . . 213

Table 9.1 (continued)

Sl.
No Sample No. Rock name SiO2 Al2O3 Fe(T) Mn CaO P2O5
69 BA/SS/8 In situ soil 51.82 19.32 5.84 0.21 0.94 0.28
70 BA/SS/9 In situ soil 54.02 20.39 5.51 0.26 0.69 0.35
71 BA/SS/10 In situ soil 51.85 20.67 9.85 0.30 0.66 0.11
72 BA/SS/11 In situ soil 55.05 17.99 9.11 0.27 0.64 0.13
73 BA/SS/12 In situ soil 55.96 18.29 8.87 0.25 0.56 0.12
74 BA/SS/13 In situ soil 57.41 16.93 8.11 0.28 0.91 0.14
75 BA/SS/14 In situ soil 55.92 16.75 8.20 0.28 0.89 0.14
76 BA/SS/15 In situ soil 57.41 17.96 7.49 0.25 0.69 0.20
77 BA/SS/16 In situ soil 53.21 20.55 7.60 0.21 2.52 0.12
78 BA/SS/17 In situ soil 58.54 18.59 7.62 0.25 0.68 0.20
79 BA/SS/18 In situ soil 56.36 18.05 7.85 0.62 0.75 0.14
80 BA/SS/19 In situ soil 56.52 17.99 7.98 0.55 0.81 0.16
81 BA/SS/20 In situ soil 56.96 18.39 7.96 0.45 0.60 0.14
82 BA/SS/21 In situ soil 55.28 19.22 8.39 0.30 0.61 0.11
83 BA/SS/22 In situ soil 56.92 18.83 7.80 0.29 0.88 0.12
84 BA/SS/23 In situ soil 54.66 21.12 9.94 0.21 0.40 0.07
85 BA/SS/24 In situ soil 57.34 18.82 7.93 0.30 0.79 0.12
86 BA/SS/25 In situ soil 57.23 18.91 7.79 0.29 0.63 0.09
87 BA/SS/26 In situ soil 58.82 19.15 7.49 0.22 0.34 0.07
88 BA/SS/27 In situ soil 57.86 20.12 7.91 0.31 0.59 0.08
89 BA/SS/28 In situ soil 56.55 19.47 7.97 0.37 1.38 0.12
90 BA/SS/29 In situ soil 56.75 18.44 7.72 0.45 1.59 0.12
91 BA/SS/30 In situ soil 55.01 19.09 8.87 0.27 0.65 0.10
92 BA/SS/31 In situ soil 56.08 19.37 8.39 0.25 0.49 0.09
93 BA/SS/32 In situ soil 55.75 19.72 8.71 0.27 0.41 0.09
94 BA/SS/33 In situ soil 57.67 20.75 7.82 0.17 0.23 0.05
95 BA/SS/34 In situ soil 56.69 19.92 7.55 0.18 0.28 0.06
96 BA/SS/35 In situ soil 56.52 18.99 7.73 0.23 0.42 0.08
97 BA/SS/36 In situ soil 57.62 20.96 6.46 0.17 0.27 0.06
98 BA/SS/37 In situ soil 60.86 19.49 5.98 0.17 0.19 0.05
99 BA/SS/38 In situ soil 57.09 19.91 7.77 0.20 0.31 0.06
100 BA/SS/39 In situ soil 55.70 19.77 8.34 0.22 0.38 0.08
101 BA/SS/40 In situ soil 56.58 18.97 7.95 0.23 0.79 0.09
102 BA/SS/41 In situ soil 56.97 19.32 7.93 0.25 0.46 0.08
103 BA/SS/42 In situ soil 54.93 20.15 8.92 0.20 0.83 0.08
104 BA/SS/43 In situ soil 52.02 20.02 8.66 0.18 0.61 0.07
105 BA/SS/44 In situ soil 52.65 20.90 9.13 0.21 0.72 0.07
106 BA/SS/45 In situ soil 51.23 21.14 9.25 0.29 0.97 0.08
107 BA/SS/46 In situ soil 51.90 20.48 9.41 0.25 0.82 0.09
214 P. K. Yadav et al.

Table 9.2 Analytical value (wt. %) of pitting/trenching samples from Boringpadar-Amath area
Sl. Sample
No No. Rock name SiO2 Al2O3 Fe(T) Mn P2O5
1 BA/T1/1 Mn-Graphite bearing 34.01 11.04 28.43 0.47 1.12
khondalite
2 BA/T1/2 Mn-Graphite bearing 41.01 10.56 20.96 0.40 2.22
khondalite
3 BA/T1/3 Mn-Graphite bearing 38.45 9.32 22.66 0.36 3.19
khondalite
4 BA/T1/4 Mn-Graphite bearing 38.99 6.35 23.07 0.43 5.43
khondalite
5 BA/T1/5 Mn Ore 27.58 10.26 6.41 24.48 1.18
6 BA/T1/6 Mn Ore 33.90 6.55 28.95 3.40 2.24
7 BA/T1/7 Mn Ore 31.00 9.09 34.07 0.48 1.39
8 BA/T1/8 Mn Ore 15.53 5.00 46.85 1.58 0.91
9 BA/T1/9 Mn Ore 36.16 6.60 21.93 11.18 1.53
10 BA/T1/10 Mn Ore 29.09 7.13 26.00 5.60 1.83
11 BA/T1/11 Mn Ore 28.18 4.69 38.19 0.29 2.29
12 BA/T2/1 Mn Ore 18.19 7.79 44.70 0.30 0.77
13 BA/T2/2 Mn Ore 30.13 7.17 36.75 0.79 0.94
14 BA/T2/3 Mn Ore 19.30 6.36 45.25 0.33 0.80
15 BA/T2/4 Mn Ore 35.83 14.11 18.73 10.21 0.86
16 BA/T2/5 Mn Ore 35.94 9.01 29.02 2.72 0.75
17 BA/T2/6 Mn Ore 29.77 11.36 33.02 0.16 0.53
18 BA/T2/7 Mn Ore 35.73 14.00 18.21 10.44 0.85
19 BA/T3/1 Mn Ore 30.77 9.04 28.98 5.01 0.95
20 BA/T3/2 Mn Ore 41.93 7.58 22.18 6.69 0.54
21 BA/T3/3 Manganiferous quartzite 52.79 25.08 2.56 0.12 0.36
22 BA/T3/4 Mn Ore 23.80 5.82 40.84 1.84 0.72
23 BA/T3/5 Mn Ore 44.71 10.10 20.99 4.21 0.62
24 BA/T4/1 Mn bearing khondalite 47.83 25.40 7.55 0.12 0.08
25 BA/T4/2 Mn bearing khondalite 36.38 22.12 20.33 1.94 0.47
26 BA/T5/1 Mn Ore 61.91 1.41 16.98 6.08 0.28
27 BA/T5/2 Mn Ore 73.02 2.47 8.93 2.19 0.77
28 BA/T5/3 Mn Ore 43.60 1.66 29.98 2.60 0.68
29 BA/T5/4 Mn Ore 38.71 1.33 35.20 1.22 0.29
30 BA/T5/5 Mn Ore 46.28 1.45 29.58 1.78 0.21
31 BA/T5/6 Mn Ore 59.95 2.67 18.55 2.67 0.31
32 BA/T5/7 Mn Ore 64.73 1.74 18.12 1.07 0.18
33 BA/T5/8 Manganiferous quartzite 73.48 3.15 10.06 2.76 0.10
34 BA/T5/9 Mn Ore 51.95 2.30 23.15 1.78 0.73
35 BA/T5/10 Mn Ore 37.87 2.12 31.57 3.78 0.92
36 BA/T5/11 Mn Ore 58.85 1.40 17.93 5.70 0.40
37 BA/T5/12 Manganiferous quartzite 52.92 1.78 23.80 4.97 0.37
38 BA/T6/1 Mn bearing khondalite 36.70 12.12 29.27 0.09 0.16
(continued)
9 Manganese Mineralization in Manganiferous Quartzite in. . . 215

Table 9.2 (continued)

Sl. Sample
No No. Rock name SiO2 Al2O3 Fe(T) Mn P2O5
39 BA/T6/2 Mn bearing khondalite 44.09 25.14 15.25 0.10 0.18
40 BA/T6/3 Mn bearing quartzite 80.67 10.21 5.47 0.09 0.08
41 BA/T6/4 Mn bearing khondalite 47.06 25.60 11.06 0.05 0.03
42 BA/T6/5 Mn bearing quartzite 87.54 6.72 2.11 0.10 0.06
43 BA/T6/6 Mn bearing khondalite 26.66 7.14 37.94 1.97 0.76
44 BA/T7/1 Mn Ore 13.70 4.68 30.09 16.08 2.75
45 BA/T7/2 Mn Ore 19.24 11.64 19.17 18.84 1.29
46 BA/T7/3 Mn Ore 29.59 4.17 16.07 22.53 0.55
47 BA/T7/4 Mn Ore 59.89 4.55 10.01 8.20 0.90
48 BA/T7/5 Mn Ore 9.75 3.28 21.41 27.77 2.42
49 BA/T7/6 Mn Ore 22.92 11.78 17.47 17.10 1.98
50 BA/PT/1 Manganiferous quartzite 60.06 20.55 5.01 0.73 0.33

metamorphic minerals. Pyrolusite, psilomelane-cryptomelane and manganite are

identified as low-grade metamorphic minerals. Exsolution of manganese oxides in
jacobsite, braunite and pyrolusite also occur in manganese ore, and they have been
introduced by higher pressure-temperature conditions. Second generation braunite
has replaced only primary braunite and secondary pyrolusite and psilomelane have
also invaded and replaced all the primary minerals abundantly. Pseudo-colloform
and spheroidal textures are formed by the alteration of jacobsite and pyrolusite to
psilomelane-goethite. Replacement texture and relict texture are common between
braunite-manganite-pyrolusite, jacobsite-braunite-pyrolusite, and pyrolusite-
psilomelane-cryptomelane-goethite. Along the margin of these pyrolusite-jacobsite
veins, psilomelane-cryptomelane also occurs. Tiny fibrous/needle-shaped
cryptomelane is spotted. Goethite, quartz and garnets are associated with manganese
ore minerals which are metamorphic minerals. In the study area, two types of
minerals are identified. These identified minerals are categorized as primary minerals
and secondary minerals. Braunite, bixbyite, jacobsite and pyrolusite are primary
minerals that are associated with host rock like quartzite, and these minerals occur as
inclusions and anhedral in shape. Primary manganese ore minerals are considered as
most probably initial sedimentary manganese ore or metasediment which are later-
ally metamorphosed. The influx of hydrothermal to colloidal solution might be
derivatives of the dissolution of the metamorphic manganese and the supergene
enrichment might be due to the mobilization both of metamorphic and colloidal
manganese. Secondary minerals are formed by the process of colloidal influx or
metasomatism psilomelane-cryptomelane, and pyrolusite and goethite are secondary
minerals which occur in higher quantities.
216 P. K. Yadav et al.

Manganese Mineralization in Manganese Ore

and Manganiferous Quartzite

The chapter has brought to light an array of manganese mineralization with prom-
ising values, hosted in manganese ore and manganiferous quartzite. The analysed
samples show high values of Mn, Fe, SiO2, Al2O3, P, S and CaO (Table 9.1). SiO2
values in bedrock samples (BRS) vary from 8.45 to 92.12 wt. % and Al2O3 values
range from 1.01 to 20.80 wt. %. The Fe(T) value ranges from 1.87 to 56.31 wt. %.
The Mn value ranges from 0.05 to 23.78 wt. %. The high values of Fe(T) were
recorded from manganese ore of the Boringpadar area and the maximum value of
Mn comes from manganese ore of the Amath area. CaO and P2O5 were also
analysed. CaO values recorded in manganese ore vary from 0.01 to 3.29 wt. %.
The P2O5 value varies from 0.77 to 2.81 wt. % in manganese ore. Analytical results
of 50 nos. of pitting/trenching samples (PTS) also show encouraging results of Mn,
Fe, SiO2, Al2O3, P, S and CaO (Table 9.2). SiO2 and Al2O3 values range from 9.75
to 87.54 wt. % and 1.3–25.60 wt. %, respectively. The Fe(T) value ranges from 2.11
to 46.85 wt. %. The Mn value ranges from 0.05 to 27.77 wt. %. P2O5 was also
analysed, and the value varies from 0.03 to 5.43 wt. %. In addition, 46 nos. of soil
samples have also been collected in the zone of manganese mineralization, and the
analytical results of manganese and other elements are presented in Table 9.1. SiO2
values vary from 51.1 to 60.86 wt. % and Al2O3 values vary from 16.75 to 21.14 wt.
%. The Fe(T) and Mn values vary from 5.51 to 9.85 wt.% and 0.17–0.62 wt.%,
respectively. Apart from these, CaO and P2O5 were also analysed, and the value
varies from 0.19 to 2.52 wt. % and 0.05–0.38 wt. %, respectively.

Source, Deposition and Responsible Climatic Environment

for the Origin of Manganese

The manganese accumulations predominantly occur in the Archean and Proterozoic

periods and a few occurrences were also noticed in the Phanerozoic Era due to the
continental crustal growth, decreasing mantle heat flux, tectonic evolution, sedimen-
tary environment, and biosphere–atmosphere–hydrosphere interaction (Acharya
et al. 1994; Roy 2000). The rapid burial of organic matter, increased weathering
on tectonically amalgamated supercontinents, reduction of reduced gases from a
gradually oxygenated mantle, and the net increase in photosynthetic O2 was also
noticed at the transition of the Archaean-Proterozoic. However, manganese rocks
and ore were also derived from volcanogenic and/or, hydrothermal and freshwater
sources which are also reported from different parts of the world (Acharya et al.
1994; Roy 2000, 2006; Mishra 2015). In the study area, two bands of manganese ore
and four bands of manganiferous quartzite are delineated towards the southeast of
Boringpadar and northeast of Amath which are mainly strata bound occurring in
between calc-silicate granulite and garnetiferous quartzite. The occurrence of a well-
defined manganese band having the same strike and dip as that of the country rocks
9 Manganese Mineralization in Manganiferous Quartzite in. . . 217

(khondalite) having signatures of deformation on both, strongly suggests a meta-

sedimentary parentage and continental erosion appears to be the most probable
source for this deposit. Manganese ore bodies appear to be confined to definite
stratigraphic horizons in the Khondalite suite of rocks in the part of the Eastern Ghats
Mobile Belt. Based on field observations, ore petrographic, and available geochem-
ical inputs indicate that the manganese ores and manganiferous quartzite of the study
area might be formed in the freshwater environment. The study is also supported by
the non-existence of rocks derived from volcanic activity in the near vicinity of the
area under investigation, and the absence of wall rock alteration and manganese
sulphide minerals. In addition, further detailed studies are required for identifying
the link between manganese mineralization and the climatic changes in the study
area and the same area which can be correlated with worldwide deposits, especially
in the Proterozoic Era.

Conclusions

Two bands of manganese ore and four bands of manganiferous quartzite are reported
southeast of Boringpadar and northeast of Amath area belonging to the Eastern
Ghats Mobile Belt, India, and have been described in terms of their field distribution,
ore-petrology and chemistry to find out their genetic evolution. The manganese ores
are represented by bluish-black to brownish-black, massive to foliated, metallic
luster, nodular and botryoidal forms and manganiferous quartzite is hard, white to
black, highly jointed, fractured and brecciated, respectively. The geophysical study
indicated that the mineralized body starts almost from the surface and the contours of
this anomaly zone open downward which is suggestive of depth persistence of the
causative source below 35 m. The values of Mn and Fe (T) ranged from 0.05 to
23.78 wt. % and 1.87–56.31 wt. %, respectively. In pitting/trenching samples, the
Mn value ranges from 0.05 to 27.77 wt. % and the Fe(T) value ranges from 2.11 to
46.85 wt. %. The highest values of Mn come from the manganese ore of the Amath
area, and maximum values of Fe(T) were recorded from manganese ore of the
Boringpadar area. Based on the analytical results of the study area, it appears to be
a resource potential for manganese and iron mineralization. The field observations,
ore petrographic and available geochemical inputs indicated that the manganese ores
and manganiferous quartzite of the study area might be formed in the freshwater
environment.

Acknowledgements The authors convey sincere thanks to the Director-General, Geological

Survey of India for permitting publication of the paper and are also thankful to the Deputy
Director-General, SU: Odisha, Bhubaneswar for supporting necessary logistics while carrying out
field work and laboratory studies. The authors would like to express their heartfelt thanks and
gratitude to the Deputy Director-General, SU: Bihar, Patna for his cooperation, constant encour-
agement, guidance and valuable suggestions during the work.
218 P. K. Yadav et al.

References

Acharya BC, Rao DS, Sahoo RK (1994) Mineralogy and genesis of Kutinga manganese deposit,
South Orissa, India. J Min Petr Econ Geol 89:317–328
Ajmal M (1990) Trace element study of manganese ores of the Barbil area, Keonjhar district,
Orissa, India. Mineral Deposita 25:160–162
Anhaeusser CR, Wilson JF (1981) Southern Africa: the granitic-gneiss greenstone shield. In:
Hunter DR (ed) Precambrian of the Southern Hemisphere. Elsevier, Amsterdam, pp 423–499
Basu NK (1969) Origin of the lateritoid manganese deposits of Keonjhar district, Orissa. Q J Geol
Min Metall Soc India 41:183–187
Bhattacharya A, Raith M, Hoernes S (1998) Geochemical evolution of the massif-type Anorthosite
complex at Bolangir in the eastern Ghats Belt of India. J Petrol 39(6):1169–1195
Chadwick B, Ramakrishnan M, Viswanatha MN (1981a) Structural and metamorphic relations
between Sargur and Dharwar supracrustal rocks and Peninsular Gneiss in Central Karnataka. J
Geol Soc India 22:557–569
Chadwick B, Ramakrishnan M, Viswanatha MN (1981b) The stratigraphy and structure of the
Chitradurga region: an illustration of cover-basement interaction in the late Archaean evolution
of the Karnataka craton, southern India. Precambrian Res 16(1–2):31–54
Chetty TRK, Murthy DSN (1994) Collision tectonics in the late Precambrian Eastern Ghats
Mobile Belt: mesoscopic in satellite scale structural observations. Terra Nova 6. https://doi.
org/10.1111/j.1365-3121.1994.tb00635.x
Condie KC (1981) Archean greenstone belts. Elsevier, Amsterdam, 434p
Dasgupta HC, Sambasiva Rao VV, Krishna C (1999) Geology, geochemistry and genesis of the
freshwater, Precambrian manganese deposits of the Iron Ore Group from Noamundi basin,
Eastern India. Indian J Geol 71(4):247–264
Dash C, Behera SN (2009) Search for potential manganese ore bands/bodies within the
manganiferous horizon of the eastern part of the Eastern Ghats granulite belt in Orissa covering
parts of Angul and Boudh districts, (P-I). Unpublished report of Geological Survey of India, FS,
pp 2005–2006
Dash C, Behera SN, Patel SN (2005) Delineation of potential manganese ore bands/bodies within
the Manganiferous horizon of the central sector of the Eastern Ghats Granulite Belt in Orissa
covering parts of Bolangir, Kalahandi and Rayagada districts (P-II). Unpublished report of
Geological Survey of India, FS: 2003–05
DeWit M, Hart R, Stern C, Barton CM (1980) Metallogenesis related to seawater interaction with
3.5 b.y. oceanic crust. EOS 61:386
Dimroth E, Imrch L, Rocheleau M, Goulet N (1982) Evolution of the south-central of the Archean
Abitibi Belt, Quebec. Part I: stratigraphy and paleogeographic model. Can J Earth Sci 19:1729–
1758
Engineer BB (1956) Geology and economic aspects of the manganese ore deposits of Jamda Koira
valley; Keonjhar, Bonai, Orissa, India. In: 20th international geological congress & symposium
on Manganese (Mexico) 4, pp 25–39
Former LL (1909) The manganese ore deposits of India. Mem Geol Surv India 37:610p
Gandhi A (2010) Manganese Report. Ideas 1st Information Services Pvt. Ltd, Mumbai, pp 5–7
Ghosh R, Chakraborty D, Halder M, Baidya TK (2015) Manganese mineralization in Archean
greenstone belt, Joda-Noamundi sector, Noamundi basin, East Indian Shield. Ore Geol Rev 70:
96–109
Goodwin AM (1973) Archean iron-formation and tectonic basins of the Canadian Shield. Econ
Geol 68:915–933
Gross GAL (1986) The metallogenetic significance of iron-formation and related stratafer rocks. J
Geol Soc India 28:92–108
Hallberg JA, Glikson AY (1981) Archean granite-greenstone terrains of W. Australia. In: Hunter
DR (ed) Precambrian of the Southern Hemisphere. Elsevier, Amsterdam, pp 33–103
9 Manganese Mineralization in Manganiferous Quartzite in. . . 219

Jayaram BN (1956) Report on the investigation of reported occurrences of manganese ore in the
Boudh subdivision of Phulbani district, Orissa. Unpublished report of Geological Survey of
India, FS: 1954–55
Jena SK, Devdas V (1994) Interim progress report on the exploration for manganese in Kutinga-
Devjhola block and adjoining areas of Koraput and Rayagada districts, Orissa. Unpublished
report of Geological Survey of India, FS: 1992–93
Krishna Rao JSR (1963) Microscopic Examination of Manganese Ores of Srikakulam and Visa-
khapatnam Districts, A.P., India. Econ Geol 58:434–440. https://doi.org/10.2113/gsecongeo.58.
3.434
Kuleshov V (2017) The major epochs and phases of manganese accumulation in the Earth’s history.
Isotope Geochem:353–383. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-803165-0.00004-5
Machado N, Carnerio M (1992) U–Pb evidence of Late Archean tectono-thermal activity in the
southern Sao Francisco Shield, Brazil. Can J Earth Sci 29(11):2341–2346
Martin H, Peucat JJ, Sabate P, Cunha JC (1997) Crustal evolution in the early Archean of South
America: example of the Sete Voltas massif, Bahia state, Brazil. Precambrian Res 82(1–2):
35–62
Mishra RN (1994) Geological environment of manganese ores of North Orissa — exercise in
modelling of deposit. Indian Mining and Engineering Journal, (October and November), 23–26
Mishra B (2015) Precambrian metallic mineralization in India. Geol Soc Lond Mem 43:327–337.
https://doi.org/10.1144/M43.22
Mishra P, Mishra SK, Singh PP, Mohapatra BK (2016) Reworked manganese ore bodies in Bonai-
Keonjhar belt, Singhbhum Craton, India: petrology and genetic study. Ore Geol Rev 78:361–
370
Mohapatra MN, Bagchi TC (1961) Mineralogy and paragenesis of the lateritic manganese ores
around Joda, Keonjhar district, Orissa. Q J Geol Min Metall Soc India 23(1):5–14
Mohapatra BK, Paul AK, Sahoo RK (1989) Characterisation of manganese ores of a part of Western
Koira valley, Keonjhar dist. Orissa. J Geol Soc India 34(6):632–646
Mohapatra BK, Mishra PP, Singh PP, Rajeev (2009) Manganese ore deposits in Koira- Noamundi
province of Iron Ore Group, North Orissa, India: in the light of geochemical signature. Chem
Erde 69:377–394
Mohapatra BK, Singh SK, Rao DS, Martha RK, Mishra S (2010) Characterisation of bog manga-
nese ore associated with BIF in Iron Ore Group, North Orissa for its optimum utilization.
International Seminar on Mineral Processing MPT-2010, Jamshedpur, pp 31–38
Mookherjee D (1966) Mode of occurrence of manganese ores in different rock types around Roida
in Keonjhar and proposed classification of the associated ores. J Mines Metals Fuels 14:388–
391
Moreira CA, Borges MR, Vieira GL, Malagutti FW, Fernandes MMA (2012) Geological and
geophysical data integration for delimitation of mineralized areas in a supergene manganese
deposits. Geofis Int 53(2):199–210
Murty VN, Ghosh BK (1971) Manganese ore deposit of the Bonai-Keonjhar belt, Orissa. Indian
Minerals 25(3):201–210
Myers JS, Kröner A (1994) Archean tectonics: continental deformation. In: Hancock PL (ed) .
Pergamon Press, Oxford, pp 355–369
Narayanswami S (1975) Proposal for the charnockite-khondalite system in the Archean shield of
Peninsular India. Geol Surv India Misc Publ 23(1):1–16
Pascoe EH (1950) A manual of the geology of India and Burma, vol 1. Government of India
Publication. Geological Survey of India, 485p
Prasad Rao GHSV, Murty YGK (1956) Manganese ore deposits of Orissa & Bihar India. In: 20th
International geological congress & symposium on Manganese (Mexico) 4, pp 115–131
Ramakrishna M, Nanda JK, Augustine PF (1998) Geological evolution of the Proterozoic Eastern
Ghats mobile belt. In: Proceedings of workshop on Eastern Ghats Mobile BeltGeological
Survey of India Special Publication, 44, pp 84–92
220 P. K. Yadav et al.

Ramakrishnan M, Viswanatha MN, Swami Nath J (1976) Basement-cover relationships of Penin-

sular gneiss with high-grade schists and greenstone belts of southern Karnataka. J Geol Soc
India 17:97–111
Ramazi H, Mostafaie K (2013) Application of integrated geoelectrical methods in Marand (Iran)
manganese deposit exploration. Arab J Geosci 6(8):2961–2970
Rao GV (1969) The geology and manganese ore deposits of parts of Vizakhapatnam
(Visakhampatnam) Manganese Belt, Srikakulam District, A.P., India. Bull Geol Surv India 35
(A):129
Ray BC (1954) The manganese ore deposit of Orissa. Indian Miner 8(4)
Ray S (1955) Ore microscopic studies of the manganese minerals of Jamda valley, Keonjhar. Proc
Indian Acad Sci 42:90–97
Roy S (1981) Manganese deposits. Academic, London
Roy S (2000) Late Archean initiation of manganese metallogenesis: its significance and environ-
mental controls. Ore Geol Rev 17:179–198
Roy S (2006) Sedimentary manganese metallogenesis in response to the evolution of the Earth
system. Earth Sci Rev 77:273–305
Saha AK (1994) Crustal evolution of Singhbhum-North Orissa, eastern India. Mem Geol Soc India
27:341p
Schidlowski M (1988) A 3800-million-year isotopic record of life from carbon in sedimentary
rocks. Nature 333:313–318
Schidlowski M (1993) The beginning of life on Earth: evidence from the geological record. In:
Greenburg JM et al (eds) The chemistry of life’s origins. Kulwar, Dordrecht, pp 389–414
Sen B (1951) Manganese ores of Keonjhar. Trade Min Geol Metall Soc India 25(2):51–60
Siddiquie FN, Raza M (2008) Geochemical environment & metallogenesis of manganese ores of
Srikakulam-Visakhapatnam Manganese Belt (A.P.). In: Proceedings of the 24th convention and
national seminar on sedimentary basin of India and Their Economic Resources, Aligarh, pp
86–87
Siddiquie FN, Shaif M (2015) Geochemistry of major oxides in host rocks in Vizianagarm
manganese Ores Belt (A.P.), India. Int J Geosci 6:350–372. https://doi.org/10.4236/ijg.2015.
64028
Siddiquie FN, Alam J, Shaif M (2015) Occurrence of manganese ore deposits and their mineralogy
in Vizianagaram-Visakhapatnam manganese Ores Belt (Andhra Pradesh) India. Int J Geosci 6:
549–566. https://doi.org/10.4236/ijg.2015.66043
Singh V, Biswas A (2017) Physicochemical processing of low-grade ferruginous manganese ores.
Int J Miner Process 158:35–44
Spencer E (1948) Manganese ore deposits of Jamda-Koira valley. Trade Min Geol Metall Soc India
44(2):61–77
Straczek JA, Krishanswamy S (1956) Manganese Ore Deposits of the Vizagapatnam (Visakhapat-
nam) District, A.P., India. In: Proceedings of the 20th International Geological Congress,
Mexico, D. F., Symposium on Manganese, 4, pp 141–157
Teixeira W, Carneiro MA, Noce CM, Machado N, Sato K, Taylor PN (1996) Pb, Sr and Nd isotope
constrains on the Archean evolution of gneissic–granitoid complexes in the southern Sao
Francisco craton, Brazil. Precambrian Res 78(1–3):151–164
Telford W, Geldart L, Sheriff R, Keys D (1976) Applied geophysics. Cambridge University Press,
New York
Vieira LB, Moreira CA, Côrtes ARP, Luvizotto GL (2016) Geophysical modelling of the manga-
nese deposit for induced polarization method in Itapira (Brazil). Geofis Int 55(2):107–117
Windly BF (1982) The evolving continents, 2nd edn. Wiley, pp 28–65
Yadav PK, Subhadarshini S, Das M, Singh A, Shyam R, Gokul GS (2017) Final report on the
reconnoitory survey for manganese ore in Boringpadar-Amath block in the Eastern Ghats
Granulite belt, Kalahandi district, Odisha (G4). Unpublished report of Geological Survey of
India, FS: 2016–17
Chapter 10
Archaeological Evidence of Climate
Change: Potential Source to Understand
the Past Climate Trend

P. D. Sabale

Abstract Each river develops a typical type of topography according to her reaches
because each flowing channel shapes the Earth’s surface through the process of
erosion, transportation and deposition of sediments from source areas and deposition
of sediment in low-lying areas and streams. The old deposited sediments during the
Quaternary era are immensely important from an archaeological point of view,
because human development has taken place contemporary to this period. Therefore,
most of the contemporary cultural deposit is deposited in these sediments, and such
sediment is rich in flora and fauna, which help to reconstruct the palaeoenvironment
of those particular areas concerning human development. In the present context, the
details of the palaeoenvironment along with the man–land observed in the Upper
Reaches of the Sina are studied by taking the Quaternary trenches or excavations at
suitable cultural settlement localities, in parts of the south Ahmednagar district of
Maharashtra.

Keywords Paleontological · Palaeoclimate · Palaeoenvironment · Fertile

floodplains · Flora-fauna

Introduction

The sediment, plant, paleontological and animal records of natural climate archives
and archaeological records offer unique opportunities to observe, measure and
understand the cultural activities and how humans have responded to a wide range
of climatic conditions in the past. This forms a basis for the prediction of how climate
change could transform our lives in the future and offers a range of possible solutions
(Hambrecht et al. 2020). The record of cultural archives from archaeological sites
offers opportunities to understand the complex interaction between man and the
environment under different climatic zones. To study the past environments and to
identify the factors that promoted humans in the past and apply the knowledge

P. D. Sabale (*)
Department of Archaeology, Deccan College Deemed University, Pune, India

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 221
N. Khare (ed.), Science, Policies and Conflicts of Climate Change, Springer Climate,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-16254-1_10
222 P. D. Sabale

gained to the present, contributing a much-needed, long-term perspective to climate

research. The important strengths of such a record are the cultural diversity it
encompasses. Humans have successfully faced similar challenges in the past. Such
archaeological record is a highly valuable source of information that has been used
on a wide-scale in climate research. Therefore, climate science has had an impact on
past research. Hence, arising from the importance of the same, the multidisciplinary,
intersectorial research teams are no longer exceptions and many teams operating
today have mature working partnerships.

Natural Resources and Cultural Sites

The river basins especially in severe, chronic, drought prone semi-arid regions of
India acted as lifelines for the development of ancient civilizations, but they are also
important to open the continental archive in the reconstruction of human history
within the Quaternary palaeoclimate and palaeoenvironment (Gupta 2007). Major
rivers which flow through a variety of geological and geomorphological features are
important; therefore, we need to study such basins to understand the sediment
transport characteristics, stratigraphic development, flood episodes, hazards and
their effects on human culture. This chapter presents an overview of the research
on the settlements in semiarid zones in India, especially in Maharashtra and iden-
tifies major evidence of climatic changes and unanswered research questions.
In many places, these rivers have sustained human civilizations for more than
5000 years and the deposition of rivers’ alluvium provided fertile floodplains for
agriculture. Examples of such ancient river valley civilizations are seen on the Indus,
Nile and Ganga, where quite advanced flood protection measures were taken (Gupta
2007).

Need of Work

The records for the Quaternary era, especially Pleistocene, are rather scarce from
most parts of the Indian peninsular. This may be due to lack of exposed sections,
depositional and erosional fluvial activities and resulting changes in the morphology
of the river, intensive agricultural practices resulting in changing the land surface,
large-scale rural and urban development, etc. The Quaternary landform is hidden/
buried under other recent deposits. Therefore, there is an urgent need to study such
Quaternary stratigraphy down to the bottom level (i.e. up to the hard rock). During
the study of the natural and cultural landscape, the chronological framework of the
stratigraphic records also needs to be strengthened and a stronger database is needed
for developing high-resolution stratigraphy for the Quaternary period to help paleo-
climatic reconstruction and test climate modelling for future projections (Burke et al.
2021). To understand the details of the palaeoenvironment along with man–land
10 Archaeological Evidence of Climate Change: Potential Source to. . . 223

relationships of the particular area, we need to study the litho, bio and
chronostratigraphy in context with the cultural stratigraphy of the region.

Archaeology as an Interdisciplinary Science

Archaeology of climate change emerges seamlessly from the long-standing collab-

oration between archaeology and the natural sciences that has provided climatolog-
ical and environmental data by studying the Quaternary archaeological site from
litho, bio and chronostratigraphical points of view and comparing this data critically
for cultural stratigraphy. Because the archaeological record captures the breadth of
past human adaptations, the archaeology of climate change is well situated to
highlight alternative strategies that have worked in the past and address the social
and economic ramifications of global warming for the diverse global community.
Since the nineteenth century, such techniques have been widely used to study the
palaeoenvironment against which past human activities were undertaken.
Therefore, the mutual benefits to be gained from working together fostered new
collaborations between, earth scientists, palaeoclimatologites and archaeologists to
revive interest in human-environment interactions. Sometimes, due to the lack of
deposits, it is difficult to correlate cultural and natural stratigraphy. Therefore, most
of the time, detailed field investigations will be helpful to correlate climate and
cultural stratigraphy.

Effects of Climate Change on Human Society

Environmental changes and effects of warming result in a complex series of biolog-

ical feedbacks which affect the economic and social challenges for human
populations. Agriculture – an important occupation which caters to the need for
food – sometimes leads to fertile lands dramatically transformed into dry and
deserted lands where, it is difficult to cultivate any crop. There are ample examples
of such landscapes which are already observed in some regions today and are likely
to accelerate in the near future (Berteaux et al. 2018). Such slow or rapid trans-
formations will affect food security for the next generations and have far-reaching
consequences for the physical and psychological well-being of human populations in
these regions (Ford et al. 2018). In this manner, the poor farmers, who rely on their
relations to the land and access to its natural resources, lose their farm production
and its results are felt in the overall economy.
Such local effects of production can affect the global economy and played an
important economic role in many developmental activities (Brody 1981). Therefore,
in this way, in economic development, agricultural production played a very impor-
tant role. In this process of agriculture-based human development, climate change
poses a fundamental threat to this group (Anonymous 2018). Evidence of climate
224 P. D. Sabale

change in Quaternary strata are recorded in the form of different evidence, like
deposition of sediments layers, nature of the size of sediments, thickness of sedi-
mentary strata, nature of cementation and material and mode of preservation and
deposition of fossils in the bed.

Background

Evolutionary theory and the standard geological time scale have provided a rich,
conceptual framework of events with activities that help to study the dynamics of
past flora–fauna, environment and human interactions. The Quaternary period
witnessed various stages of human evolution. The natural and cultural remains are
very well preserved in Quaternary deposits. Thus, to understand the exploitation of
the natural resources in each part of the river such as rocky terrain in the source
region, while undulating topography partly covered with soil and rocky patches in
the middle reaches and fully fertile, thick soil zone in the lower reaches, a detailed
geoarchaeological exploration was carried out in field season 2010–11 and reported
a number of Quaternary sites in each sector.
In the present context, the aim was to understand the details of geological
formations and geomorphic features development of certain landscape resources.
In what way do these landscapes attract humans and how do they exploit the natural
resources. To understand the same, three localities in each reaches of Sina basin were
systematically studied with the help of proper Quaternary trenching/excavation at
each locality for better study of cultural and natural evidence found in the stratas.
The three localities are Math-Pimpri, Pimpri and Hatvalan in the Upper; Panch-
Pimpla, Khairav and Virvade in the Middle; while Rajur, Hattarsang and Kudal in
the lower reaches (Fig.10.1). In the present context, paleoclimatic inferences
observed in the Upper Reaches of the basin are discussed.

Methodology Adopted

The area under study was quite vast and forms the unexplored complete basin of the
Sina, a left-bank tributary of Bhima. Therefore, it was decided to carry out a detailed
geoarchaeological exploration and excavations to reconstruct the
palaeoenvironmental conditions, geomorphology, geology and the landscape of
the whole river basin.
The Quaternary is characterized by repeated climatic changes of considerable
amplitude; analysis of these fluctuations reveals the ubiquity of change and the
fundamental dynamism of earth systems. Change is normal and, even though
southern Africa was not subject to Quaternary glaciations per se, the influence of
variations in, say, amount and seasonality of rainfall, has been very marked indeed.
The Quaternary also represents the time period during which people have become a
10 Archaeological Evidence of Climate Change: Potential Source to. . . 225

Fig. 10.1 Location map of the study area. (Modified after, Kadam 2018)

dominant environmental agent in the subcontinent; southern Africa has played a

crucial role in the evolution of hominids and their development has been influenced
strongly by accompanying environmental change.
The most important kind of specific environmental interpretation one can try to
make is to figure out the nature of the depositing fluid flow. Most of the sediments
but not all are deposited by flowing fluids. This presents some possibilities for
making paleoflood interpretations by examining old clastic sedimentary sequences.
When such interpretations can be made, they serve as guides or constraints in
framing a broader picture of the depositional environment. Therefore, the possibil-
ities for making such interpretations are numerous and varied, but they are still
limited. Further work is going to reveal a lot of useful interpretive approaches based
on features of beds we still don’t know how to interpret.
Therefore, at most of the interesting localities, to study the Quaternary (Pleisto-
cene and Holocene/flood) and habitation deposit, separate trenches in each deposit
were taken. Wherever possible, the available different lithological sections of the
river bank, dug well, road, etc., are checked and these yielded highly useful
interpretations. Especially in the river cutting section, the stratigraphy of the partic-
ular area with the thickness of each bed sequence, thickness, its nature, type and
texture of the material is studied. In each layer, fossils of plants and animals are
recorded properly. Different types of samples of sediments, fossils and cultural
materials were collected for the lab study, as per their norms.
226 P. D. Sabale

Quaternary Sites

To understand details about the man–land relationship of the driest Sina basin, two
sites from the upper, middle and lower reaches were excavated. These excavations
were carried out from 2012 to 2020 season with some specific aims and objectives:
(i) to reconstruct the cultural development and settlement patterns; (ii) to study the
Quaternary environment of the Sina river basin; (iii) to understand the nature of
deposition of different shape and size of sedimentary material with plant and animal
assemblages in more or fewer layers with variable thickness in stratigraphical
succession from the base level, i.e. from the hard rock; (iv) to study the Quaternary
environment of the Sina River basin; and (v) to reconstruct the palaeoenvironmental
conditions that prevailed before, during and after the formation of the site.
The details of these localities, where Quaternary excavations and studies were
undertaken in the three reaches of the Sina River (of Bhima) are given below.

Math-Pimpri

This site is located at (Latitude 18°53.334′ N and Longitude74° 52.712′ E),

24 kilometres in the South Ahmednagar district, along the Solapur–Ahmednagar
National Highway. This cultural settlement is present on the left bank of an obtuse
meander of the Sina River, in between the present and palaeochannel of the Sina
River (Figs. 10.1 and 10.2).
To study the cultural development and settlement patterns as well
palaeoenvironment in the upper part of the basin, the site was excavated in two
seasons, i.e. 2013–14 and 2014–15 (Sabale 2012). With the help of three trenches,
three different types of material were excavated up to a depth of 17.5 m.
The work carried out at this site has produced a fourfold cultural sequence,
namely
Locality-I: Holocene and Pleistocene deposits that rest on hard rock, i.e. Deccan
Trap basalt. This trench was taken along the left bank of the Sina River towards the
habitation site. This trench was made down to hard rock basalt (bottom most) rock.
The section consists of various grades of sediments rich in animal remains and
Mesolithic tools (Plates 10.1 and 10.2).
Locality-II: This trench is present just upstream of the previous locality-I in
between habitation and the Quaternary trench. A huge thick, sediment strata is
observed. It consists of concretized, humus-rich, agricultural-virgin soil (black
cotton) layer of flood deposit (in the middle) (Plate 10.3).
Locality-III: Cultural deposits of Early Historic (Satvahana) and Early Medieval
period (on the top of the mound), grinding stones, sling ball, blade and chip of agate
and quartz, etc., were collected. A huge red slip ware from Satvahana and grey
coarse ware of the medieval period were collected from the excavation trench and
10 Archaeological Evidence of Climate Change: Potential Source to. . . 227

Fig. 10.2 Schematic map of the paleochannel of the Sina River at Math-Pimpri site

Medieval pit with

charcoal and pottery

Black Soil Patch

Satvahana
R Pit
Satvahana
Bed
N
O
S
O

Medieval M
L
Foundation

Burial with black and

red potteries

Plate 10.1 Shows trench in Pleistocene deposit at Locality-I, Math-Pimpri

228 P. D. Sabale

Plate 10.2 Shows Mesolithic tools and fossils recovered from a Pleistocene deposit from Math-
Pimpri

Plate 10.3 Shows trench in Holocene deposit at Locality-II, Math-Pimpri

10 Archaeological Evidence of Climate Change: Potential Source to. . . 229

Plate 10.4 Trench in habitation deposit at Locality-III

surface exposures (Plates 10.4 and 10.5). In addition to this, a red ware bowl and one
black ware plate of the medieval period were collected from secondary burial
(Fig. 10.3).

Pimpri

This site is located on the right bank of the Sina River, in the vicinity of the present
Math-Pimpri village in South Ahmednagar. A very good section of Quaternary is
exposed in the form of a dug well, which shows all the stratigraphy of the Upper
reaches of Sina (Fig. 10.1, Plate 10.6). This is a very long, detailed, complete and
rare section that starts with agricultural soil at the top and extends to the hard rock –
compact basalt of the Deccan Trap formation. This Quaternary deposit had prehis-
toric tools. A palaeolithic stone tool of the flake category was recovered from the dug
well section (Kshirsagar et al. 2014). The different types of ceramic and historic
period pottery wares were collected around the dug well and the Pimpri site was also
recovered during the progress of works. It includes early historic (Satvahana) to
medieval pottery.
230 P. D. Sabale

Plate 10.5 Shows trench in habitation deposit at Locality-III, Math-Pimpri. (a) and (b) pottery
recovered from the deposit and, (c) mesolithic tools

Hatvalan

It is present 4 km downstream of Math-Pimpri, in the South Ahmednagar district.

The site section Quaternary (Middle-Lower Pleistocene) deposit is located on the
right bank of the channel, where the diversion of the river channel takes place and a
small island is developed. A huge section of pebble-cobble-rubble-coarse sand and
silt, cemented with calcrete cement layers overlain by clay and fine silt sediment on
the top surface, was observed along the channel. Out of these, the middle layers are
rich in Mesolithic tools, especially agate, Jasper, milky, rosy, and banded haematite
quartzite. In addition, the section exposed at the foundation of the present settlement
shows early historic pottery (Fig.10.1, Plate 10.7).

Results and Discussion

In the dry land regions, drought and flood periods are most frequently reported
(Endfield et al. 2004). Therefore, to quantify the long series of palaeoenvironmental
records, a systematic study of each Quaternary site was taken up in each reach of the
river with landform characters that provide unparalleled information.
10 Archaeological Evidence of Climate Change: Potential Source to. . . 231

Fig. 10.3 Three dimensional models of cultural deposit at Locality-III

In the present context, the palaeoenvironmental investigations to understand

the geological formations, geomorphic features and development of certain land-
scape resources, in short ‘Evolution of landscape and Man–land relationship’ in the
driest river – Sina, in the Bhima basin, since 2009 (Sabale and Kshirsagar 2014). To
understand in what way these landscapes attracted the humans and how they
exploited the natural resources, three localities in each reach of the Sina basin
were systematically studied with the help of proper Quaternary trenching/excavation
at each locality to better study the cultural and natural evidence found in the stratas.
These localities are Math-Pimpri, Pimpri and Hatvalan in Upper, Panch Pimpla,
Khairav and Virvade in Middle, while Rajur, Hattarsang and Kudal are in the Lower
reach.
From the upper reaches, Math-Pimpri is a unique site which is situated in between
the two channels of the Sina River, due to highly suitable landscape conditions.
Catchment analysis of Math-Pimpri has been carried out up to a 10 km radius from
the site, which also covers other sites in the vicinity like Pimpri and Hatvalan.
Qualitative and quantitative geomorphic analyses were undertaken to understand
the landscape and topographical characters. The details of natural features in and
around the study area were also recorded. Morphometric analyses of the catchment
areas were also carried out to understand the landscape details about their suitability
for the setup of the cultural settlement. An extensive, two-season excavation was
carried out (Sabale et al. 2015). Field and lab studies of various cultural, sediment,
fossil materials, etc., were carried out to understand the source of sediments and the
232 P. D. Sabale

Plate 10.6 View of Quaternary section exposed in the dug well at Pimpri

different depositional environments (Jyotibala et al. 2019). Pollen and archaeo-

botanical samples were collected by the flotation method and were brought to the
lab for various analyses. The faunal assemblages Bos-Indicus collected from the
middle-lower Pleistocene layer of locality-I were handed over for fluorine dating
analysis. The assemblage of the cattle burial was handed over to the Anthropological
lab for further analysis.

Conclusions

The earth archives and cultural records offer opportunities to study the deposits
showing complex interactions between the environment and humans under different
climate regimes and at different spatial and temporal scales. Environmental archae-
ology offers opportunities to identify the variations in palaeoclimate that promoted
human resilience in the past and apply the knowledge thus gained to the present,
contributing a much-needed, long-term perspective to climate research (Haywood
et al. 2019).
10 Archaeological Evidence of Climate Change: Potential Source to. . . 233

Plate 10.7 Shows the Quaternary section exposed at Hatvalan

Such effects in climatic variations result in disrupting social, economic or polit-

ical systems and culturally appropriate strategies (Hussain and Riede 2020). Such
changes one can systematically study by using the natural climate archives which
include sediment records, pollens, ice core and paleontological and archaeological
records that offer unique opportunities for observing, measuring and understanding
how humans have responded to a wide range of climate events in the past. Such data
is found to be very useful in the prediction of climate change and understanding how
it will transform our lives in the future and offering a range of possible solutions with
reference to the cultural periods (Hambrecht et al. 2020). Here, the observed cultural
evidence serves as a very valuable source of information that has been largely
overlooked in climate research (Ford et al. 2018; Berteaux et al. 2018; Brody
1981; Hambrecht et al. 2020; Anonymous 2018; Jackson et al. 2018; Hudson
et al. 2012; Sandweiss and Kelley 2012; Cooper and Peros 2010). Therefore, the
reconstruction of the palaeoenvironment with the help of litho-chrono and
biostratigraphical parameters is a multidisciplinary aspect of the past that provides
a solid foundation for assessing the implications of climate change across cultures
and helps design sustainable development strategies.
Continental and oceanic sediments from tropical Africa, Australia and South
America have recorded analogous changes in climate and stream behaviour during
the late Quaternary. Recently, data from north-central India have provided evidence
234 P. D. Sabale

for late Quaternary changes in river regime, in response to global changes in climate
in the intertropical zone (Kale and Rajaguru 1987).
In this study, an effort has been taken to collect the archaeological and natural
evidence based on Quaternary excavation to understand climate change and adop-
tion of human culture under different changes in the Sina River, part of the Bhima
basin in Western Maharashtra. It is clearly observed that according to the youth,
mature and old stages in the upper, middle and lower reaches of the Sina, the rate of
weathering, resulting in the dissection of surface, topography, landform and drainage
characters are changed accordingly. The hilly and rocky topography in the upper
source region is altered into an undulating plain in middle reaches and in the lower
reaches it has turned into the plain type. Owing to the rocky surface in the upper
reaches, it is very difficult to use the land for agriculture. While in the middle
reaches, rocky masses are surrounded by depressed areas, which are filled with
soil, which is widely used for agricultural activities. A very thick and fertile alluvial
soil/sediment is deposited in the lower plain surface, so it is extensively used for
agriculture activities. The archaeological and geological evidence can reveal how
societies have responded to climate variability in the past. It clearly shows that the
societal responses could not have been predicted in advance and that the successful
adaptations of people to the new climatic conditions depended on their good or bad
choices.
In the present context, the archaeological excavation based on observations and
recovered documents provides valuable information about their past conditions,
economy, culture, as well as climatic conditions. In most regions, due to anthropo-
genic activity, the evidence thins out and often becomes discontinuous (National
Research Council 2006). To understand the differences in landscape and distribu-
tions of natural resources accordingly, and how humans captured the river bank area
in its Upper reaches, three Quaternary excavated sections at Math-Pimpri, Pimpri
and Hatvalan areas were studied systematically. It is observed that in present drought
prone regions of Deccan land, in which the Sina flows, such climate was more or less
the same from its origin. However, in the meantime, the dry period was altered into
wet, resulting in terminal Pleistocene, a huge flash flood developed which resulted in
the deposition of thick layers/terraces with coarse size sediments, especially rubble-
cobble-pebble sediments. At the same time, animal and plants also wash out and are
deposited in these deposits. Therefore, numerous floral and faunal remains are also
found in the Quaternary deposit.
The geomorphological studies have indicated that gradational and erosional
phenomena of the rivers have been controlled to some extent by large-scale tectonic
activity (Rajaguru and Pappu 1970). The geomorphic features such as cascades,
entrenched meander and palaeochannel observed at Math-Pimpri, Hatvalan areas
support the tectonic stability.
Rajaguru (1973) and Pappu (1970, 1973) gave some clues about the deposition of
sediments in a stream flowing in Peninsular India. They suggested that broad river
basins have higher discharge and more sedimentary load at the time of deposition of
older alluvium, suggesting a somewhat humid climatic condition results in slightly
more precipitation and flood frequency than the present. The resulting deposition of
10 Archaeological Evidence of Climate Change: Potential Source to. . . 235

sediments takes place along the channel. The same scenario is also observed in Sina
at several places.
The sedimentological record observed in the upper reaches of Sina, at the Math-
Pimpri site, represents a vertical succession of several facies that belong to the
channel and floodplain deposits in the lower–middle and upper parts of a fluvial
depositional system. The lithostratigraphic section shows the evidence for both
fluvial and dry environments.
The primary observation of the sections and various tests performed in the
laboratory indicate that the area has undergone a fluctuation of dry and wet periods
of climate, i.e. fluctuation in the environment. To overcome especially the drought
situation in this area, people exploited the available natural resources which are
present along the bank of the river. Since the river is dry compared to the other rivers
in the Bhima basin, good agricultural practices are observed only along the bank,
i.e. on the fertile track, humus-rich soil and of course, hence the big-sized, rich
settlements of different cultural periods are settled on both banks of this river. Still,
further study is required to reconstruct the palaeoenvironment and man–land relation
of the basin.
There are 37 sedimentological sequences recorded at Locality-I at Math-Pimpri
which are dominated by over bank deposits, indicating the successive flooding
episodes. The upper part of each layer shows a slightly erosive surface, while the
middle and lower portions of sequences are characterized by depositional episodes.
The relatively fine-grained sediments and amalgamation of channel fill suggest a
river system surrounded by a floodplain. However, at places, the deposition
of calcrete layers in between the flood layers indicate a drought situation due to
very little rainfall in the upper catchment areas. Such calcium carbonates in calcrete
layers cement, spread and capture the lose sediments in the upper and lower contact
layers. Based on the results of the present work, it is clear that the river flowing in the
severe, chronic, drought-prone, semi-arid region of Maharashtra is also rich in faunal
records of a variety of species, which occurs in other comparatively perennial rivers
like Bhima. Therefore, one can conclude that the paleoenvironmental conditions and
man–land relationship in Sina were not that much different than those in Bhima,
even though it is extremely dry today and other rivers are flowing in severe, chronic
drought prone regions. Detailed investigations are still required to understand the
biodiversity of the basin in the Quaternary Era (Sabale et al. 2021).

Acknowledgements I thank the authorities of Deccan College Post Graduate and Research
Institute, Pune, for their guidance and encouragement during the work. I am grateful to the
colleagues and students who visited the site and helped in the work. I am also thankful to the
villagers for their help during the progress of the excavation.
236 P. D. Sabale

References

Anonymous (2018) Utqiagvik declaration. Inuit Circumpolar Council

Berteaux D et al (2018) Northern protected areas will become important refuges for biodiversity
tracking suitable climates. Sci Rep 8:4623
Brody H (1981) Maps and dreams. Pantheon, New York, p 297
Burke A, Peros MC, Wren CD, Pausata FSR, Riel-Salvatore J, Moine O, de Vernal A,
Kageyama M, Boisard S (2021) The archaeology of climate change: the case study for cultural
diversity. PNAS July 27, 2021 118(30):e2108537118. Ed. R. Piperno
Cooper J, Peros M (2010) The archaeology of climate change in the Caribbean. J Archaeol Sci 37:
1226–1232
Endfield GH, Tejedo IF, O’Hara SL (2004) Drought and disputes, deluge and dearth: climatic
variability and human response in colonial Oaxaca, Mexico. J Hist Geogr 30:249–276
Ford JD, Couture N, Bell T, Clark DG (2018) Climate change and Canada’s north coast: research
trends, progress, and future directions. Environ Rev 26:82–92
Gupta A (2007) Geology of large river systems. In: Gupta A (ed) Large rivers: geomorphology and
management. Wiley, pp 1–5
Hambrecht G et al (2020) Archaeological sites as distributed long-term observing networks of the
past (DONOP). Quat Int 549:218–226
Haywood AM et al (2019) What can palaeoclimate modelling do for you? Earth Syst Environ 3:1–18
Hudson MJ, Aoyama M, Hoover KC, Uchiyama J (2012) Prospects and challenges for an
archaeology of global climate change. Wiley Interdiscip Rev Clim Chang 3:313–328
Hussain ST, Riede F (2020) Paleoenvironmental humanities: challenges and prospects of writing
deep environmental histories. Wiley Interdiscip Rev Clim Chang 11:e667
Jackson RC, Dugmore AJ, Riede F (2018) Rediscovering lessons of adaptation from the past. Glob
Environ Change 52:58–65
Jyotibala S, Sangode SJ, Sabale PD (2019) Mineral magnetic characterization of archeological
potsherds: an example from the Deccan Province, Western Maharashtra, India. Curr Sci 108
Kadam (2018) Crop combination regions in Sina River Basin: Maharashtra
Kale VS, Rajaguru SN (1987) Late Quaternary alluvial history of the northwestern Deccan upland
region. Nature 325:612–614
Kshirsagar S, Mishra S, Sabale PD (2014) Some Acheulian localities in the Sina basin, vol 74.
Bulletin of the Deccan College Post-Graduate and Research Institute, pp 21–26
National Research Council (2006) Surface temperature reconstructions for the last 2,000 years. The
National Academies Press, Washington, DC. https://doi.org/10.17226/11676
Pappu (1970) Pleistocene geomorphology of the Upper Krishna Basin. Indian Antiquary- IV 1–4:
191–204
Pappu (1973) Quaternary studies in peninsular India. Bulletin of the Deccan College XXXIII(1–4)
Rajaguru (1973) On the problems of stone age chronology at Chirki Nevasa, District Ahmednagar,
Maharashtra. Bulletin Deccan College, Pune, pp 360–369
Rajaguru SN, Pappu RS (1970) On the problem of Stone Age Chronology at Chriki-Nevasa, District
Ahmednagar. Bulletin of Deccan College Post Graduate and Research Institute 31:360–369
Sabale PD (2012) Geoarchaeological investigations in the middle reach of Bhima. An unpublished
report of major Research Project submitted to University Grant Commission, New Delhi
Sabale PD, Kshirsagar SD (2014) A preliminary report on geoarchaeological explorations in upper
reaches of Sina river basin: a case study of Ahmednagar, Bid, Osmanabad and Solapur districts
of M.S. Bulletin of the Deccan College 7:127–138
Sabale PD, Deshmukh JD, Kshirsagar SD, Pokharkar DM, Sarwade KG, Kamble PV, Rao N (2015)
Preliminary report on quaternary geoarchaeological excavation at Math-Pimpri, District
Ahmednagar. Bulletin of the Deccan College Research Institute 75:25–36
Sabale PD, Badam GL, Kshirsagar SD (2021) Quaternary faunal records from upper reaches of Sina
basin: a case study of Math-Pimpri. Quaternary Climate Change over the Indian Subcontinent
Springer, pp 345–256
Sandweiss DH, Kelley AR (2012) Archaeological contributions to climate change research: the archae-
ological record as a paleoclimatic and paleoenvironmental archive. Annu Rev Anthropol 41:371–391
Chapter 11
A Review Study on Youngest Toba Tuff
Ash, Artifacts and Vertebrate Remains
Preserved in the Quaternary Alluvial
Sediments of India and Their Significances
in Climate and Paleoenvironment
Interpretations

Ajab Singh, Ashok K. Srivastava, Nura Abdulmumini Yelwa,

and Neloy Khare

Abstract A review study of Youngest Toba Tuff (YTT) ash, artifacts, and verte-
brate remains uncovered in the alluvial deposits of various river basins of India has
been attempted in order to comprehend paleoclimate and paleoenvironmental con-
ditions throughout the Quaternary period. The YTT eruption is regarded as the
biggest eruption on the Earth’s surface during the Pleistocene period, and hence it
is considered a catastrophe for ecosystems and mass populations. The ash of the
same eruption has been found in laminated, sandy to clay alluvial columns in the
form of light gray to yellowish brown, massive to structured, pockets, lenticles, and
continuous to discontinues beds ranging in thickness from 0.2 to >3 m thick. Based
on bedding geometries, preservational characteristics and physical appearances, the
ash is classified as primary and secondary. Geochemically and geochronologically, it
overlaps elemental composition and isotopic age of the Oldest Toba Tuff (OTT) ash.
Artifacts belonging to the Middle Paleolithic to Microlithic period are retained in the
fluvial profiles that form pre- and post-YTT columns. Based on the typological and
carving similarities, it has been linked to the Middle Paleolithic artifact industry of
Africa, indicating migration of hominids in India, whereas the majority of vertebrate
remains reported mainly from both pre- and post-tephra successions of various

Ashok K. Srivastava has died before the publication of this book.

A. Singh (*)
Department of Geology, Faculty of Science, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
N. A. Yelwa
Department of Geology, Faculty of Science, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
Department of Geology, Usmanu Danfodiyo University, Sokoto, Nigeria
N. Khare
Ministry of Earth Science, New Delhi, India

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 237
N. Khare (ed.), Science, Policies and Conflicts of Climate Change, Springer Climate,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-16254-1_11
238 A. Singh et al.

alluviums reveal the existence of herbaceous animal communities, implying the

presence of small to tall grass vegetation and water pools to swamps environments
under humid to temperate climates. Based on preservations of artifacts and verte-
brate remains in both pre- and post-YTT ash strata, the study suggests the existence
of hominids and animals in the subcontinent prior to and after the eruption, indicat-
ing negligible effects of the eruption on the living media.

Keywords Youngest Toba Tuff · Artifacts · Vertebrate remains · Vegetation ·

Quaternary

Introduction

Light colored, unconsolidated to slightly compact tephra, uncovered in the stratified,

sandy to silty-clay lithounits of the various river basins of India has been regarded as
the remains of the Youngest Toba Tuff (YTT, 75 ka) eruption of Toba Caldera,
Sumatra, Indonesia, based on the geochemical and geochronological similarities
(Acharya and Basu 1993; Westgate et al. 1998; Petraglia et al. 2007; Smith et al.
2011; Srivastava and Singh, 2019a, b, 2020a, b) (Fig. 11.1). Prior to the YTT
eruption, the Toba Caldera had generated three other low magnitude eruptions in
chronostratigraphic order as Haranggoal Dacite Tuff (HDT, 1.2 Ma) (Nishimura
et al. 1977), Oldest Toba Tuff (OTT, 840 ka) (Diehl et al. 1987) and Middle Toba
Tuff (MTT, 504 ka) (Chesner et al. 1991). In these aforesaid eruptions, the YTT
erupted with an 8.8 magnitude, forming a 100 km long and 30 km wide caldera and
generated about 2800 km3 of rhyolitic magma, including ignimbrite and
co-ignimbrite materials covering about 20,000–30,000 km3 in Southeast Asia
(Rose and Chesner 1987). According to Rampino and Self (1992), ignimbrite
material containing sulfur gases blasted from the caldera moved toward the atmo-
sphere and formed umbrella shaped volcanic clouds. These clouds prevented sun
radiation from passing through the earth surface, resulting in cooling for almost
6 years, whereas the sulphur gases generated sulphur di-oxides combined with
prevailing hydrogen ions in the atmosphere and dropped on the surface in the
form of acid rains (Rampino and Self 1992). It has been hypothesized that the
combination of cooling and acid rain decimated the living mass populations and
vegetation across Southeast Asia, including East Africa (Ambrose 1998; Rampino
and Amrose 2000; Williams et al. 2009); however, a few researchers have argued a
minimal impact of the YTT eruption on the mass population and vegetation (Schulz
et al. 2002; Oppenheimer 2002; Gathorne-Hardy and Harcourt-Smith 2003), as a
result, the magnitude of impact of the said eruption is still debatable among the
scientific community.
The YTT exposures are reported from both marine and terrestrial deposits,
including lake sediments. The marine includes cores of Indian Ocean (Pattan et al.
2002), South China Sea (Liu et al. 2006), Bay of Bengal (Gasparrotto et al. 2000)
11 A Review Study on Youngest Toba Tuff Ash, Artifacts and Vertebrate. . . 239

Fig. 11.1 Map showing location of the Toba Caldera and the YTT. (Image source – Earthstar
Geographics)

and Arabian Sea (Jayaprakash et al. 2009), whereas the terrestrial represents strat-
ified, fluvio-lacustrine, Quaternary sediments of various Indian river basins, viz.,
Krishna, Godavari, Mahanadi, Vasandhara, Kukadi valley, Karha valley, Middle
Son valley, Narmada valley (Acharya and Basu 1993), Wardha river basin
(Westway et al. 2011) and Purna valley (Srivastava and Singh, 2019a, b,
2020a, b); in addition to, Lenggong valley of Malaysia (Gatti et al. 2013; Singh
et al. 2021a, b). Lane et al. (2013) also reported the same ash from the sediments of
lake Malawi and extended hypothesis of global distribution of the YTT ejecta. In
addition, a sulphate rich layer of ash is reported from the Greenland ice core GISP2
of Antarctica that has been equated with YTT based on its geochronological and
geochemical similarities (Rampino and Self 1992). The extensive literature survey
reveals the global dispersion of YTT ash and its climatological significances. Given
the climatological implications of the same and its wide geographical spread, the
present study aimed to carry out a comprehensive evaluation of the ash in India and
its significance in understanding paleoclimate and paleoenvironment. It also adds to
the body of knowledge on the climatic conditions in India prior to, during, and after
the YTT eruption, as well as its impacts on humans and vegetation.
240 A. Singh et al.

Exposures of YTT Ash in India

Figure 11.2 reveals the locations of the YTT-bearing river basins of India. The ash
under consideration has been investigated in India over the past four decades after
the first report from the Son valley during archeological explorations headed by
Williams and Royce (1982). After that, Korisetter et al. (1988) reported preserva-
tions of the same from a stratified lithounit exposed at the Bori site lying along the
Kukadi River and claimed the same as the remains of the YTT based on the

Fig. 11.2 Map revealing locations of the various investigated localities such as (1) Ghoghara area,
Son valley, (2) Pawalaghat locality of the Narmada basin, (3) Simbhora site, Wardha valley,
(4) Masod area, Purna basin, (5) Tejpur locality of the Madhumati River, (6) Sagileru bridge site,
Sagileru valley and (7) Jwalapuram area of the Jerreru valley. (Image source – Earthstar
Geographics)
11 A Review Study on Youngest Toba Tuff Ash, Artifacts and Vertebrate. . . 241

geochemical signatures matching the proximal deposits in Indonesia. Furthermore, it

had also been recorded from a number of other river basins, viz., Godavari, Maha-
nadi, Jurerru, Sagileru, Kukadi, Karha, Narmada, Madhumati (tributry of Narmada),
Son, Purna and Wardha and investigated for a variety of reasons (Acharya and Basu
1993; Westgate et al. 1998; Raj 2008; Westway et al. 2011). Recently, the authors
carried out field work in the YTT-bearing basins to learn more about the ash
preservation and collected samples for various analyses. A brief idea about various
ash-bearing basins and their localities are as follows:
(i) Son valley – The Son, longest river (784 km) in India having E-W flow along
the direction of the tectonic lineament of Son-Narmada Fault, as of Narmada
River, merges into the Ganga River. It originates at Amarkantak, Madhya
Pradesh, just east of the Narmada River and flows over the Middle Proterozoic
limestone and shales of the Vindhyan Super Group and Middle Pleistocene to
Holocene aged alluvial plains, before changing its course toward eastward to
incised Middle Proterozoic sandstones of the Kaimur Range of Vindhyan
Super Group (Singh 1980). The distal ash in the valley has been encountered
at Ghoghara (24o30′096″ N, 82o01′172″ E) in the form of light gray to
yellowish-brown, powdery, massive to structured, 0.5–3 m thick beds, pre-
served in the yellowish-brown, stratified silty-clay lithounits (Williams and
Royce 1982; Acharya and Basu 1993; Gatti et al. 2011) (Fig. 11.3a). It has
been regarded as YTT based geochemical and geochronological similarities
with the Toba Caldera (Smith et al. 2011; Mark et al. 2014).
(ii) Narmada valley – The Narmada valley drained by one of the major rivers in
India, viz., Narmada, originates in the Satpura Hill range at Amarkantak and
flows westward, opposite to the regional slope, due to Narmada-Son Fault and
debouches into the Gulf of Combay after covering the catchment area of about
98,796 km2 (Chamyal et al. 1997). The Pawlaghat locality (23o06′803″ N,
79o23′048″ E) of this valley is comparatively well documented for preserva-
tion of light gray, powdery, massive to structured, 0.8 m thick bed of tephra
retained in the reddish to yellowish-brown, silty-clay lithounit (Acharya and
Basu 1993) (Fig. 11.3b). The ash has been correlated with the YTT of Toba
Caldera based on geochemical and geochronological fingerprintings (Westgate
et al. 1998).
(iii) Wardh valley – The Wardh River, a major branch of the Godavari River,
originates from Satpura hill range at Khairwani locality near Multai town of
Betul district, Madhya Pradesh and flows from west to east direction before
debouching in the Bay of Bengal. The light gray to yellowish-brown, powdery,
reworked and ~ 1 m thick bed of ash is exposed at the Simbhora locality
(21o26′50″ N, 78o57′16″ E) (Fig. 11.4a) near Morshi town of Amravati
district, Maharashtra (Tiwari et al. 2010). Westway et al. (2011) reported
827 ± 39 ka age of the same using 40Ar/39Ar technique on the glass shards
and suggested that it belongs to the Oldest Toba Tuff (OTT, 840 ka). However,
Westway’s hypothesis has been rejected by several subsequent researchers
242 A. Singh et al.

Fig. 11.3 Field photographs demonstrating preservation of ash in the alluvial profiles exposed at
(a) Ghoghara locality of Son valley and (b) Pawalaghat area, Narmada valley (arrows)

using geochemical and geochronological comparabilities with the other YTT

ash of India, including Toba Caldera (Westgate et al. 2013; Pearce et al. 2014).
(iv) Purna valley – The Purna River draining the valley is a major tributary of
Tapti River and originates from the Satpura Hills at Chincholi village of Betul
district, Madhya Pradesh and flow roughly SSE for approximate 75 km and
further takes a westerly direction for 120 km and finally merges into the Tapti
River (Srivastava and Kale 2010). The ash in this basin are preserved at eight
different localities, i.e., (i) Masod, (ii) Parad, (iii) Bhog Nala, (iv) Hudki,
(v) Sukali, (vi) Gandhigram, (vii) Kapileshwar and (viii) Andura. In this basi
area, the ash is uncovered in the form of light gray to yellowish-brown,
11 A Review Study on Youngest Toba Tuff Ash, Artifacts and Vertebrate. . . 243

Fig. 11.4 Field views revealing exposures of the tephra preserved at (a) Simbhora area of Wardha
valley, (b) Masod locality of Purna basin and (c) Tejpur site, Madhumati valley (arrows)

powdery, massive to reworked and constitute 0.15–3 m thick beds hosted in

the yellowish-brown, laminated silty-clay lithounits (Srivastava and Singh
2019a, b, 2020a, b, 2021a, b; Srivastava et al. 2020a, b; Singh and Srivastava,
2021a, b, 2022). Although, in the present attempt, we have explored Masod
site (20o14′07″N, 77o39′07″E) of the same basin area, where the tephra is
attributed with yellowish-brown color, thin elongated bed of massive nature
and 0.4–0.5 cm thickness (Fig. 11.4b)
(v) Madhumati valley – The Madhumati valley of the Lower Narmada basin is
drained by the Madhumati River that flows over the Late Cretaceous to Eocene
Deccan basaltic lava flows and overlying Tertiary sediments in the further
western part. A light gray colored, powdery, 0.4 m thick bed of volcanic ash,
exposed at Tejpur locality (21o46′414″ N, 73o17′876″ E) (Fig. 11.4c) near the
Rajpardi town of Gujrat state, has been reported and correlated with the YTT
244 A. Singh et al.

tephra based on its geochemical and glass shards morphological similarities

(Raj 2008).
(vi) Sagileru valley – The Sagileru River, draining the valley, is a tributary of the
Penner River that originates at Cumbum town of Kurnool District, Andhra
Pradesh and flows between the Nallamalai and Velikonda hill ranges of the
Eastern Ghats (Blinkhorn et al. 2014). The Proterozoic Cuddappah rocks with
almost flat beds of sandstone, limestone, and shale forms the basement for
Quaternary alluvial deposits that are reddish-brown to yellowish-brown, strat-
ified, calcareous, hard to semi-consolidated, sandy, silty-clayey lithounits.
These deposits exhibit abundant preservations of termite structures, calcretes,
and root casts of different sizes and shapes and Middle Paleolithic tools. It also
preserves light gray to yellowish-brown, powdery to hard, 2 m thick bed of
volcanic ash showing diverse sedimentary structures near Sagileru Bridge,
Porumamilla area (14o57′002″ N, 78o56′789″ E) (Fig. 11.5a). The ash has
been reported from Vankamarri and Jammulamadugu localities and studied for
geochemical and geochronological aspects as well as correlated with other
YTT tephra of India (Blinkhorn et al. 2014; Geetanjali and Achyuthan 2019;
Geetanjali et al. 2019; Krishnan and Achyuthan 2019).
(vii) Jurreru valley – The Jurreu valley, a major river basin in the central part of
Andhra Pradesh state, is drained by an easterly flowing tributary of the Penner
River marked with steep sides and relatively wide bottom that flows over the
landforms of Cuddaph rocks (Clarkson et al. 2012). The ash, exposed at the
Jwalapuram locality (15o19′525″ N, 78o07′990″ E) of this valley, is light gray
to yellowish-brown, >3 m thick and divisible into primary and secondary
based on the preservational and depositional characteristics. It is highly
intermixed with the reddish to yellowish-brown river sediments along with
calcretes of various morphotypes, including rhizoliths (Fig. 11.5b). The same
has been investigated comprehensively for geochemistry, geochronology, and
paleoclimatic reconstructions (Petraglia et al. 2007; Mark et al. 2014;
Srivastava et al. 2019). The Jwalapurma locality is considered as a significant
site because of rich occurrences of artifacts below and above the ash strata,
suggesting occupation of humans in the area prior to and after the eruption
under reference (Petraglia et al. 2007, 2012; Haslama et al. 2012).

Preservational Attributes of YTT Ash in India

Figures 11.3, 11.4, and 11.5 plainly reveal that the YTT ash in the Indian subcon-
tinent is preserved in the form of discontinued beds, lenticles, and pockets of variable
thickness primarily in laminated, fine to medium sand mixed, yellowish-brown silty-
clay lithounits, although, at places, disturbed and evenly scattered on the surface. It is
principally whitish, light gray to yellowish-brown in color, fine to medium grained,
powdery to semi-consolidated and massive to structured with a thickness ranging
from 0.05 to 3 m. Based on their colors, thicknesses, bedding geometries and
retention of sedimentary structures, the ash is divided into two distinct sorts as
11 A Review Study on Youngest Toba Tuff Ash, Artifacts and Vertebrate. . . 245

Fig. 11.5 Field views showing ash deposit at (a) Sagileru bridge, Porumamilla area of Sagileru
valley and tephra excavation for commercial purposes at (b) Jwalapuram locality of Jurreru valley

primary and reworked. The primary ash is whitish to light gray, fine-grained and
massive to structureless with a thickness of 0.05 to 0.20 m. It usually serves as a
basement for the deposition of reworked tephra units and at places, is deposited as a
single elongated bed attaining a thickness of 0.20 m. The reworked tephra, on the
other hand, is mostly yellowish-brown, relatively coarse grained, structured with a
thickness up to ~3 m and reveals preservations of low energy produced sedimentary
structures, i.e., parallel to cross laminations, trough cross beddings, sand laminae,
grove casts, and soft sediment deformational features (Acharya and Basu 1993; Gatti
et al. 2011; Jones 2010; Srivastava and Singh 2019a, b, 2020a, b). Fieldwork carried
out by the authors in all the tephra bearing river basins mentioned above suggests
that the ash in the south Indian river basins, viz., Jurreru and Sagileru is intermixed
with host lithounits having low thicknesses and high amounts of calcium carbonate
246 A. Singh et al.

precipitation in the form of calcretes, whereas the tephra in the river basins of central
and western India is preserved as elongated beds, pockets, and lenticles. However,
substantial precipitation of calcium carbonates has been noticed mainly in the
pre-tephra successions classified as paleosols and at places within tephra beds.

YTT Impacts and Human Occupations

The impacts of YTT eruption on the vegetation and modern humans have been well
documented with the latter experiencing bottleneck and dispersing across Africa to
Southeast Asia, including India. Several studies have confirmed changes in demog-
raphy of the ancient hominids after the eruption in the form of artifact transformation
from lithic to microlithic (Petraglia et al., 2012; Clarkson et al. 2020), although
certain authors favored partial effects of the YTT in places where hominids were
concentrated prior to and after the said eruption (Oppenheimer 2002; Timmereck
et al. 2012). However, according to Ambrose (1998), the hominids had witnessed
climatic havoc caused by the YTT for a long time as it posed delicate climatic
difficulties to humans in the form of volcanic cooling and poisonous acid rain
(Ambrose 1998). Both cooling and rains combined to be a disaster that forced
them to scatter eastward out from the Africa continent across the globe in order to
avoid the hostile conditions (Ambrose 1998). The hypotheses about catastrophic
nature of the YTT toward the lives and demography of humans are exemplified by
the shift in technologies from Levallois to Microlithic, which is retained in close
association with the lower and upper horizons of the YTT ash, exposed in the river
basins of India. These archaeological tools are thought to have been produced by the
modern humans who existed prior to and after the eruption, indicating YTT had no
impact on humans (Oppenheimer 2002; Petraglia et al. 2007, 2012; Jones 2010;
Haslama et al. 2012; Clarkson et al. 2012, 2020).

Debate Among Researchers

The YTT in India is a topic of discussion among researchers because of differing

viewpoints and assertions based on contradictory results of 40Ar/39Ar, geochemistry,
luminescence dating, and effects on the living masses and their migration from a
native place to distal sites. Certain studies based on the 40Ar/39Ar dating of the glass
shards have predicted that the ash in the Kukadi, Karha, Wardha, and Purna river
basins has an age equivalent to the Oldest Toba Tuff (OTT, 840 ka) (Mishra et al.
1995; Westway et al. 2011). However, using the 40Ar/39Ar technique on biotite
grains of the ash from Jurreru and Son valleys, Mark et al. (2014) postulated YTT
affinity and eliminated the theories of OTT in India. Simultaneously, certain geo-
chemical studies of glass shards have been made to shed light on these debates.
However, the geochemical composition of glass shards proved to be supporting tool
11 A Review Study on Youngest Toba Tuff Ash, Artifacts and Vertebrate. . . 247

instead of decisive factor to identify YTT or OTT as Smith et al. (2011) found similar
geochemical concentrations of both YTT glass shards from Jurreru and Son valley
and OTT of Toba Caldera, and opined that the geochemistry of glass shards is
unreliable and an unrealistic tool in correlation. Based on minor and trace element
concentrations of the glass shards collected from entire Indian Peninsula and source
Toba Caldera, Westgate et al. (2013) and Pearce et al. (2014) argued that the ash in
India belongs to the YTT. Srivastava and Singh (2020b) used 40Ar/39Ar dating on
the glass shards of two different localities, viz., Gandhigram and Hudki of Purna
alluvial basin, Central India and reported 790 and 770 ka ages, although discarded
the same based on Ar and K isotopes incompatibility in the glass shards during
magmatic and post-magmatic process. According to them, this incompatibility in the
isotopes of glass shards plays an essential role in generating spurious or older age
while using the Ar/Ar technique on the same material.
Several optically stimulated luminescence (OSL) dating have also been carried
out in order to evaluate the bracketing time of the tephra within the fluvio-lacustrine
sediments exposed as lower and upper horizons of the same. Petraglia et al. (2007)
used OSL dating to determine the age of the lower and upper horizons of
YTT-bearing exposures at Jwalapuram locality, Jurreru valley, South India and
came up with 70 ka and 71 ka ages, respectively. They also hypothesized that the
ash was capped within the sediments after thousands of years of YTT eruption. In the
queue of the work, Biswas et al. (2013) applied the same technique on 11 samples
collected from pre-, within, and post-tephra sediments of Ghoghara and Khuntheli
localities of Son basin, Morgaon of Karha basin, Bori of Kukadi basin and Tejpur of
Madhumati river basin and reported the age as 70 ± 9 & 40 ± 5 and 61 ± 7, 41 ± 5,
27 ± 3 and 74 ± 7 & 60 ± 9 ka ages, respectively. Neudorf et al. (2014) sampled the
sediments from pre- and post-tephra horizons at the Ghoghara area of Son valley and
did the same with the OSL technique. They generated single quartz ages for the
samples GHO3 and GHO2 representing above and below sections as 44 ± 3 and
36 ± 3 ka and claimed that tephra would have been bracketed within the sediments
after tens of thousands of years of YTT eruption. Singh et al. (2022) extended the
investigation on the same aspect for the samples taken from below and above strata
of the Hudki and Sukali localities, Purna alluvial basin and reported 70 ± 04 &
57 ± 5 and 66 ± 5-- 67 ± 4 ka ages for the same, respectively. They suggested that
the ash settled on the surface from the atmosphere was likely deposited at the present
sites tens of thousands of years after the YTT eruption. They also stated that the ages
of the pre- and post-tephra strata differ due to reshuffling and reworking of older and
youngest sediments inherited with the ash during high energy condition of deposit-
ing medium. However, an overview of various research demonstrates that the bulk of
investigations, whether Ar/Ar dating, geochemistry, and luminescence contradict
each other most likely due to flaws in sample collection, material calculation and
analyses procedures. In light of these considerations, the author proposed doing time
assessments of all the ash exposed in various basins using high-precision instru-
ments which will provide a clear picture for regional correlation and other interpre-
tations such as paleoclimate and paleoenvironment.
248 A. Singh et al.

Existence of Vegetation and Its Deterioration in India

Several studies have documented the existence of rainforest vegetation in Southeast

Asia, particularly in India and African prior to the eruption as well as their explicit
destruction by post-YTT produced volcanic winter and H2SO4 rains as interpreted
based on the stable isotope analyses of calcretized nodules occurred in close affinity
with YTT deposits (Rampino and Ambrose 2000; Williams et al. 2009; Jones 2010;
Haslama et al. 2012; Timmreck et al. 2012; Srivastava and Singh 2019a, b,
2020a, b). Based on the botanical evidence and model simulations prepared to
comprehend the effects of YTT eruption, Rampino and Ambrose (2000) asserted
that the post-Toba cooling may have destroyed the local and regional vegetation of
Southeast Asia and also suggested that the vegetation in the tropical regions with
cold sensitive characteristics would have been completely destroyed. They went on
to say that the most temperate and sub-Arctic vegetation at higher latitudes would
have been ravaged and taken a long period to recover because the temperature had
been reduced up to ~10 °C for a long time. Following the global climatic model in
relation to the YTT eruption, Rampino and Ambrose (2000) extended their hypoth-
esis for atmospheric perturbations and asserted that the eruption had led to severe
droughts specifically in the tropical rainforests and monsoonal regions for a consid-
erable period that could have created hostile conditions for global ecology by
reducing vegetation and mass populations. In the context of the Indian Subcontinent,
only a few studies have demarcated the severe effects of Toba ash on the vegetation
and its rebirth after thousands of years (Oppenheimer 2002; Gathorne-Hardy and
Harcourt-Smith 2003). In order to validate this, Williams et al. (2009) concentrated
on pollens from laminated Toba ash preserved in the marine cores of Bay of Bengal
and soil carbonates from sediments above and below the tephra units from the Son
and Belan river basins. On the basis of pollen analyses, i.e., herbaceous taxa,
Amaranthaceae, Artemisia, Cyperaceae, Poaceae and Arboreal texa, they revealed
that the YTT eruption resulted in prolonged cooling and aridity, which reduced
vegetation and growths in India and adjacent areas. On the basis of carbon isotopic
composition of soil calcrete nodules, they also hypothesized that C3 vegetation was
changed into C4 woodlands and grasslands in Indian Subcontinent. However,
Williams et al. (2009) stated that the ash had only modest effects on the forests
and humans. Jones (2010) discovered fossilized plants and insect remains from the
ash-bearing lithounit of Jurreru valley, implying the presence of vegetation and
insects prior to the fallout of the YTT eruption. Srivastava and Singh (2019a, b,
2020a, b) reported calcretized spherical to rounded bodies of rhizospheres and
rhizoliths preserved in paleosol units making a pre-tephra column in the Purna,
indicating the existence of vegetation previous to and during the YTT eruption.
According to them, the preservation of abundant rhizospheres and rhizoliths in
pre-tephra lithounits and their sparse occurrence in post-tephra horizons, suggest
possible minor effects of the winter and acid rains under the reference. Recently,
Singh and Srivastava (2021b) revealed preservation of four unique types of rhizo-
spheres, i.e., concentric, rimmed, nodular and mottled preserved in the pre-tephra
11 A Review Study on Youngest Toba Tuff Ash, Artifacts and Vertebrate. . . 249

lithounits of the Purna basins and claimed that these four sorts are the products of
both C3 and C4 vegetation. Furthermore, based on the distinct morphologies of the
rhizospheres, they projected mixed plant and grassland floras in the basin area prior
to the YTT eruption as well as suggested modest effects of the said eruption on the
vegetation.
According to Gathorne-Hardy and Harcourt-Smith (2003), the impact of the Toba
eruption would be limited to a radius of 350 km. This conclusion is based on the
study of nine endemic species, i.e., four primates, four squirrels, and one mouse and
termite structures from the Mentawai islands, located 350 km southeast of Toba and
130 km Sumatran mainland. They further claimed that this island emerged from the
sea during Late Pliocene and was separated from the mainland for approximately
three million years. Gathorne-Hardy and Harcourt-Smith (2003) postulated the
existence of evergreen and everfruiting rainforest flora associated with the
abovementioned species on the island after its separation from the mainland. They,
additionally, hypothesized that the termite structures indicate that the island was
formerly a forested refuge.

Artifacts

Preservation in Quaternary Sediments and Correlation

with the African Industry

The artifacts belonging to the Middle Paleolithic to Microlithic ages are primarily
reported from both the pre- and post-YTT tephra-bearing successions exposed in
various river basins in the form of stratified, sandy to silty-clay lithounits. It has also
been recovered from boulder-conglomerate beds that make up pre-tephra strata.
These artifacts are assigned as the product of the modern humans (Petraglia et al.
2007; 2012; Haslama et al. 2012; Clarkson et al. 2020; Joshi 2020). Based on the
morphological and typological studies of the artifacts, several researchers have
revealed that hominids existed on the Indian Subcontinent and migrated in groups
from Africa prior to the YTT eruption, implying continuity in population even
during the climatic repercussions caused by the said eruption (Petraglia et al.
2007, 2012; Haslama et al. 2012; Clarkson, 2020). Petraglia et al. (2007) reported
occurrences of Middle Paleolithic to Microlithic industries in the pre- and post-YTT
bearing horizons at the Jwalapuram area of the Jurreru valley, southern India as well
as asserted continuity in human populations even during the prevailing of volcanic
cooling led by the eruption under study. Based on the similarities in carvings on the
lithic, they established a superior correlation between the Jwalapuram industry and
the Middle Paleolithic technology of Africa and suggested hominids were migrated
from the latter continent. Furthermore, based on the presence of artifacts in the lower
and upper horizons of the YTT-bearing sediments, Petraglia et al. (2012) asserted
that Indian Subcontinent was the home of modern humans between ~100,000 to
250 A. Singh et al.

200,000 years ago, and opined that the number of humans may have reduced
significantly during climatic changes induced by the YTT eruption. They went on
to say that the mass population would have likely been diminished owing to the
climate fluctuations, as a result, humans might have altered their skills to produce
more advanced artifacts. Haslama et al. (2012) excavated a site at Dhaba locality
about a kilometer from the YTT-bearing Ghoghara locality, Middle Son valley and
found Acheulean, Middle Paleolithic and Microlithic industries within the sedimen-
tary profiles of the river. They attempted to distinguish the industries based on
surfaces structures and source of their material and concluded that Acheulean
artifacts have bifaces and cleavers, whereas Middle Paleolithic tools lack the same.
They further asserted that the Acheulean artifacts could be between 125 and 140 ka
age and are correlatable with the earlier findings in India and outside. The Micro-
lithic technology could not be placed in a chronological order, although it can be
linked to other similar findings dating from MIS 3 to Holocene period. Clarkson
et al. (2020) excavated the Dhaba site in order to examine more assemblages for
superior correlations with African industries to build a broad picture of human
habitation in India. Based on luminescence dating of lithic containing sediments,
they predicted that humans occupied the area around 80 ka even before the YTT
catastrophic event, but experienced behavioral development after the eruption
exemplified by introducing new technology, i.e., Microlithic. Joshi (2020) discov-
ered occurrences of the Acheulean artifacts at two distinct sites, viz., Bhatala and
Temburda of the Wainganga River, eastern Maharashtra state of India and suggested
wide distribution of humans in India.

Migration of Early Humans and Their Occupation on the

Indian Peninsula

The YTT-led fine grained material produced cooling and acid rains that destroyed
vegetation and hominids survival and compelled them to migrate from indigenous
places to other continents via the Indian subcontinent. As a result, it is heavily
viewed as a catastrophic event during the Quaternary period (Ambrose 1998;
Oppenheimer, 2002). Ambrose (1998) made a descriptive study on the existence,
bottleneck, growth, genetic diversity, and dispersal of the modern humans after the
eruption based on Weak Garden of Eden model proposed by Harpending et al.
(1993). He suggested that the modern humans migrated from native places in Africa
to different regions about 100 ka years ago and had witnessed bottleneck after the
YTT, although experienced dramatic growth and technological advancement around
50 ka (Ambrose 1998). On the basis of geological and climatic evidence as well as
discovery of the Upper Paleolithic technology in the Equatorial Africa, Ambrose
(1998) went on to state that humans first saw genetic diversity, technological
improvement, and population growth in Africa and afterward, in Eurasia. He further
concluded that the volcanic winter lowered the population, caused genetic
11 A Review Study on Youngest Toba Tuff Ash, Artifacts and Vertebrate. . . 251

alterations, and forced them to adapt local needs in order to reproduce more quickly.
On the basis of genetic study, Rampino and Ambrose (2000) claimed that prior to
~60,000 ka ago, approximately 3000–10,000 hominids had seen severe destructions,
and subsequently, their population, technological developments, and migration for
suitable settings had occurred. They emphasized that the bottleneck and migration of
humans would have taken place as a result of climatic effects of the Toba eruption
and concluded that environmental and ecological effects of the eruption may support
the connection between the Toba event and mass population bottleneck as well as
destruction of other living species at the same timeframe. Following the hypotheses
of climatic effects, Oppenheimer (2002) delineated a route, passing through the
Indian subcontinent, was followed by the Anatomically Modern Humans (AMH) for
spreading out from Africa to other continents, as well as highlighted their locations
and probable dates in these continents. He also claimed that humans travelled from
their native land to Sahara to Levant during the Eamian interglacial period
(ca. 125 ka), but could not have made it to Europe which was later prominently
Neanderthals. Oppenheimer (2002) further stated that AMH left Africa to India in
groups via a southern route and disseminated across the subcontinent. Petraglia et al.
(2007, 2012) carried out an extensive study of artifacts found in close proximity to
YTT ash in the Jurreru valley, concluding that the archeological industries, above
and below the tephra beds, are more closely related to the Middle African Middle
Stone Ages tradition, i.e., Howieson’s Poort than contemporaneous Eurasian Middle
Paleolithic industries, i.e., discoidal and Levallois techniques. Several investigations
based on technological parallels have been carried out to interpret human existence
prior and after YTT eruption. Haslama et al. (2012) conducted a similar investigation
at the Locality 22 of the Jwalapuram area, Jurreru valley and claimed that humans
were present in the Indian subcontinent before and after the YTT eruption. They
have also noted changes in hominid technological industries based on the preserva-
tion of artifacts in pre- and post-tephra sediments in the basin area. On the basis of
similarities in lithic industry with the stone tools of the native place in Africa,
Haslama et al. (2012) went on to say that hominids would have migrated to India
from Africa through a southern route, categorizing the markings on the artifacts as
discoidal to Levallois techniques that are very similar to the technology of the
African human community. Recently, Clarkson et al. (2020) excavated the Dhaba
site near YTT deposit at Ghoghara locality situated at Son-Rehi confluence and
recorded breakthrough evidence for the existence of human populations dating back
~80 ka based on the similarities with the lithic industries of the basin area to Africa,
including the Jurreru valley. They pointed out an unchanged lithic industry buried
under the sediments of 79.6 ± 3.2 & 65.2 ± 3.1 ka that resembled the African Middle
Stone Age (MSA), Arabia, and Australia and suggested that the same would have
likely been formed by the modern humans as they moved eastward from Africa.
The literature review reveals the route modern humans used to move from Africa
to India on to other continents, along with findings of different types of lithic
industries, and report of the first human skull from Narmada basin are confined
specifically in the south-west Indian river basins. Interestingly, the river basins of
north-central India, e.g., Indo-Gangetic and Yamuna river basins lacks such findings
252 A. Singh et al.

and none such kind of industry have been reported yet; nonetheless, a large number
of faunal discoveries have been made. This indicates that the climatic impacts of the
YTT eruption were most likely limited to central and southern India. The authors
working on the Purna alluvial basin for the past few years for a variety of reasons,
including past climate conditions in relation to the YTT, have not yet found any
industry either close to the ash exposures or even in the entire river basin. Even
though Mishra (2016) reported two different types of industries from the river course
at the Kapileshwar locality of the same basin area, the present authors disagree based
on the quantity and authenticity of material. Considering the route delineated by
Oppenheimer (2002), we believe that the humans would not have travelled to central
and northern India when travelling to the other continents as the high hills of the
Satpura Mountain may have created a barrier to crossing central India and heading
further north.

Vertebrate Remains
Distribution in the Alluvial Deposits of India

The vertebrate remains have been found in almost all major river basins of India
including caves sediments of Late Pleistocene to Holocene period and correlated
with contemporaneous assemblages of Africa and Europe fauna. These remains are
recorded in groups or scattered occurrences in river courses and sometimes, in
vertical to lateral sedimentary profiles developed as banks of the rivers (Badam
2005; Chauhan 2008; Patnaik et al. 2009; Deshpande-Mukherjee 2014). The alluvial
basins reviewed to compile the reports of fossil remains are as follows.

Manjara Valley, Maharashtra

The Manjara valley, a major tributary of the Godavari river basin, occupies the
western part of the Maharashtra State, is considered a house of distinct types of
animal communities existed during Late Pleistocene to Recent (Badam 2000). The
vertebrate remains from this valley have been recorded from four different localities,
viz., Dhanegaon, Wangdari, Tadula and Ganjur as well as identified as Elephus
hysudricus, Stegodon insignis ganesa, Equus namadicus, Axis axis, Antilope
cervicapra, Cervus unicolor, Cervus duvaueeli, Hexaprotodon palaeindicus,
crocodylus sp., and Chelonia (Badam 2000). Based on the variety of animal com-
munities in the basin area, Badam (2000) opined that the valley was concentrated
majorly by elephant populations, indicating the existence of a high vegetated forest
in the valley. She further went on to assert that the presence of cattle remains
indicates savannah type landscape and deep water pools under humid climate during
the period of animal existence in the valley.
11 A Review Study on Youngest Toba Tuff Ash, Artifacts and Vertebrate. . . 253

Mahanadi Valley

The Mahanadi valley is widely documented for various aspects related to Quaternary
set-ups and preserves good assemblages of paleoclimatic intermediaries, including
vertebrate remains (Tripathi 1972). The vertebrate remains are reported from four
different localities, viz., Nandghat, Sigma, Somnath, and Rajnandgaon and have
been identified as Bos nomadicus, Bos Sp., B. indicus, Bubalus bubalis, Cervus sp.,
Equus nomadicus, etc. (Badam 1979, 2000; Joshi et al. 1980). On the basis of
diversity found in remains, Badam (2000) asserted that the valley was dominated
by savannah vegetation and water pools to support the life of these animals during
the Late Pleistocene period.

Narmada Valley

The Narmada valley has been a matter of concern among researchers from the
eighteenth century to date with respect to preservation of vertebrate remains. The
vertebrate remains are primarily reported from the calcretized gravel bed interbedded
with sand and clay horizons. The gravel bed also possesses human remnants and
Paleolithic artifacts (Theobold 1860; Khatri 1966; Sonakia 1984; Badam and Sathe
1995). Based on the different types of fauna preservation in the Narmada basin,
Theobold (1860) divided the same into two separate groups, i.e., (i) Lower Narmada
Group and (ii) Upper Naramda Group. The former contains the sediments of the
Middle Pleistocene age and comprises fossil assemblage of Equus nomadicus, Bos
nomadicus, Bubalus palaeindicus, Hexaprotodon nomadicus, Sus nomadicus,
Elephas hysudricus, and Stegodon insignis-ganesa, whereas the latter comprises
the deposits of Early Upper Pleistocene period and exhibits vertebrate remains of
Equus nomadicus, Bos nomadicus, Hexaprotodon palaeindicus, Elephas hysu-
dricus, Stegodon insignis-ganesa (Joshi et al. 1978), Cervus sp., Cervus duvauceli,
and Rhinocerosunicornis (Sahu 1988).

Son Valley

The Son valley is well documented for having preservations of diverse paleoclimatic
proxies including fauna and artifacts in the gravel bed and loose and stratified sandy
to silty clay lithounits. The reports of both lithic and vertebrate remains have been
made from various locations lying along the river course and tributaries of the Son
valley, of which, 7 vertebrate remains bearing sites are Kharabara, Ramnagar,
Baghor, Tariha Dhaba, Odara, Baliar, and Pawariah (Blumenschine and
Chattopadhyaya 1983). Initially, Blumenschine and Chattopadhyaya (1983)
reported the bones from coarse member of the Baghor Formation developed between
Patpara and Baghor localities; however, identification was very difficult even in both
254 A. Singh et al.

field and laboratory due to calcified gravel material on the remains. As a result, they
have been unable to report 70% of specimens; however, asserted their ages to be
terminal Pleistocene. On the basis of a large collection of fauna and their analyses,
Blumenschine and Chattopadhyaya (1983) opined arid climatic conditions during
terminal Pleistocene glacial maximum that supports mosaic vegetation of grass to
woodland over the floodplains. Later on, Badam (1989) added more fossiliferous
localities, including Ramdiha, Doraon, Kunjhar, Baghor, and Khunteli and agreed
with the paleoenvironmental conditions proposed by Blumenschine and
Chattopadhyaya (1983) with the assertion of the presence of a swampy environment
in the Son valley. Based on the occurrence of ostriches’ eggshell fossils in the basin
area, Badam (2005) further supported the hypothesis of Blumenschine and
Chattopadhyaya regarding arid climatic conditions in Central India during terminal
Pleistocene.
Sahu (1988) reported certain vertebrate remains from the Belan and Son valleys,
i.e., Elephas indicus, Hippopotamus palaeoindicus, Bos sp., Bubalus sp., Cervus,
and Ovidae/Capridae and added his contribution toward diversity among the animal
masses during Upper Pleistocene period based on findings of remains of diverse
animals. In the successive years, Badam (1989) carried out extensive studies in the
Son river basin and reported vertebrate remains from the interface of Baghor and
Patapra formations, including remains of Bos namadicus, Bibos gaurus, Hippopot-
amus sp., Equus sp., Cervus sp., and Axis axis/porcinus. Again, Badam (2005)
collected the rich assemblage of fauna from Baghor Formation and opined remains
of Bos namadicus, Bos/Bibosgaurus, Bubalus sp., Antilope cervicapra, Bos elaphus
tragocamelus, Tetracero squadricornis, Gazella gazella, Axis axis, Cervus unicolor,
Cervus duvauceli, Muntiacus muntjak, Sus sp., Hippopotamus sp., Rhinoceros
sp. Equus namadicus, Equus asinus/hemionus, Elephas sp., Panthera
sp. andsomeother carnivores.

Godavari Valley

The Godavari valley occupies the largest area of the Godavari basin and is the
longest river in India, with a 1400 km long river course that stretches from its origin
at Trimbek place in Western Ghat of Nasik District, Maharashtra to the Bay of
Bengal, where it debouches in it (Chauhan 2008). The Godavari river basin princi-
pally consists of sediments transported by more than ten major and minor tributaries
running off over the flat floodplains of the Daccam Trap and surrounded by Balaghat
ranges and Ajanta hills (Saraf and Regulwar 2016). Certain localities, viz.,
Gangapur, Nandur and Paithan, Chirki, Hathiwell, Mula dam, and Yeldari dam in
respect of vertebrate remains have been investigated by Badam (1989) and thor-
oughly reviewed by Chauhan (2008). Badam (1989) reported the faunal remains of
Bos nomadicus, Bos sp., Elephas, Elephas sp., Equus, Bubalus bubalis, Elephas
hysudricus, Stegodon insignis, Elephas nomadicus, Elephas antiquus,
11 A Review Study on Youngest Toba Tuff Ash, Artifacts and Vertebrate. . . 255

Hippopotamus palaeoindicus, and Equus nomadicus and suggested the existence of

various diverse animal communities in the basin area during Late Pleistocene.

Ganga Valley

The Ganga valley, a pious river in India, forms the Ganga river basin believed to be
produced by the India-Asia collision. It is joined by several major tributaries
originating from Himalaya, viz., Yamuna, Ramganga, Ghaghra, Gandak, Kosi,
and Tista and merges into the Bay of Bengal after occupying the world’s largest
alluvial plains (Srivastava and Shukla 2009). Apart from these tributaries, the several
rivers, viz., Chambal, Son, Yen Betwa, and Punpun flowing over the Indian cratons
and Deccan Basalt terrain also join the same and make a significant junction of
Quaternary deposits (Sinha et al. 2005; Srivastava and Shukla 2009). It is highly
documented for having a thick pile of Quaternary sediments preserving various
climate controlled intermediaries represented primarily by calcretes, artifacts and
vertebrate remains (Singh et al. 1999). The vertebrate remains reported from the
basin area comprise hippopotamus, camel, Stegodon sp., Stegodon insignis, and
Palaeoloxodon nomadicus (Verma et al. 1998). Singh et al. (1999) traced out faunal
remains at Kalpi locality of the Yemuna River and identified them as shoulder blade
and tusk of elephant, molars of equus, bovids, bos, etc., in close vicinity of human
occupation at the same locality.

Krishna Valley

The Krishna valley, a less attempted river basin for a thorough paleontological
investigation, originates from the Western Ghat at Mahabaleshwar plateau in Maha-
rashtra state and drains southeastern for 1400 km before debouching into the Bay of
Bengal. The Krishna basin named after the Krishna river comprises approximately
8 sub basins and 13 tributaries, in which major rivers include Ghatprabha,
Malprabha, Bhima, and Tungbhadra (Harini et al. 2018). The credit to carry out
first paleontological studies in the same basin area goes to Foote’s (1876) who
reported vertebrate assemblage from Chikdauli area and identified them as Bos
namadicus and Rhinoceros deccanensis. After finding a 35 ka year-old elephant
tusk near Dhom Dam, Badam (1985, 1989) concluded that the fauna assemblages in
this basin area are relatively less explored probably due to lack of effort of a bias
survey and taphonomic investigation.

Tarafeni Valley, West Bengal

The Tarafeni valley, a lesser known paleontological area of interest, is the tributary
of the Kansavati River that starts flowing from Midnapur District of West Bengal. It
is surrounded by the hills of Bankura in the northwestern part and flows over the
256 A. Singh et al.

Precambrian terrain (Basak et al. 1998). The vertebrate remains found from this river
basin area go back to the nineteenth century, even though minor assemblages were
discovered by Ghosh and Majumdar (1981, 1991). Later on, Badam (2000) carried
out systematic investigations in the same valley near the Dhuliapur area and found
preserved remnants of Equus sp., Bos nomadicus, Axia/axia, Antilope, cervicapra
along with fragments of turtule carapaces. She dated the same and opined their
period of existence in the basin area during late/terminal Pleistocene vis-a-vis in
relation to the geology and archeology. Based on fossil studies, Badam (2000)
concluded that the area had witnessed savannah vegetation, water pools, grasslands
over the foothills and hard ground in the water sheet under the sub-humid climate.

Kurnool Caves

The Kurnool caves are very famous for deposition of Late Pleistocene-Holocene
sediments and preserving faunal remains of various animal species and lithic arti-
facts therein. They are situated in the Betamcherla town of Kurnool district of
Andhra Pradesh (Patnaik et al. 2008). The first discovery of the fossil remains was
made by Newbold (1844) at Billa Surgam cave followed by Foote’s and his son.
Later on, various studies were made in reference to searching for vertebrate remains
and their systematic investigations. Murty (1985) and Ansari (1999-2000) pointed
out charred bodies of mammal remains in the cave and asserted that the small
animals Hystrix indica and Lepus nigiricollis would have been slaughtered for
consumption. Based on the presence of fossil remains belonging to Antilope
cervicapra, Gazella gazella, Cervus unicolor, Boselaphus tragocamelus, ursus,
Bos and Bubalus, Badam (1979) went on to state that the area had witnessed
vegetation represented exceptionally by scrub to tall grasses and forests with gullies
of grasslands during Upper Pleistocene period. The report of large fossil assemblage
after foot’s (1984) was carried out by Raju and Venkatasubbaiah (2001a, b) and
identified them as Semnopithecus entellus, Felis tigris/leo, Felis chaus, Felis
rubiginosa, Hyaena crocuta, Vivera karnulensis, Rhinoceros karnulensis, Bos or
Bubalus, Equus asinus, Boselaphus tragocamelus, Antilope cervipara, Gazella
bennetti, Cervus axis or Axis axis, Sus cristatus, Ursus, Presbytisentellus, and
Capra/Ovis sp. Deshpandey-Mukherjee (2005) reported the vertebrate fauna of
Rhinoceros from the same area and asserted that the same basin might have
witnessed a swampy environment during Upper Pleistocene period.
11 A Review Study on Youngest Toba Tuff Ash, Artifacts and Vertebrate. . . 257

Vegetational Scenario and Mortality of Animals During

the Quaternary Period

The literature survey published on the animal remains in the Quaternary deposits and
their mortalities in the above mentioned river basins suggest the existence of
diversified fauna, vegetation, i.e., grasslands to deep forests and paleoenvironment,
i.e., water pools to swamp during the Late Pleistocene to Holocene period. Certain
researchers, viz., Badam, Patanik, Murthy, Ansari, Raju, and Venkatasubbaiah, etc.,
have pointed out the extinction of animal communities due to extensive hunting by
the ancient humans and climatic fluctuations in the Indian Subcontinent. It has been
noted that almost all of the river basins preserve the distal volcanic ash of Youngest
Toba Tuff eruption, Indonesia, in close associations of the vertebrate remains. The
same eruption is considered to have destroyed the vegetation and life of animals and
forced them to migrate from one place to another, by inducing a long volcanic winter
and acid rains (Ambrose 1998; Rampino and Ambrose 2000). The assertion of
Ambrose about the complete destruction of living media in Southeast Asia was
countered by Harcouth-Smith (2003), Oppenhemeir (2002) and Roberst et al. (2014)
based on the findings of fossil, insect, and archeological remains from the post-
tephra successions and asserted partial impact of the YTT. Similarly, our study also
suggests partial or negligible impacts of the YTT ash on the animal community as
evident by continuity in the population in India throughout from Late Pleistocene to
Holocene period.

Conclusions

1. The YTT tephra is uncovered in the form of lenticles, elongated beds, and thick
pockets in several river basins of south, western and central India, primarily in
stratified, sandy to silty clay lithounits. Given its bedding geometries, deposi-
tional and sedimentological attributes, it has been viewed as primary and second-
ary ash and suggests calm and low energy fluvial environments in the
subcontinent during tephra accumulations in the basins.
2. It is well recorded that the ash caused volcanic cooling and acid rains for a
considerable period that wreaked havoc on vegetation, animals, and hominids life
and forced them to migrate from Africa to other continents via a southern route.
However, it is disputed among the scientific community, for example, Rampino
and Self (1992) and Ambrose (1998) believe that the impact of the eruption was
extremely powerful enough to create hostile conditions for living masses and
vegetation, whereas Gathorny-Hardy and Hardcourt-Smith (2003), Oppenheimer
(2003) and Singh and Srivastava (2021, 2022) argue against aforementioned
hypotheses and suggest that the YTT had no effects on the mass populations
and vegetation. Furthermore, based on the study of rhizospheres from the Purna
alluvial basin, Singh and Srivastava (2020a, b, 2022) reported the existence of
258 A. Singh et al.

mixed C3 and C4 vegetation in the Indian subcontinent prior, during, and after the
YTT eruption.
3. Despite the above controversies, the ash in India is thought to be YTT based on its
geochemical and chronological examinations; however, certain studies disagree.
The geochemical investigation of the glass shards, collected from Son and Jurreru
valley by Smith et al. (2011), show good compatibility with the OTT. Similarly,
the geochronological data, obtained by Westway et al. (2011) and Srivastava and
Singh (2021) using 40Ar/39Ar technique on the glass shards, reveal good corre-
lations with the age of the OTT. Nevertheless, recent studies carried out by
Westgate et al. (2013), Pearce et al. (2014), and Srivastava and Singh
(2020a, b), made a clear distinction between YTT and OTT, implying that the
ash in the Indian Peninsula belongs to the YTT rather than OTT.
4. The artifacts belonging to the Middle Paleolithic to Microlithic period have been
retrieved from the pre- and post-YTT ash strata exposed in various river basins of
India indicating continuity in the hominid populations and changes in the lithic
technologies after the eruption. These lithic industries are consistent with the
Middle Paleolithic artifacts of Africa suggesting migration of humans in India
from the distal places.
5. The vertebrate remains found in the calcretized gravel beds exposed as pre-YTT
column in several river basins have been identified as the remnants of the majority
of herbaceous animal populations that existed during Late Pleistocene to Holo-
cene, indicating a continuity in the mass community and the existence of small to
tall vegetation, swamp, and water pool environments in India during the aforesaid
period.

Acknowledgements This work has been carried out under the financial support provided by
Science and Engineering Research Board (SERB), New Delhi, India, in the form of major research
project (SB/S4/ES-692/2013) awarded to AKS.

References

Acharya SK, Basu PK (1993) Toba ash on the Indian subcontinent and its implications for
correlations of late Pleistocene alluvium. Quat Res 40(1):10–19
Ambrose SH (1998) Late Pleistocene human population, bottlenecks, volcanic winter, and differ-
entiation of modern humans. J Hum Evol 34:623–651
Ansari S (1999-2000) Small game hunting Musahars: an ethnoarchaeological approach. Puratattva
30:142–150
Badam GL (1979) Pleistocene Fauna of India. Deccan College Postgraduate and Research
Institute, Pune
Badam GL (1985) Palaeontology of the Krishna Basin with special reference to Karnataka.
Archaeology in Karnataka, papers presented at the National Seminar in archaeology. Directorate
of Archaeology and Museums, Mysore, pp. 58–66
Badam GL (1989) Observations on the fossil hominid site at Hathnora, Madhya Pradesh, India. In:
Sahni A, Gaur R (eds) Perspectives in human evolution. Renaissance Publishing House, Delhi,
pp 153–172
11 A Review Study on Youngest Toba Tuff Ash, Artifacts and Vertebrate. . . 259

Badam GL (2000) Pleistocene vertebrate palaeontology in India at the threshold of the millennium.
J Palaeontol Soc India 45:1–24
Badam GL (2005) A note on the ostrich in India since the Miocene. Man and Environment 30(2):
97–104
Badam GL, Sathe V (1995) Palaeontological research in India: retrospect and prospect. In: Wadia S,
Korisettar R, Kale VS (eds) Quaternary environments and geoarchaeology of India, vol 32.
Essays in Honour of Professor S.N. Rajaguru. Memoirs of the Geological Society of India,
Bangalore, pp 473–495
Basak B, Badam GL, Kshirsagar A, Rajaguru SN (1998) Late quaternary environment,
palaeontology and culture of Tarafeni valley, Midnapur District, West Bengal—a preliminary
study. J Geol Soc India 51:731–740
Biswas RH, Williams MAJ, Raj R, Juyal N, Singhvi AK (2013) Methodological studies on
luminescence dating of volcanic ash. Quat Geochronol 17:14–25
Blinkhorn J, Smith VC, Achyuthan H, Shipton C, Jones S, Ditchfield P, Petraglia MD (2014)
Discovery of youngest Toba tuff localities in the Sagileru valley, South India, in association
with Palaeolithic industries. Quat Sci Rev 105:239–243
Blumenschine RJ, Chattopadhyaya UC (1983) A preliminary report on the terminal Pleistocene
Fauna of the middle Son Valley. In: Sharma GR, Clark JD (eds) Palaeoenvironments and
prehistory of the middle Son Valley, Madhya Pradesh, North Central India. Abinash Prakashan,
Allahabad, pp 281–284
Chamyal LS, Khadkikar AS, Malik JN, Maurya DM (1997) Sedimentology of the Narmada alluvial
fan, Western India. Sediment Geol 107:263–279
Chauhan PR (2008) Large mammal fossil occurrences and associated archaeological evidence in
Pleistocene contexts of peninsular India and Sri Lanka. Quat Int 192:20–42
Chesner CA, Rose WI, Deino A, Drake R, Westgate JA (1991) Eruptive history of the earth’s
largest quaternary caldera (Toba, Indonesia) clarified. Geology 19:200–203
Clarkson C, Jones S, Harris C (2012) Continuity and change in the lithic industries of the Jurreru
Valley, India, before and after the Toba eruption. Quat Int 258:165–179
Clarkson C, Harris C, Li B, Neudorf C, Roberts M, Richard G, Lane C, Norman K, Pal JN, Jones S,
Shipton C, Koshy J, Gupta MC, Mishra DP, Dubey AK, Boivin N, Petraglia M (2020) Human
occupation of northern India spans the Toba super-eruption ~74,000 years ago. Nat Commun
11:961. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-020-14668-4
Deshpande-Mukherjee A, Murty MLK, Badam GL (2005) Terrestrial gastropod shell assemblage
from the Mesolithic cave site of Muchchatla Chintamanu Gavi in the Kurnool District, Andhra
Pradesh. Man and Environment 30(1):86–93
Deshpande-Mukherjee A, Prova KK, Meshram P, Bhoyar A, Thakur A, Sontakke V (2014) A study
of the animal remains from the early historic settlement of Chandankhera, district Chandrapur,
Maharashtra. Bulletin of the Deccan College Research Institute 74:63–72
Diehl JF, Onstott TC, Chesner CA, Knight MD (1987) No short reversals of Brunhes age recorded
in the Toba tuffs, North Sumatra, Indonesia. Geophysical Research Letter 14:753–756
Gasparotto G, Spadafora E, Summa V, Tateo F (2000) Contribution of grain size and compositional
data from the Bengal Fan sediment to the understanding of Toba volcanic event. Mar Geol
162(2–4):561–572
Gathorne-Hardy FJ, Harcourt-Smith WEH (2003) The super-eruption of Toba, did it cause a human
bottleneck? J Hum Evol 45:227–230
Gatti E, Durand AJ, Gibbard PL, Oppenheimer C (2011) Youngest Toba tuff in the son valley,
India: a weak and discontinuous stratigraphic marker. Quaternary Science Reviews 30:3925–
3934
Gatti E, Saidin M, Talib K, Rashidi N, Gibbard P, Oppenheimer C (2013) Depositional processes of
reworked tephra from the late Pleistocene youngest Toba tuff deposits in the Lenggong Valley,
Malaysia. Quat Res 79(2):228–241. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yqres.2012.11.006
Geethanjali K, Achyuthan H, Jaiswal MK (2019) The Toba tephra as a late quaternary stratigraphic
marker: investigations in the Sagileru river basin, Andhra Pradesh, India. Quat Int 513:107–123
260 A. Singh et al.

Ghosh RN, Majumder S (1981) Neogene-Quaternary sequence of Kasai Basin, West Bengal, India,
Proc. Field Conf Neogene-Quaternary Boundary, India, 1979, (Ed.) Sastri et al., Geol Surv India
pp. 63–73
Ghosh RN, Majumdar S (1991) Geology and morphostratigraphy of West Bengal: a database for
archaeological exploration. In: Datta A (ed) Studies in archaeology: papers presented in memory
of P.C Dasgupta. Books and Books, New Delhi, pp 7–37
Harini P, Sahadevan DK, Das IC, Manikyamba C, Durgaprasad MB, Nandan MJ (2018) Regional
groundwater assessment of Krishna River basin using integrated GIS approach. Journal of the
Indian Society of Remote Sensing 46:1365–1377
Harpending HC, Sherry ST, Rogers AR, Stoneking M (1993) The genetic structure of ancient
human populations. Curr Anthropol 34:483–496
Haslama M, Harris C, Clarkson C, Pal JN, Shipton C, Crowthera A, Koshy J, Bora J, Ditchfield P,
Rame HP, Price K, Dubey AK, Petraglia M (2012) Dhaba: an initial report on an Acheulean,
middle Palaeolithic and microlithic locality in the middle Son Valley, north-Central India. Quat
Int 258:191–199
Jayaprakash C, Jayakumar R, Dinesh AC, Maran N, Shareef NM (2009) Tephra from quaternary
sediments of western slope of Lakshadweep ridge, Arabian Sea. Curr Sci 97(11):1670–1674
Jones SC (2010) Palaeoenvironment response to the ~74 Toba ash-fall in the Jurreru and Middle
Son valleys in southern and north-central India. Quat Res 73:336–350
Joshi PM (2020) Palaeolithic occupation and cultural transition in the Wainganga River basin,
India. Antiquity 94:300–322
Joshi RV, Badam GL, Pandey RP (1978) Fresh data on the quaternary animal fossils and stone age
cultures from the Central Narmada Valley, India. Asian Perspect 21(2):164–181
Joshi RV, Badam GL, Pandey RP (1980) Late Pleistocene animal fossils and stone age cultures in
upper Mahanadi Valley, M.P. The Eastern Anthropologist 33(2):169–175
Khatri AP (1966) The Pleistocene mammalian fossils of the Narmada river valley and their
horizons. Asian Perspect 9:113–133
Korisettar R, Mishra S, Rajaguru SN, Gogte VD, Ganjoo RK, Venkatesan TR, Tandon SK,
Somayajulu BLK, Kale VS (1988) Age of the Bori volcanic ash and lower Palaeolithic culture
of the Kukdi valley, Maharashtra. Bulletin Deccan College and Research Institute 48:135–138
Krishnan G, Achyuthan H (2019) Incipient weathering of the 74ka young Toba tuff (YTT) biotite
grains, Sagileru Valley, Andhra Pradesh. J Geol Soc India 94, 573–578 https://doi.org/10.1007/
s12594-019-1362-y
Lane CS, Chorn BT, Johnson TC (2013) Ash from the Toba supereruption in Lake Malawi shows
no volcanic winter in East Africa at 75 ka. Proceeding of the National Academy of Science of
the Unites States of America 110(20):8025–8029
Liu Z, Colin C, Trentesaux A (2006) Major elements geochemistry of glass shards and minerals of
the youngest Toba Tephra in the southwestern South China Sea. J Asian Earth Sci 27:99–107
Mark DF, Petraglia M, Smith VC, Morgan LE, Barfod D, Ellis B, Pearce NJ, Pal JN, Korisettar R
(2014) A high precision 40Ar/39Ar age for the young Toba Tuff and dating of ultra-distal tephra:
forcing of quaternary climate and implications for hominin occupations if India. Quat
Geochronol 21(1):90–103
Mishra S (2016) The Narmada River in Indian prehistory. In: Dr. a.P. Khatri memorial lecture,
delivered on 17th December 2015, Hyderabad
Mishra S, Venkatesan TR, Rajaguru SN, Somayajulu BLK (1995) Earliest Acheulian industry from
peninsular India. Curr Anthropol 36:847–851
Murthy MLK (1985) Late Pleistocene Fauna of Kurnool caves, South India. In: Clason AT
(ed) Archaezoological studies. Special publication, North Holland Publishing Company,
Amsterdam and New York, pp 132–138
Neudorf CM, Roberts RG, Jacobs Z (2014) Testing a model of alluvial deposition in the middle Son
Valley, Madhya Pradesh, India—IRSL dating of terraced alluvial sediments and implications
for archaeological surveys and palaeoclimatic reconstructions. Quat Sci Rev 89:56–69
11 A Review Study on Youngest Toba Tuff Ash, Artifacts and Vertebrate. . . 261

Newbold TJ (1844) Notes on the osseous breccia and deposit in the caves of Billasurgam, southern
India. Journal Asiatic Society of Bengal 13(2):610–615
Nishimura S, Yojoyama T, Wirasantosa S, Dharma A (1977) Danau Toba – the outline of Lake
Toba, North Sumatra, Indonesia: Paleolimnology of Lake Biwa. Japan Pleistocene 5:313–332
Oppenheimer C (2002) Limited global change due to the largest known quaternary eruption, Toba
≈74 kyr BP? Quat Sci Rev 21:1593–1609
Oppenheimer C (2003) Climatic, environmental and human consequences of the largest known
historic eruption: Tambora volcano (Indonesia) 1815. Prog Phys Geogra 27(2):230–259
Patnaik R, Badam GL, Murty MK (2008) Additional vertebrate remains from one of the late
Pleistocene—Holocene Kurnool caves (Muchchatla Chintamanu Gavi) of South India. Quat
Int 192:43–51
Patnaik R, Chauhan PR, Rao MR, Blackwell BA, Skinner AR, Sahni A, Chauhan MS, Khan H
(2009) New geochronological, paleoclimatological, and archaeological data from the Narmada
Valley hominin locality, central India. J Hum Evol 56(2):114–133
Pattan JN, Pearce NJG, Banakar VK, Parthiban G (2002) Origin of ash in the central Indian Ocean
Basin and its implications for the volume estimate of the 74,000 year BP youngest Toba
eruption. Curr Sci 83(7):889–893
Pearce NJ, Westgate JA, Gatti E, Pattan JN, Parthiban G, Achyuthan H (2014) Individual glass
shard trace element analyses confirm that all known Toba tephra reported from India is from the
c. 75-ka youngest Toba eruption. J Quat Sci 29:729–734
Petraglia M, Korisetter R, Boivin N, Clarkson C, Ditchfield P, Jones S, Koshy J, Lahr M,
Oppnheimer C, Pyle D, Roberts R, Schwenninger J, Arnold L, White K (2007) Middle
Paleolithic assemblage from the Indian subcontinent before and after the Toba super-eruption.
Science 317:114–116
Petrglia M, Ditchfield PS, Jones SC, Korisetter R, Pal JN (2012) The Toba volcanic super-eruption,
environment change, and hominin occupation history in India over the last 140,000 years. Quat
Int 258:119–134
Raj R (2008) Occurrence of volcanic ash in the quaternary alluvial deposits, lower Narmada basin,
western India. J Earth Sys Sci 117(1):41–48
Raju DR, Venkatasubbaiah PC (2001a) Late Pleistocene Fauna from Kurnool caves. In: Settar S,
Korisettar R (eds) Indian archeology in retrospect-prehistory, vol 1. Manohar and Indian
Council of Historical Research, New Delhi Appendix I
Raju DR, Venkatasubbaiah PC (2001b) Late Pleistocene Fauna from Kurnool caves. In: Settar S,
Korisettar R (eds) Indian archeology in retrospect-prehistory volume 1. Manohar and Indian
Council of Historical Research, New Delhi Appendix I
Rampino MR, Ambrose SH (2000) In: McCoy FW, Heiken G (eds) Volcanic winter in the Garden
of Eden: the Toba supereruption and the late Pleistocene human population crash, vol 345.
Volcanic Hazards and Disasters in Human Antiquity: Geological Society of America, Special
Paper, pp 71–82
Rampino MR, Self S (1992) Volcanic winter and accelerated glaciation following the Toba
supereruption. Nature 359:50–52
Roberts P, Delson E, Miracle P, Ditchfield P, Roberts RG, Jacobs Z, Blinkhorn J, Ciochon RL,
Fleagle JG, Frost SR (2014) Continuity of mammalian over the last 200,000 y in the Indian
subcontinent. Proceeding National Academy Science of the United States of America 111(15):
5848–5853
Rose WI, Chesner CA (1987) Dispersal of ash in the great Toba eruption. Geology 15:913–917
Sahu BP (1988) From hunters to breeders. Anamika Prakashan, Delhi
Saraf VR, Regulwar DG (2016) Assessment of climate change for precipitation and temperature
using statistical downscaling methods in upper Godavari River Basin, India. Journal of Water
Resource and Protection 08:31–45
Schulz H, Emeis KC, Erlenkeuser H, Rad U, Rolf C (2002) The Toba volcanic event and
interstadial/stadial climates at the marine isotopic stage 5 to 4 transition in the Northern
Indian Ocean. Quat Res 57:22–31
262 A. Singh et al.

Singh IB (1980) Precambrian sedimentary sequences of India; their peculiarities and comparison
with modern sediments. Precambrian Res 12(1–4):411–436
Singh IB, Srivastava P, Sharma S, Sharma M, Singh DS, Rajagopalan G, Shukla U (1999) Upland
interfluve (Doab) deposition: alternative model to muddy overbank deposits. Facies 40:197–210
Singh A, Muhammad RFBH, Taib NI, Jha D, Srivastava AK (2021a) Surface texture, mineralogy
and stable isotope studies of nodular calcretes preserved in the YTT ash of Padang Terap river
basin and lenggong valley, peninsular Malaysia: implications in its origin and paleoclimatic
reconstruction. Rhizosphere 19:100380
Singh A, Srivastava AK (2021b). Rhizosphere: a fascinating paleovegetational and paleoclimatic
new intermediary in the quaternary fluvio-lacustrine set-up of the Purna alluvial basin, Central
India. Rhizosphere 20(2), 100430
Singh A, Srivastava AK (2022) Had youngest Toba tuff (YTT, ca. 75 ka) eruption really destroyed
living media explicitly in entire Southeast Asia or just a theoretical debate? An extensive review
of its catastrophic event. J Asian Earth Sci X. 7:100083
Singh A, Srivastava AK, Chauhan N (2022) Luminescence dating and bracketing time of the
youngest Toba tuff deposits in the quaternary sediments of Purna Alluvial Basin, Central India. J
Earth Sci, 33, 1007–1016.
Sinha R, Jain V, Babu GP, Ghosh S (2005) Geomorphic characterization and diversity of the fluvial
systems of the Gangetic Plains. Geomorphology 70:207–225
Smith VC, Pearce NJG, Matthews NE, Westgate JA, Petraglia M, Haslam M, Lane CS,
Korisettar R, Pal JN (2011) Geochemical fingerprinting of the widespread Toba tephra using
biotite compositions. Quat Int 246:97–104
Sonakia A (1984) The skull-cap of early man and associated mammalian fauna from Narmada
Valley alluvium, Hoshnagabad area, Madhya Pradesh (India). Geological Survey of India
113(6):159–172
Srivastava AK, Kale VM (2010) Sediment characteristics and depositional environment of Purna
alluvial basin, Maharashtra. Gondwana Geological Magazine, Special Publication 12(1):
293–302
Srivastava P, Shukla UK (2009) Quaternary evolution of the Ganga River system: new quartz ages
and a review of luminescence chronology. Himal Geol 30:85–94
Srivastava AK, Singh A (2019a) YTT ash from quaternary sediments of Kapileshwar area, Purna
alluvial basin, Central India. Quat Int 500:96–107
Srivastava AK, Singh A (2019b) Nature, occurrence and lithological set-up of the Youngest Toba
Tuff volcanic ash, Purna alluvial basin, Central India. The Journal of Geol 127:593–610
Srivastava AK, Singh A (2020a) Lithological, physical and chemical attributes of primary volcanic
ash of YTT, Purna alluvial basin, Central India. Geol J 55(10):7011–7023
Srivastava AK, Singh A (2020b) Weathering pattern of youngest Toba Tuff, Purna alluvial basin,
Central India. Arab J Geosci 13:607. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12517-020-05641-y
Srivastava AK, Singh A (2021a) Geochemistry and Constrained 40Ar/39Ar dating of Youngest
Toba Tuff glass shards, Purna alluvial basin, Central India. Journal Earth System Science 130.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s12040-020-01513-x
Srivastava AK, Singh A (2021b) Rhizosphere: A fascinating paleovegetational and paleoclimatic
new intermediary in the Quaternary fluvio-lacustrine set-up of the Purna alluvial basin, central
India. Rhizosphere 20(2), 100430.
Srivastava AK, Singh A, Muhammad RF, Pattan J, Sharma N (2019) Geochemical characterization
and regional correlation of youngest Toba tuff (YTT, 75 ka) glass shards, Purna alluvial basin,
Central India. Arabian Journal of Geoscience 14(19) https://doi.org/10.1007/s12517-021-
07848-z.
Theobold W (1860) On tertiary and alluvial deposits of the central portion of the Narmada valley.
Memoirs of the Geological Survey of India 14(1):66–125
Timmereck C, Graf H-F, Zanchettin D, Hagemann S, Kleinen T, Krüger K (2012) Climate response
to the Toba super-eruption: regional changes. Quat Int 258:30–44
11 A Review Study on Youngest Toba Tuff Ash, Artifacts and Vertebrate. . . 263

Tiwari MP, Bhai HY, Varade AM (2010) Stratigraphy and tephra beds of the Purna quaternary
basin, Maharashtra, India. Gondwana Geological Magazine 12:283–292
Tripathy KC (1972) South Orissa prehistory-the first record of stone age tools. Asian Perspect 15:
47–59
Verma BC, Mishra VP, Kumar U (1998) Discovery of early quaternary vertebrate fossils beneath
the Ganga River bed at Bhagalpur, Bihar: their age and biostratigraphic implications. J
Palaeontol Soc India 43:35–40
Westgate JA, Shane PAR, Pearce NJG, Perkins WT, Korisetter R, Chesner CA, Williams MAJ,
Acharyya SK (1998) All Toba tephra occurrences across peninsular India belong to the
75,000 yr B.P. eruption. Quat Res 50:107–112
Westgate JA, Pearce NJ, Perkins WT, Preece SJ, Chesner CA, Muhammad RF (2013)
Tephrochronology of the Toba tuffs: four primary glass populations define the 75-ka youngest
Toba Tuff, northern Sumatra, Indonesia. J Quat Sci 28:772–776
Westway R, Mishra S, Deo S, Bridgland DR (2011) Methods for determination of the age of
Pleistocene tephra, derived from eruption of Toba, in central India. Journal of Earth System
Science 120:503–530
Williams MAJ, Royce K (1982) Quaternary geology of the middle Son valley, north central India:
implications for prehistoric archaeology. Palaegeography Palaeoclimatology Palaeoecology 38:
139–162
Williams MAJ, Ambrose SH, Van der Kaars S, Ruehlemann C, Chattopadhyaya U, Pal J, Chauhan
PR (2009) Environmental impact of the 73 ka Toba super-eruption in South Asia.
Palaegeography Palaeoclimatology Palaeoecology 284:295–314
Chapter 12
Active Tectonics–Climate Interaction
in the Structural Depo-Centres of Central
Indian Tectonic Zone (CITZ)

Snigdha Ghatak and Mriganka Ghatak

Abstract The Late Cenozoic period in the Central Indian Tectonic Zone (CITZ)
marked by several episodes of crustal adjustments resulted in the development of
various landforms, drainage anomalies and pedosedimentary successions. The fault
bound tectonic basins viz. Tapi, Purna and Narmada flanking the Satpura ranges
hold tell-tale evidence of varying climatic and tectonic regimes. This chapter sum-
marizes data from various literature, the Active Fault Mapping programme in CITZ
and the fluvial archives to unravel the role of the tectonics-climate feedback system
in shaping landscape architecture in and around the structurally controlled Quater-
nary River basins of Purna, Tapi and Narmada. The cumulative interactions between
the deformational events and ongoing surface processes are best witnessed by the
marker horizons, anomalous river courses, basin geometry, hill slopes and elevation
characteristics and the way these have influenced its depositional environment. The
study suggests that repeated reactivation of older crustal-scale faults under different
stress regimes have been a guiding factor in landform evolution in CITZ. While
tectonics holds the primary key to the overall landscape development and sedimen-
tation, peninsular climatic or microclimatic variations have equally been significant
as palaeo-climatic proxies mimic all India monsoon scenarios.

Keywords Cenozoic period · Sedimentary basins · Soil chronostratigraphy ·

Drainage anomalies · Climate amelioration

Introduction

The tectonic activity in the Cenozoic period of Earth’s history has contributed to the
modification of the geography of Asia through the collision between the Indian and
Eurasian plates resulting in the formation of the highest (5 km and above msl)
mountain chain and most extensive plateau representing the present-day greatest

S. Ghatak (*) · M. Ghatak

Geological Survey of India, Kolkata, West Bengal, India
e-mail: [email protected]

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 265
N. Khare (ed.), Science, Policies and Conflicts of Climate Change, Springer Climate,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-16254-1_12
266 S. Ghatak and M. Ghatak

topographic relief – the Himalaya. Scientific investigations suggest that the uplift of
the Himalayas and Tibetan Plateau (HTP) caused the intensification of the Asian
monsoon through several physical effects (Molnar et al. 1993). For example,
physical and chemical weathering induced by this seasonal variation has caused
enhanced drawdown of atmospheric CO2 and resulted in global cooling since
ca. 45 Ma in different spells (Raymo 1991). The variations in the intensity of the
Indian monsoon (Overpeck et al. 1996) played a very significant role in the sedi-
mentary as well as surface processes in the Indian Subcontinent. These were aided
by tectonics driven changes in the source and the sink regions. The evolutionary
history of the Asian monsoon has been intensively studied both on land and in
marginal seas but attempts to integrate the terrestrial and marine data are still
insufficient.
Effects of monsoon proxies preserved in oceanic phytoplanktons, zooplanktons
and continental proxies that include tree rings, soils, ice and lake deposits have also
been well studied (Kroon et al. 1991; Patnaik et al. 2012). Several site-specific and
basin-specific studies were undertaken in the Ganga plain (Srivastava et al.
2003a, b, c, Gibling et al. 2005, Sharma et al. 2004, Singh 2005, Sinha et al.
2007, Williams et al. 2006), sedimentary basins of western Peninsular India (Jain
and Tandon 2003; Juyal et al. 2004; Juyal et al. 2006; Chamyal et al. 2003; Raj 2007;
Bhandari et al. 2005, south Indian River basins (Thomas et al. 2007; Nagalakshmi
and Achyuthan 2004; Resmi and Achyuthan 2021) with an emphasis on the deter-
mination of the chronology of various geomorphic surfaces, climate, sedimentation
and soil chronostratigraphy, etc.
The Cenozoic Central Indian tectonic basins flanking the ENE-WSW trending
Satpuras are the repository of varied palaeoclimatic proxies viz. palaeosols or
pedisedimentary sequences and calcretes. Very few workers have addressed the
issue of tectonics-climate linkage in these basins. This gains importance as the
Late Cenozoic period in the Central Indian Tectonic Zone (CITZ) was marked by
several episodes of crustal adjustments. This is reflected in the development of
various landforms, drainage anomalies, pedosedimentary successions correlatable
to the regional or local tectonics and sedimentation pattern in the fault bound tectonic
basins viz. Tapi, Purna and Narmada on either side of the Satpura ranges. However,
the basic lithostratigraphic and morphostratigraphic formations of Central Indian
River basins and their correlation and chronology (Table 12.1) have been discussed
in a few earlier works (Tiwari 1999). Further, a large amount of data on soil climate
studies is available for parts of Central and Peninsular India, including the Purna
watershed (Pal et al. 1989, 2001). In these regions, climate amelioration is aided by
tectonic stability leading to stabilization of sediments, soil profile development and
activation of fluvial systems (Singhvi and Kar 2004). Conversely more arid episodes
can result in desiccation, decreased vegetation cover and mobilization of sediments
(Dhir et al. 2010). Depending on the slope and other dependent factors, flash flood
events or tectonic activity can trigger coarser sediment flux into the basins causing
termination in pedogenesis and incomplete soil profile development or preservation.
This chapter presents a synoptic view from available literature and data generated
in the course of the Active Fault (fault which has been active in Quaternary times,
 12

Table 12.1 Generalized stratigraphy

Narmada valley Purna valley Tapti valley Upper Wardha
(250–300 m) PM (425 m) PM (400 m) PM (25–30 m) Age
Ramnagar Formation Purna Formation/ Dark Dark grey silt formation/ Mengawadi Formation/ Holocene
grey silt formation Mehun Formations Wardha formation
Bauras Formation Holocene
Hirdepur Formation Kural Formation/ Light grey silt formation/ Bharaswada / Siri Lower Holocene to
Light grey silt Tahakali Formation Formation Upper Pleistocene
formation
Baneta Formation (Tephra: BN Kodori Formation/ BN Brown silt formation/ Belora/ Jamalpur Upper Pleistocene
Transported and in situ) Brown Silt Formation Kurkhali Formation Formation
(Tephra: in situ)
Simbhora Formation
Surajkund Formation BN Middle Pleistocene
Dhansi Formation BN- Vaghoi Formation/ Red BN- Red silt formation Mid. Pleistocene to
MR silt Formation MR Lower Pliestocene
Pilikarar Formation Ferruginised gravels Lower Pleistocene
and sands
Based on the Quaternary successions
Deccan Traps Basalt flows with associated Upper Cretaceous -
inter-trappean Eocene
Active Tectonics–Climate Interaction in the Structural Depo-Centres. . .

Lameta Formation Coarse sandstones, impure Cretaceous

carbonates
Upper Gondwana Group White clay, coarse-grained Triassic- Lower
sandstone Cretaceous
Granite mylonite Pink foliated granite mylonite Mesoproterozoic
After Tiwari (1999); PM Palaeomagnetic date, BN Bruhn’s Normal, MR Matuyama Reversal.
267
268 S. Ghatak and M. Ghatak

Michael 2000; Roy and Devarajan 2003) Mapping Programme (Devrajan et al.
2004; Ghatak et al. 2005, 2008; Ghatak and Ghatak 2010) in CITZ and the study
of fluvial archives to unravel the role of the tectonics-climate feedback system in
shaping landscape architecture in and around the structurally controlled Quaternary
River basins of Purna, Tapi and Narmada. The Quaternary deposits in the shallow
river basins of Godavari, Wardha, Waiganga, Hasdo, Mahanadi, Son and Chambal,
etc. (other than the upper Wardha valley) have been, however, referred to as
exclusively climatogenic (Tiwari 1999) and are kept beyond the purview of the
discussion.

Regional Geological Framework

Central Indian Tectonic Zone (CITZ) is a mobile belt and a group of crustal-scale
lineaments separating the Bundelkhand craton to its north and the Baster craton in
the south (Roy and Prasad 2003; Golani et al. 2001). CITZ is represented by a
collage of different lithotectonic terranes ranging from Archaean to Recent (Roy and
Devarajan 2001). The Satpura ranges situated in the intraplate ENE-WSW trending
(CITZ) (Acharyya and Roy 2000) are bound in the north and south by three major
seismogenic fault zones, namely Son Narmada South Fault (SNSF) in the north and
Gavilgarh Fault Zone (GFZ) and Tapi Fault Zone (TFZ) in the south, respectively
(Fig. 12.1). The present response of CITZ to accumulation of stress and attendant
seismicity is governed by the structures generated due to the early seismic history of
rocks within it (Acharyya and Roy 2000). This area has witnessed several earth-
quake events in the past and many of these faults on the map scale show unambig-
uous evidence of fault movement within the Quaternary period (Narula et al. 2000,
IMD data). Much of these fault movements have resulted in the upliftment of land
mass. However, the intraplate seismicity, fault geometry and kinematics in various
active fault zones and their relation to sedimentation have been studied by few and
there are significant gaps in the existing information. The primary reasons for this
can be attributed to scanty historical and instrumental data on regional seismicity and
lack of detailed geological studies and availability of marker horizons. However, the
major earthquakes in Peninsular Central India, viz., 1967 Koyna earthquake, 1993
Latur earthquake and the 1997 Jabalpur earthquake have brought into focus the
importance of seismotectonic appraisal of the major faults of the region. The area is
characterized by low magnitude events with a high return period which is charac-
teristic of the intraplate region. The generalised Quaternary stratigraphy in and
around the Tapi, Purna and Narmada basins and basement to Quaternary sediments
is at Table 12.1.
12 Active Tectonics–Climate Interaction in the Structural Depo-Centres. . . 269

Fig. 12.1 Regional map of the area showing major faults of CITZ, earthquake locations and
structurally controlled Quaternary basins. (Modified after Narula et al. 2000, Earthquake data
source: NCS, IMD and GSI, up to November 2021)

Gavilgarh Fault Zone Vis-à-Vis Sedimentation

in the Purna Basin

Geology-Geomorphology of Purna Basin

The crescent-shaped, semi-arid, Purna drainage basin, covering an area of 18,000

sq. km (approx.), is a fault-controlled depocentre hosting 425 m of supposed
Quaternary sediments (Ravi Shanker 1987). Although Purna is part of the Tapi
River watershed, the distinctive geological milieu of Purna qualifies for separate
discussion here.
Located to the north of Purna valley and as a western extension of the Tan shear,
the Gavilgarh Fault Zone along the south Satpura foothills runs for ~230 km
exposing an array of rocks ranging in age from Mesoproterozoic to Quaternary.
270 S. Ghatak and M. Ghatak

The oldest tectonically exhumed lithounit in the area are the granite mylonites of the
Mesoproteriozoic age in the easternmost part near Salbardi. This is overlain by other
tectonically exhumed units, viz., Upper Gondwana rocks, Lameta Group of rocks of
Permian to Cretaceous age and inter-trappean sandstone-limestone units. Deccan
Traps of the Upper Cretaceous to Eocene age overlies the Lameta Group of rocks
and form the dominant lithology in the study area. Earlier geological studies in the
area (Blanford 1869; Pradhan 1980; Rajurkar 1982; Saxena 1988; Ray and Rana
1989; Chandradas 1999; Tiwari et al. 2001) described the fault marking the base of
the Satpuras variously as Gavilgarh Fault, Ellichpur Fault, Salbardi Fault (Rajurkar
1982; Saxena 1988; GSI 2000). Purna River and its major tributaries emerging from
the mountain front have deposited a thick pile of sediments in the form of alluvial
fans during the Quaternary period.
The landforms in this intraplate area are predominantly denudational.
Geomorphologically, three broad zones: (1) faulting induced sinuous to straight
mountain fronts of Satpura hills and its steep slopes of comparatively higher relief
at the north, (2) zone of moderate relief with gentle slope, i.e., southern Ajanta
plateau and its pediments, south Satpura pediment, piedmont zone of the alluvial fan
of Purna and its tributaries in the north of the basin and (3) alluvial valley of low
relief between the northern mountain front and the southern Ajanta plateau,
(Fig. 12.2) characterize the Purna basin.
Terrain morphometry from a level sliced image brings out the salient mountain
scarp along the northern margin of the Purna and Wardha basin (Fig. 12.2) the height
of which decreases towards the west.
The cross-section shows the half-graben structure of the Purna basin on the
surface with a northern faulted margin, central depocentre and the southern margin
of the basin grading into the Ajanta plateau (Fig. 12.2b–d). In a terrain undergoing
tectonic uplift, the first geomorphic agents to be affected are the streams as their
courses are governed by the natural gradient of the area. Purna River originates from
Sawalmedha at the northeastern corner of the basin, flows in an axial course south of
the GFZ and finally joins Tapi River in the northwestern corner of the basin
(Fig. 12.2a). Higher-order transverse antecedent drainages join the Purna River
emanating from the northern mountain front. Many of the major rivers of the area
show structurally controlled abrupt changes in their courses, while lower-order
streams at the pediment zone are very closely and regularly spaced as the charac-
teristics of the streams are emerging from a tectonically active flank (Talling et al.
1997; Burbank and Anderson 2001; Ghatak et al. 2005). These features add to the
fact that the axial Purna River flows along a course distal to the mountain range,
which points towards an overall slow tectonic activity in the area (Burbank and
Anderson 2001). Further, aspect data displayed as a grey-scale image (Fig. 12.2e) is
independent of illumination parameters and helps in picking up the coalesced
palaeo-fan surfaces of Purna and other transverse tributaries lying south of GFZ.
12 Active Tectonics–Climate Interaction in the Structural Depo-Centres. . . 271

Fig. 12.2 (a) SRTM derived level slice map of Purna basin and adjacent areas showing general
geomorphology, micro-earthquake epicentres, fault location etc. (b–d) Digital cross-section across
Purna basin. ‘F’ denotes the location of faults in the profiles. For elevation classes and locations of
profiles refer to (a). (e) 3D perspective view of the terrain with aspect data draped on the DTM
272 S. Ghatak and M. Ghatak

Gavilgarh Fault Zone

GFZ runs primarily through Deccan Traps and cuts across the water divide of the
Purna and Wardha basins (Fig. 12.2a). Salient fault zone signatures help in tracing
the active faults in GFZ which otherwise runs through monotonous Deccan Trap
country. Ghatak and Ghatak 2010 in the course of active fault mapping brought out
segmented behaviours of GFZ along with the gaps, overlaps or offsets. The eastern-
most curvilinear (swerving from ENE-WSE in the east to WNW-ESE to the west)
fault zone defines a vertical to northerly dipping fault plane with the characteristic
presence of a tectonic sliver of granite mylonites of Mesoproterozoic age brought up
against the Deccan Traps. Cofolded Upper Gondwana sandstones and Lameta
sediments against Deccan Traps in the Salbardi-Belkundhana in the west,
Behramghat-Belkher in the centre are indicative of reverse reactivation along GFZ
(Ghatak and Ghatak 2005) along a northerly dipping fault plane. Further to the west
and from the central sector onwards (west of Chandrbhaga River), the fault is blind
and shows surface signatures viz. tilting of strata (Fig. 12.3), hogbacks, cuesta and
rotation of otherwise vertical columns within basalts. The westernmost tip of GFZ
lies near the confluence of the Tapi and Purna rivers after taking an NW-SE swing.
Rapid thickening of Quaternary about 4 km. south of Foothill Gavilgarh Fault (Ravi
Shanker 1987, Tiwari et al. 2001) indicates the presence of a southerly dipping
normal fault (in E-W direction) at the boundary of Deccan Trap and Quaternary.
Quaternary sediments also preserve reverse faulting, with the fault plane dipping
north. The Quaternary activity of this fault segment is documented in terms of the
development of debris flow dominated alluvial fan at the south Satpura foothills
(Fig. 12.2e).

Quaternary Sedimentation and Climatic Imprints Along GFZ

Different climatic and tectonic episodes have led to different signatures within the
sedimentary record of the Purna basin. The process of soil profile development and
preservation of pedosedimentary sequences had been interrupted by tectonic insta-
bility followed by an influx of coarser sediments in the basin. These episodes are
represented by termination in pedogenesis and incomplete soil profile development
or preservation (Ghatak and Ghatak 2010). The sedimentological characters of the
fan near the fault are dominantly of debris flow to sheet flow character, while away
from the fault zone stream flow and sheet flood facies continue. The terminal part of
the fan is represented by the mixing up of the fan and alluvial plain environment
(Fig. 12.4). Evidence of fan reworking from the middle fan part is ample. Apart from
debris flow dominated proximal fan deposit, sheet flood and stream flow deposit
which is even found in the middle part of the fan (almost 10–12 km from the fault
line) requires some amount of transport where it is not only controlled by the hill
slope processes. This is because hill slopes reach limiting values after certain
12 Active Tectonics–Climate Interaction in the Structural Depo-Centres. . . 273

Fig. 12.3 Geological and geomorphological expressions of GFZ. (a) Tectonic sliver of Meso
Proterozoic granite mylonite with steep northernly dip [location: Salbardi]. (b) Brecciation along
the fault zone [Location: Bhili] (c) Butressed Fold in Gondwana against the fault plane of GFZ
[Location: Belkher] (d) Northerly tilted bole bed [Location: Jambhal Talav] (e) Regional hogbacks
along with GFZ (f) Evidence of compressional tectonics within Quaternary [Location: Wan River
Section]. N: north, S: south

distances. A higher rate of bed load transport indicates a frequent event of storms.
Well preserved cross-beds in the stream flow require current action and sheet flood
overland flow without channelization is called for. All parts of the fan facies bear
calcrete nodules/layers and palaeosol horizons (Ghatak and Ghatak 2010; Srivastava
274 S. Ghatak and M. Ghatak

Fig. 12.4 Representative litho packages in the Purna basin. (a) Silty clay at Udkhed. (b) Red
pedosedimentary, debris flow fan deposit at Wishroli (c) Sheet Flood Facies south of Wishroli (d)
Stream flow dominated fanglomerate facies at Wan River Section (e) River bank deposit along the
present active channel of Purna showing the ball and pillow structure

et al. 2021) except for the present-day deposit, which is restricted to the present day
floodplain. The youngest sediment is mainly dark grey silts and clay. Based on the
relation with the source area, this fan sequence can be described as a ‘mountain front
fan’ (Harvey 1990). These mountain front alluvial fans are characteristic of tecton-
ically active mountain chains (Harvey 1988; Guzzetti et al. 1997).
Depth distribution of Quaternaries available from borehole data/point resistivity
data (Ravi Shanker 1987) shows a sudden increase in sediment thickness (more than
300 m) west of Akot (Fig. 12.2a). Towards the south of the basin near Lohara
12 Active Tectonics–Climate Interaction in the Structural Depo-Centres. . . 275

sediment thickness near the gradational basin boundary located near Ajanta Plateau
becomes 38 m. Stratigrahic drilling in the Quaternaries in the middle part of the
Purna basin, undertaken as part of Quaternary studies (Tiwari et al. 2001) has
established a Quaternary sediment thickness of more than 250 m with a lower
horizon attributed to being of limnic origin. Other workers like Ravi Shanker 1987
have mentioned a total sediment thickness of nearly 400 m in the basin. The
generation of this huge sediment thickness has so far been attributed to the regional
scale Gavilgarh Fault disposed at the base of the Satpuras. Surprisingly, the sudden
increase of Quaternary at Deccan-Quaternary contact west of Chandrabhaga was
intriguing where not much sediment yield is expected from a blind reverse
reactivation of a fault segment to fill in depositional loci for 425 m. Such multi-
parametric considerations of fault geometry, sedimentation pattern and other field
evidence revealed the buried Purna north fault with a downthrow to the south
defining the Deccan/Quaternary contact.
Considering segmented behaviour of the fault zone, three key sections along the
GFZ at Udkhed, Wishroli, Wan near the fan head were studied (Fig. 12.5). Broad
lithofacies associations are as follows.

Lithofacies Association at Udkhed

Udkhed lies south of the most active mountain front (Dhamandas-Belkund Dhana)
in the Wardha basin and east of the Purna cross fault (Ghatak et al. 2009). A 3 m
thick mottled, brownish to orange silty clay, with intense clay venations/fractures
filled with white clay has yielded an Optically Stimulated Luminescence date of
212 ± 17 Ka (Ghatak et al. 2009). Field observations suggest that this lies on the
block defining the northeast basin boundary cross fault along the course of the Purna
River in NE-SW direction. Several micro earthquake activities are also concentrated
along this fault determined using the MEQ network along GFZ (Ghatak et al. 2009).

Broad Lithofacies Association at Wishroli

Purna River emerges from the mountain front at Wishroli and initiates fan formation.
Wishroli exposes a nearly 18.5 m thick fanglomerate sequence which can be divided
into three units based on lithofacies assemblage and the nature of their contact
(Fig. 12.5a). The basal unit 1 (Red palaeosol-gravel association) overlies eroded
Deccan Traps strath terrace is a multistoried gravel sequence (~6 m) characterized by
debris flow. The termination of this unit is occasionally marked by bedded calcrete
developed over the upper planar and sharp contact. The middle and upper parts of
unit 1 have yielded dates of 129 ± 8 Ka and 117 ± 9 Ka, respectively (Ghatak et al.
2009). Unit 2 is middle gravel-sand association with a sharp planar contact that is
~4 m thick. Unit 3 is the upper pebble-sand unit which is nearly 4 m thick and
276 S. Ghatak and M. Ghatak

19m Index

Deccan Traps
17m
Boulder
Cobble

Unit 3 Pebble
15m
18m
Grit
Coarse sand
16m
13m Unit 3 Medium sand
Fine sand
14m
Silty clay
11m Clayey silt
12m
OSL Samples
Unit 2
Soil sample
10m locations
9m
117±9 Ka Calcrete sample
locations
Unit 1 8m Rhizoconcretions

7m Bedded calcrete
79±11 Ka
6m Concretions/
nodules
Unit 2 Powdery calcrete
129±8 Ka Fracture filling
5m 4m
calcrete
Fossil shells
2m Ash
Unit 1
3m Ash+silt
Cross laminated
Cl Si Fs Ms Cs Vcs P C B Parallel laminated
1m

a. b.
Cl Si Fs Ms CsVcs P C B

Fig. 12.5 (a) The lithology of Purna left bank section at Wishroli. (b) The lithology of Wan left
bank section near mountain front

comprises alternation of coarse sandy layers and intervening pebbly layers. The
contact between units 2 and 3 is very sharp and planar. Unit 3 is also devoid of
visible calcrete association. However, as in the next underlying unit, this unit is also
indurated due to the cementation of the matrix by carbonate material. Calcretes
found in the section are chalky carbonate cemented sand and rhizoliths. Calcrete
micromorphology indicates the development of typical alpha fabric and pedogenesis
in soil vadose zone with limited plant activity (presence of rhizoliths). The entire
section broadly shows an abundance of smectite clay (Ghatak and Ghatak 2010).
This is indicative of episodes of high rainfall phases. It is difficult to resolve the
formation of large amounts of smectite clay in vertisols with the current semi-arid
climates (Pal et al. 1989). Therefore, smectite in the sediments at Wishroli were
formed during an earlier humid climate and preserved in the non-leaching environ-
ment of arid and semiarid climate.
12 Active Tectonics–Climate Interaction in the Structural Depo-Centres. . . 277

Lithofacies Association at Wan

Wan is a tributary of Purna, flowing in its upper reaches through a strath terrace
carved on Deccan Traps near Wan village. Wan River exposes a 19 m thick fan
sequence (Figs. 12.4d and 12.5b) divided into three sub units based on lithofacies
assemblage and contact relationship. All the units have an abrupt and planar contact
relationship with the overlying or underlying units. Unit 1 represents a gravel-
boulder bed that directly overlies the weathered Deccan Traps and represents an
unsorted boulder bed with a crude parallel orientation of boulders. The unit thickness
is 4 m. Unit 2 is a fine-grained buff coloured palaeosol/sand of 1.2 m thickness
overlying the Gravel-boulder bed with sharp contact. It is thoroughly pedogenised
for which the sedimentary structures are not well preserved. Unit 3 is a cross to
parallel laminated sand, bedded pebble-boulder association. This unit is highly
calcretised and calcretes occur mostly along the bed boundaries and across bed
boundaries. This unit is overlain by fine-grained parallel laminated sand. This sub
unit yielded a date of 79 ± 11 Ka. This in turn is again overlain by a parallel bedded/
imbricated boulder bed. It is friable and white. The initiation of this Wan fan with the
absence of the typical red soil or pedosedimentary sequence at its base defines a
younger sedimentary package than at Wishroli and sediment influx is triggered by
the central fault segment of GFZ which got reactivated later in comparison to the
eastern fault segment of Gavilgarh. A shift in climatic condition from unit 1(debris
flow) to unit 2 (stream flow) indicates a shift in water availability or predominance of
humid conditions in the later phase. The Holocene unit is not well developed near the
fan apex. Evidence of fan reworking and proximal fan incision are ample. All of
these point towards a destructive phase of landform development.

Tapi Fault Zone Vis-à-Vis Sedimentation in the Tapi Basin

Geology-Geomorphology of Tapi Basin

The E-W stretching Tapi watershed is one of the most spectacular faults bound
basins in Central India located at the southern foothills of the Satpura Mountains.
Tapi Fault Zone (TFZ) is famous for its geothermal springs. Previous literature
regarding TFZ (Ravi Shanker and Dubey 1984; Ravi Shanker 1987; Tiwari 1996;
Tiwari 1999; Sinha and Tiwari 1984) had emphasized the neotectonic activity with
special reference to geothermal and broad Quaternary morphostratigraphic classifi-
cation around Unabdeo, Ramtalab, Nazardeo and Sunabdeo hot springs in Jalgaon
and Dhule districts, Maharashtra. The ENE-WSW trending Tapi lineament of CITZ
cuts across the entire width of the Indian Peninsula affecting the Traps, Gondwanas,
Vindhyans and Archaean groups of rocks (Ghatak et al. 2009b). In the area lying
between Palasur in the east and Nhavi in the west in the Tapi basin, the oldest
exposed lithounit are the Lameta Group of rocks of Upper Cretaceous age
278 S. Ghatak and M. Ghatak

(variegated arenaceous facies and impure carbonates). These occur as tectonic

slivers in limited stretches along the foothills of the Satpuras and are one of the
markers for the Tapi North Fault (TNF; Ghatak et al. 2009). The dominant lithology
of the area is the Deccan Traps of Upper Cretaceous to Palaeocene age overlying the
Lametas. The Tapi River and its major tributaries emerging from the mountain front
have contributed to the deposition of a thick pile of sediments of Quaternary age in
the fault bound Tapi basin at the foothills of the Satpura ranges (Fig. 12.6a–f).
Regionally, three geomorphologic units – the middle/lower level plateau ending
with a prominent scarp defining TNF, a pediment zone at its base and the vast
expanse of the Quaternary alluvial valley filling south of it and Ajanta Plateau in the
south characterize the Tapi Basin (Fig. 12.7).
Tapi is one of the major rivers in central India with a length of 724 km covering
an area of 65,145 sq km. The river originates in Multai in the eastern Satpura Range
of Madhya Pradesh. It then flows westwards running in Madhya Pradesh’s Nimar
region, Maharashtra’s Khandesh and east Vidarbha regions in the northwest corner
of the Deccan Plateau and empties into the Gulf of Cambay of the Arabian Sea. The
Tapi is predominantly a bed rock channel (Kale 2005). The climate of the basin is
humid tropical ranging from sub-humid to semi-arid. Precipitation is more in the
hinterland compared to the basinal part.
Geomorphologically, the westerly flowing Tapi River originates in the middle-
level plateau, and passes through an intermontane valley near Palasur and west of its
confluence and its major tributary Purna flows axial to the basin. The most striking
geomorphic feature here is the spectacular fault line scarp marking the southern limit
of the Satpura ranges. Asirgarh ranges (~867 m) have the highest elevation in the
area, while the lowest point lies on the river course/Tapi plain. The southern part of
the area is dissected Ajanta/Buldana plateau, reaching up to an elevation of nearly
600 m. Terrain morphometry using a hill shade map shows the tectonic half-graben
structure of the Tapi basin.

Tapi Fault Zone

Tapi basin is traversed by various discontinuous segments of ENE-WSW trending

faults and cross faults in the N-S direction (Ghatak et al. 2009b). Tapi North Fault
(TNF) is a master normal fault with a downthrow to the south, separating the
mountain range from the Tapi basin fill. In exposed sections, the fault plane is
mostly sub-vertical to vertical. The regional scale ENE-WSW trending TNF has
caused secondary back tilting of a Lameta Group of rocks (Fig. 12.6) and Deccan
Traps, sills and dykes. The undisturbed geological formations in the study area are
horizontal to very gently dipping (1°–6°) while the secondary dip exhibited by them
varies from 19° to 48° towards the north. The accommodation space provided by the
southern downthrown block of TNF has acted as a depocentre of a thick pile of
Quaternary sediments. The maximum width of this fault zone is ~100 m. Several hot
and cold springs, brecciated horizons, presence of a high pressure-temperature zone
12 Active Tectonics–Climate Interaction in the Structural Depo-Centres. . . 279

Fig. 12.6 Fault zone signatures in the Tapi basin. (a) Tapi North fault separating Deccan Trap and
Quaternary. (b) A sliver of coarse-grained Lametta sandstone against Deccan Traps vertical contact
[Location: Bholana]; (c) Doleritic dyke intruded into Deccan Traps along the course of the Tapi
River following TRF [Location: Tapi sluice] (d) Northerly tilted Lameta carbonates [Location: Near
Chinchala] (e) Gushing spring in TFZ [Location: Bholana] (f) Quaternary sediments over degraded
fault plane in Lametas [Location: Kala Chabutra]
280 S. Ghatak and M. Ghatak

Fig. 12.7 (a) Hill shade map of the area showing major fault locations. (b) and (c) profile along
with D7 and D8. Arrows show the position of major faults

(yielding hot water in bore wells with an average temperature of 40 °C) bears indirect
evidence of the active nature of TNF. Tapi River Fault (TRF), synthetic to TNF also
occurs in discrete segments and mostly follows the trend of the major trunk channel.
Many synthetic faults to the major Tapi Fault zone and cross faults in the mountain
front and basinal area striking NW-SE are evidenced in the field; they have displaced
interflow contacts, red bole horizons and at places, Quaternary sediments (Ghatak
et al. 2009).
Uplift along the range bounding TNF has altered the base level of the streams and
the effort of maintaining a balance between uplift and erosion has caused intense
vertical degradation even in the first order nalas along the mountain front within
Quaternary. Numerous first-order streams with very close and regular spacing
emerge from the mountain front. This is characteristic of tectonically active moun-
tain fronts (Burbank and Anderson 2001). Owing to various sets of active faults
present in the basin, river captures and drainage anomalies are frequent phenomena.
Reverse faults with northerly dipping fault planes developed within Quaternary
sediments are also present (Fig. 12.8a–f).

Quaternary Sedimentation Vis-S-Vis Climatic Imprints in TFZ

The sediments occur mainly in the form of overbank/channel deposits between

Palasur in the east to Nhavi in the west. Fanglomerate facies are restricted to a few
of the transverse tributaries of Tapi. Two key sections at Palasur in the eastern
middle-level plateau along with TRF and at Takadkheda in the central part of the
12 Active Tectonics–Climate Interaction in the Structural Depo-Centres. . . 281

Fig. 12.8 Representative lithopackages at Tapi Basin. (a) Disposition of Red and buff coloured
palaeosol and associated ash on either side of Tapi River, terraces are unpaired [Location: Palasur].
(b) Ash layer and branching rhizocretes in Unit 1 [Location: Palasur]. (c) Calcified gritty sand on
top of buff-coloured palaeosol [Location: west of Palasur] (d) Multiple bedded calcrete profile
[Location: Takadkheda] (e) Deccan Trap riding over Quaternary (reverse faulting), [Location: west
of Takarkheda] (f) Holocene flood facies rich in plant debris [Location: south of Takarkheda]

basin along TRF has different geomorphic setting and Quaternary horizons of
different paleoclimatic influences exposed along the main course of the Tapi River
and its major transverse tributaries.
The sediments in the Tapi basin are dominantly fluviatile and characterized by the
presence of intercalated palaeosol and calcretes of varying morphology formed
during periods of non-deposition or sediment starvation. They include pedogenic,
groundwater, mixed groundwater pedogenic, valley calcretes, etc. (Ghatak et al.
2010; Sinha et al. 2006) and are found in states ranging from powdery to nodular to
282 S. Ghatak and M. Ghatak

6m 8±1 Unit 3
18m

Unit 3

16m
5m
Unit 2

14m

4m
12m

10m

3m

57.5±4 8m

Unit 1
Unit 2
2m 6m

4m

1m

2m
Unit 1

a.
b.
Cl Si Fs MsCsVcs P C B
Cl Si Fs Ms Cs Vcs P C B

Fig. 12.9 Lithologs from (a) Palasur section (b) Takadkheda section

highly indurated (Goudie 1983) form. The term calcrete has been applied here to all
of these types, and commonly denotes secondary carbonate introduced into the
surface and near-surface soil, sediment and rock (in the phreatic and vadose zones)
through replacive and displacive processes and/or passive cementation. In pedogenic
calcretes, alpha and beta fabrics are considered petrographic (micromorphological)
end members, with many calcretes exhibiting mixtures of the two (Wright and
Tucker 1991; Bedelean 2004). Palaeoseismites are also found in abundance in the
Quaternary sediments that owe their origin to fault-controlled active structural setup
in the Tapi basin.
Considering segmented behaviour of the fault zone that provides the varying
set-up for sediment deposition, broad litho facies association at two key sections, i.e.,
at Palasur and Takadkheda are described below (Fig. 12.9).
12 Active Tectonics–Climate Interaction in the Structural Depo-Centres. . . 283

Lithofacies Association at Palasur

The Tapi River section at Palasur has some of the best-preserved evidence of
Quaternary tectonic history and the palaeoclimate. Here, Tapi traverses through an
intermontane valley in the lower/middle level plateau of Satpura. TRF displaces the
Deccan/Quaternary contact on either bank by an elevation difference of nearly 10 m
(Ghatak et al. 2009, Ghatak and Ghatak 2010, Fig. 12.8a) forming an unpaired
terrace. The entire section has been divided into three units based on lithofacies
assemblages and contact relationships (Fig. 12.9a).
Unit 1 represents the basal gravel-palaeosol (vertisol)- ash bed association and is
the oldest depositional unit of the Tapi basin developed over the southern bank strath
terrace. The entire unit has attained a very high degree of pedogenesis and is brick
red. The primary structure of this part has been lost due to pedogenesis. The entire
unit has preserved calcrete nodules, rhizoconcretions and fossil bivalve. This unit
also contains an ash layer. This is the first report of ash from this part of the Tapi
basin (Ghatak et al. 2009). Its preservation points towards a period of quiescence in
this part of the basin (Fig. 12.8b). The sediment below the ash layer has been dated as
57.5± 4 Ka. The upper part of this silt/ash has well preserved B horizon. Calcretes
from unit 1 are powdery, nodular (average diameter 5 cm) and rhizolith bearing
showing variable sizes and shapes. The calcrete nodules in this horizon coalesce as
they may have received enough time for growth. They occur isolated or in clusters
(coalesced) indicating stage II maturity of the soil profile (Gile et al. 1965; Gile et al.
1966; Candy et al. 2003; Candy and Black 2009).
Unit 2 is the pebble sand buff palaeosol (vertisol) association which is present on
the northern bank of the river on the upthrown unpaired terrace, north of TNF. This
unit also bears calcrete with rhizoliths at the base, powdery calcretes throughout and
an indurated, carbonate cemented pebbly grit bed capping this unit. The upper part of
unit 2 is capped by cross-bedded carbonate cemented gritty sand bed. At the base and
top of the buff coloured palaeosol, the paleo-flood deposit has yielded dates of
27 ± 2Ka and 17.6 ± 2 Ka, respectively. Morphological characteristics of the
calcretes indicate biogenic pedocalcic pedogenesis (Ghatak et al. 2009).
Unit 3 is dark grey thick pebbly sand with occasional boulders (crudely imbri-
cated) fine to medium-grained sand with well-preserved parallel laminations, thick
coarse-grained pebbly sand which contains meter scale co-seismic bank collapse
structures, with angular blocks of the ash belonging to unit 1. Unit 3 ends at Palasur
with thick dark humus rich silty clay that has well defined A, B and C horizons. Unit
3 dates back to 8 ± 1 Ka.
Ghatak and Ghatak 2010 have reported the predominance of smectite over other
mineral phases in the total sediment package along with shrink-swell properties of
these soils atypical of vertisols of semiarid regions. Similar to the Purna basin, the
predominance of smectite indicates an earlier phase of humid climate. Second, the
mineral assemblage of red palaeosol and top of the buff palaeosol indicates flood
plain aggradation on which pedogenesis has taken place (smectite to kaolinite
alteration or feldspar to kaolinite alteration).
284 S. Ghatak and M. Ghatak

Lithofacies Association at Takarkheda

Before reaching Takarkheda, the Tapi River descends onto the plains. Deccan/
Quaternary contact is not observed at exposed sections and the observed thickness
at Takarkheda is ~18 m. Based on lithofacies assemblages and contact relationships
broadly three units can be separated (Fig. 12.9b).
Unit 1 is basal red palaeosol and multiple bedded calcrete association. Six bedded
calcrete units are interspersed within the red palaeosol or silty/clay unit. The physical
appearance of the calcrete is brownish grey, and flaky comprising coalesced pisoliths
of compact nodules of irregular shape and size. Chalky veins penetrate the nodules
and it also contains clasts of red clay pellets derived from host sediments.
The hiatus in the depository cycle has been followed by rejuvenation in the stream
power paving way for a major cycle of sedimentation, identified as unit 2 which is
pebble sand and calcrete association. This unit begins with the deposition of cross-
bedded channel sand over a scoured base of the red pedosedimentary sequence. It is
dominantly clast supported indicating winnowing of the sediments. An arid phase
represented by a bedded calcrete overlies this channel sand. Repeated cycles of
pebble beds and parallel laminated coarse-grained sand have followed this transient
dry phase. The uniform parallel laminated sand with pebble beds in the upper part of
unit 2 indicates riverbank flooding.
Coalesced rhizoliths and nodules from the bedded calcretes indicate biogenic
control on calacrete development at least at the lower part of unit 1. As calcretes
develop in easily identifiable stages, time significance has been assigned to them
(Machette 1985). Time estimates for the development of mature (stage 4) calcrete
profiles range from thousands to one million years (Wright and Tucker 1991),
although these estimates are poorly constrained. This is corroborated by the fact
that calcretes at Takarkheda are older compared to the Palsur section. OSL estimates
from the upper part of this red palaeosol unit have yielded an age of 139 Ka.
Unit 2 is followed upward by a 1.5 m thick unit dominantly comprising fine-
grained parallel laminated sand deposited in the inset terraces carved in units 1 and
2. This contains lamina rich in plant debris indicating a phase of high rainfall in the
basin during the upper Holocene.
The predominance of smectite in this sequence indicates a high rainfall scenario.
Preservation of feldspar indicates flood plain aggradation events (Ghatak and Ghatak
2010). It is because under sub-humid to arid climates weathering of primary minerals
contributes very little towards the formation of smectite (Srivastava et al. 2002). It is
thus difficult to reconcile the retention of smectite in vertisols of a tropical humid
climate and also its formation in sub-humid to arid climatic conditions. These
smectites were formed in a humid climatic condition during ~139 Ka, a humid
phase that was witnessed by the entire Indian subcontinent and got preserved with
minor alteration to Kaolinite in the later semi-arid to sub-humid climate of the Tapi
basin (present-day annual average range fall of 800 mm).
12 Active Tectonics–Climate Interaction in the Structural Depo-Centres. . . 285

Son Narmada South Fault Zone Vis-à-Vis Sedimentation

in the Narmada Basin

Geology-Geomorphology of the Narmada Basin

Narmada basin is bound by Son Narmada North Fault (SNNF) in the north and Son
Narmada South Fault (SNSF) in the south. Further south of SNSF, the geomorphol-
ogy of the area is defined by dissected Deccan plateau, structural hills and ridges
developed on the Palaeoproterozoic Mahakoshal supracrustals, tors and inselbergs
of intrusive granites and residual hills developed over the Gondwana Supergroup
capped by Deccan Traps at places (Roy and Devarajan 2001). The oldest litho-
succession in this area belongs to the Mahakoshal Group and is largely confined
between SNNF and SNSF. There has been the intrusion of granites along the margin
of Mahakoshal rocks. Later reactivation of the SNSF zone under brittle to brittle-
ductile conditions during Phanerozoic controlled the deposition of Phanerozoic
sequences such as Gondwana Supergroup and Lameta Formation, outpouring of
Deccan Traps and the deposition of the Quaternary sediments. Gondwana, Lameta
and Deccan volcanic cover large parts of the CITZ, especially in the western parts.
Jabalpur Formation, an alternating sequence of sandstone, shale and clay, is the
dominant Gondwana sequence in this area. Jabalpur Formation is overlain by the
Lameta Formation, a sequence of impure carbonates and sandstone, also known as
infra-trappean. Deccan Trap flows of Upper Cretaceous to Lower Eocene overlie the
Jabalpur Formation and the Lameta Formation and occur extensively in the southern
and south-eastern parts of the basin. Quaternary sediments of Upper Pleistocene to
Holocene extensively occur between SNNF and SNSF (Devarajan et al. 2004;
Acharyya and Roy 2000).
A north-south view across the SNNF-Quaternary valley fill-SNSF shows a major
steep scarp in the north which defines the SNNF separating the Vindhyans against
the Mahakoshals (Fig. 12.10a, b). The Hiran River, a tributary of Narmada, passes at
its base. The quaternary basin in this part is nearly 35 km wide. The southern margin
of the basin is marked by SNSF beyond which the dissected Satpura ranges ascend
(Fig. 12.10c). Anomaly in river courses as a response to tectonism is a constant
feature in both margins of Satpura and is seen in Narmada and its tributary rivers.
The streams have experienced a rejuvenation in their energy as evidenced by
signatures of large-scale bank collapse structures within Quaternary sediments.
The rivers are engaged in the deep incisions of their beds and at places, nearly
45–50 m thick sections are seen (Devarajan et al. 2004).
Active Fault Mapping along with SNSF (Devrajan et al. 2004) has revealed
various phases of reactivation along with SNSF during different geological periods.
Overall, SNSF exhibits a series of ENE-WSW trending faults from north to south
with successive downthrows towards the south (Figs. 12.11a, b). The presence of
seismites within different Quaternary horizons in the basin points towards repeated
seismic events in the basin.
286 S. Ghatak and M. Ghatak

Fig. 12.10 (a) SRTM (90 m) derived hill shade map of part of the Narmada basin showing the
disposition of major faults. (b) Topographic cross-section showing surface expression of a graben.
(c) Dissected Deccan Traps at the northern margin of Satpura ranges. A viewer looking towards
NW. SNSF is located at the foothills, marked with the red line

Quaternary Sedimentation Vis-S-Vis Climatic Imprints from

the Narmada Basin

The Quaternary succession in the Narmada basin has been divided into seven
formations (Table 12.1). Pilikarar Formation, the oldest in the sequence, is a reddish
ferricrete gravel bed and rests over the eroded surface (Tiwari and Bhai 1997) of the
basement. The youngest Ramnagar Formation is mostly deposited in inset terraces
and has preserved vegetal remains indicative of a climate favourable for plant growth
12 Active Tectonics–Climate Interaction in the Structural Depo-Centres. . . 287

Fig. 12.11 Palaeo-seismites (a) Ball and pillow structure at the basal part of Hirdepur Formation.
(b) Rip-up clasts in the upper part of Baneta Formation

(Devarajan et al. 2004; Ghatak and Ghatak 2010). Paleosols and calcretes are present
throughout the sediment archive. One of the litho-sections with maximum nos. of
established formation and chronometric data control (C-14 dates, GSI, Kolkata lab)
is described below.

Lithofacies Association and Calcrete Development at Soner

Soner Nadi, a tributary of Narmada, flows in a south to north course and meets
Narmada in its middle reaches west of Jabalpur. The deposits contain evidence of
tectonic activity in terms of preservation of paleoseismic features and Quaternary
faults. The total exposed section is nearly 20 m thick and is divided into four units
based on lithofacies assemblage and their contacts (Fig. 12.12a).
The basal red palaeosol association is developed on top of the Baneta Formation
of the middle to upper Pleistocene age (Tiwari and Bhai 1997). It comprises red silty
clay; internal structures are not observed within this paleosol horizon. Fine sediment
size is attributed to low energy conditions in the basin which had later experienced
stability and high rainfall condition leading to pedogenesis and oxidation of the
sediments. The paleosol horizon has bedded calcrete which has been displaced
subsequently (Fig. 12.12b).
Unit 2 is 1 m thick and has a pebble-boulder association, separated by an
erosional unconformity. It heralds the onset of Hirdepur Formation sedimentation
in the basin. The unit contains rip-up clasts of the red palaeosol belonging to unit
1 (Fig. 12.12b). These clasts are rounded and indicate a fair degree of transport. The
upper conglomerate bed of this unit is highly calcified. Unit 3 is the sand-silty clay
association. Thinner, discontinuous sand layers are present within the dominant clay.
This unit has well-preserved seismites formed due to a major seismic episode during
that period. The seismites are in the form of disrupted bedding, convolute lamina-
tions, folds and cycloid-column association (Fig. 12.12a ). The sand unit has yielded
288 S. Ghatak and M. Ghatak

15 Unit 4

Calcrete sample locations

Soil sample locations

Calcrete
(Bedded/Fracture)
Boulder

Pebble

10 Sand
Silt

Clay
c.

5
Unit 3

Unit 2
b.

Unit 1
a.

Fig. 12.12 (a) Litho-succession at Soner River, (b) Bedded calcrete from unit 4 (c) displaced
bedded calcrete in paleosol horizon (unit 1). There has been subsequent development of calcrete
along the fault plane

a radiocarbon age of 28,891 ± 294 Ka (Devarajan et al. 2004). Unit 4 is a sand-silt

association, a thick sequence of alternate medium to fine-grained sand and silt. Few
bedded calcrete horizons are present in this unit. Unit 1 at the Soner Nadi section
comprises fracture filling calcrete and disseminated rhizocretes. Units 2 and 3 do not
contain noticeable calcrete development. However, the upper part of unit 4 contains
equally spaced bedded calcrete horizons. Macroscopic observation in general points
towards groundwater origin.

Discussion and Conclusions

Looking through the lens of intermediate time scale tectonic deformation and
(Burbank and Anderson 2001) climatic interaction, landscape responses during
Quaternary times for Purna, Tapi and Narmada basins bear certain basic similarities.
Repeated reactivation of older crustal-scale faults under different stress regimes has
12 Active Tectonics–Climate Interaction in the Structural Depo-Centres. . . 289

been a guiding factor in landform evolution in CITZ. The cumulative interactions

between the deformational events and ongoing surface processes are best witnessed
by the marker horizons, anomalous river courses, basin geometry, hill slopes and
elevation characteristics (Chen et al. 2003) and the way these have influenced its
depositional environment (Ghatak and Ghatak 2005).
Segmented behaviour of GFZ with salient transfer zones (especially near Belkund
Dhana and Chandrabhaga) have been the probable sites of stress release. Other cross
faults viz. Purna River fault have also contributed to the sediment flux to the basin.
The Foothill Gavilgarh Fault (Fig. 12.2a) has behaved as a basin margin fault during
the deposition of the Gondwana and Lameta sediments to the north of the fault under
an extensional regime. Post Deccan tectonic inversion or during an episode of
shortening, this northerly dipping fault had provided the necessary buttressing for
the folding of cover sediments viz. Gondwana (Fig. 12.3c) and Lameta. The fault
plane is well exposed in the field and testimony towards a sub-vertical to northerly
dipping fault plane (Fig. 12.3b) as against the earlier understanding of this part of the
fault zone (Ravi Shanker 1987). Post Deccan and possibly in the pre-Quaternary/
early Quaternary period (prior to deposition of the Purna alluvium, as the oldest
dated sediment is 212 ± 17 Ka) an intermittent phase of extensional stress regime
had set in/ or extension took place locally under overall compressional regime
resulting in normal faulting marked by Deccan-Quaternary boundary (Purna North
Fault) with the down throw to the south forming the depositional loci for Purna
alluvium. However, the compressional stress regime continued into Quaternary.
Reverse/thrust faults within Quaternary sediments with northerly dipping fault
plane (Fig. 12.3f) bear testimony to this. Sediments dated on the strath terraces of
Purna (129 ± 8 Ka) and Wan River (79 ± 11 Ka) refer to different fault segment
reactivation. Various cross faults also affect the sediment distribution pattern in the
basin. The alluvial fans and other geomorphic landforms are presently in the
destructive phase, engaged in the deep incision of paleofan sequences. The thick
gravelly facies of sub angular to sub rounded pebbles and boulders occurring as
cohesive debris-flow deposits in proximal parts of the fan represent the syntectonic
growth of the gravelly facies in response to the reactivation and upheaval along the
GFZ. Thick pedosedimetary sequences ranging from lower Pliestocene to Holocene,
traced from the fan head to the distal part of the Purna fan characterize the dominant
formative processes over the fans. While debris flow to sheet flood deposit charac-
terizes the proximal part of the fan, stream flow and reworked fan sediments derived
through fan head trenching and distal aggradation dominate in the terminal part.
Three different exposed palaeosol/pedosedimetary units (red, buff and grey colour,
respectively) with varying degrees of pedocalcic pedogenesis (nodular and
rhizogenic calcretes) from the fan head to the distal part suggest a period of tectonic
stability and soil formation interspersed with high energy sediment flux due to
tectonic events and/or climatic control. The basal red pedosedimentary sequence
indicates a high rainfall phase with tectonics providing the orographic control for
precipitation during the lower Pleistocene. A suspected semi-arid phase during the
middle Pleistocene witnessed aridity induced flash flood events resulting in fan head
trenching and distal aggradation. A comparatively stable landscape was prevalent
290 S. Ghatak and M. Ghatak

during the upper Quaternary with discrete periods of soil formation and pedogenic
calcrete development (Goudie, 1996). The palaeosol facies belonging to Holocene is
devoid of many calcretes. The present study reveals, that rapid aggradation of the
gravelly facies and less frequent overbank deposition marked by tectonic activity or
flash flood events possibly allowed only weak to moderate pedogenesis of the
overbank and fanglomerate facies. Eventually, distal fan aggradation and continuous
calcrete development throughout the entire fan surface, led to the ultimate fan
surface induration, controlling subsequent landscape evolution. The same situation
holds for the Wan River fan except for the fact that the Wan fan is younger probably
of middle to upper Pleistocene compared to the Purna fan with preservation of one
palaeosol unit. The rest of the pedosedimentary fan sequence is composed of debris
flow to stream flow character. Another important aspect of the Purna basin lies in the
fact that the drainage divide between Purna and Wadha near the mountain front
preserves the oldest datable sediments at Udkhed. This zone is seismically active and
records low magnitude earthquakes. Purna River Cross fault with upthrown eastern
block possibly aided the formation of the drainage divide of Purna and Wardha in
this sector. The stratigraphic drilling at Akot also indicates the presence of clay
beyond 60 m from the surface. The sediment flux, slope condition and surface
processes also differ spatially and temporally. From east to west, the scarp height
of the Gavilgarh fault decreases and this has caused micro climatic variation along
with the fault trend. The present observations suggest that the faulting induced south
Satpura mountain front creates first-order control on sedimentation, microclimatic
variation and orographic precipitation in the Purna valley during Quaternary.
The Tapi basin also demonstrates similar reactivation history under different
stress regimes. The regional scale normal fault at the foothills of Satpura opened
up the basin during or prior to the Quaternary period. Sediment influx was from fault
segments separated spatially and temporally. Sedimentation in the Tapi basin had
started subsequent to the Purna basin (Ghatak and Ghatak 2010). The Quaternary
sediments in the Tapi basin also demonstrate features that are akin to the compres-
sional stress regime continuing during Quaternary times (Deccan overriding Qua-
ternary near-fault zone, close-spaced first-order stream on the pediment slope).
Initiation of sedimentation was during different periods; sedimentation along west-
ern segments of TFZ had started before in the eastern part as evident from the age of
Quaternary sediments in the Tapi basin. The level of maturity of calcretes supports
this observation. Tectonic uplift and influx of sediments in the basin were followed
by stability in the basin during which paleosols with multiple calcrete horizons with
different levels of maturity had developed. Sediments of different age on either bank
at Palasur establish Tapi occupying a structural course. The humid and arid condi-
tions interspersed between as observed in the paleosol and calcrete horizons match
fairly well with the south-Asian monsoon trends (Ghatak and Ghatak 2010). Sub-
sequent to deposition, the river is engaged in the deep incision of earlier sediments,
intense scouring of strath terraces, and base cutting leading to the collapse of river
banks (op.cit.). Kilometre scale formation of carbonate-cemented sand over buff
coloured palaeosol (upper horizon dates back to ~17 Ka) indicates a period of aridity
which is coeval with the Last Glacial Maxima (LGM). Holocene deposits are limited
12 Active Tectonics–Climate Interaction in the Structural Depo-Centres. . . 291

in occurrence in the Tapi basin, at least in the upper to the middle part of the basin. In
both Purna and Tapi basins, the youngest Holocene deposits show abundant vegetal
remains to indicate a high rainfall scenario supporting plant growth.
The alluvial succession of the Narmada valley had been well-constrained mor-
pho/litho stratigraphically by earlier workers (Tiwari 1999). A sediment thickness of
250–300 m has been postulated for the central part of the Narmada basin. However,
chornostatigraphic control in sedimentation is limited. The sediment package is
dominated by fines and occasionally contains pebble bearing horizon. The overall
energy condition is controlled by slope parameters, nature of faulting and the wide
watershed area of the basin. The pulsating reactivation of the faults along the basin
margin has resulted in high energy sediment flux in the basin. The predominance of
fines in the studied sections along with the presence of palaeosols and calcretes
indicate wide distributed periods of climatic amelioration and pseudogenization. The
underlying red palaeosol from Baneta formation indicates a period of high rainfall,
i.e. humid climate, tectonic stability and proliferation of biota. Calcretes from this
unit indicate pedogenic origin. The climatic shift from humid to sub-humid is
witnessed in the next younger Hirdepur Formation. The basal part of this unit has
witnessed tectonic instability with the preservation of palaeoseismites. Both of these
phenomena aided shallowing of the local groundwater table, evaporation and devel-
opment of groundwater channel calcrete, bedded calcrete with evidence of weak
pedogenesis. Although SNSF has been the most active fault system in CITZ, a minor
microclimatic variation can be perceived due to the fault movements or orographic
variation. The key factor for sedimentation in this basin is technogenic while
following all Indian monsoon scenarios.
While the fault bound basins in the south of Satpura have preserved fans, there is
no formation of fans in SNSF bound Narmada basin. The reasons behind this may be
attributed to the lesser number of transverse drainages across the regional fault and
lesser height of mountain scarp. Field observation and calcrete micromorphology
from part of the Narmada basin adjacent to SNSF suggest that alluvial succession in
Bheraghat and Soner sections is restricted to the middle to upper Pleistocene.
Figure 12.13 displays the intensity of the Indian monsoon plotted against the last
150 Ka period and how various pedo-sedimentary sequences from the studied
Quaternary basins mimic the monsoonal highs.
Fault segment controlled sedimentation varies spatially and temporally aided by
climatic or microclimatic variation and hence the overlapping period or the hiatus in
sedimentation are to be considered while carrying out morpho-stratigraphic classi-
fication. This aided with a precise chronostratigraphic approach based on high-
resolution dating has helped to identify the tectonics-climate interaction in these
basins. Since the Cenozoic tectonic basins from Central India preserve excellent
evidence of palaeoclimatic episodes of microclimatic and regional scale climatic
fluctuation, further research in this line will open up the avenues to correlate the
tectonic events and palaeoclimatic interaction at the subcontinental scale drawing
inferences from the Himalayas and Central India.
292 S. Ghatak and M. Ghatak

(a)
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 S
3 1 W
3 2 1 3 Wsr
30 Pls
3 1 Tkd
Change in Preciptation (%) for S.Asia

10
SW INDIAN MONSOON

–10
1

(Relative Sea Level Curve)

Marine Isotope Record
–30

d10O
0

MIS

1 2 3 4 5 6
–1
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
ka B.P.
(b)
STRENGTH OF SW INDIAN MONSOON

5.5 maximum 11.4 14.5 Abrupt

Decline
changes
maximum
dry moisture wet dry
Facics evidence
(onshore / offshore)

G.bulloidos
(cores)

peak monsoon pollen

(cores)

0 5 10 15 20 KA B.P.

Fig. 12.13 Variation in precipitation associated with Southwest Indian Monsoon. (a) Modelling
results for the past 150 ka, from Prell and Kutzbach (1987), shown in relation to proxy eustatic
curve (Waelbroeck et al. 2002). MIS, Marine Isotope Stage. (b) Major trends in precipitation for the
past 20 ka, from Overpeck et al. (1996). Geological information includes facies evidence from dated
sections in the Arabian Sea and onshore in Asia, and the abundance of Globigerina bulloides and
African pollen (linked to wind strength and upwelling) from Arabian Sea cores. The chronology of
dated sediments from Purna (W: Wan, Wsr: Wishroli), Tapi (Pls: Palasur, Tkd: Takadkheda),
Narmada (S: Soner river section) are superposed on the curve with its corresponding unit numbers
12 Active Tectonics–Climate Interaction in the Structural Depo-Centres. . . 293

Acknowledgements The paper is the result of a decade of work by the authors on the character-
ization of the active faults and paleoclimate of inland basins flanking the Satpura ranges as a part of
the annual programme of the Geological Survey of India. Dr. Abhinaba Roy, Sr. DDG (Retired),
GSI has always been an overbearing influence as a mentor, and his contributions can never be
repaid. Dr. Anjan Kumar Chatterjee, ADG (Retired), GSI had stood stoically with the authors for
undertaking this project and is remembered with gratitude. The authors thankfully acknowledge
Dr. M. K. Devarajan for his major contribution to mapping SNSF and GFZ. Dr. D.K. Pal, Head
(Retired), Soil Sciences Division, NBSS & LUP is thanked for the stimulating discussions the
authors had with him on the various aspects of soil micromorphological studies. The authors are
also indebted to Dr. K.S. Misra, Sr. DDG (Retired), GSI for his encouragement. Dr. O.P. Mishra,
Scientist ‘G’ and Director, NCS, Ministry of Earth Sciences has been a continued inspiration over
the years; he has shared the earthquake record for this paper. Lastly, the authors place on record their
gratitude for Dr. Neloy Khare, Scientist ‘G’, Ministry of Earth Sciences for his invitation to
contribute to this volume and for his continuous encouragement. The Director-General, GSI is
thanked for his kind encouragement to publish the chapter.

References

Acharyya SK, Roy A (2000) Tectonothermal history of the central Indian tectonics zone and
reactivation of major faults/shear zone. J Geol Soc India 55:239–256
Bedelean H (2004) Study on the diagenetic calcareous accumulations in a soil profile from Floreşti
(Cluj county, Romania). Studia universitatis babeş-bolyai, geologia, xlix 1:75–85
Bhandari S, Maurya DM, Chamyal LS (2005) Late Pleistocene alluvial plain sedimentation in lower
Narmada valley, western India: Palaeoenvironmental implications. Jour Asian Earth Sci 24:
433–444
Blanford WT (1869) Geology of the Tapti and lower Narbada valley and some adjoining districts.
Mem Geol Surv India VI:182–189
Burbank D, Anderson RS (2001) Tectonic geomorphology. Blackwell Science:1–274
Candy I, Black S (2009) The timing of quaternary calcrete development in semi-arid Southeast
Spain: investigating the role of climate on calcrete genesis. Sedi Geol 218:6–15
Candy I, Black S, Sellwood BW, Rowan JS (2003) Calcrete profile development in quaternary
alluvial sequences, Southeast Spain: implications for using calcretes as a basis for landform
chronologies. Earth Surf Process Landf 28(2):169–185
Chamyal LS, Maurya DM, Raj R (2003) Fluvial systems of the drylands of western India: a
synthesis of late quaternary environmental and tectonic changes. Quat Int 104:69–86
Chandradas M (1999) Final report on stratigraphic drilling to establish Gondwana stratigraphy
below the Deccan trap to the north of Purna. GSI unpublished report
Chen YC, Seng Q, Cheng KY (2003) Along with strike variations of morphotectonic features in the
western foothills of Taiwan: tectonic implications based on stream- gradient and hypsometric
analysis. Geomorphology 56:109–137
Devarajan MK, Ghatak M, Chakrabarti U, Siddaiah S, Punekar DV, Shrivastava RK, Chaurasia
AH, Naik KK, Guha D (2004) Report on the mapping of the son-Narmada south fault zone
between Jabalpur and Chargawan, Jabalpur District. Madhya Pradesh. Unpublished GSI report
Dhir RP, Singhvi AK, Andrews JE, Kar A, Sareen BK, Tandon SK, Kailath A, Thomas JV (2010)
Multiple episodes of aggradation and calcrete formation in late quaternary Aeolian sands,
central Thar desert, Rajasthan, India. J Asian Earth Sci 37:10–16
Ghatak S, Ghatak M (2005) Morphotectonic evaluation of active tectonic domain from Central
India: a case study from Gavilgarh Fault Zone, vol 85. Contributions to Kangra Earthquake
Centenary Seminar 2005, Geological Survey of India Special Publication, pp 237–248
294 S. Ghatak and M. Ghatak

Ghatak S, Ghatak M (2008) Active faulting and it’s bearing on the geology, drainage and landscape
in Tapi Fault Zone. Gond Geol Magz 23(1):31–37
Ghatak S, Ghatak M (2010) Active tectonics-climate feedback in Purna, Tapi and Narmada basins
of Central India. Unpublished GSI report
Ghatak S, Ghatak M, Devarajan MK, Naik KK, Livingstone D, Siddaiah S, Ramamurthy V,
Gaonkar SG (2009) Report on active fault studies along the Gavilgarh Fault Zone in Purna
valley Quaternary basin. Unpublished GSI report
Ghatak S, Ghatak M, Chandradas M (2009b) Report on active fault studies along Tapi North Fault.
Unpublished GSI report
Ghatak S, Ghatak M, Chatterjee AK, Mujtaba SA, Bhattacharyya S (2010) Palaeoclimatic and
sedimentation history inferred from multiple bedded Calcrete profile of Takarkheda section.
Gondwana Geological Magazine, Special 12(2010):329–332
Gibling MR, Tandon SK, Sinha R, Jain M (2005) Discontinuity-bounded alluvial sequences of the
southern Gangetic plains, India: aggradation and degradation in response to monsoonal strength.
J Sedi Res 75:369–385
Gile LH, Petersen FF, Grossman RB (1965) The K horizon: a master soil horizon of carbonate
accumulation. Soil Sci 99:74–82
Gile LH, Petersen FF, Grossman RB (1966) Morphological and genetic sequences of carbonate
accumulation in desert soils. Soil Sci 101:347–360
Golani PR, Bandopadhyay BK, Gupta A (2001) Gavilgarh – Tan shear: a prominent ductile shear
zone in Central India with multiple reactivation history. Geo Surv Ind Spl Pub 64:265–272
Goudie AS (1983) Calcrete. In: Goudie AS, Pye K (eds) Chemical sediments and geomorphology.
London academic Press 439p, pp 93–131
Goudie AS (1996) Organic agency in calcrete development. J Arid Environ 32:103–110
GSI (2000) Seismotectonic atlas of India.
Guzzetti F, Marchetti M, Reichenbach P (1997) Large alluvial fans in the north-central Po plain.
Geomorphology 18:119–136
Harvey AM (1988) Controls of alluvial fan development: the alluvial fans of the Sierra de
Carrascoy, Murcia, Spain. Catena 13:123–137
Harvey AM (1990) Factors affecting alluvial fan development in Southeast Spain. In: Rachocki
AH, Church M (eds) Alluvial fans: a field approach. Wiley, pp 247–269
Jain M, Tandon SK (2003) Quaternary alluvial stratigraphy and palaeoclimatic reconstruction at the
Thar margin. Curr Sci 84:1048–1055
Juyal N, Chamyal LS, Bhandari S, Maurya DM, Singhvi AK (2004) Environmental changes during
late Pleistocene in the Orsang River basin, western India. Jour Geol Soc Ind 64:471–479
Juyal N, Chamyal LS, Bhandari S, Bhusan S, Singhvi AK (2006) Continental record of the
southwest monsoon during the last 130 ka: evidence from the southern margin of the Thar
desert. India Quaternary Sci Rev 25:2632–2650
Kale VS (2005) The sinuous bedrock channel of Tapi River, Central India, its form and processes.
Geomorphology 70:296–310
Kroon D, Steens TNF, Troelstra SR (1991) Onset of monsoonal related upwelling in the western
Arabian Sea as revealed by planktonic foraminifers. Proc ODP Sci Results 117:257–263
Machette MN (1985) Calcic soils of the southwestern United States. In: Weide DL (ed) Soils and
Quaternary geology of the southwestern United States, vol 203. Geological Society of America
Special Paper, pp 1–21
Michael NM (2000) Active, capable, and potentially active faults — a paleoseismic perspective. J
Geodyn 29(3):387–392. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0264-3707(99)00060-5
Molnar P, England P, Martiod J (1993) Mantle dynamics, uplift of the Tibetan plateau and the
Indian monsoon development. Rev Geophys 34:357–396
Nagalakshmi T, Achyuthan H (2004) Radiocarbon dating and Holocene episodes of alluvial
sedimentation in the Koratallaiyar-Cooum River basin, Chennai, South India. Jour Geol Soc
India 64:461–469
12 Active Tectonics–Climate Interaction in the Structural Depo-Centres. . . 295

Narula PL, Acharyya SK, Banerjee J (eds) (2000) Seismotectonic Atlas of India and its environs.
GSI publication
Overpeck JT, Anderson DM, Trumbore S, Prell WL (1996) The southwest monsoon over the last
18,000 years. Clim Dyn 12:213–225
Pal DK, Deshpande SB, Venugopal KR, Kalbande AR (1989) Formation of di and trioctahedral
smectite as evidence for paleoclimatic changes in southern and central Peninsular India.
Geoderma 45:175–184
Pal DK, Balpande SS, Srivastava P (2001) Polygenetic Vertisols of the Purna valley of central India.
Catena 43:231–249
Patnaik R, Gupta AK, Naidu PD, Yadav R, Bhattacharyya A, Kumar M (2012) Indian monsoon
variability at different time scales: marine and, terrestrial proxy records. Proc Indian Natn Sci
Acad 78(3):535–547
Pradhan SM (1980) GSI News September 1980. II(9):4
Prell WL, Kutzbach JE (1987) Monsoon variability over the past 150,000 years. J Geophysical Lett
Atmos 92(D7). https://doi.org/10.1029/JD092iD07p08411
Raj R (2007) Late Pleistocene fluvial sedimentary facies, the Dhandar River basin, Western India.
Quat Int 159:93–101
Rajurkar ST (1982) Photogeological interpretation of Upper Wardha project and surrounding areas,
Wardha. Amravati and Betul districts. GSI unpublished report
Ray A, Rana NS (1989) Geology of Buldana and Amravati districts. Maharashtra. Unpublished GSI
report
Raymo ME (1991) Geochemical evidence supporting T. C Chamberlin’s theory of glaciation.
Geology 19(4):344–347. https://doi.org/10.1130/0091-7613(1991)019<0344:GESTCC>2.3.
CO;2
Resmi MR, Achyuthan H (2021) The interplay of mid to late Holocene tectonism and northeast
monsoon on the landscape evolution. In: Quaternary climate change over the Indian
sub-continent. Edited by Neloy Khare, CRC Press, pp 109–139
Roy A, Devarajan MK (2001) Occurrence of seismites from the quaternary deposits of Narmada
Valley. Geological Survey of India News 18:15–16
Roy A, Devarajan MK (2003) Tectonics and seismicity of Central India: a review. In: Roy A,
Mohabey DM (eds) Seismicity of Central India, vol 5. Gondwana Geological Magazine Special
Publications, pp 23–44
Roy A, Prasad MH (2003) Tectonothermal events in Central Indian Tectonic Zone (CITZ) and its
implications in Rodinian crustal assembly. J Asian Earth Sci 22:115129
Saxena RK (1988) Geothermal investigation around Salbardi hot springs area, district Betul (M.P.)
and Amravati (Maharashtra). GSI unpublished report
Shanker R (1987) Neotectonic activity along the Tapi-Satpura lineament in Central India. Indian
Minerals 41(1):19–30
Shanker R, Dubey R (1984) Landform, neotectonism and geothermal activity in the part of Tapi
basin, district Jalgaon, Maharashtra. Rec Geol Surv India 123(6):70–85
Sharma S, Joachimiski M, Tobschall HJ, Singh IB, Sharma C, Chauhan MS, Morgenroth G (2004)
Late-glacial and Holocene environmental changes in Ganga plain, northern India. Quaternary
Sci Rev 23:145–159
Singh IB (2005) Quaternary palaeoenvironments of the Ganga plain and anthropogenic activity.
Man and Environ 30:1–35
Singhvi AK, Kar A (2004) The aeolian sedimentation record of the Thar desert. Proc Indian Acad
Sci (Earth Planet Sci) 113(3):371–401
Sinha M, Tiwari MP (1984) Geomorphology and geology of the Quaternary deposits in part of
Tapti basin, Jalgaon district, Maharashtra. Unpublished GSI report
Sinha R, Tandon SK, Sanyal P, Gibling MR, Stuben D, Berner Z, Ghazanfari P (2006) Calcretes
from a late quaternary interfluve in the Ganga Plains, India: carbonate types and isotopic
systems in a monsoonal setting. Palaeogeogr Palaeoclimatol Palaeoecol 242:214–239
296 S. Ghatak and M. Ghatak

Sinha R, Bhattacharjee P, Sangode SJ, Gibling MR, Tandon SK, Jain M, Godfry D (2007) Valley
and interfluve sediments in the southern Ganga plains, India: exploring facies and magnetic
signatures. Sed Geol 201:386–411
Srivastava P, Bhattacharyya T, Pal DK (2002) Significance of the formation of calcium carbonate
minerals in the pedogenesis and management of cracking clay soils (vertisols) of India. Clays
and Clay Minerals 50(1):111–126. 1 February 2002
Srivastava P, Singh IB, Sharma M, Singhvi AK (2003a) Luminescence chronometry and late
quaternary geomorphic history of the ganga plain, India. Palaeogeogr Palaeoclimatol Palaeoecol
197:15–41
Srivastava P, Sharma M, Singhvi AK (2003b) Luminescence chronology of incision and channel
pattern changes in the River Ganga, India. Geomorphology 51:259–268
Srivastava P, Sharma S, Shukla UK, Singh IB, Singhvi AK (2003c) Late Pleistocene-Holocene
hydrological changes in the interfluve areas of central Ganga plains, India. Geomorphology 54:
279–292
Srivastava AK, Bansoda, Mangla N, Khare N (2021) Calcretes from the quaternary alluvial deposit
of Purna basin, Central India: lithological and climatic controls. Rhizosphere 18:100343
Talling PJ, Stewart MD, Stark CP, Gupta S, Vincent SJ (1997) The regular spacing of drainage
outlets from linear fault blocks. Basin Res 9:275–302
Thomas PJ, Juyal N, Kale VS, Singhvi AK (2007) Luminescence chronology of late Holocene
extreme hydrological events in the upper Penner River basin, South India. J Quaternary Sci 22:
747–753. ISSN 0267–8179
Tiwari MP (1996) Neotectonism in Tapti-Purna valleys and its probable correlation with geother-
mal activity. In: Pitale UL, Padhi RN (eds) Geothermal energy in India, Geol. Surv. India
Special Publ, vol 45, pp 325–332
Tiwari MP (1999) Quaternary Lithostratigraphic formations of Central Indian River Basins; their
correlation and chronology. Gondwaana, National Symposium of Quaternary of India, Geol
Magz Spl 4:17–31
Tiwari MP, Bhai HY (1997) Quaternary stratigraphy of the Narmada Valley. Geol Surv India Spec
Publ 46:33–63
Tiwari MP, Bhai HY, Bandyopadhyay KP (2001) Quaternary geology of the Purna valley,
Amravati, Akola and Buldhana districts, Maharashtra. Unpublished GSI Report
Waelbroeck C, Labeyrie L, Michel E, Duplessy JC, McManus JF, Lambeck K, Balbon E,
Labracherie M (2002) Sea-level and deep water temperature changes derived from benthic
foraminifera isotopic records. Quat Sci Rev 21(1–3):295–305. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0277-
3791(01)00101-9
Williams MAJ, Pal JN, Jaiswal M, Singhvi AK (2006) River response to quaternary climatic
fluctuations: evidence from the Son and Belan valleys, north-central India. Quaternary Sci
Rev 25:2619–2631
Wright VP, Tucker ME (1991) Calcretes: an introduction. In: Wright VP, Tucker ME (eds)
Calcretes. Blackwell Scientific. 352, Oxford, pp 1–22
Chapter 13
Application of Cosmogenic Radionuclides
in the Quaternary Sciences Using
Accelerator Mass Spectrometry

Atul Kumar Singh and Pankaj Kumar

Abstract The Quaternary Period begins at 2.58 Ma and was defined by the Global
boundary Stratotype Section and Point (GSSP) in 2009. The Quaternary comprises
only 0.4% of Earth’s history but is crucial for humans because of glacial and
interglacial events. The oxygen isotope studies in the microfossils of the deep marine
sediments have revealed the glacial and interglacial cycles at 100 ka, 43 ka, 24 ka
and 19 ka for the past 700 ka due to Milankovitch cycles. Therefore, it is important to
reconstruct the past climate and environmental changes and model them to predict
such events which may happen in future. Accelerator Mass Spectrometry (AMS) is
an ultrasensitive technique to handle a very small sample size and provides isotopic
ratios for many elements which help understand the evolution of Quaternary land-
forms and climate. In this chapter, we have discussed the working principle of AMS
and different cosmogenic radionuclides (CRN) which help reconstruct past climate
and tectonic events. Further, different geomorphological features and landforms
such as loess, lakes, river terraces, ice cores, etc., are also discussed, where cosmo-
genic radionuclide proxy can be applied to understand the past changes in the
climate on a global or regional scales. Denudation rates are an important proxy to
understand the palaeo-humidity and temperature conditions, and the role of CRNs to
estimate accurate palaeo-denudation rates has also been discussed in the chapter.

Keywords Holocene epoch · Atmospheric circulations · Microfossils · Accelerator

mass spectrometer

Introduction: The Quaternary Period

The Quaternary is the most recent geological record of the Earth’s history. Along
with the Neogene and Palaeogene Periods, it forms the Cenozoic Era. The boundary
of the Quaternary System/Period was defined by the Global boundary Stratotype

A. K. Singh · P. Kumar (✉)

Inter-University Accelerator Centre, New Delhi, India
e-mail: [email protected]

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 297
N. Khare (ed.), Science, Policies and Conflicts of Climate Change, Springer Climate,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-16254-1_13
298 A. K. Singh and P. Kumar

Section and Point (GSSP) in 2009 at 2.58 Ma which matches with the Marine
Isotope Age (MIS) 103 (Gibbard and Head 2010; Head 2019). The Quaternary
System/Period is divided into the Pleistocene and Holocene Series/Epochs. The
Pleistocene Epoch begins with the Quaternary at 2.58 Ma and ends at 0.0117 Ma
or 11.7 ka. This marks the beginning of the Holocene Epoch which continues till
date. The term Quaternary was introduced in 1759 by Giovanni Arduino to define a
fourth-order (quarto ordine) or stage of alluvial sediments of the River Po from the
Venetian and Tuscan regions of Italy (Arduino 1759; Vaccari 2006; Lowe and
Walker 2014; Head 2019). However, technically he never used the term Quaternary
(Gibbard 2019); the term for the first time was used by the French geologist Jules
Desnoyers in 1829.
Quaternary has been the most active period in terms of environmental changes in
the last 60 Ma. Δ18O is a proxy used for reconstructing deep-water temperature and
global ice cover. The ice cover started developing around 34 Ma ago during the
Cenozoic, which was most extensive in the Pleistocene (Zachos et al. 2001; Bradley
2015). The Quaternary comprises only 0.4% of Earth’s history and is known for its
glacial cycles. This change can be caused by a combination of factors, which are
changes in long-term positions of landmass, mountain-building processes which
control the atmospheric circulations and atmospheric composition through erosion
and weathering (Zachos et al. 2001; An Yin 2006) and cyclic variations in Earth’s
orbital position (Hays et al. 1976). However, the mechanism through which these ice
sheets advance and recede is not very well understood (Muller and MacDonald
1997). The beginning of the Quaternary was marked by the development of sub-
stantial ice sheets. Milankovitch (1941) proposed three astronomical processes
which controlled the insolation and thus the climate of the Earth: (a) eccentricity
of the orbit, the shape of the Earth’s orbit around the sun changes from circular to
elliptical due to planetary gravitational influences between 95 and 136 ka, this is
referred to as 100 ka eccentricity cycle, (b) obliquity of the ecliptic, the tilt of the
Earth’s axis varies from 21°39′ to 24°36′ over a time of ~41 ka and (c) precession of
the equinoxes, change in the direction of the rotation of the Earth axis to a fixed star
(wobbling on its axis like a top) is caused by the gravitational pull of the Sun and the
Moon at an interval of ~23 and 19 ka. It is widely accepted that these astronomical
changes in the eccentricity, obliquity and precession of the Earth around the Sun are
the main driving forces of climate shifts through time (e.g. Berger and Loutre 1991;
Clement et al. 2001; Leuschner and Sirocko 2003). The oxygen isotope studies in the
microfossils of the deep marine sediments have revealed the cyclicity of glacial/
interglacial cycles at 100 ka, 43 ka, 24 ka and 19 ka for the past 700 ka (Hays et al.
1976; Lowe and Walker 2014). However, the earth has witnessed changes in the
climate over a shorter time duration during the Holocene such as the Medieval
Warming Period (MWP), Little Ice Age (LIA), etc., with a smaller period of a few
hundred years. The Milankovitch theory does not explain changes at these smaller
time intervals and a large dataset is required to understand these processes. The
phenomenon such as mountain building processes, which control the atmospheric
circulations pattern affects land-ocean thermodynamic relations and affect the cli-
mate at a regional scale (An et al. 2001; Wünnemann et al. 2007). For example, in the
13 Application of Cosmogenic Radionuclides in the Quaternary Sciences. . . 299

Indian subcontinent, the climate is strongly influenced by the formation of the

Himalayas due to the convergence of the Indian and the Eurasian plates. The uplift
of the landmass results in exposure of the fresh rock to the exogenic forces which
lead to the weathering and erosion of these rocks. The chemical weathering of silica-
rich rocks consumes the atmospheric CO2 (Ebelmen 1845; Urey 1952; Lupker et al.
2016), thus decreasing the greenhouse gas from the atmosphere and bringing down
the global temperatures.

Accelerator Mass Spectrometry

Accelerator Mass Spectrometry (AMS) is a mass spectrometry of high energy with

an accelerator. Since accelerators provide energy to the ions, the AMS can be termed
as high-energy mass spectrometry as well. By making the accelerator an integral part
of mass spectrometry, the limitations of conventional mass spectrometers can be
considerably reduced and the sensitivity of AMS measurements can be improved to
10-14–10-16. Therefore, AMS is the best suitable technique for the measurement of
cosmogenic produced long-lived radionuclides present at a very low level in nature.
In AMS, ions are produced and accelerated to high energy (in the range of tens of
MeV) by using a tandem accelerator. At this energy, several important techniques
(such as nuclear detectors, electric and magnetic filters, etc.) become more effective
and help in the suppression of unwanted interferences to a very low level.
A typical tandem accelerator-based AMS system is composed of an ion source, an
injector system with dipole magnets, a tandem accelerator, a post acceleration
analysis system and a detector. The ion source produces pre-accelerated negative
ions, which undergo a selection procedure by the injector system through ME/q2
filtering. These selected negative ions are accelerated and converted into positive
ions with the help of an accelerator. Tandem accelerators have a stripper system in
the middle of their tank, which converts negative ions to positive and also helps in
reducing the molecular background by breaking the molecule. Due to the high
energy achieved by the accelerator (order of MeV) atom counting is possible using
particle detectors. High energy also helps in removing isobaric and isotopic inter-
ferences. Furthermore, various other filters like velocity filter (E/M selector), elec-
trostatic analyzer (E/q selector), gas-filled magnet, etc., are used in AMS to reduce
background. The use of a high-energy accelerator in combination with various filters
increases the sensitivity of AMS to 10-14–10-16 and makes it a versatile and
powerful method to accurately measure ultra-trace elements. Figure 13.1 shows
the schematic diagram of the AMS facility at the Inter-University Accelerator Centre
(IUAC), New Delhi for the measurement of 14C, 10Be, and 26Al radionuclides.
Usually, AMS determines the ratio of radioisotope to a stable isotope, as absolute
counting of a particular nuclide is difficult. However, two isotopes may not be
ionized or transmitted through the system in an exactly similar manner and, there-
fore, the measured ratio of radioisotope to stable isotope may not reflect the true ratio
in the unknown sample. To solve this problem, a standard sample having a known
300 A. K. Singh and P. Kumar

Fig. 13.1 Schematic diagram of accelerator mass spectrometry facility at IUAC, New Delhi (after
Sharma et al. 2019)

ratio of radioisotope to stable isotope is measured along with the unknown sample to
normalize the results.
The sample material chosen for the AMS studies may contain several other
unwanted elements along with the element of interest. Sometimes an element of
interest stays inside a mineral, e.g., 10Be and 26Al formed by the in situ method stay
in the quartz mineral. Physical and chemical processing of samples needs to be done
before the AMS measurement to remove these unwanted elements to the maximum
possible level and to extract the element of interest from the mineral (Singh et al.
2022). During the chemical processing, the sample material is converted into a
chemical form suitable to produce a high yield of negative ions from the ion source.
In addition to this, chemical separation reduces the concentration of isobar by several
orders of magnitude. All these physical and chemical processes are performed in a
controlled environment to reduce the background level. Any AMS facility is usually
accompanied by suitable physical and chemical processing laboratories.
Another method of detecting cosmogenic radionuclides is decay counting utiliz-
ing their decay property. Estimating a radioisotope is possible by simply counting
the radiation (α, β, or γ) emitted during the decay of the radioisotope. The radiations
13 Application of Cosmogenic Radionuclides in the Quaternary Sciences. . . 301

emitted during decay are proportional to the number of radioisotope atoms present at
that time and the half-life of the radioisotope. The natural abundance of long-lived
radioisotopes is usually in the range of 10-10 to 10-16. Therefore, decay counting
takes a very long counting time and needs a large amount of sample material for
counting long-lived radioisotopes to achieve considerable statistics. Decay counting
is best suited for short-lived radioisotopes. AMS directly counts the long-lived
radionuclides without waiting for their feeble radioactive decay, and therefore
AMS is preferred over decay counting in the case of the cosmogenic radionuclides
having a long half-life targeting geological research.

Cosmogenic Radionuclides

Earth’s atmosphere is constantly bombarded by high-energy particles called cosmic

rays that originate from the Sun, from different solar systems within our galaxy, and
also from other galaxies. Cosmic rays can be classified as primary and secondary
cosmic rays. Primary cosmic rays are the ones that arrive from the Sun and outside of
the solar system. On entering the Earth’s atmosphere, primary cosmic rays produce a
cascade of lower energy secondary particles called secondary cosmic rays. Primary
cosmic rays are composed mainly of protons and alpha particles with few electrons,
positrons, gamma rays, and antiprotons. Based on origin, primary cosmic rays can be
classified as galactic cosmic rays (GCR), solar cosmic rays (SCR), and anomalous
cosmic rays (ACR). GCR is generated outside of the solar system with an average
energy of 2 GeV in a range of 0.1 to 10 GeV (Tuniz et al. 1998). SCR originate from
the Sun with an energy range of 1 to 100 MeV and their intensity increases manifold
during solar flares. ACR is thought to originate from the ionization of neutral
interstellar atoms either by solar radiation or solar winds (Jokipii and Giacalone
1998; Tuniz et al. 1998).
Cosmogenic radionuclides are produced by the interaction of high-energy cosmic
rays with the stable nuclei of atoms present in the atmosphere or on the Earth’s surface
radioisotopes are produced. For example, when neutrons present in the cosmic rays
spectrum interact with nitrogen present in the atmosphere 14C (T1/2 = 5730 years) is
produced following the nuclear spallation reaction 14N(n,p) 14C. Thus formed 14C is
quickly oxidized into 14CO2 and equilibrates with volatile carbon species. The 14C/C
ratio in the atmosphere is homogeneous with a natural value of about 1.2 × 10-12. The
distribution of atmospheric 14C in the hydrosphere and biosphere is done by gaseous
exchange and by photosynthesis, respectively, which is a part of the carbon cycle. Once
14
C is mixed, it presents everywhere like in plants, animals, the hydrosphere, and the
biosphere. As long as plants or animals are alive, they stay in equilibrium with nature and
the natural 14C value remains constant. However, when they are dead, the natural value
starts decreasing and the older the sample, the fewer is the number of 14C atoms in the
sample. Therefore, 14C can act as a natural clock present in the natural archive.
302 A. K. Singh and P. Kumar

Fig. 13.2 The figure shows different geological landforms where cosmogenic radionuclides can be
applied. (Modified after Rhodes 2011)

The cosmogenic radionuclides have wide application in Earth and atmospheric

sciences. These could be used for dating, palaeo-climate reconstruction, denudation
rates, solar activity, geomagnetic variations, etc. The cosmogenic radionuclides help
understand the geological evolution of different landforms (Fig. 13.2), and these are
briefly discussed here.

Loess

Loess is aeolian derived silt that covers about 10% of the Earth’s land surface
(Busacca and Sweeney 2005; Bradley 2015). Extensive loess covers are present in
China, Central Asia, Russia, Europe, Argentina, New Zealand, and North America
(Muhs 2014). In India, a thick loess cover is found in the Karewa basin of Kashmir.
Loess can be of glacial and non-glacial origin, a classical approach is that the silt-
sized particles are produced by glacial grinding of rocks, deposited as till, reworked
by the fluvial processes, and finally picked up, transported, and deposited by the
wind (Roberts et al. 2007; Muhs 2014). This leads to the view that the loess deposits
are markers of glacial periods. However, some authors have suggested that the loess
may be of desert origin and the topic is under debate (Smalley 1995; Wright 2001;
Muhs and Bettis 2003). The classical approach is well proven in regions close to
glaciers, whether they are continental or mountainous glaciers, e.g., in North Amer-
ica (Ruhe 1969), Europe (Frechen 2003), and Asia (Dodonov 1991). The loess
deposits are usually unaltered sediments with intercalated paleosol layers. The
13 Application of Cosmogenic Radionuclides in the Quaternary Sciences. . . 303

paleosol layers form when the loess activity is minimal and the layers become
stabilized under relatively moist conditions. Therefore, the interplay between glacial
and interglacial periods leads to formations of loess and paleosols, respectively.
Thus, these can be used as an indicator of climate change.
In a recent study, Meenakshi et al. (2018) worked on the loess-paleosol deposits
of the Dilpur Formation, Karewa basin, Kashmir using the AMS facility at IUAC
and showed that the Last Glacial Maxima (LGM) was between 18.6 ka to 22.3 ka.
They further extrapolated the results to show two more glacial periods between
67–71 ka and 124–127 ka.

Lakes

Lakes accumulate terrestrial sediments from the surroundings and thus preserve
records of any environmental change (Cohen 2003; Jeziorski et al. 2008; Bradley
2015; Shah et al. 2020). Lake sediments are composed of two types of materials, one
which generates within the lake basin (autochthonous) while the other is transported
to the lake by rivers, streams, overland flow, etc. (allochthonous material). A wide
variety of proxies can be used to reconstruct the past climate from the lake sedi-
ments. These include sedimentology, inorganic geochemistry, varves, pollen, mac-
rofossils, phytoliths, ostracods, diatoms, stable isotopes, and organic biomarkers. It
is worth mentioning that lake sediments provide a plethora of information about past
climate using above-mentioned proxies but this information will be limited in
absence of proper chronology. This is where the role of AMS becomes important
because the lake sediments are rich in organic carbon and can be dated using 14C.
The sedimentary facies are the indicator of depositional condition (Miall 1985;
Das et al. 2017) and can be used to get basic information about palaeo-climates.
Similarly, magnetic susceptibility data can be used to interpret the amount of clastic
in the lake sediments (Polissar et al. 2006). Geochemical data can be useful in
interpreting the palaeo-climate, e.g., the Ti concentration in the lake sediment tells
about the dominant erosional agent in the region (Bakke et al. 2009; Yancheva et al.
2007). Varves are an important proxy for palaeo-climate reconstruction; these are
annually deposited laminated sediments in lakes (Anderson and Dean 1988). Varves
are difficult to preserve and are usually found in glacial and paraglacial environ-
ments. In some cases, varves can be used as a scale to calibrate the radiocarbon
timescale (Staff et al. 2013). Pollen, macrofossils, and phytoliths are other important
proxies that provide a plethora of information on the palaeo-environment and
palaeo-climate. Pollen has been widely used to verify the general circulation
model simulations (Bennett and Willis 2001). Plant macrofossils such as leaves,
fruits, seeds, etc., are helpful in vegetation reconstruction (Jackson et al. 1997).
304 A. K. Singh and P. Kumar

River Terraces

River terraces are the remnants of the flood plains that run parallel to the present-day
river (Leopold et al. 1964; Schumm 1977; Ritter et al. 2002; Pazzaglia 2013). The
terraces based on their relative elevation on both the banks of the river may be
classified as paired and unpaired terraces. The paired terraces occur on opposite sides
of the valley at similar elevations (when not eroded) and represent the former
longitudinal profile of the stream when connected (Bull 2007 p. 43). The unpaired
terraces are more common and are at different elevations on both sides of the valley.
These terraces form when a vertically incising river laterally migrates in its flood-
plain. 14C and Optically Stimulated Luminescence (OSL) dating are well-established
dating methods for detrital organic materials and sediments (quartz and feldspar),
respectively, that are commonly found in terrace deposits (Wegmann and Pazzaglia
2002; Duller 2004; Pazzaglia 2013; Singh et al. 2016, 2017). Crustal deformation
and rock uplift associated with the tectonic forcing are one of the primary reasons for
the formation of the fluvial and alluvial terraces. Climate change has played an
important role in the formation of the fluvial, alluvial, and marine terraces. Thus,
terraces are important geographic markers that can be studied to interpret the past
climate and tectonics.

Glacial and Periglacial Landforms

The cryosphere consists of continental and mountainous glaciers, seasonal snow

cover on land, and sea ice. The fluctuations in the glaciers result from changes in net
accumulation and net ablation. An increase in net accumulation will result in positive
mass balance and will lead to the advance of the glacier snout and similarly, an
increase in the net ablation will result in the retreat of the snout (Bradley 2015). The
variation in glacier snout is a complex process combining short- and long-term
climatic fluctuations. The smaller glaciers have a shorter response time, whereas
the large glaciers would have a longer response time to climate change. It is
interesting to note that despite rising global temperatures some glaciers in the
Himalayas have managed to advance; this shows the influence of micro-climate
zones and topography on glacial dynamics (Scherler et al. 2011).
The fluctuations in the glaciers can be recorded using the glacial moraines which
are left behind when the glaciers retreat (Nesje et al. 2000). The recent advance in
glaciers may overwrite the signatures of previous advances and recession, thus
complicating the reconstructions. However, a proper stratigraphic study may reveal
buried soils or some erosional contacts which were buried by recent glacial moraine
(Röthlisberger 1976; Bradley 2015). The biggest hurdle in using glaciers as a palaeo-
climate proxy is dating them. The glaciers usually lack organic material, and even if
present will provide minimum ages of the glacial advance because there is a time lag
in the retreat of glaciers and the development of soil (Bradley 2015). The recent
13 Application of Cosmogenic Radionuclides in the Quaternary Sciences. . . 305

developments in surface exposure dating using cosmogenic radionuclides have

opened a new era in the reconstruction of glacial studies.

Ice Cores

Ice cores have immerged as a very important proxy in palaeo-climate reconstruction

because the natural oscillations in the greenhouse gases are preserved in the ice caps.
Ice cores trap these fossil gases such as CO2, CH4, and N2O; ice cores also provide a
plethora of information such as stable isotope composition of ice matrix and trapped
molecular oxygen, cosmogenic isotopes, dust, and electrical conductivity (Bales and
Wolff 1995; Cronin 1999). The measurement of cosmogenic nuclides such as 14C,
10
Be, and 36Cl provides not only dating information but also changes in the produc-
tion rate, geomagnetic field, and solar activity (Lal and Peters 1967; Beer et al. 1988;
Stuiver and Braziunas 1989; Raisbeck et al. 1992; Cronin 1999; Masarik and Beer
1999; Horiuchi et al. 2008). The variations in the past solar activity, especially for
the Holocene epoch, are very well recorded by the 14C tree-ring record and Be ice
core record (Edouard et al. 1997; Solanki et al. 2004). The changes in the solar
irradiance are directly related to the changes in the solar magnetic activity on an
11-year timescale (Willson and Hudson 1988; Radick et al. 1990; Field et al. 2006).
The increased solar magnetic activity (which regulates GCR) results in greater
deflection and thus Earth’s exposure to the GCR is reduced resulting in reduced
production of the cosmogenic radionuclide. Thus, an inverse relationship exists
between solar activity and cosmogenic radionuclide production. There are different
uncertainties associated with these topics and have been addressed by Lean et al.
(2002); McCracken (2004) and McCracken et al. 2004; Horiuchi et al. (2008), who
collected ice core from the Dome Fuji (Antarctica) and have shown that the
concentration and the flux of the 10Be increased at known solar activity minimums
at 1010–1050 year CE, 1280–1340 year CE, 1420–1540 year CE, 1654–-
1715 year CE and 1795–1820 year CE.
The Earth’s magnetic field is very dynamic and varies on a time scale of less than
a second to millions of years; these could be palaeosecular variations to geomagnetic
excursions and reversals (Simon et al. 2020). The geomagnetic excursion is defined
as a deviation of more than 40–45° in the virtual geomagnetic pole (VGP) from the
geographic pole (Merrill and McFadden 1994) and may occur on timescales of a few
thousand years (Roberts 2008). The excursions can also be understood as failed
reversals of Earth’s magnetic field (Simon et al. 2020) and are associated with weak
magnetic palaeo-intensities in marine and lacustrine sediments (e.g. Thouveny et al.
1993; Nilsson et al. 2011; Channell et al. 2017; Lund et al. 2005, 2017). The
Laschamp excursion (41 ± 1 ka) (Laj and Channell 2015) is one such extensively
studied excursion. The palaeomagnetic data of directions and palaeo-intensities has
been extensively used to study these excursions but these datasets suffer from some
inherent problems such as low dipole field intensities during different time intervals
and discontinuous terrestrial sedimentary records (Roberts 2008). There is an inverse
306 A. K. Singh and P. Kumar

relationship between Geomagnetic dipole moment (GDM) and cosmogenic nuclide

production rates (Elsasser et al. 1956; Lingenfelter 1963; Lal and Peters 1967;
O’Brien 1979; Simon et al. 2020).

Denudation Rates

The rate of erosion or denudation has been a central theme of research for geo-
morphologists and geologists. The conventional method is to measure the average
mass of material leaving a drainage basin (Milliman and Meade 1983), but the
measurements have high uncertainty (Bierman and Steig 1996). Basin-scale denu-
dation rates are important to explain the geomorphic evolution of mountain belts and
drainage systems and also to establish the relationship between erosion, climate and
tectonics (Molnar and England 1990; Raymo et al. 1988; Dash et al. 2020).
In recent times, the ratio of cosmogenic 10Be to the stable isotope 9Be has
emerged as a very successful proxy for basin-scale denudation rate calculations
(von Blanckenburg et al. 2012; Wittmann et al. 2015; Rahaman et al. 2017). This
proxy is not only useful in determining the present-day denudation rates but also
palaeo-denudation rates. The meteoric variety of 10Be is produced in the atmosphere
and gets attached to dust and aerosols and is removed from the atmosphere due to
precipitation (wet or dry). This meteoric 10Be gets adsorbed onto the soil and
sediments and has several advantages over the in situ produced 10Be such as higher
concentration, smaller sample size and applications to quartz free lithologies (von
Blanckenburg et al. 2012). However, the meteoric or garden variety of 10Be suffers
from some inherent problems such as its adsorption dependence on the pH of the
solution and the grain size of the sediments. To circumvent this problem, the
concentration of 10Be should be normalized with the second element having iden-
tical chemical properties. 9Be is the stable isotope of Be and will show similar
partitioning behaviour as 10Be. 10Be/9Be has emerged as a robust proxy for denu-
dation rates using bulk soil and river sediments which have 10Be adsorbed onto rock
surfaces and precipitated during secondary weathering (von Blanckenburg et al.
2012). Denudation rates can be determined using
  



10
F metBe ½9Be  min
10Be 10Be D
½9Be parent ½9Be reac þ1
= =  
9Be reac 9Be diss ½9 
1 þ KQd
D
½9BeBe min
 parent

where (10Be/9Be)reac = ratio of10Be and 9Be in reactive phases; (10Be/9Be)diss = ratio
of 10Be and 9Be in river water, 9Beparent = concentration of 9Be in bedrock;
9
Bereac = concentration of 9Be in the reactive phase; 9Bemin = concentration of
9
Be after removal of dissolved and reactive phases; Kd = Partition coefficient of Be
between dissolved and reactive phases.
13 Application of Cosmogenic Radionuclides in the Quaternary Sciences. . . 307

met = Flux of meteoric

10
F 10Be Be to the Earth’s surface (in atoms/m2/year);
D = Denudation rate (in T/km /year); Q = Water flux out of system (in m/year).
2

If this condition is followed:

Q ½9Be parent
≫ Kd

D ½9Be  min

Then, the above equation can be modified to:



!
10Be 10Be F 10 Be
½9Be  min
= = met
þ1
9Be reac 9Be diss D
½9Be parent ½9Be reac

Dhal et al. (2018) estimated present and past denudation rates for the Cauvery
river catchment based on a 10Be (meteoric) study of sediment samples from two
cores drilled at Uttrangudi and Valangaiman sites in the Cauvery delta, which vary
from 18.7 ± 1.6 to 48.1 ± 8.3 T/km2 /yr during the Holocene.
Dash et al. (2020) estimated the denudation rate using the 10Be(meteoric)/9Be ratio
in monsoon dominated regions and found that a high/low denudation rates were
observed during the strong/weak phases of ISM, respectively, and increase in
catchment erosion is associated with intensified ISM.

Reservoir Effect

The atmosphere, biosphere and oceans work as active reservoirs of radiocarbon. A

biogeochemical cycle in which carbon is exchanged between different reservoirs is
known as a carbon cycle (Craig 1957). Carbon dating has an inbuilt assumption that
the radiogenic carbon (14C) in the atmosphere is in a state of equilibrium with all the
living organisms. However, there are certain localities in which this condition is not
fulfilled, e.g. the plants which grow in close vicinity of volcanoes will have a lot of
older carbon emancipated from the volcanoes. Similarly, the organisms living close
to the industrial hubs will also inhale air that is enriched in older carbon being
generated by burning of the fossil fuels.
In addition to this, there are reservoir effects (marine and freshwater) that result in
older radiocarbon ages. The cosmogenic radiocarbon present in the atmosphere is
dissolved in oceans in the form of CO2 and at the same moment is consumed by the
plants through photosynthesis and enters food chains. The content of 14C is not the
same at the surface of the ocean and in the deep ocean because the exchange between
the ocean surface and atmosphere is comparatively faster than between the surface
and the deep ocean. Therefore, the marine organisms of the same age will have
different radiocarbon content at the same time, which will result in anomalous
radiocarbon ages. In general, it has been observed that the marine radiocarbon
ages are 400 years older than the terrestrial radiocarbon ages (Fairbanks 1989;
308 A. K. Singh and P. Kumar

Timothy Jull et al. 2013). However, these corrections are site-dependent and depend
on coastline shape, ocean topography, ocean currents, climate and season, and wind
directions because these factors affect the upwelling which controls the mixing of
ocean water.
Similarly, freshwater reservoir effects in carbon dating have also been seen. As
discussed earlier the living organism is in equilibrium with the atmospheric 14C, but
when an organism obtains its carbon when other reservoirs have a lesser content of
14
C, it will result in an overestimation of radiocarbon ages. The most common cause
of this effect is the presence of dissolved carbonates that contain old carbon, also
known as the hard water effect. The hard water effect may result in errors of up to
6000 years (Clark and Fritz 1997; Bente 2013). Deep freshwater lakes may also have
delayed mixing of surface water and deep lake waters resulting in older ages similar
to marine reservoir effects. In addition, the dating of riverine sediments is also tricky
because the sediments are derived from different sources and may contain organic
carbon of different ages. The fluvial sediments thus may contain a lot of older carbon
resulting in overestimation of the ages.

References

Anderson RY, Dean WE (1988) Lacustrine varve formation through time. Palaeogeogr Palaeoclimatol
Palaeoecol 62(1–4):215–235. 0031018288900557. https://doi.org/10.1016/0031-0182(88)
90055-7
Arduino G (1759) Sopra varie sue Osservazionifatte in diverse parti del Territorio di Vicenza, ed
altrove, appartenentialla Teoria Terrestre, ed allaMineralogia. Letter to Prof. Antonio
Vallisnieri, dated 30th March
Bakke J, Lie O, Heegaard E, Dokken T, Birks HH, Haug GH, Dulski P (2009) Rapid oceanic and
atmospheric changes during the Younger Dryas cold period. Nat Geosci 2(3):202–205. https://
doi.org/10.1038/ngeo439
Bales RC, Wolff EW (1995) Interpreting natural climate signals in ice cores. Eos Trans Am
Geophys Union 76(47):477–477. https://doi.org/10.1029/95EO00293
Beer J, Siegenthaler U, Bonani G, Finkel RC, Oeschger H, Suter M, Wölfli W (1988) Information
on past solar activity and geomagnetism from 10Be in the Camp Century ice core. Nature
331(6158):675–679. https://doi.org/10.1038/331675a0
Bennett KD, Willis KJ (2001) Pollen. In: Smol JP, Birks HJB, Last WM (eds) Tracking environ-
mental change using lake sediments, vol 3. Kluwer Academic, Dordrecht
Bente P (2013) The freshwater reservoir effect in radiocarbon dating. Herit Sci 1(1):24. https://doi.
org/10.1186/2050-7445-1-24
Berger A, Loutre MF (1991) Insolation values for the climate of the last 10 million years. Quat Sci
Rev 10(4):297–317. 027737919190033Q. https://doi.org/10.1016/0277-3791(91)90033-Q
Bierman P, Steig EJ (1996) Estimating rates of denudation using cosmogenic isotope abundances in
sediment. Earth Surf Process Landf 21(2):125–139
Bradley RS (2015) Chapter 7-Loess. Palaeoclimatology, 3rd edn. Academic Press, San Diego,
pp 279–290
Bull WB (2007) Tectonic geomorphology of mountains. Blackwell Publishing, Malden, MA
Busacca AJ, Sweeney MR (2005) LOESS. In: Hillel D, Hatfield JL (eds) Encyclopedia of soils in
the environment, vol 3. Elsevier, Amsterdam
13 Application of Cosmogenic Radionuclides in the Quaternary Sciences. . . 309

Channell JET, Riveiros NV, Gottschalk J, Waelbroeck C, Skinner LC (2017) Age and duration of
Laschamp and Iceland Basin geomagnetic excursions in the South Atlantic Ocean. Quat Sci Rev
167:1–13 S0277379117302202. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quascirev.2017.04.020
Clark I, Fritz P (1997) Environmental isotopes in hydrogeology, Stein J, Starkweather A (eds).
Lewis, Boca Raton, New York
Clement AC, Cane MA, Seager R (2001) An orbitally driven tropical source for abrupt climate
change. J Climate 14(11):2369–2375
Cohen AS (2003) Paleolimnology: the history and evolution of lake systems. Oxford University
Press
Craig H (1957) The natural distribution of radiocarbon and the exchange time of carbon dioxide
between atmosphere and sea. Tellus 9(1):1–17
Cronin TM (1999) Principles of paleoclimatology. Columbia University Press
Das SS, Singh A, Singh N (2017) Provenance of bar-top sediments at Tons river near Allahabad.
J Geol Soc India 89(5):503–510. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12594-017-0638-3
Dash C, Dhal SP, Kumar P, Pati P, Chopra S (2020) Climate-induced denudational changes during
the Little Ice Age inferred from 10Be (meteoric)/9Be ratio: a case study from the core monsoon
zone of India. Quat Int
Dhal SP, Balakrishnan S, Kumar P, Singh P, Sharan A, Chopra S (2018) 10 Be/9Be ratios of
Cauvery river delta sediments, southern India. Curr Sci 115(9):1770–1781
Dodonov AE (1991) Loess of Central Asia. GeoJ 24(2). https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00186015
Duller GAT (2004) Luminescence dating of quaternary sediments: recent advances. J Quat Sci
19(2):183–192. https://doi.org/10.1002/jqs.809
Ebelmen JJ (1845) Sur les produits de la décomposition des espèces minérales de la famille des
silicates. Annales des Mines 7(3):66
Edouard B, Raisbeck GM, Yiou F, Jouzel J (1997) Solar modulation of cosmogenic nuclide
production over the last millennium: comparison between 14C and 10Be records. Earth Planet
Sci Lett 150(3–4):453–462. S0012821X97000824. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0012-821X(97)
00082-4
Elsasser W, Ney EP, Winckler JR (1956) Cosmic-ray intensity and geomagnetism. Nature
178(4544):1226–1227
Fairbanks RG (1989) A 17,000-year glacio-eustatic sea level record: influence of glacial melting
rates on the Younger Dryas event and deep-ocean circulation. Nature 342(6250):637–642
Field CV, Schmidt GA, Koch D, Salyk C (2006) J Geophys Res 111(D15):D15107. https://doi.org/
10.1029/2005JD006410
Frechen M (2003) Loess in Europe—mass accumulation rates during the Last Glacial Period. Quat
Sci Rev 22(18–19):1835–1857. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0277-3791(03)00183-5
Gibbard PL (2019) Giovanni Arduino-the man who invented the Quaternary. Quat Int 500:11–19
Gibbard PL, Head MJ (2010) The newly-ratified definition of the quaternary system/period and
redefinition of the Pleistocene series/epoch and comparison of proposals advanced prior to
formal ratification. Episodes 33(3):152–158
Hays JD, Imbrie J, Shackleton NJ (1976) Variations in the Earth’s orbit: pacemaker of the ice ages.
Science 194(4270):1121–1132
Head MJ (2019) Formal subdivision of the quaternary system/period: present status and future
directions. Quat Int 500:32–51
Horiuchi K, Uchida T, Sakamoto Y, Ohta A, Matsuzaki H, Shibata Y, Motoyama H (2008) Ice core
record of 10Be over the past millennium from Dome Fuji, Antarctica: a new proxy record of past
solar activity and a powerful tool for stratigraphic dating. Quat Geochronol 3(3):253–261
Jackson ST, Overpeck JT, Webb T, Keattch SE, Anderson KH (1997) Mapped plantmacrofossil
and pollen records of late quaternary vegetation change in Eastern North America. Quat Sci Rev
16(1):1–70. S0277379196000479. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0277-3791(96)00047-9
Jeziorski A, Yan ND, Paterson AM, DeSellas AM, Turner MA, Jeffries DS, Keller B, Weeber RC,
McNicol DK, Palmer ME, McIver K (2008) The widespread threat of calcium decline in fresh
waters. Science 322(5906):1374–1377
310 A. K. Singh and P. Kumar

Jokipii JR, Giacalone J (1998) Space Sci Rev 83(1/2):123–136. https://doi.org/10.1023/

A:1005077629875
Laj C, Channell JET (2015) Geomagnetic excursions. In: Treatise on geophysics, Geomagnetism,
vol 5, 2nd edn. Elsevier, Amsterdam, pp 343–383
Lal D, Peters B (1967) Cosmic ray produced radioactivity on the Earth. In: Kosmische Strahlung
II/Cosmic Rays II. Springer, Berlin/Heidelberg, pp 551–612
Lean JL, Wang Y-M, Sheeley NR (2002) The effect of increasing solar activity on the Sun’s total
and open magnetic flux during multiple cycles: Implications for solar forcing of climate.
Geophys Res Lett 29(24):77-1–77-2. https://doi.org/10.1029/2002GL015880
Leopold LB, Wolman MG, Miller JP (1964) Fluvial processes in geomorphology. W. H. Freeman
& Sons, San Francisco
Leuschner DC, Sirocko F (2003) Orbital insolation forcing of the Indian monsoon – a motor for
global climate changes? Palaeogeogr Palaeoclimatol Palaeoecol 197(1–2):83–95
Lingenfelter RE (1963) Production of carbon 14 by cosmic-ray neutrons. Rev Geophys 1(1):35.
https://doi.org/10.1029/RG001i001p00035
Lowe JJ, Walker MJ (2014) Reconstructing quaternary environments. Routledge
Lund SP, Schwartz M, Keigwin L, Johnson T (2005) Deep-sea sediment records of the Laschamp
geomagnetic field excursion (41000 calendar years before present). J Geophys Res Solid Earth
110(B4). https://doi.org/10.1029/2003JB002943
Lund S, Schwartz M, Stott L (2017) Long-term palaeomagnetic secular variation and excursions
from the western Equatorial Pacific Ocean (MIS2-4). Geophys J Int 209(2):587–596
Lupker M, France-Lanord C, Lartiges B (2016) Impact of sediment–seawater cation exchange on
Himalayan chemical weathering fluxes. Earth Surf Dyn 4(3):675–684. https://doi.org/10.5194/
esurf-4-675-2016
Masarik J, Beer J (1999) Simulation of particle fluxes and cosmogenic nuclide production in the
Earth’s atmosphere. J Geophys Res Atmos 104(D10):12099–12111. https://doi.org/10.1029/
1998JD200091
McCracken KG (2004) Geomagnetic and atmospheric effects upon the cosmogenic 10Be observed
in polar ice. J Geophys Res Space Phys 109(A4):A04101
McCracken KG, McDonald FB, Beer J, Raisbeck G, Yiou F (2004) A phenomenological study of
the long-term cosmic ray modulation, 850–1958 AD. J Geophys Res Space Phys 109(A12):
A12103
Meenakshi PK, Shrivastava JP, Chandra R, Sundeep Chopra GS, Roonwal RS (2018) High
resolution 14C AMS ages (50 ka) of organic matter associated with the loess-palaeosol
Holocene-Late Pleistocene (8–130 ka) sediments of Dilpur Formation Karewa Group Kashmir
India. Quat Geochronol 47:170–179 S1871101417301474. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quageo.
2018.06.004
Merrill RT, McFadden PL (1994) Geomagnetic field stability: reversal events and excursions. Earth
Planet Sci Lett 121(1–2):57–69
Miall AD (1985) Architectural-element analysis: a new method of facies analysis applied to fluvial
deposits. Earth-Sci Rev 22(4):261–308. 0012825285900017. https://doi.org/10.1016/0012-
8252(85)90001-7
Milankovitch MM (1941) Canon of insolation and the iceage problem. Koniglich Serbische
Akademice Beograd Special Publication, 132
Milliman JD, Meade RH (1983) World-wide delivery of river sediment to the oceans. J Geol 91(1):
1–21
Molnar P, England P (1990) Late Cenozoic uplift of mountain ranges and global climate change:
chicken or egg? Nature 346(6279):29–34. https://doi.org/10.1038/346029a0
Muhs DR (2014) Overview of Paleosols and wind blown sediments. Elsevier, Amsterdam
Muhs DR, Bettis EA (2003) Quaternary loess-paleosol sequences as examples of climate-driven
sedimentary extremes. Geological Society of America special paper 370, Boulder, CO,
pp 53–74
Muller RA, MacDonald GJ (1997) Glacial cycles and astronomical forcing. Science 277(5323):
215–218
13 Application of Cosmogenic Radionuclides in the Quaternary Sciences. . . 311

Nesje A, Lie Ø, Dahl SO (2000) Is the North Atlantic Oscillation reflected in Scandinavian glacier
mass balance records? J Quat Sci 15(6):587–601. Published for the Quaternary Research
Association
Nilsson A, Muscheler R, Snowball I, Aldahan A, Possnert G, Augustinus P, Atkin D, Stephens T
(2011) Multi-proxy identification of the Laschamp geomagnetic field excursion in Lake Pupuke,
New Zealand. Earth Planet Sci Lett 311(1–2):155–164
O’Brien K (1979) Secular variations in the production of cosmogenic isotopes in the Earth’s
atmosphere. J Geophys Res 84(A2):423. https://doi.org/10.1029/JA084iA02p00423
Pazzaglia FJ (2013) Fluvial terraces. In: Treatise on geomorphology, vol 9, pp 379–412
Polissar PJ, Abbott MB, Wolfe AP, Bezada M, Rull V, Bradley RS (2006) Solar modulation of
Little Ice Age climate in the tropical Andes. Proc Natl Acad Sci 103(24):8937–8942
Radick RR, Lockwood GW, Baliunas SL (1990) Stellar activity and brightness variations: a
glimpse at the Sun’s history. Science 247(4938):39–44. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.247.
4938.39
Rahaman W, Wittmann H, von Blanckenburg F (2017) Denudation rates and the degree of chemical
weathering in the Ganga River basin from ratios of meteoric cosmogenic 10Be to stable 9Be.
Earth Planet Sci Lett 469:156–169. S0012821X17301802. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.epsl.2017.
04.001
Raisbeck GM, Yiou F, Jouzel J, Petit JR, Barkov NI, Bard E (1992) 10Be deposition at Vostok,
Antarctica during the last 50,000 years and its relationship to possible cosmogenic production
variations during the period. In: NATO advanced research workshop on the last deglaciation:
Absolute and radiocarbon chronologies, pp 127–139
Raymo ME, Ruddiman WF, Froelich PN (1988) Influence of late Cenozoic mountain building on
ocean geochemical cycles. Geology 16(7):649–653
Rhodes EJ (2011) Optically stimulated luminescence dating of sediments over the past
200,000 years. Annu Rev Earth Planet Sci 39(1):461–488. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-
earth-040610-133425
Ritter DF, Kochel RC, Miller JR (2002) Process geomorphology. Waveland Press, Long Grove
Roberts AP (2008) Geomagnetic excursions: knowns and unknowns. Geophys Res Lett 35(17):
L17307
Roberts HM, Muhs DR, Bettis Iii EA (2007) Loess records| North America. In: Encyclopedia of
quaternary science, vol 2, pp 1456–1466
Röthlisberger H (1976) Thermal consequences of the pressure fluctuations in intra-and subglacial
water drainage channels. J Glaciol 16(74):309–310
Ruhe RV (1969) Quaternary landscapes in Iowa. Iowa State University Press, Ames. 255 pp
Scherler D, Bookhagen B, Strecker MR (2011) Spatially variable response of Himalayan glaciers to
climate change affected by debris cover. Nat Geosci 4(3):156–159. https://doi.org/10.1038/
ngeo1068
Schumm SA (1977) The fluvial system. Wiley, New York, NY
Shah RA, Achyuthan H, Lone AM, Kumar S, Kumar P, Sharma R, Amir M, Singh AK, Dash C
(2020) Holocene palaeoenvironmental records from the high-altitude Wular Lake Western
Himalayas. Holocene 30(5):733–743. https://doi.org/10.1177/0959683619895592
Sharma R, Umapathy G, Kumar P, Ojha S, Gargari S, Joshi R, Chopra S, Kanjilal D (2019) AMS
and upcoming geochronology facility at Inter University Accelerator Centre (IUAC) New Delhi
India. Nucl Instrum Methods Phys Res B 438:124–130. S0168583X18304154. https://doi.org/
10.1016/j.nimb.2018.07.002
Simon Q, Thouveny N, Bourlès DL, Valet JP, Bassinot F (2020) Cosmogenic 10Be production
records reveal dynamics of geomagnetic dipole moment (GDM) over the Laschamp excursion
(20–60 ka). Earth Planet Sci Lett 550:116547
Singh AK, Jaiswal MK, Pattanaik JK, Dev M (2016) Luminescence chronology of alluvial fan in
North Bengal India: Implications to tectonics and climate. Geochronometria 43(1):102–112.
https://doi.org/10.1515/geochr-2015-0037
312 A. K. Singh and P. Kumar

Singh AK, Pattanaik JK, Gagan, Jaiswal MK (2017) Late Quaternary evolution of Tista River
terraces in Darjeeling-Sikkim-Tibet wedge: Implications to climate and tectonics. Quat Int 443:
132–142. S1040618216301070. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2016.10.004
Singh AK, Manna I, Kumar P, Dawar A, Kumar P, Murari MK (2022) A new and effective method
for quartz-feldspar separation for OSL and CRN dating. Quat Geochronol 72:101315. https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.quageo.2022.101315
Smalley IJ (1995) Making the material: the formation of silt-sized primary mineral particles for
loess deposits. Quat Sci Rev 14:645–651
Solanki SK, Usoskin IG, Kromer B, Schüssler M, Beer J (2004) Unusual activity of the Sun during
recent decades compared to the previous 11000 years. Nature 431(7012):1084–1087. https://
doi.org/10.1038/nature02995
Staff RA, Schlolaut G, Ramsey CB, Brock F, Bryant CL, Kitagawa H, van der Plicht J, Marshall
MH, Brauer A, Lamb HF (2013) Integration of the old and new Lake Suigetsu (Japan) terrestrial
radiocarbon calibration data sets. Radiocarbon 55(4):2049–2058. https://doi.org/10.2458/azu_
js_rc.v55i2.16339
Stuiver M, Braziunas TF (1989) Atmospheric 14C and century-scale solar oscillations. Nature
338(6214):405–408. https://doi.org/10.1038/338405a0
Thouveny N, Creer KM, Williamson D (1993) Geomagnetic moment variations in the last 70,000
years, impact on production of cosmogenic isotopes. Global Planet Change 7(1–3):157–172
Timothy Jull AJ, Burr GS, Hodgins GWL (2013) Radiocarbon dating reservoir effects and
calibration. Quat Int 299:64–71 S1040618212032399. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2012.
10.028
Tuniz C, Kutschera W, Fink D, Herzog GF, Bird JR (1998) Accelerator mass spectrometry:
ultrasensitive analysis for global science. CRC Press, Boca Raton
Urey HC (1952) The planets: their origin and development. Mrs Hepsa Ely Silliman Memorial
Lectures
Vaccari E (2006) The “classification” of mountains in eighteenth-century Italy and the
lithostratigraphic theory of Giovanni Arduino (1714–1795), vol 411. The Origins of Geology
in Italy, p 157
von Blanckenburg F, Bouchez J, Wittmann H (2012) Earth surface erosion and weathering from the
10
Be (meteoric)/9Be ratio. Earth Planet Sci Lett 351:295–305
Wegmann KW, Pazzaglia FJ (2002) Holocene strath terraces, climate change, and active tectonics:
The Clearwater River basin, Olympic Peninsula, Washington State. Geol Soc Am Bull 114(6):
731–744
Willson RC, Hudson HS (1988) Solar luminosity variations in solar cycle 21. Nature 332(6167):
810–812. https://doi.org/10.1038/332810a0
Wittmann H, von Blanckenburg F, Dannhaus N, Bouchez J, Gaillardet J, Guyot JL, Maurice L,
Roig H, Filizola N, Christl M (2015) J Geophys Res Earth Surf 120(12):2498–2528. https://doi.
org/10.1002/2015JF003581
Wright JS (2001) ‘Desert’ loess versus ‘glacial’ loess: quartz silt formation, source areas and
sediment pathways in the formation of loess deposits. Geomorphology 36:231–256
Wünnemann B, Hartmann K, Altmann N, Hambach U, Pachur HJ, Zhang H (2007) Interglacial and
glacial fingerprints from lake deposits in the Gobi Desert, NW China. In: Developments in
quaternary sciences, vol 7. Elsevier, pp 323–347
Yancheva G, Nowaczyk NR, Mingram J, Dulski P, Schettler G, Negendank JF, Liu J, Sigman DM,
Peterson LC, Haug GH (2007) Influence of the intertropical convergence zone on the East Asian
monsoon. Nature 445(7123):74–77
Yin A (2006) Cenozoic tectonic evolution of the Himalayan orogen is constrained by along-strike
variation of structural geometry, exhumation history, and foreland sedimentation. Earth Sci Rev
76(1–2):1–131
Zachos JC, Pagani M, Sloan L et al (2001) Trends, rhythms and aberrations in global climate 65 Ma
to present. Science 292:686–693
Glossary

Alluvial sediments clay or silt or gravel carried by rushing streams and deposited
where the stream slows down. synonyms: alluvial deposit, alluvion, alluvium.
types: delta. a low triangular area of alluvial deposits where a river divides before
entering a larger body of water.
Anomalous Cosmic Rays (ACR) Anomalous cosmic rays are a heliospheric
phenomenon in which interstellar neutral atoms stream into the heliosphere, are
ionized by either solar radiation or the solar wind, and are subsequently acceler-
ated to very high energies, greater than 1 GeV.
Anthropogenic Intervention Recent studies suggest that anthropogenic modifica-
tion of land hydrology (e.g. through groundwater mining, dam building, irriga-
tion, deforestation, wetlands drainage, and urbanization) could significantly
impact sea level rise, although the magnitude and sign of this effect have been
widely debated.
Artificial Neural Network (ANN) Artificial neural networks (ANNs), usually
simply called neural networks (NNs), are computing systems inspired by the
biological neural networks that constitute animal brains.
Atmospheric Circulations Atmospheric circulation is any atmospheric flow used
to refer to the general circulation of the Earth and regional movements of air
around areas of high and low pressure. On average, this circulation corresponds to
large-scale wind systems arranged in several east-west belts that encircle the
Earth.
BedRock Bedrock is the hard, solid rock beneath surface materials such as soil and
gravel. Bedrock can be made of most types of rock, such as granite, limestone, or
like this piece of bedrock, sandstone.
Calc-silicate Granulite The calc-silicate granulites are characterized by a
peculiar mineralogical association made of orthopyroxene–titanite–ilmenite–
clinopyroxene–garnet–plagioclase–amphibole, which is ideal for the reconstitu-
tion of the P–T path and the metamorphic history of the Gour Oumelalen area.

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to 313
Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022
N. Khare (ed.), Science, Policies and Conflicts of Climate Change, Springer Climate,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-16254-1
314 Glossary

Cenozoic Period Cenozoic (66 million years ago until today) means ‘recent life’.
During this era, plants and animals look most like those on Earth today. Periods of
the Cenozoic Era are split into even smaller parts known as Epochs.
Climate Migrant These are migrants that are led by push factors caused by climate
changes such as intense flood, sea level rise, drought or crop failure or water
shortage.
Climate It in a narrow sense is usually defined as the ‘average weather,’ or more
rigorously, as the statistical description in terms of the mean and variability of
relevant quantities over a period ranging from months to thousands or millions of
years.
COP-2 The second Conference of the Parties (COP.2) to the Stockholm Conven-
tion on Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) was held from 1–5 May 2006, in
Geneva, Switzerland. COP-2 considered several reports on activities within the
Convention’s mandate and adopted 18 decisions on, inter alia, DDT, exemptions,
financial resources and mechanisms, implementation plans, technical assistance,
synergies and effectiveness evaluation.
Cosmogenic Radionuclides Cosmogenic radionuclide (CRN) dating is based on
the rate of accumulation of cosmic rays that stimulate the production and decay of
radionuclides such as 14C, 10Be, 26Al, and 36Cl.
Diatom Fossils Diatom fossils are preserved as their original silica cell wall. Other
organisms with mineralized structures include bryozoans, which are preserved as
their original calcite skeletons in the fossil record. Radiolarians are another type
of organism that possess silica structures within their cells.
Disaster Mitigation These measures are those that eliminate or reduce the impacts
and risks of hazards through proactive measures taken before an emergency or
disaster occurs.
Diurnal Temperature Range (DTR) In meteorology, diurnal temperature varia-
tion is the variation between a high air temperature and a low temperature that
occurs during the same day.
Dynamic Ordinary Least Square (DOLS) Dynamic OLS (DOLS) is an alterna-
tive (parametric) approach in which lags and leads are introduced to cope with the
problem irrespectively of the order of integration and the existence or absence of
cointegration.
Early Middle Pleistocene The Early-Middle Pleistocene transition (c. 1.2–0.5
Ma), sometimes known as the ‘mid-Pleistocene revolution,’ represents a major
episode in Earth’s history. Low-amplitude 41-ka obliquity-forced climate cycles
of the earlier Pleistocene were replaced progressively in the later Pleistocene by
high-amplitude 100-ka cycles.
Eco-development Eco-development refers to development at regional and local
levels, consistent with the potentials of the area involved, with attention given to
the adequate and rational use of natural resources, technological styles and
organizational forms that respect the natural ecosystems and local social and
cultural patterns. The term is also used to describe an integrated approach to
environment and development.
Glossary 315

Enhanced Thematic Mapper (ETM) The Enhanced Thematic Mapper Plus

(ETM+) instrument is a fixed ‘whisk-broom,’ eight-band, multispectral scanning
radiometer capable of providing high-resolution imaging information of the
Earth’s surface.
Environmental Protection Environmental protection is the practice of protecting
the natural environment by individuals, organizations and governments. Its
objectives are to conserve natural resources and the existing natural environment
and, where possible, to repair damage and reverse trends.
Fluvial Ecosystem These range from the processes operating in a single bend in a
river, to the different channel patterns arising from contrasting conditions of water
flow, sediment transport and channel gradient, and ultimately to the morphology
of entire drainage basins.
Galactic Cosmic Rays (GCR) Galactic Cosmic Rays (GCR) are the slowly vary-
ing, highly energetic background source of energetic particles that constantly
bombard Earth. GCR originate outside the solar system and are likely formed by
explosive events such as a supernova.
Ganges Water Sharing Treaty Indian Prime Minister Indira Gandhi and
Bangladesh’s founding leader Sheikh Mujibur Rahman signed the wide-ranging
Indo-Bangladeshi Treaty of Friendship, Cooperation and Peace on 19 March
1972; as per the treaty, the two nations established a Joint River Commission to
work for the common interests and sharing of water.
Geochemical Elements These include Cu, Pb, Zn, Cd, Mo, Hg, Sb, Sn, Tl, Te, As,
as well as noble metals. Atmophile elements are those that readily form volatile
compounds at relatively low temperatures (<300 K), many of which are prefer-
entially concentrated in planetary atmospheres.
Global Boundary Stratotype Section and Point (GSSP) A Global Boundary
Stratotype Section and Point (GSSP) is an internationally agreed-upon reference
point on a stratigraphic section that defines the lower boundary of a stage on the
geologic time scale. The effort to define GSSPs is conducted by the International
Commission on Stratigraphy, a part of the International Union of Geological
Sciences. Most, but not all, GSSPs are based on paleontological changes. Hence
GSSPs are usually described in terms of transitions between different faunal
stages, though far more faunal stages have been described than GSSPs. The
GSSP definition effort commenced in 1977. As of 2021, 76 of the 104 stages
that need a GSSP have a ratified GSSP.
Global Climate Models (GCM) It is a complex mathematical representation of the
major climate system components (atmosphere, land surface, ocean, and sea ice),
and their interactions. Earth’s energy balance between the four components is the
key to long-term climate prediction.
Global Environment Facility (GEF) The Global Environment Facility (GEF) is
a financial mechanism that provides grant funds to developing countries for
projects covering four ‘focal areas’: climate change, biodiversity, international
waters and ozone depletion.
316 Glossary

Global Mean Sea Level (GMSL) Each point in the global mean sea level (GMSL)
time series plots is the area-weighted mean of all of the sea surface height
anomalies measured by the altimeter in a single, 10-day satellite track repeat
cycle (time for the satellite to begin repeating the same ground track).
Green Climate Fund (GCF) The Green Climate Fund’s (GCF) aim is to expand
collective human action to respond to climate change. The Fund aims to mobilize
funding at scale to invest in low-emission and climate-resilient development on
our home planet.
Greenhouse Gases (GHGs) It is a gas that absorbs and emits radiant energy within
the thermal infrared range, causing the greenhouse effect. The primary green-
house gases in Earth’s atmosphere are water vapour (H2O), carbon dioxide
(CO2), methane (CH4), nitrous oxide (N2O), and ozone (O3).
Gross Domestic Product (GDP) GDP measures the monetary value of final goods
and services – that is, those that are bought by the final user – produced in a
country in a given time (say a quarter or a year). It counts all of the output
generated within the borders of a country.
Ground Control Points (GCP) Ground Control Points (GCPs) are defined as
points on the surface of the earth of a known location used to geo-reference
Landsat Level-1 data. GCPs are updated as needed to continually improve
Landsat data. GCPs can be downloaded and used as reference data.
Holocene The Holocene is the name given to the last 11,700 years of the Earth’s
history – the time since the end of the last major glacial epoch, or ‘ice age’. Since
then, there have been small-scale climate shifts – notably the ‘Little Ice Age’
between about 1200 and 1700 A.D.
Hydrodynamic condition Hydrodynamic conditions define (bio)fouling proper-
ties. Equipment design is a key factor in hydrodynamics and (bio)fouling
development. (Bio)fouling formation occurs with higher impact under low hydro-
dynamics. High shear stresses improve CIP efficiency and (bio)fouling removal.
Indian Summer Monsoon (ISM) The Indian summer monsoon typically lasts
from June–September, with large areas of western and central India receiving
more than 90% of their total annual precipitation during the period, and southern
and northwestern India receiving 50–75% of their total annual rainfall.
Kyoto Protocol The Kyoto Protocol was adopted on 11 December 1997. Owing to
a complex ratification process, it entered into force on 16 February 2005. Cur-
rently, there are 192 Parties to the Kyoto Protocol. In short, the Kyoto Protocol
operationalizes the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
by committing industrialized countries and economies in transition to limit and
reduce greenhouse gases (GHG) emissions in accordance with agreed individual
targets. The Convention itself only asks those countries to adopt policies and
measures on mitigation and to report periodically.
Last Glacial Maxima (LCM) The Last Glacial Maximum (LGM), also referred to
as the Late Glacial Maximum, was the most recent time during the Last Glacial
Period that ice sheets were at their greatest extent. Ice sheets covered much of
North America, Northern Europe, and Asia and profoundly affected Earth’s
climate by causing drought, desertification, and a large drop in sea levels.
Glossary 317

Linear Regression (LR) In statistics, linear regression is a linear approach for

modelling the relationship between a scalar response and one or more explanatory
variables (also known as dependent and independent variables).
Lower Flank The flank is the area on the sides and back of your abdomen, between
your lower ribs and your hips. Pain in this area is called flank pain.
Magnetic Susceptibility Magnetic susceptibility indicates whether a material is
attracted into or repelled out of a magnetic field. Paramagnetic materials align
with the applied field and are attracted to regions of the greater magnetic field.
Diamagnetic materials are anti-aligned and are pushed away, towards regions of
lower magnetic fields. On top of the applied field, the magnetization of the
material adds its magnetic field, causing the field lines to concentrate in para-
magnetism, or be excluded in diamagnetism.
Manganese Ore The most important manganese ores are the oxides pyrolusite,
romanechite, manganite, hausmannite and the carbonate ore rhodochrosite. Rho-
donite and braunite, both silicate ores, are frequently found with oxides. Only
ores containing greater than 35 per cent manganese are considered commercially
exploitable.
Medieval Period Middle Ages, the period in European history from the collapse of
Roman civilization in the 5th-century CE to the period of the Renaissance
(variously interpreted as beginning in the 13th, 14th, or 15th century, depending
on the region of Europe and other factors).
Medieval Warming Period (MWP) Medieval Warm Period (MWP), also called
the medieval warm epoch or little climatic optimum, brief climatic interval that is
hypothesized to have occurred from approximately 900 CE to 1300 (roughly
coinciding with the Middle Ages in Europe), in which relatively warm conditions
are said to have prevailed in various parts of the world, though predominantly in
the Northern Hemisphere from Greenland eastward through Europe and parts
of Asia.
Natural Ecosystems A natural ecosystem is a community of living and non-living
entities that occurs freely in nature. Every component interacts together as a
combined unit through physical, chemical and biological processes. The discrim-
inating factor of natural ecosystems from other ecosystems is that they are
completely natural.
Ozone depletion Ozone depletion consists of two related events observed since the
late 1970s: a steady lowering of about four per cent in the total amount of ozone in
Earth’s atmosphere, and a much larger springtime decrease in stratospheric ozone
around Earth’s polar regions. The latter phenomenon is referred to as the
ozone hole.
Piezometric Surface It is the imaginary surface to which groundwater rises under
hydrostatic pressure in wells or springs.
Plagioclase Index of Alteration (PIA) The Plagioclase Index of Alteration (PIA)
was proposed by Fedo et al. (1995) as an alternative to the CIW. Because
plagioclase is abundant in silicate and dissolves quickly, the PIA may be used
when plagioclase weathering needs to be monitored.
318 Glossary

Pleistocene Epoch The Pleistocene epoch is a geological time that includes the last
ice age when glaciers covered huge parts of the globe. Also called the Pleistocene
era, or simply the Pleistocene, this epoch began about 2.6 million years ago
and ended 11,700 years ago, according to the International Commission on
Stratigraphy.
Pleistocene The Pleistocene (/‘plaɪs. təˌsiːn, -toʊ-/ PLYSE-tə-seen, -toh-, often
referred to as the Ice Age) is the geological epoch that lasted from about
2,580,000 to 11,700 years ago, spanning the Earth’s most recent period of
repeated glaciations.
Pre-historic Hominids The earliest fossils that have been proposed as members of
the hominin lineage are Sahelanthropus tchadensis dating from 7 million years
ago, Orrorin tugenensis dating from 5.7 million years ago, and Ardipithecus
kadabba dating to 5.6 million years ago.
Pyroclastic material Pyroclastic materials are classified according to their size,
measured in millimetres: dust (less than 0.6 mm [0.02 inch]), ash (fragments
between 0.6 and 2 mm [0.02 to 0.08 inch]), cinders (fragments between 2 and
64 mm).
Quaternary Deposit The Quaternary deposits are represented mainly by glacial
and water–glacial formations of different ages.
Quaternary Period The Quaternary Period is typically defined by the cyclic
growth and decay of continental ice sheets related to the Milankovitch cycles
and the associated climate and environmental changes that they caused.
Regional Climate Models (RCM) It is a numerical climate prediction model
forced by specified lateral and ocean conditions from a general circulation
model (GCM) or observation-based dataset (reanalysis) that simulates atmo-
spheric and land surface processes while accounting for high-resolution
topographical.
Representative Concentration Pathways (RCP) It is a greenhouse gas concen-
tration (not emissions) trajectory adopted by the IPCC. Four pathways were used
for climate modelling and research for the IPCC Fifth Assessment Report (AR5)
in 2014.
River Basin A river drainage basin is an area drained by a river and all of its
tributaries. A river basin is made up of many different watersheds. A watershed is
a small version of a river basin. Every stream and tributary has its watershed,
which drains to a larger stream or wetland.
Sea Level Rise It is an increase in the level of the world’s oceans due to the effects
of global warming. Burning fossil fuels is one of the causes of global warming
because it releases carbon dioxide and other heat-trapping gasses into the
atmosphere.
Sediment Geochemistry For a long time, sedimentary geochemistry has been in
use to understand the conditions of deposition, climatic variations, tectonic
setting, provenance, reservoir characteristics, etc.
Sedimentary Processes Sedimentary processes, namely weathering, erosion, crys-
tallization, deposition, and lithification, create the sedimentary family of rocks.
Glossary 319

Soil Erosion Soil erosion is a gradual process that occurs when the impact of water
or wind detaches and removes soil particles, causing the soil to deteriorate. Soil
deterioration and low water quality due to erosion and surface runoff have
become severe problems worldwide.
Solar Cosmic Ray (SCR) Solar cosmic rays are fluxes of high-energy-charged
particles accelerated in the corona and chromosphere which appear during solar
flares.
Stagnant Water Stagnant water is standing water that is trapped or sits undisturbed
for hours/days. Standing or stagnant water is usually a result of floods and water
leaks. Basements, crawl spaces, and bathrooms are common areas where you can
find standing water.
Standardized Precipitation Index (SPI) It is a relatively new drought index based
only on precipitation. It’s an index based on the probability of precipitation for
any time scale. Some processes are rapidly affected by atmospheric behaviour,
such as dryland agriculture, and the relevant time scale is a month or two.
Stratigraphic Horizons Horizon can be characterized by boundaries of only
two types: strictly stratigraphic and all stratigraphic. The stratigraphic interval
of a horizon can vary from a single chronozone to a stage. Boundaries of
neighbouring horizons at the contact between two stages or systems should
coincide with the latter.
Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) The Sustainable Development Goals or
Global Goals are a collection of 17 interlinked global goals designed to be a
‘blueprint to achieve a better and more sustainable future for all’. The SDGs were
set up in 2015 by the United Nations General Assembly and are intended to be
achieved by 2030.
Tectonic Stability Shields are considered tectonically stable areas in comparison to
the activity occurring at their margins and the boundaries between plates, but their
formation required large amounts of tectonic activity and erosion. Initially, a
mountain belt is formed at a convergent plate margin.
Index

A Cosmogenic radionuclides (CRN), vi, xiv,

Adjoining lithology, 111 297–308, 314
Alluvial fans, 270, 272, 274, 289 Crop modeling technique, 54
Alluvial uplands, 137 Cross drainage structures, 132
Anthropogenic activities, x, xi, 29, 32, 54, 92,
110, 115, 125, 126, 133, 137, 138, 167,
189, 190, 234 D
Anthropogenic intervention, 133, 313 Deltaic plains, 93, 104
Atmospheric heat, 55 Depositional environment, xiv, 204, 225, 232,
289
Detrital aluminosilicates, 120
B Diatom processing, 112
Biophysical approach, 54 Dipole magnets, 299
Disaster, 30, 79, 80, 83–86, 106, 132, 246, 314
Disaster mitigation, x, 314
C Diurnal temperature range (DTR), ix, 28, 29,
Cardiovascular diseases (CVD), 29, 37 314
Chemical weathering, vi, xi, 176, 181, 183, Doha Amendment, 10, 11, 20
185, 187, 189–191, 266, 299
Chemical weathering intensity (CWI), 115,
116, 120, 123, 124, 126, 184 E
Climate oscillations, 31 Earth systems, 24, 197, 224
Climate package, 13, 22 Ecological degradation, 133
Climate sensitiveness, 56 Economic development, 4, 8, 56, 85,
Climate-resilient community, x 105, 223
Climatic ecology, 92 Environmental challenges, 84
Climatic ecosystem, 92
Climatic parameters, 61–66
Coastal erosion, x, 78, 94 F
Coastal slope, 99, 103, 104 Fault zone, 268–289
Colloidal influx, xii, 215 Flow regime, 150, 155
Compositional maturity, xi, 187, 191 Fluvial-marine interferences, 93
Convention on Bio-Diversity (CBD), 6 Fluvio-lacustrine sediments, 247
Cosmic rays, 301, 313–315, 319 Food safety, 55, 56

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to 321
Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022
N. Khare (ed.), Science, Policies and Conflicts of Climate Change, Springer Climate,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-16254-1
322 Index

G Migration, xiii, 29, 40, 41, 78, 79, 85, 138, 246,
Geochemical elements, 112, 113, 115, 120, 250, 251, 258
121, 123, 126, 315 Milankovitch cycles, xiv, 318
Geochemical mapping, 175, 176, 181, 191 Mineralogical maturity, xii, 187, 188, 191
Global element cycles, 176 Morphometric analyses, 231
Global health crisis, 78
Global ice cover, 298
Gradual depletion, 121 N
Green Climate Fund (GCF), 12, 13, 19, 20, Narmada-Son Fault, 241
22, 316 Natural ecosystems, 28, 41, 314, 317
Greenhouse gas (GHGs), vii, viii, 6–13,
15–20, 30, 32–34, 41, 43, 98, 299,
305, 316, 318 O
Grove casts, 245 Oldest Toba Tuff (OTT), xiii, 238, 241, 246,
247, 258
Ozone depletion, 5, 315, 317
H
Heat intensity, 54
High emissions scenario, x P
Hydrological cycle, 33, 35 Palaeoenvironment, xiii, 222, 223, 226, 233,
Hydrological drought, 36 235
Hypolimnetic oxygen, xi, 123, 126 Paleoclimatic reconstruction, xxiii, 222
Peninsular climatic, xiv
Plagioclase Index, 176, 181, 317
I Post-magmatic process, 247
Ice cores, xiv, 233, 239, 305–306 Precambrian rocks, 137
Ice sheets, 92, 298, 316, 318 Proterozoic periods, 197, 216
Igneous rocks, 179
Induced polarization (IP), 202–204
Inter-Governmental Panel on Climate Change Q
(IPCC), vii, viii, x, 5, 6, 8, 13, 15–17, 24, Quaternary alluvial deposits, 244
28, 31, 41, 54, 92, 93, 98, 102, 123, 318 Quaternary period, xiii, xiv, 222, 250, 268, 270,
Irregular precipitation, 54, 71 289, 290, 297–299, 318
Irrigation system, 56 Quaternary stratigraphy, 222
Quaternary trench, xiii, 226

L
Late Cenozoic period, xiii, 266 R
Leaky capacitor, 202 Rare earth elements (REEs), 181
Low emissions scenario, x River basins, x, xiii, 32, 36, 58, 78–81, 84–86,
133, 222, 224, 226, 234, 238–241,
244–249, 251, 252, 254–258, 266, 268,
M 318
Manganese deposits, 198 River bed morphology, 133
Manganese ore, xii, 197–201, 204, 205, River morphology, 137, 138
208–210, 215–217, 317 Roof pendants, 198
Manganese rocks, 197, 216
Marine sediments, xiv, 298
Mass populations, xiii, 238, 248, 250, 251, 257 S
Meltwater, 80, 84 Sand laminae, 245
Mesolithic tools, 226, 228, 230 Sea-level rise (SLR), vi, x, 6, 28, 29, 33, 80,
Meteorological drought, 36 91–106, 318
Microclimatic variations, xiv, 290, 291 Seasonal migration, 80
Micro-climate zones, 304 Sediment geochemistry, x, 110, 183, 318
Index 323

Sediment maturity, xi, 176, 181–183, 187, U

189–191 United Nations Framework Convention on
Sedimentary basins, 266 Climate Change (UNFCCC), viii, ix,
Sedimentary rocks, 179 6–9, 11, 12, 14, 16, 18, 19, 21–24, 316
Shoreline change rate, 94, 96–98, 102
Solar radiation, 28, 29, 69, 301, 313
Solar winds, 301, 313 V
Stream water velocity, 138 Virtual geomagnetic pole (VGP), 305
Suitable tectonic evolution, 196 Volcanic ash, 243, 244, 257
Synthetic fluorinated gases, 32

W
T Western disturbances, 179, 190
Tectonic basins, xiii, 266, 291 Wilderness degradation, 4
Tectonic stability, 234, 266, 289, 291, 319 World Climate Research Program (WCRP), 5