Thermodynamics-II

Zeshan Aslam
Lecturer
IST Islamabad
 Modules

Module:1 Steam Cycles

Module:2 Gas Turbine Cycle, Combined Cycle
Module:3 Exergy
Module:4 Nozzles and Jet Propulsion
Module:5 Mixtures
Module:6 Combustion

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 EXERGY: WORK POTENTIAL OF ENERGY

• Exergy (also called availability), which is the maximum useful work that could be obtained from the system
at a given state in a specified environment, and we continue with the reversible work, which is the
maximum useful work that can be obtained as a system undergoes a process between two specified states.
 A property to enable us to determine the useful work potential of a given amount of energy at some
specified state.
• The work potential of the energy contained in a system at a specified state is simply the maximum useful
work that can be obtained from the system.

• All the irreversibilities are disregarded in determining the work potential. Finally, the system must be in the
dead state at the end of the process to maximize the work output.
In thermal and
• A system is said to be in the dead state when it is in mechanical
thermodynamic equilibrium with the environment it is in. equilibrium)

• The properties of a system at the dead state are denoted

by subscript zero, for example, P0, T0, h0, u0, and s0.

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 EXERGY: WORK POTENTIAL OF ENERGY

• By definition, surroundings are everything outside the system

boundaries. The immediate surroundings refer to the portion of
the surroundings that is affected by the process, and environment
refers to the region beyond the immediate surroundings whose
properties are not affected by the process at any point.
• Therefore, any irreversibilities during a process occur within the
system and its immediate surroundings, and the environment is
free of any irreversibilities
• The atmosphere contains a tremendous amount of energy, but no
exergy.
• A system delivers the maximum possible work as it undergoes a reversible process from the specified
initial state to the state of its environment, that is, the dead state.
 This represents the useful work potential of the system at the specified state and is called exergy.
 It is important to realize that exergy does not represent the amount of work that a work-producing
device will actually deliver upon installation.

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 Schematic of a power plant and its surroundings

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 Exergy (Work Potential) Associated with Kinetic and Potential Energy

• Kinetic energy is a form of mechanical energy, and thus it can be converted to work entirely.
 Therefore, the work potential or exergy of the kinetic energy of a system is equal to the kinetic energy
itself regardless of the temperature and pressure of the environment.

 where V is the velocity of the system relative to the environment.

• Potential energy is also a form of mechanical energy, and thus it can be converted to work entirely.
 Therefore, the exergy of the potential energy of a system is equal to the potential energy itself
regardless of the temperature and pressure of the environment

 where g is the gravitational acceleration and z is the elevation of

the system relative to a reference level in the environment.

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 Exergy (Work Potential) Associated with Kinetic and Potential Energy

Example: Maximum Power Generation by a Wind Turbine

A wind turbine with a 12-m-diameter rotor, as shown in Fig., is to be installed

at a location where the wind is blowing steadily at an average velocity of 10
m/s. Determine the maximum power that can be generated by the wind
turbine.

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 REVERSIBLE WORK AND IRREVERSIBILITY

• The evaluation of exergy alone, however, is not sufficient for studying engineering devices operating
between two fixed states.
 This is because when evaluating exergy, the final state is always assumed to be the dead state, which
is hardly ever the case for actual engineering systems.
• The isentropic efficiencies discussed in Chap. 7 are also of limited use because the exit state of the model
(isentropic) process is not the same as the actual exit state and it is limited to adiabatic processes.
• Two quantities that are related to the actual initial and final states of processes and serve as valuable tools
in the thermodynamic analysis of components or systems.
• These two quantities are the reversible work and irreversibility (or exergy destruction). But first we examine
the surroundings work, which is the work done by or against the surroundings during a process.
• The work done by work-producing devices is not always entirely in a
usable form. For example, when a gas in a piston–cylinder device
expands, part of the work done by the gas is used to push the
atmospheric air out of the way of the piston (Fig).

This work, which cannot be recovered and

utilized for any useful purpose, is equal to the
atmospheric pressure P0 times the volume
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 REVERSIBLE WORK AND IRREVERSIBILITY

• The difference between the actual work W and the surroundings work Wsurr is called the useful work Wu:

• When a system is expanding and doing work, part of the work done is used to overcome the atmospheric
pressure, and thus Wsurr represents a loss.
• When a system is compressed, however, the atmospheric pressure helps the compression process, and
thus Wsurr represents a gain.

• Note: The work done by or against the atmospheric pressure has

significance only for systems whose volume changes during the
process (i.e., systems that involve moving boundary work).
• It has no significance for cyclic devices and systems whose
boundaries remain fixed during a process such as rigid tanks and
steady-flow devices (turbines, compressors, nozzles, heat
exchangers, etc.)

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 REVERSIBLE WORK AND IRREVERSIBILITY
• Reversible work Wrev is defined as the maximum amount of useful work that can be produced (or the
minimum work that needs to be supplied) as a system undergoes a process between the specified initial
and final states.
 When the final state is the dead state, the reversible work equals exergy.
• Any difference between the reversible work Wrev and the useful work Wu is due to the irreversibilities
present during the process, and this difference is called irreversibility I. It is expressed as

 The irreversibility is equivalent to the exergy destroyed

• For a totally reversible process, the actual and reversible work terms are identical, and thus the
irreversibility is zero.
 This is expected since totally reversible processes generate no entropy.

• Irreversibility is a positive quantity for all actual (irreversible)

processes since Wrev ≥Wu for work producing devices and Wrev ≤
Wu for work-consuming devices.

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 REVERSIBLE WORK AND IRREVERSIBILITY

• Irreversibility can be viewed as the wasted work potential or the lost opportunity to do work.
• It represents the energy that could have been converted to work but was not.

• The smaller the irreversibility associated with a process, the greater the work that is produced (or the
smaller the work that is consumed).

• The performance of a system can be improved by minimizing the irreversibility associated with it.

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 REVERSIBLE WORK AND IRREVERSIBILITY

Example: The Rate of Irreversibility of a Heat Engine

A heat engine receives heat from a source at 1200 K at a rate of 500

kJ/s and rejects the waste heat to a medium at 300 K (Fig.). The
power output of the heat engine is 180 kW. Determine the reversible
power and the irreversibility rate for this process.

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 REVERSIBLE WORK AND IRREVERSIBILITY

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 EXERGY CHANGE OF A SYSTEM

• The property exergy is the work potential of a system in a specified environment and represents the
maximum amount of useful work that can be obtained as the system is brought to equilibrium with the
environment.

• Unlike energy, the value of exergy depends on the state of the environment as well as the state of the
system.

• The exergy of a system that is in equilibrium with its environment is zero.

 The state of the environment is referred to as the “dead state” since the system is practically “dead”
(cannot do any work) from a thermodynamic point of view when it reaches that state

• In this section we limit the discussion to thermo-mechanical exergy.

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 Exergy of a Fixed Mass: Nonflow (or Closed System)
Exergy

• Noting that dS = dQ/T for a reversible process, and the thermal efficiency of
a reversible heat engine operating between the temperatures of T and T0 is
ηth = 1 - T0/T, the differential work produced by the engine as a result of this
heat transfer is:

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 Exergy of a Fixed Mass: Nonflow (or Closed System)
Exergy

• Substituting the dW and dQ expressions into the energy balance relation gives, after rearranging:

 where Wtotal useful is the total useful work delivered as the system undergoes a reversible
process from the given state to the dead state, which is exergy by definition

Note that the exergy of a system is zero at the dead

5/4/2021 state since e = e0, v = v0, and s = s0 at that state. 16
 Exergy of a Fixed Mass: Nonflow (or Closed System)
Exergy
• The exergy change of a closed system during a process is simply the difference between the final and
initial exergies of the system,

Specific exergy change:

The exergy change of steady flow devices such as nozzles, For stationary closed systems,
compressors, turbines, pumps, and heat exchangers in a
the kinetic and potential
given environment is zero during steady operation.
energy terms drop out.

5/4/2021  The exergy of a closed system is either positive or zero. 17

 Exergy of a Flow Stream: Flow (or Stream) Exergy

• In Chap. 5 it was shown that a flowing fluid has an additional form of energy, called the flow energy, which
is the energy needed to maintain flow in a pipe or duct, and was expressed as wflow = Pv

 where v is the specific volume of the fluid, which is equivalent to the volume change of a unit mass of
the fluid as it is displaced during flow.

• The exergy associated with flow energy can be expressed as:

• The flow work is Pv and the work done against the atmosphere is P0v.

• The exergy of a flow stream is determined by simply adding the flow

exergy relation to the exergy relation for a non-flowing fluid,

The exergy associated with flow energy is

the useful work that would be delivered
by an imaginary piston in the flow section.

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Example: Exergy Change during a Compression Process

Refrigerant-134a is to be compressed from 0.14 MPa and 10°C to 0.8 MPa and 50°C steadily by a
compressor. Taking the environment conditions to be 20°C and 95 kPa, determine the exergy
change of the refrigerant during this process and the minimum work input that needs to be
supplied to the compressor per unit mass of the refrigerant.

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