Learning Objectives After studying this chapter, you will be able to: @ Describe how and why electricity flows in an electrical circuit and list the three variables in (Ohm's law. Demonstrate your abilty to correctly complete a safety inspection on an arc welding station, Plan and list all the hand tools, personal safety equipment, and clothing required for a given welding task. @ Demonstrate your abilty to select the correct electrode, current, and polarity for welding with the SMAW process in a given welding position. @ Demonstrate your ability to strike a welding arc and produce acceptable stringer and weaving beads. Demonstrate your ability to correctly restart the arc and biend the new and old beads. Demonstrate your ability to use the SMAW process to create acceptable welds on all five basic joints in all positions. @ Describe all types of weld defects and demonstrate ‘your abilty to inspect and differentiate between ‘acceptable and unacceptable welds. © Successfully pass a safety test as related to arc welding work areas, equipment, clothing, tools, ‘and correct welding procedures in all positions, Shielded metal are welding (SMAW) is a commonly used welding process. It requires a welding power supply, flux coated electrodes, cables, a welding helmet, and protective clothing, The equip- ‘ment required is relatively inexpensive, and a welder can produce quality welds in all positions on many different base metals. Both alternating current (ac) and direct current (de) can be used for SMAW. Each has its own advan- tages and disadvantages. The welding technique is similar for both ac and dec. Electricity, as it arcs across the gap between the metal electrode and the work, creates a temperature of approximately 6500°F-7000°F (3600°C-3900°C). With the correct size electrode, the heat generated by the arc is sufficient to melt any weldable metal SMAW is used in many industries and applica- tions. Itcan be used ina shop, on a farm, or in the field for both fabrication and repair. Buildings, bridges, pipelines, pressure vessels, submarines, construc- tion and earthmoving vehicles are all made using the SMAW process. SMAW can also be used to repair these items, and many more. 6.1 Direct Current (DC) Arc Welding Fundamentals Are welding can be defined as: A group of welding processes that melt the base metal using the heat from an electric arc. The base metals heated by the arc melt and flow together and become one. The weld may be made with or without filler metal. Shielded metal are welding (SMAW) is done by producing an arc between the base metal and a consumable, fiux-covered metal electrode. The elec- trode acts a5 an electrical conductor and filler metal. 153154 — Modern Welding igure 6-1 shows the electrical circuit for shielded metal arc welding using direct current electrode negative. Electrical current flows from the welding ‘machine to the electrode. The current passes from the electrode to the base metal across an arc. The arc heats and melts the base metal and melts the electrode. The current returns from the base metal to the welding ‘machine to complete the circuit. De arc welding power sources, also called de ‘welding machines, include the following types: © Ac transformer with dc rectifiers. @ Inverter. © Motor- or engine-driven generator. Itis important to understand the voltage-current (ampere) characteristics of a de are welding machine. Under a no-load (open circuit) condition, when not welding, the voltage of the machine is about 60V to 80V. The current, measured in amperes, is zero. When the welding are is struck, the current will increase and the voltage will decrease to between 15V and 40V, See Figure 6-2 for typical voltage and amperage meter readings on an arc welding machine. ‘Ohm’s law for electricity states that voltage in a closed circuit has a constant relationship to the current and the resistance of the circuit. The Ohms law formula is: Electrode holder Electrode. ff Arc QO Iycan ‘Workpiece 0 > Remsen Figure 6-1, A diagram of a direct current electrode negative (DCEN) are welding circuit. This circuit is also known as a direct current straight polarity (DCSP) circu. V=IXR R= resistance in the circuit 6.1.1 Constant Current Power Sources Constant current power sources are drooper- type power sources. The only adjustment on a constant current welding machine is for current. IF the electrode gap, or resistance, in the circuit is held constant, the current and voltage will also remain constant. This may be seen in the formula V = Ix R. This formula is known as Ohi’ law. ‘A welder using SMAW must try to maintain a constant arc length. However, it is not possible to keep the arc length perfectly constant. Arc length is the distance from the end of the electrode to the base metal. A small change in the arc length (resistance) causes a change in the welding current and voltage. A constant-current power supply works to maintain the current as constant as possible even with a change in are length. When welding is performed with a drooper- type constant current welding machine, the current ‘changes slightly as the arc length changes. An increase in the arc length causes the resistance in the circuit to increase. According to Ohms law (V = I x R), when resistance (R) increases, the voltage (V) increases and the current () decreases. The power supply works to minimize the change in the current, but the current does change. A longer arc length slightly reduces the welding current. A shorter arc length slightly increases the welding current. Because a change in arc length causes a change in welding current, it is important for the welder to keep the arc length constant while welding, However, the ability to slightly change the current by changing the arc length can be used by an experienced welder. Instead of stopping the arc and making an adjustment on the welding machine, the welder can vary the are length fo adjust the current and the heat input to the weld. Increasing the are length causes the current and the melting rate of the electrode to decrease. If a welder decreases the arc length, the current and the electrode melting rate increases. In both cases, the voltage changes quite a bit, but the current changes only slightly (about 10%~15%).. ‘To make a good quality weld, a welder must find and maintain the proper arc length while welding. This is the most effective way of controlling heat155 Chapter 6 Shielded Metal Arc Welding Open circult Closed circuit (Welaing} Voltmeter © 200 ° 2 ‘Open circuit Closed circuit (Welding) ‘Ammeter Figure 6-2. Typical arc welding machine voltage and current readings. Open circuit voltage varies from about 60V-80V. Closed circuit amperage will correspond to the machine setting generated in the arc, Since the electrode is constantly being melted, the welder must feed the electrode at the same rate it is melting to maintain a constant arc length. This is a skill that is developed with practice. ‘To make a good weld, the welder must consider the following: © The current (amperage) output of the welding machine. The diameter, polarity, and type of electrode. ‘The are and its manipulation. ‘The preparation of the base metal. The type of base metal. ‘The welding arc, when viewed through thehelmet lens, is seen to be divided into two separate parts: the stream and the flame, as shown in Figure 6-3. The arc flame consists of neutral gases that appear to be pale red. The vaporized metal in the arc stream appears yellow. Liquid metal in the arc stream appears green. If the arc is longer than normal, the flame gases can no longer protect the arc stream from oxidation. With a long welding arc, the weld will form oxides and nitrides, resulting in a very weak and brittle weld. If the correct current flow and arc length are maintained, direct current should produce a good weld. The voltage and amperage required for any particular weld can be looked up in established tables. Maintaining the correct arc length is entirely the oper- ator's responsibility.156 Modern Welding. Electrode Dreston QE) N Deptti of Figure 6-3. A covered electrode arc weld in progress. Weld poo! 6.1.2 DCEN and DCEP Fundamentals The welding circuit shown in Figure 6-1 is also known as a direct current electrode negative (DCEN) circuit. This circuit was formerly defined by the American Welding Society as direct current straight polarity (DCSP). In this circuit, the electrons are flowing from the negative terminal (or pole) of the machine to the electrode. The electrons continue to travel across the arc into the base metal and to the positive terminal or pole of the machine. Itis possible, and sometimes necessary, to reverse the direction of electron flow or polarity in the are welding circuit. This may be done by disconnecting the electrode and workpiece leads and reversing their positions. Many machines have a switch that will change the circuit polarity. When electrons flow from the negative terminal or pole of the are welding machine to the base metal, the circuit is known as direct current electrode positive (DCEP). It was previously called a direct current reverse polarity (DCRP) circuit. In this circuit, the electrons flow from the negative pole of the welding machine to the work- piece. Electrons travel across the arc to the electrode and then return to the positive terminal (pole) of the machine, as shown in Figure 6-4. The choice of when to use direct current electrode negative (DCEN) or direct current electrode positive (DCEP) is primarily determined by the electrode being used. Some SMAW electrodes are designed to use only DCEN or only DCEP. Other electrodes can bbe used with either DCEN or DCEP. Additional infor mation on electrodes will be explained later in the chapter. In industry, the electrode may be chosen by the welder or may be specified by the welding proce- dure specification (WPS) and/or codes used. Speci- fications and codes are covered in Chapter 31. Once the electrode to be used is known, the polarity for that electrode may be determined by referring to the manufacturer's recommendations. The decision to use DCEN (DCSP) or DCEP (DCRP) often depends on such variables as: © The depth of penetration desired. @ The rate at which filler metal is deposited © The position of the joint. @ The thickness of the base metal. © The type of base metal. DCEP (DCRP) produces better penetration than DCEN (DCSP). The SMAW electrodes that have the best penetrating abilities are E6010, ESOL, and E7010. These electroctes use DCEP. There is a theory that with a DCEP covered electrode, there is a jet action and/or expansion of gases in the are at the electrode tip. This expansion ‘causes the molten metal to be propelled with great speed ‘across the are. The molten metal impacts the base metal with greater force. This heavy impact on the base metal helps to produce deep, penetrating welds. Figure 6-4. A diagram of a direct current electrode positive (DCEP) arc welding circuit. This circuit is also known as direct current reverse polarity (DCRP) circuit.‘When ahigh rate of filler metal deposit is required, an EXX2X electrode is recommended. DCEN (DCSP) is usually recommended for the EXX2X electrodes. Examples of the EXX2X electrodes that deposit a high rate of filler metal are E6020, E6027, E7027, or E7028. To weld in a position other than the flat or hori- zontal positions, an electrode intended for all posi- tions must be used. Either DCEN or DCEP can be used, depending, on the electrode selected. Base metal thickness will affect which polarity is required. On thick material, a welder must obtain good penetration. However, on thin material, exces- sive penetration should be avoided. For this reason, DCEP is frequently used to weld thick metal, and DCEN is frequently used on sheet metal Shielded metal arc welding (SMAW) can be used to weld nickel, aluminum, and copper. Electrodes designed to weld these metals are generally used with DCEP (DCRP). ‘These considerations and others discussed later in the book will determine what electrode and which current, DCEN or DCEP, should be used on a partic- ular welding job. 6.2 Alternating Current (AC) Arc Welding Fundamentals Several types of ac arc welding machines are used. The different types are: © Transformer-type. © Inverter. © Motor- and engine-driven generator. ‘A transformer-type machine is shown in Figure 6-5, An inverter is shown in Figure 6-6, and an engine-driven generator is shown in Figure 6-7. In the United States, the alternating current deliv- ered through a typical outlet reverses its direction of flow 120 times per second. As shown in Figure 6-8, it requires 1/60 of a second to complete a cycle. The current’s frequency is measured in number of cycles per second, or hertz. (Hz). 1Hz.is equal to one cycle per second. The current in the U.S.A. completes 60 cycles per second and is called 60Hz (cycle) current. In most parts of the world, 50Hz current is used. Figure 6-9 shows what happens to the arc in one cycle of a typical ac transformer-type arc welder. The voltage at points A and B is zero. Beginning at the left side of the graph, the voltage builds up toa maximum in one direction to point C, and then back to zero at point A. The voltage then builds up to maximum in the other direction to point D, then back to zero again at point B. This action is repeated at the rate of 60Hz (cycles per second), Chapter 6 Shielded Metal Arc Welding 157 ‘When ac welding is performed with 60Hz current, the voltage and current are at zero 120 times each second, ‘as shown in Figure 6-9, Each time the current crosses the zero point, the welding arc momentarily stops. To re-establish the arc, the voltage must increase enough to ‘enable the current to jump the are gap and maintain the arc. It is important that the voltage passes through the zero value before the current. This will help make the ac are stable. An ac are welding machine must be designed to have the voltage lead the current. Another method used to stabilize the ac arc is to increase the ionization of the material in the arc. Ionization is a physical phenomenon in which a Low amperage tap Workpiece lead receptacle Figure 6-8. A 230A ac arc wolding machine. There are high and low amperage taps and a workpiece lead receptacle. (Century Mig. Co.) Figure 6-6, An inverter-type power source being used for, tructural welding. (Thermadyne Industries, Inc.)158 Modern Welding particle obtains an electrical charge. These ionized, or charged, particles in the space between the electrode and the workpiece make it easy for the arc to jump the gap. Electrodes that are intended for ac welding have ionizing agents in the electrode covering. These agents help to ionize the materials in the arc gap and help to stabilize the ac arc. Ac welding can be done only with electrodes that are designed for use with altemating current. If an electrode is not intended for use with ac, the arc will be very unstable. Figure 6-7. A portable engine-driven generator welding power source. (Miller Electric Mg. Co.) Maximum Blo 0 3 Maximum 11/120 see: 1760 sec One cycle Time > 11120 e00 + 1/120 690 = 2/120 sc = 1/60 soc Figure 6-8. Sine waveform of single-phase 60H2 alternating current. ‘Welds performed with ac electrodes show good penetration, Larger diameter electrodes are used to increase metal deposition rates. Higher travel speeds can be obtained when large ac currents and large electrodes are used. There is no arc blow when ac welding, Arc blow will be discussed in greater detail later in this chapter. Figure 6-9 shows the current flow measured in amperes (the orange curve), as related to the voltage, or potential (the blue curve). It should be noted that the voltage leads the current, or the current lags the voltage slightly in time. This slight difference between the voltage and current must be designed into the ac are welding machine. 6.3 Selecting an Arc Welding Machine Deciding whetheran acordeare welding machine is best to use depends on several factors, Selecting the type of current to use should be done after consid- ring their indivicual advantages and disadvantages. Characteristics of a de constant current-type arc ‘welding machine are: © The ability to choose direct current electrode positive (DCEP), or reverse polarity (DCRP). © DCEP, or DCRP, produces deeper penetrating welds than DCEN, © DCEP, of DCRP, can be used in positions other than the flat position or downhand welding, © Electrodes designed to weld nickel, aluminum, and copper generally use DCEP. © The ability to choose direct current electrode negative (DCEN), or straight polarity (DCSP). © CEN, or DCSP, is recommended for EXX2X electrodes that have high metal deposition rates. © DCEN, or DCSP, can also be used in welding, positions other than flat. A disadvantage of a direct current (dc), constant current are welding machine is that a de arc welder is generally more expensive than an ac are welding machine of the same quality, current output, NEMA classification, and duty cycle. Advantages of an alternating current (ac), constant current, are welding machine are: © Welds made with ac arc welding machines and electrodes have moderate penetration © Large-diameter electrodes can be used with high ac currents to obtain greater filler metal deposition rates and faster welding speeds. © Acare welding machines are generally less expensive than de are welding machines of equal quality, current output, NEMA classification, and duty cycle rating,Welding o (og Sit Chapter 6 Shielded Metal Are Welding 159 Electrodes 100 Oo a Shhh vets c x ie ow 8 1120 20 ~palinas L—ss0 ° % 1/60 sec —— el _ es \ehage Figure 6-9. The sine wave curve of alternating current at 60Hz (cycles/sec). At points A and B, the voltage value is zero. At points C and D, voltage is at maximum. The two zaro values that occur in each cycle (every 1/60 of a second) may ‘make it difficult to strike and maintain an ac arc at small current values. Because a certain vollage Is required to overcome electron inertia in a circut, there is usually a small lag or lead between the voltage and amperage (current). The voltage usually leads the amperage. ‘The major disadvantage of ac are welding machines is that not all SMAW electrodes can be used with alternating current. ‘The choice of which arc welding machine to use must be made on the basis of what type of welds are to ‘be made, the cost considerations of purchasing a welding ‘machine, and personal preference. Welding machines capable of both ac and de operation are available. Such combination ac/de welding machines are more expen- sive than single-current output machines. However, they offer the welder the opportunity to better match the current output to the welding job requirements. 6.4 Inspecting an Arc Welding Station The arc welding station, as discussed in the beginning of Chapter 5, includes: ‘Are welding power source. Electrode lead and terminals. Workpiece lead and terminals. Electrode holder. Workbench. ‘Ventilation. eoccce160 Modern Welding © Stool. @ Booth. Before beginning to weld, check all parts of the are welding station. This should be done to ensure your safety and the efficiency of the station. Before the inspection is made, the arc welding machine should be turned off The are welding machine should be as close as possible to the booth or the parts to be welded. This is necessary to eliminate the need for long leads, which increase electrical resis- tance. Check that the electrode and workpiece leads are tightly attached to the machine. Inspect each lead, checking for any damage that may have occurred to the covering, Damage to the leads, particularly the workpiece lead, can occur from rolling over them with lift trucks, pallet movers, and other wheeled vehicles. If the electrode and workpiece lead must temporarily rrun across any area with heavy foot or equipment traffic, itis advisable to cover them with channel iron or similar material for protection, Inspect the electrode holder to make certain that the handle insulation is not cracked. Check also that the electrode lead is tightly fastened into the holder. The electrode holder jaws should be clean for good electrode contact. Make certain that the workpiece lead is making good contact with a cleaned area on the workbench and that the workpieces are making good electrical contact with the workbench. Any loose connections will cause an increase in resistance in the welding circuit Each booth musthave an insulated hook or hanger on which the electrode holder is hung when it is not in use. The booth curtains or walls should not have holes in them. Holes in the booth could present arc flash dangers to persons outside the booth. Ifa portable are welding machine is used, itis advisable to set up a portable booth to protect others from arc flash. Check the ventilation pickup hose, or duct, for holes that would lower its efficiency. Turn on the venti- ation system and check to see that it is working. If the ventilation system efficiency seems to be inadequate, it should be checked and repaired. The inlet to the venti- lation pickup duct should be placed so that fumes are removed before they can reach the welder's face. 6.5 Safety, Protective Clothing, and Shielding Before you proceed further with the study of shielded metal arc welding, you should study safety. Refer to Chapter 1 on safety and to the following specifics about shielded metai are welding. ‘Arc welding should be performed using the proper safety equipment to minimize great safety hazards. Welders should learn the correct procedures for arc welding so that the hazards that do exist can be properly recognized and injury avoided. ‘The chief hazards to be avoided in are welding are: © Radiation such as ultraviolet and infrared rays from the are. Flying sparks and small balls of molten metal Electric shock. Fumes. Burns. Radiation from the arc presents some dangers. Helmets or handheld face shields with approved lenses must be worn to protect the eyes from arc radiation, Never look at an arc from any distance, unless your eyes are protected by approved filter lenses. Figure 6-10 shows a helmet with an auto- darkening filter lens installed. Filter lenses for SMAW can be Number 10-14, depending on the electrode diameter. Face, hands, arms, and other skin surfaces must be covered. Wear gloves and keep other parts of the body covered by clothing of sufficient weight to shut out the rays from the arc. Without proper clothing, a person can receive burns comparable to sunburn. ‘Auto-darkening filter lens Figure 6-10. An arc welding helmet with an auto- darkening filter lens. Arc welding helmets are used to protect the eyes and face from harmful rays and flying motten metal. (Miller Electric Mfg. Co.)‘The arc welding operation should be shielded so that no one can accidentally look directly at the arc or have it shine or reflect into their eyes. Are flash can cause temporary blindness. Arc flash causes the victim to see a white spot similar to the effect of a photographer's flash. The severity of an arc flash and the time it will take to recover varies with the length of time the person was exposed to the are. Long expo- sure has been known to cause permanent damage to the retina of the eye. If someone is exposed to severe are flash, they should seek professional medical treat- ‘ment immediately. Are welding is usually accompanied by flying sparks. These present a hazard if they strike unpro- tected skin, lodge on flammable clothing, or hit other flammable material. It is advisable to wear suitable weight clothing and cuffless trousers made from flame-resistant materials like cotton and leather. See Figure 6-11. Figure 6-11. Wearing proper protective clothing is important to welding safely. This student welder is wearing a helmet, cap, goggles, gauntlet gloves, a leather cape, leather apron, and leather spats (shoe covers). Chapter Shielded Metal Are Welding 161 Pockets should be covered so they will not collect sparks. Remove flammable materials, such as matches, lighters, plastic combs, or pens. High shoes with safety toes should be worn. Blectric shock hazards during welding can be avoided by working on a dry floor, using insulated elec- trode holders, and wearing dry welding gloves. Avoid ‘using arc welding equipment in wet or damp areas. ‘The health hazard of fumes developed by the electrode covering and molten metal, may be avoided by the use of proper ventilating equipment. Certain special jobs require forced airflow (ventilation) into the welder’s helmet. The fumes generated in the welding are may contain poisonous metal oxides. Are welding should never be done in an area which is not well-ventilated. Hot metal can cause severe burns. Welders should wear leather gloves with tight-fitting wrists that overlap the sleeves of the jacket. Many welders wear an apron of leather or other heavy material for protec- tion. Hot metal should be handled with tongs or pliers, In a welding shop, all metal should be treated as if itis hot. 6.6 Starting, Stopping, and Adjusting the Arc Welding Power Source for SMAW Before beginning to weld, inspect the complete arc welding station to make certain itis safe for use. See Heading 64. An arc welding machine should never be started or stopped under load (with the elec- trode or holder in contact with the workpiece or table). Make certain that the electrode holder is hung on an insulated hanger before turning the machine on or off. The electrode holder should never be left on the workbench. Arc welding machines powered by ac are easy to start and stop. An on-off switch or buttons are provided on the machine. An engine-driven arc welding machine must have the engine started in order to start operating. Once the engine is running and up to its operating speed, the welding current may be turned on using an on-off switch. Constant current-type arc welding machines are used for manual are welding processes. The desired current is set on the machine. Amperage (current) controls vary in appearance, location, and operation on various manufacturers’ machines. The voltage on a constant current machine is not set. It varies as the welding circuit resistance changes to maintain a constant or relatively constant current output. All162 Modern Welding electrical connections must be tight, The length of the arc gap will then control the welding circuit resis- tance, and therefore, the circuit voltage. Figure 6-12 shows a machine that uses a tap-type control for coarse current adjustment and a crank on top of the machine for fine adjustment. As the hand crank is rotated, the primary coil is moved to vary the current output. A pointer moves with the primary coil, indicating the current setting on a scale on the outside of the cabinet. Figure 6-13 shows a shielded metal arc welding ‘machine that uses a coarse current adjustment and a fine current adjustment, The fine current adjustment is made using a rotary knob. Fine adjustment controls are often marked with numbers from 0 to 10, or from 0 to 100. These numbers do not represent current, Dut rather percentages. Once a coarse current range is selected, the fine adjustment will adjust the current within percentages of that coarse range. The machine will deliver the amperage set on the low end of the coarse setting, plus the percentage of the range set on the fine adjustment. Current agjustment High ad low current taps Figure 6-12. A welding power source with high- and low- range amperage taps. Fine current control is achieved by rotating the crank on the top of the machine. (Miller Electric Mg. Co.) jure 6-13. A constant voltage/constant current ac/dc engine-driven arc welding machine. A range is first set on the large dial, Fine adjustment within that range can then bo made on the small dial. (The Lincoln Electric Co.) Example 1: Ifthe coarse range setting is 100A to 200A, the current delivered = 100A, the low end of the coarse setting Plus If the fine adjustment setting is 50%, the current delivered is: ‘50% x current range = current delivered 0.50 x (200-100) = 0.50 x 100A. 1A Then Total current delivered = (100A + 50A) = 150A Example 2: If the coarse range setting is 100A to 250A, the current delivered = 100A, Plus If the fine adjustment is set on 70%, the current delivered is: 70% x current range 0.70 x (250-100) current delivered 70x 150A, 05A Then Total current delivered Figure 6-14 is a photo of an inverter power supply. There is only one knob used to set the current.Figure 6-14. An inverter-type power source. (Miller Electric Mig. Co.) 6.6.1 Selecting the Proper Electrode for SMAW en selecting an electrode for shielded metal are welding (SMAW), consider the following: @ The weld groove design. © The required tensile strength of the weld. © The base metal composition. © The position of the weld joint. © The rate at which you want to deposit the weld metal The type of are welding current used The penetration required, ‘The metal thickness. The experience of the welder © The specifications for the weld to be made. When a groove weld is made, the electrode must be small enough in diameter to easily manipulate it in the root of the weld. A small-diameter electrode is used for the root pass to ensure full penetration. After the root pass is made and cleaned, larger electrodes may be used to finish the weld. E60XX, 70XX, 80XX, 90XX, 100XX, and higher may be used depending on the weld strength required, The metal composition of the base metal will determine the metal composition of the electrode used. Figure 6-15 lists electrodes used for welding carbon steels, Figure 6-16 lists electrodes used to weld Iow-alloy steels. Some electrodes can be used to weld coe Chapter6 Shielded Metal Arc Welding 163, more than one type of base metal. See Chapter 5 for more detailed information, ‘The welding position will determine the elec- trode used. If the joint is in the flat welding position or is a horizontal fillet weld, a larger-diameter electrode Serna ‘Capable of producing Satistactory welds in position shown: ‘Type of covering Type of current 60 series electrodes FVOHA FV0H,H F.V,0H.H F.V,OH,H Helles FP High celulose sodium High colluiose jlassium igh titania sodium High titania potassium High iron oxide High iron oxide DOEP ‘ac or DCEP Jac or CEN. eco ca, either polarity | ‘ac or DCEN ac ot de. ‘ether polarity High iron oxide, ‘ac or DCEN Iron powder E70 series electrodes, Tron ponder, | FV, OH, H titania Low hydrogen. | FV, OH, H F.V,OH.H Hllets, F ae or do, either polarity DcEP sodium Low hydrogen potassium Low hycrogen potassium, fron powder iron powder, titania High iron oxide, iron powder Low hydrogen potassium, iron powder Low hydrogen potassium, iron powder The sbrovaons Fv down, OF, Pandas ats a wo sito oes er et Henao ‘ac or DOEP F.V,OH, H ac or DOEP Hilts, F Hllets, F Hefllts, F ‘ac or DCEP F, OH, H, V-down| ac or DEP Henson ot Veta don YVereal = Ovens. For lags 116" (4) ae undo, ‘ese 532" (8m) and under Sfaetiatons EYOTs E708, £7015 SserI8, The torm DOEP eerste dee! cuen lecrode pote (lo evse pola) Te ern OCEN rer det euro, elcradsnepetveo tei poli, 6. Flonodee hte E6022 casscaon ao for single-pass wold Figure 6-15. AWS A5.1/AS:1:2004, Table 1, Carbon Stee! Electrodes for SMAW, reproduced with permission from the American Welding Society, Miami, FL.164 Modern Welding RT ere Reseed E70 series — Minimum tensile strength of deposited metal, 70,000 ps! (480 MPa) E7010X High cellulose sodium EV, OHH DOEP E70i1-X High cellulose potassium E.V,OH, H ‘accor DCEP E7015 Low hydrogen sodium FV,OH.H DEP, E7016-X Low hyarogen potassium FVLOH.H ‘ac or DEP E7018 Iron powder, low hycrogen FV.OH.H ‘ac or DCEP pe Hilts ac or OGEN ae eee & fo de, eter party Hefllets fac or OGEN 7027-X Iron powder, ron oxide in Se E80 series - Minimum tensile strength of deposited metal, 80,000 psi (550 MPa) Ee010-% High cellulose sodium EV,OH,. A DCEP ER011-X High cellulose potassium EV.OH.H ‘ac or DOEP E5013-X High titania potassium FV.OH.H ac or dc, either polarity EB015-X Low hydrogen sodium FV.OH.H DcEP EB016X ‘Low hydrogen potassium F.V,OH, H ‘ac or DCEP E8018 Iron powder, low hydrogen F.V,OH, H ‘ac or DCEP E90 series - Minimum tensile strength of deposited! metal, 90,000 psi (620 MPa) E9010-K High cellulose sodium DcEP E011-X High collulose potassium ‘ac or DCEP E0013-X High titania potassium ac or de, either polarity E9015X Low hydrogen sodium DcEP E9016-X Low hydrogen potassium fac or DOEP E0018-X Iron power, low hydrogen ‘ac or CEP 100 series — Minimum tensile strength ‘metal, 100,000 psi (690 MPa) E10010X High cellulose sodium DCEP E10011-X High cellulose potassium ‘acor DCEP E10013-X High titania potassium ‘ac or dc, either polarity E10015-X Law hydrogen sodium DcEP E10016-X Low hydrogen potassium ac or DCEP £10018. Jon powder, low hydrogen ac or DCEP 110 series - Minimum tensile strength of deposited metal, 110,000 psi (760 MPa) E1015 Low hydrogen sodium DOEP E11016-X Law hydrogen potassium ‘acor DCEP E11018-X Iron powder, low hydrogen ‘acor DGEP £120 series - Minimum tensile strength of deposited metal, 120,000 psi (630 MPa) £12018-X Low hydrogen sodium F.V,0H,H CEP E12016-X Low hydrogen potassium EV, OHH ac or DCEP E12018-X Iron powder, low hydrogen. FV, OH, H ‘ac or DGEP ‘The latter suffix X° as used in his able stands forthe suffxes At, B1,B2,et., and designates the chemical composition of tho deposited wold meta '. ‘The abbreviations FV, OH, H, and filets indicate welding postions as folows:F = Fat H = Horizontal H-ilets = Horlzontal filets yo = Vertical ot electrodes 816" (4.8mm) and undor, except 8/32” (4mm) and under for classiicaions OH = Overhead J EXXIBX, EXXI6X, and BOGE. c._DOEP means electode positive (reverse polar), OOEN meane electrode nogative (straight poaty). Figure 6-16. AWS A5.5/A5.5M:2006, Table 1, Low-Alloy Stee! Electrodes for SMAW, reproduced with permission from the American Welding Society, Miami, FL.can be used. An iron powder electrode with high metal deposition rates may be chosen. If the weld is in the vertical, horizontal, or overhead welding posi- tions, a smaller-diameter electrode may be selected. A smaller-diameter electrode will form a smaller weld pool and will be easier to control. The metal in a larger weld pool tends to run out due to gravitational force. Electrodes are made to be most effective with one type of welding current: ac, DCEN (DCSP), or DCEP (BCRP). When selecting an electrode, the type of current produced by the arc welding machine must be known. Ac and some DCEP (DCRP) electrodes produce deeper penetrating welds than other elec- trodes, Sec Figures 6-15 and 6-16. For welding thin metal, DCEN (DCSP) is typically used. Small DCEN (DCSP) electrodes used with a low- current setting produce a soft arc action with weak penetrating abilities. See electrodes E6012 and E6013 in Figure 6-17. The largest electrode diameter possible should be used. However, it must not create too largea wieaiess | 16aiess | 16 | 16 wie-siea | 16-20 | 5164 | 20 seae | 2092 | s62 | 24 | 40-80 8-1/4 3264 | ve | 32 | 75-125 114-318 6495 | six | 40 | 110-170 3181/2 asta7 | ans | 48 | 140-215 12-314 we7-ta1 | 72 | 56 | 170-250 34 191-254 | 4 | 64 | 210-320 3 225.4 sie | 30 | 275-425 Chapter 6 Shielded Metal Arc Welding 165 weld or overheat the base metal. The experience of the welder is a large factor in choosing an electrode. An experienced welder can produce a sound weld with a much larger diameter electrode than a beginner can. Frequently there sno choice allowed in the selection of an electrode, Whenever a qualified welding procedure specification is used, the diameter and type of electrode are specified. The amount of current to be used is also specified. Chapter 31 has more information on welding procedure specifications. Figures 6-17 and 6-18 provide information regarding electrode diameters, current ranges used, and suggested metal thickness applications for E60XX and E70XX series electrodes. 6.6.2 Striking the Arc ‘One of the first lessons to be mastered, when learning to arc weld, is to produce an arc between the metal electrode and the base metal. To strike a welding arc, the electrode must first touch the base 20-40 | 20-40 25-60 | 25-60 35-85 | 45-90 80-140 | 80-130 | 100-150 | 110-160 | 125-185 110-130 | 105-180 | 130-190 | 140-190 | 169-240 140-240 | 150-280 | 175-250 | 170-400 | 210-300 200-820 | 210-300 | 226-310 | 370-5en | 250-350 250-400 | 250-350 | 275-375 300-420 300-500 | 320-430 | 340450 875-475 Figure 6-17. A table of E60XX series electrodes with suggested metal thickness applications and amperage ranges. ‘These values are suggested and may be varied as required. eae ule Suggested ‘metal thickness _ s in 7m in| mm sie4—1ia | 20-22 argo | 24" | g0-125 | 65-110 | 70-100 | 100-145 eta | 3264 we | 32 | 110-160 | 100-150 | 115-165 | 140-190 | 125-185 | 20-140 ioe | 64-95 sig2 | 40 | 150-210 | 140-200 | 180-220 | 1g0-250 | 160-240 | 150-220 sve | 95-127 | 316 | 48 | 200-275 | 180-258 | 200-275 | 230-305 | 210-200 | 210-270 tai 127-191 | 7182 | 56 | 260-40 | 240-200 | 260-340 | 275-365 | 250-350 44 191-264 | v4 | 64 | 330-415 | 300-390 | s1s-ao0 | 335-430 | 900-420 3 225.4 site | 80° | 390-s00 | 375-475 | 375-470 | 400-525 | 375-475 Note: hen welding vertically up, curents near the lower imi of he range are genoraly used “These Glameters are not manufactur in the E7028 classification Figure 6-18. A table of E70XX series electrodes with suggested metal thickness applications and amperage ranges. ‘These values are suggested and may be varied as required.166 Modern Welding metal. This completes the circuit and allows current to flow through the electrode and base metal. The end of the electrode must then be withdrawn to the correct arc distance or length. When the electrode is pulled back, the current jumps the gap between the electrode and base metal, creating the arc First attempts to strike a welding arc may cause the electrode to stick. That is to say, the electrode may weld itself to the base metal. When this occurs, quickly follow these steps to separate the electrode from the base metal. © If welding small pieces of material, lift the electrode holder without releasing the electrode. This will pick up the electrode and the base metal. Some arcing will occur between the base metal and the table you are welding on. If you release the electrode from the electrode holder, arcing will occur between the electrode and the holder, © When welding on a large weldment, itis not possible to lift the weldment. In such cases, ‘you can release the electrode from the electrode hholder. Inspect the jaws on the electrode holder to make sure no significant damage was done. If large pits or arc damage has occurred, replace the jaws on the electrode holder. © A third way to removea stuck electrode is to rock the electrode forward and backward quickly, until the end snaps off. The important ppoint is the electrode must pivot at the tip of the electrode, where it is welded to the base ‘etal. Ifthe electrode bends in the middle, the coating may chip off. Ifthe coating chips off, the electrode should no longer be used. ‘Another problem that a beginning welder may experience is withdrawing the electrode too far after touching the metal. This will cause the voltage requirement to be too great to maintain the arc. The are will, therefore, break and go out (extinguish). Only experience and practice will allow a welder to consis- tently strike and maintain an arc without sticking an electrode. There are two common methods of striking (producing) the are. The welder may use a glancing or scratching motion with the end of the electrode ora straight down-and-up motion or pecking with the electrode. Figure 6-19 illustrates both methods of striking an arc. If the arc breaks continually, regardless of how careful the welder may be, it is probably due to a too-low current setting on the machine. If the elec- trode spatters excessively, and ifit becomes overheated while welding, the current setting is too high. ‘As soon as the welding arc is struck and becomes stabilized, the base metal begins melting and the filler metal deposit begins. It is, therefore, important to strike the arc in exactly the right spot or the metal may be marred. Most welders position the arc end of the electrode just above the exact spot where the weld is to start. Then, they lower the helmet in front of their eyes before actually contacting the metal with the electrode. Figure 6-20 shows a welder preparing to strike an arc. Autodarkening helmets make it easier to see where the arc will be started. In an autodarkening helmet, the lens remains clear until the arc is struck, then instantly darkens. This helps the welder to strike the arc in precisely the right spot without raising or Iowering the helmet. Glancing or scratching motion DDownand-up or pecking motion Figure 6-19. Two methods of striking an are. The vertical motion method is most often used; however, it takes some practice to be skiltul in its use.Figure 6-20, A welding student practices SMAW in the fiat wolding position, 6.6.3 Running a Bead ‘Once the welding arc is struck and stabilizes, the ‘weld pool will begin to form. As the welder moves the electrode forward, the weld bead forms. The first skill that a welder must master is the ability to run (form) a bead. ‘To run a good weld bead in SMAW, the following factors must be controlled manually by the welder: © Arc gap distance or arc length © Speed of forward motion. © Bead width. © Electrode angle or position. The arc length must be varied slightly as different electrode diameters are used. However, for covered electrodes, the arc length will be about 3/16” (about Smm) to 1/4” (about 6mm). Shielded metal are ‘welding can be done with one hand. A welder can use the other hand at times to hold a part while tacking it in place. ‘One way of checking for proper arc length is to listen to the sound of the arc. A proper arc length will produce a crackling or hissing sound similar to bacon frying, ‘Too short of an are length may result in the electrode sticking, When small solidified metal drops are seen on the base metal surface, spattering is ‘occurring. Too long of an arc length will cause a great deal of filler metal spattering. To create a bead which has a uniform width and heightand uniformly spaced ripples, a consistent forward speed must be maintained. There are two types of beads used in arc welding: stringer beads and weave beads. Stringer beads are narrow weld beads made without oscillating the weld pool. Weave beads are wide weld beads made by moving the weld pool side to side as it progresses along the weld joint. Chapter 6 Shielded Metal Arc Welding 167 ‘To make a stringer bead, the only motion of the electrode is forward. The bead width should be 2-3 times the diameter of the electrode. For example, with a 1/8” G2mm) electrode, the normal stringer bead should be 1/4” (6.4mm) to 3/8” (9.6mm) in width (1/8" «2 = 1/4" or 64mm; 1/8" x 3 = 3/8” or 9.6mm). See Figure 6-214. When a weave bead is made, the electrode is moved uniformly back and forth across the weld line while also moving forward, With such a motion, the bead may be made as wide as desired. However, for best bead control, it is recommended that a weave bead be no wider than six times the electrode diam- eter. For example, using a 1/8” (32mm) electrode, the weave bead should be no wider than 1/8” x 6 = 3/4 wide (19.2mm). See Figure 6-218. Place the bare end of the electrode into the elec- trode holder. The travel angle is a 20° drag travel angle. ‘The work angle is 0° or 90° from the base metal for a stringer bead. See Figure 6-22. ‘To practice the stringer bead, use a piece of mild steel about 1/4” (64mm) thick, 2” (50mm) wide, and 6” (152mm) long. Select an ac or de electrode 1/8” (3.2mm) in diameter. See Figures 6-17 and 6-18. ‘The arc should always be struck about 3/8” (6mm) ahead of where the bead should begin. The electrode and arc must then be moved rapidly to the spot where the weld is to begin. During this brief period of time, the arc has a chance to stabilize. The bead can then begin with a steady arc. While holding a uniform arc length, move slowly in the direction of motion. Righthanders usually weld best from left to right. Left-handers usually weld best from right to left. _— 318 in.(@.6mm) Stringer bead Figure 6-21. Suggested dimensions for a stringer bead and a weave bead. A stringer bead has a width two or three times the electrode diameter. A weave bead has a ‘width up to six times the diameter of the electrode.168 Modern Welding Straight ‘edges Evenly spaced Molten bulletnose-shaped weld ‘nipples ool Direction ‘of mation i Bead and ‘ripples: i Molten weld pool Figure 6-22. Three views of an are bead in progress. Note that the electrode is inclined 20° in the direction of travel. The completed arc bead should have straight ledges, evenly spaced ripples, and uniform height. With the electrode tipped 20° in the direction of travel, a good view of the weld pool is possible. This slight angle also permits the force of the arc to push the molten metal to the rear of the weld pool to form the bead ripples. When the width of the stringer bead reaches the desired size, move slightly forward. Watch the weld pool grow in size and move slightly forward again. This action of watching and moving is continued until it appears to be a uniform forward motion. ‘The speed of forward motion is judged by two factors while welding. These are: © Thebead width. © The bullet-nose shape of the ripples at the rear of the molten weld pool. If the forward speed is proper, the back of the weld pool will have a bullet-nose-shaped ripple. This indicates that the weld reinforcement, or weld bead height, is correct. Weld reinforcement is the amount of buildup above the surface of the base metal. If the rear of the weld pool is less curved or straight, the travel speed is too low. Too slow a travel speed will cause the weld reinforcement to be too high. If the weld pool shape becomes more pointed, the speed is too fast and the buildup is too low. Watch the weld pool shape while welding and adjust the travel speed to maintain a round, bullet-nose-shaped weld pool. ‘The speed of forward motion can also be judged after welding by examining: @ The height of the weld reinforcement. @ The shape of the ripples of the weld bead. ‘The completed stringer bead will beeven in width, with evenly spaced, bullet-nose-shaped ripples. It will have the proper width and bead height. The weld bead height is normally about one-quarter the bead width. The proper current setting is very important to ‘make a quality weld or bead. A bead that is made with the correct current, are length, and forward speed will have an appearance like the one shown in Figure 6-23A. If the current is too low, the bead will be high with poor penetration, as seen in Figure 6-23B. If the current is too high, the electrode will overheat and spatter excessively. Also, the bead height will be low. See Figure 6-23C. A very porous bead or weld will result. Gas pockets and impurities will be trapped within the bead. With a short arc, the bead will be high, with poor penetration and overlap, Figure 6-23D. If thearc length is too long, the bead height will be too low, with poor penetration and undercut. See Figure 6-23E. Moving too slowly will create a bead that is wide and high, as shown in Figure 6-23E. A rapid forward motion will result in a narrow bead width with little reinforce- ment, Figure 6-23G, Figure 6-24 labels the effects of weld beads created with less than ideal conditions. ‘A practical application of weld beads is the rebuilding of worn surfaces in welding maintenance work. Shafts, excavation implements, gear teeth, wheels of various kinds, and other parts and equip- ment, frequently become worn to the extent that they must either be discarded or rebuilt. Rebuilding these surfaces by laying arc beads side by side over the worn areas in one or more layers, then refinishing, has become an important arc welding, maintenance operation. Another application of bead work is hard-surfacing ‘or wear-resistant surfacing. Laying beads of special metallicalloys side by side on a soft steel surface provides ‘surface that is extremely hard and resistant to abrasion.Chapter6 Shielded Metal Arc Welding 169 Spatter Undereut | Figure 6-23. The effects of current, arc length, and travel speed on covered electrode beads. A—Correct current, ar length, and travel speed; B—Amperage too low; C—Amperage too high; D—Too short an arc length; E—Arc length too long FTravel speed too slow; G—Travel speed too fast. (American Welding Society)170 Modern Welding Gas pockets and impurities Overlap (untused metal) Figure 6-24. Results of an improperly made arc bead. Build-up, hardfacing, and other surfacing operations will bbe discussed in more detail in Chapter 26. 6.6.4 Restarting and Fit Welding Bead When a SMAW bead is stopped prior to comple- tion, a deep crater is left in the base metal. Restarting the arc and completing the bead must be done with care. If the restart is done correctly, the bead ripples will be uniform, It will be difficult to see where the bead was stopped and restarted. Before the welding arc is restruck, the previous bead must be cleaned as described in the next section. When a SMAW electrode is stopped, it may be easy or it may be difficult to restart an are with the electrode. Some electrodes, including E6010, E60L1, 6012, and E6013 can be restarted fairly easily. The solid metal wire core of the electrode is flush with or may even stick out beyond the thick flux covering, The solid metal wire core of the electrode can be touched to the base metal. Low-hydrogen electrodes, which include E7015, E7016, and E7018, are more difficult to restart. Low- hydrogen electrodes form a cup on the end of the elec- trode. The solid metal wire core becomes recessed in the surface of the thick flux covering, It is necessary to remove the thick flux covering from the end of the electrode. The preferred method of doing this is to keep the electrode in the holder and gently strike the welding end of the electrode onto the wooden handle of a wire brush, The goal is to knock off about 1/16”-3/32" (L.6mm-2.4mm) of the thick electrode covering, This will expose the tip of the solid metal wire. Other options are to strike the end of the elec- trode against a chipping hammer or to use the wooden handlle of the wire brush or the chipping hammer and strike the end of the electrode. Ifa large amount of the coating is removed from the electrode, the electrode should not be used. Proper shielding, gas will not be created and alloys and other fluxing elements in the coating will not be present in the weld. g an Arc Restrike the arc about 3/8” (about 10mm) ahead of the forward edge of the crater. The arc is then moved backward rapidly until the new molten weld pool just touches the rear edge of the previous crater. As soon as the two edges touch, the electrode is moved forward to continue the weld. If this is done correctly, the ripples of the old and the new bead will match. See Figure 6-25. ‘Therearetwo waysto finishabead or weld without leaving a crater. One method is to use a run-off tab, a piece of metal of the same type and thickness that is tack welded to the end of the base metal being welded. The arc bead or weld is completed on the base metal and continued on the run-off tab. When the weld is stopped, the crater is on the run-off tab. The run-off tab is cut off, leaving a full-thickness bead at the end of the base metal. ‘A similar procedure is used to start a weld. A piece of metal the same thickness as the base metal is tacked onto the end of the weldment where the weld bead will begin. This piece of metal is known as a run-on tab. The welding arc is struck on the run-on tab. The weld bead begins on the run-on tab and is continued onto the weldment. When the run-on tab is cut off, it leaves a well-defined, full-thickness bead at the beginning of the base metal. Rear of old are crater tstbead ff restarted bead Step2—move <> Siep—m rapid backwars ‘Brverd to tnt he new \ weld peal touches (4) Ay SOmEre geet tieaderater // Step 1—strke the ae Figure 6-25. Steps to restarting an arc bead.Another method used to finish a weld without leaving a crater is to reverse the electrode direction as the end of the weld is reached. The electrode is moved to the trailing edge of the weld pool. When the weld poo] is filled, the electrode is then lifted until the are is broken. 6.6.5 Cleaning the Bead When shielded metal electrodes are used, a brittle slag coating is left, covering the weld bead. This slag covering must be removed prior to restarting a bead. It must also be removed after completing the bead, prior to welding over a bead, and before painting. If the slag is not removed before restarting a weld or before welding over a bead, the resulting weld will have many slag inclusions. Slag inclusions are pieces of slag trapped, or included, in the weld. Slag is gener- ally removed manually with a chipping hammer and awire brush. The slag may also be removed mechani- cally by shot peening, wire brushing, or chipping. Shot peening is a process of hitting a surface with small round balls made of metal, ceramic, or glass. It is similar to sandblasting a surface. These small balls, like a chipping hammer or wire brush, remove the slag from the weld surface. 6.7 DC Arc Blow As explained earlier, once started, an ac are is quite stable. A dcare, however, may have a tendency at times to wander from the weld line. This wandering, called are blow, is usually caused by the forces of the magnetic field around the de electrode and in the magnetic base metal. All electrical conductors are surrounded by a magnetic field when current is flowing. If the current travels continually in one direc- tion, the magnetism can become quite strong. Ac electrodes are not affected because of the constantly changing direction of the current, The currer constantly changing direction virtually cancels the magnetic blow effects in the ac circuit. ‘Magnetic fields or lines of flux travel easily in magnetic materials which include iron- and nickel- based metals. The magnetic fields move through air with greater difficulty. Figure 6-26 shows a butt weld with the workpiece lead connected near the beginning of the weld. When the arc is struck, a magnetic field is created around the de electrode. The magnetic field prefers to travel in the base metal, not in the air. There- fore, the magnetic field forces the molten filler metal to blow inward from the end of the weld joint toward the center of the work. This is called forward arc blow. Chapter 6 Shielded Metal Are Welding 171 See Figures 6-26 and 6-27, In the center area of the weld joint, the arc and molten filler metal act normally. ‘As the welder nears the end of the joint, the magnetic flux intensifies ahead of the electrode. This happensas the magnetic flux tries to stay in the magnetic ‘metal, rather than travel out into the air. The arc and molten metal are now blown back toward the begin- ning of the weld. This action is known as backward arc blow. See Figures 6-26 and 6-27. Very seldom does arc blow occur across the weld axis (sideways) Workpioce lead ( (grourds Figure 6-26. The magnetic field around an electrode Is deflected at the ends of a weld joint (A and C). The field attempts to flow in the magnetic metal and not through the air. ‘This concentration of the magnetic flux at ends of the metal forces the arc toward the center of the base metal. The arc “blows away’ rom the area directly under the electrode atthe ‘ends of the weld. Notice that the magnetic fold isnot distorted in the center areas of the weld joint at B. Directory of travel ‘Workplace lead (ground) Figure 6-27. The effects of dc arc blow on the arc and electrode wire. As the arcs started at A, the arc is blown toward the right. In the center, B, the arc travels straight down. ‘As the arc approaches tho end of the weld at C, the arc and filler metal are blown toward the center ofthe weld joint.172 Modern Welding Arc blow can be more severe when using elec- trodes with high iron content. If the are blow is extremely strong, certain preventive or corrective measures can be taken. One or more of the following may be used to correct magnetic arc blow: © Place the workpiece lead connections as far from the weld joint as possible. © If forward arc blow is a problem, connect the workpiece lead (ground) near the end of the weld joint. i hada son aye erp, sey the workpiece lead (ground) near the start of the weld, It will also help to weld toward a large tack weld. The large tack weld will give the magnetic field a place to flow. This will prevent a crowding of the magnetic field Which causes arc blow. © Reduce the welding current, which will reduce the strength of the magnetic field. © Slightly adjust the electrode travel angle so that the arc force counteracts the are blow force. © Use the shortest arc that will produce a good. bead. A short arc will permit the filler metal to enter the weld pool before itis blown away. A short are will also permit the arc force to overcome the arc blow force. © Weld toward a run-off tab or heavy tack weld. © Change to an ac welding machine and electrodes. © Use the backstep method of welding. A welder can use the backstep method to create a continuous weld by performing a number of short welds. The weld bead is divided into several sections. ‘The first segment is started away from the beginning of the joint. The weld is made toward the beginning, Each section is welded back toward the previous section. See Figure 6-28. Figure 6-28. An example ofthe backstep method of welding, Each section is welded back toward the previous section, 6.8 Arc Welded Joint Designs Shielded metal arc welding can be done on any of the basic joint designs. Chapter 3 discusses these joint designs. The five basic joint designs are: © Butt © Lap. © Comer. @ Toint. © Edge. See Figure 6-29. Refer also to Chapter 3 for a complete discussion of joint designs and edge preparation. Butt joint Edge joint ‘Comer joint Figure 6-29. Common arc welding joint designs.A lap joint is made with square edges on the base ‘metal. A butt joint, corner joint, Toint, and edge joint ‘weld may require edge preparation. The edges can be flame or arc cut, ground, or machined to the required shape or angle. Edge preparation is done to ensure ‘complete penetration of the weld. Tt is necessary to know the proper names for the various parts of a weld in order to discuss welds and their quality. Refer to Figure 6-30 for the proper ‘names used in joints and welds. Weld joints may be in any position. A weld may be made on any of the five basic joints and in all welding positions. Electrode ‘Groove angle Bevel angle Root face “Joint penetration ‘or weld size Weld toe Weld to | Leg and ‘weld size Weld face and \weid size Effective throat Weld toe Figure 6-30. Proper names for parts of a weld joint and ‘weld. A ilustrates the parts ofa groove joint. B lists the parts of a completed groove weld. C and D identify the parts of, fillet welds with concave and convex weld beads. Chapter6 Shielded Metal Arc Welding 173, ‘The four most basic welding positions are: © Flat welding position. The weld axis and weld face are horizontal. See Figure 6-31 © Horizontal welding position. The weld axis, ishorizontal and the weld face is vertical or near vertical. See Figure 6-324. © Vertical welding position. The weld axis is vertical. See Figure 6-32B. © Overhead welding position. The weld axis is horizontal, but the weld is made from the underside. See Figure 6-32C. 6.8.1 Weld Flaws and Defects ‘Completed welds may have a variety of flaws. A flaw is any imperfection in a weld. If flaw is large, itis called a defect. Many flaws and defects can be seen with the naked eye. Others can be found only through the use of destructive testing or nondestructive evaluation. Refer to Chapter 30 for information on testing of welds. By means of a visual inspection, a welder may find the following weld flaws and defects: © Poor weld proportions. © Undercutting, © Lack of penetration. © Surface flaws and defects. The weld face should have relatively small, evenly spaced ripples. The weld face on a groove joint should be wide enough to span the complete groove. A groove weld should have complete penetration, (On a lap joint or an unprepared corner joint, the weld normally does not penetrate to the other side. Ona groove-type corner joint or T-joint, the weld may penetrate to the metal face opposite the bevel. On thicker metals, welding may be done from both sides, Refer to Figure 6-33. ‘A weld with a properly contoured (shaped) face is shown in Figure 6-34, Compare the properly contoured ‘weld to the weld illustrated in Figure 6-34B, which shows an undercut condition, Note that the toes of the weld are ccut deep into the base metal. This weakens the base metal and is a defect: Depending on the application, additional weld beads can be welded to fill in the undercut, or it may be necessary to remove part of the weld and reweld a section of the weld joint. Undercutting is caused by improper welding technique. Often a long are or too high acurrentis the cause. In Figure 6-34B, the cause was high current. The excessive penetration and spatter indicate a high current setting, ‘Compare the good weld in Figure 6-34A with the weld in Figure 6-34C. The weld in Figure 6-34C was made with a low current setting or a short are length. The weld is overlapped at the toe of the weld. ‘The weld also has poor penetration.174 Modern Welding welding position Inside comer joint Figure 6-31. Examples of welds made in the flat (downhand) position. Note that the face of each weld is in a horizontal plane. Weld face vertical Weld axis ornear horizontal vertical Horizontal welding position A Weld axis vertical Vertical welding positon B Wold face T Wold axis horizontal onlay 6-82. The horizontal, vertical, and overhead welding positions, A B Figure 6-33. Fillet welds compared. A—Conventional filet weld. B—Deep penetration fillet weld Figure 6-35 illustrates the cross section of three well-formed fillet welds. The weld at A has a flat face contour. AtB, the weld face is convex (curved outward) and at C, the weld face is concave (curved inward). Note that there is no undercut at the toe of the weld in any of the cross sections. Figure 6-36 is a magnified ‘cross section of a fillet weld. Note the undercut at the toe of the weld at the vertical metal surface. ‘The three fillet weld cross sections in Figure 6-37 are unacceptable welds. At A, the weld contour is poorly shaped at B, the weld is undercut; and at C, the ‘weld is overlapped. ‘The metal surfaces of the finished weld should be free from excessive spatter. High and low spots in the weld bead are not acceptable. This generally indicates weld speed which was not uniform. Highs and lows may also indicate a poor restarting technique. If the bead has a number of small pit holes, this indicatesChapter 6 Shielded Metal Arc Welding 175 Weld face Undereut ‘Overlap “Too much Poor A B penetration © penetration jure 6-34. Comparison of acceptable and unacceptable weld beads. A—A properly made weld bead with good contour and penetration. B—The bead is undercut and the base metal is thus weakened. C—The bead was made with Insufficient heat. The bead is overiapped with poor fusion and poor penetration. Brcocsvaly conver undercut B ct ‘Overlanped Figure 6-37. Cross sections of unacceptable filet welds Figure 6-36. Photomacrograph of a filet wold on a Tint (etched and magnified four limes), These are unacceptable Using dc. Note the undercut on the vertical piece of metal. because of excessive contour in A, undercutting in B, and ‘overapping in C. These welds were made in the overhead position,176 — Modern Welding porosity. Porosity results from gases trapped inside the weld. The cause may be a welding speed which is too fast, or a welding current that is too low. The solu- tion may be to slow down the welding speed and/or increase the welding current. Both of these solutions will allow the weld pool to remain liquid long enough to allow all the gases to reach the surface before the ‘metal becomes solid. Porosity can also be eliminated by using low-hycirogen electrodes. Always dry low- hydrogen electrodes before use to remove any mois- ture, which can cause porosity. ‘Additional surface flaws can be seen during a visual inspection. These include spatter, slag inclu- sions, and cracks in the weld bead or weld crater. Spatter can be controlled by using the correct current and arc length. Slag inclusions can be caused by not cleaning between the weld passes. Proper prepa- ration, preheating, and higher welding current help to eliminate slag inclusions. Cracks are caused by various factors. It is important to use the correct welding elec- trode type and diameter for a welding job. To avoid ‘crack formation, some metals must be preheated before welding, Also, good welding technique is important to minimize (and often eliminate) cracking If a defect is found, the weld must be repaired. Often, the poor section is ground down or cut out by a gouging process and rewelded. 6.9 SMAW Welding Techniques Shielded metal arc welding is used in many indus- tries. These include construction, transportation, main- tenance, petrochemical, agriculture, and many more. Specifications and codes vary between industries However, the basic welding techniques do not vary. Shielded metal arc welding is a skill. There are a few variables that are selected or set. These include the welding equipment, the electrode type and diam- eter, and the welding current. There are a number of, variables that must be controlled to make a good weld. ‘The main variables are © Arclength. @ Travel speed. @ Travel and work angles. @ Electrode motion. Whenever possible, welds should be made with the seams in the flat welding position. In some indus- tries, special turntables are used to rotate the work so that this position can be obtained. However, many welds have to be done in the vertical, horizontal, or overhead welding positions. Typical structures that cannot be rotated are large construction projects like buildings, bridges, and pipelines. Welds made in various positions must be of the same quality and strength as welds done in the flat welding position 6.9.1 SMAW Edge Joints in the Flat Welding Position The term “edge joint” is defined by the Amer- ican Welding Society as: “A joint between the edges of two or more parallel or nearly parallel members.” See Figure 6-38. An edge joint may be welded in any position. This type of joint is the easiest of the various joints to arc weld. On thin metal, no edge preparation is necessary. On thicker pieces of base metal, the edge should be ground, gouged, or machined to provide a bevel, V-, U,,or groove. Refer to Chapter 3 for details about the various edge joint configurations. ‘To gain experience in joining two pieces together by are welding, the welder should obtain two pieces of metal approximately 1/4” (about 64mm) thick. A 1/8" (3.2mm) B60XX electrode should be used. The current setting on the machine should be about 100A. Before beginning this weld (or any weld), it is advisable to run a few practice beads. A piece of the same metal being welded should be used for practice. Using the suggested ES0XX elee- trode and about 100A, run a stringer bead. Ifthe bead is narrower than 1/4” or about 6mm (2 x electrode diam- eter) the current is probably too low. If the bead is wider than 3/8” or about 10mm (3 x electrode diameter), the current may be set too high. Run test beads and continue to reset the are welding machine current until a bead three times the electrode diameter is achieved. The bead should be run at a forward speed that is comfortable and easy to control. Ifthe bead width and forward speed are proper, the amperage is right for the electrode and the welder (operator). Using test beads may ensure a better bead on the finished part. Electrode Tack weld Worktable Figure 6-38. A suggested setup for arc welding an edge Joint in the flat welding position.This thickness of metal (about 1/4” or 64mm) should require no edge preparation. The pieces should be clamped together and grounded to the table. Heat- resistant blocks called firebricks can be used to prop the pieces up so that a flat welding position is possible. ‘A tack weld is a small, well-fused weld in one spot that is used to hold parts in proper alignment while welding. A weak tack weld may break during the welding operation and allow the metal to shift its position. Before making an edge joint, or any welded joint, the metal should be tack welded in as many places as required to hold it in proper alignment, The number of tack welds used is optional. However, it is suggested that a tack weld be made at intervals of about 3” (about 75mm), Hold the electrode so there is a 20° travel angle and 0° work angle. Strike the arc as described in Heading 6.6.2 and then position the electrode over the starting point of the joint. Hold an arc length of 3/8” to 1/4” mm to 6mm). Review Heading 6.63 regarding arc lengths and running a bead. After the welding arc is struck, the welder must watch the weld pool as it increases in diameter. When the edge of the weld pool nearly touches the outside edge of the metal, the electrode is moved forward. This process is repeated in an almost continuous oper- ation until the weld is completed. Refer to Figure 6-39. Figure 6-39. An edge weld as the weld bead is begun. Note that the weld pool must increase in size until it nearly touches the edges of the metal before the electrode is moved forward. Chapter 6 Shielded Metal Arc Welding 177 6.9.2 SMAW Lap Joints in the Flat Welding Position Lap joints are commonly made in the flat or hori- zontal welding position. Fillet welds are used with lap joints. A fillet weld is basically triangular in shape. ‘The weld face may have a flat, convex, or concave shape. The shape of the weld face may be specified on the weld symbol. A convex shape is slightly stronger and is normally preferred. See Figure 6-40. To weld a lap joint, the electrode should have a 20° drag travel angle and about a 45° work angle. The electrode will be aimed into the root, or bottom, of veg] [Fae Nf to ea ~ OD F Figure 6-40. Fillet weld shapes. A—Fillet weld parts. The leg size is given on the weld symbol. B—Convex face. (C—Coneave face. D—Flat face. E—Flat-aced filet wit unequal legs. F—Multiplo-pass. Note these lap joints are in the horizontal position.178 Modern Welding the joint. The electrode should point more toward the surface of the bottom workpiece than the edge of the top workpiece. It takes more heat to melt the surface. On thin metal, no sideway motion is needed to form a g00d fillet. When larger fillets are required, a weaving motion may be necessary. Figure 6-41 illustrates the position of the base metal for a fillet weld on a lap joint in the flat welding position. The fillet weld on a lap joint is made on the Figure 6-41. Fillet weld on a lap joint done in the flat welding position, Poot of weld edge of one piece and the surface of the other piece. More heat is required to melt the surface than is required to melt the edge. This is because a surface has material surrounding it and has more mass to bbe heated. An edge does not have this mass and will, heat and melt faster. To distribute the heat, a weaving motion must be used, with most of the motion taking place on the surface, not the edge. The finished bead should have the proper contour, be straight, and have a consistent width along the entire joint. The surface of the weld bead should bbe consistent with no excessive buildup or low spots. The weld bead and base metal should be fairly clean with little spatter. Ttshould show good fusion between the bead and the base metal. The bead should blend smoothly with the base metal. If a distinct line is seen, the fusion is probably poor. There should be no overlap or undercutting in the fillet. The weld must penetrate through the root of the joint. It should not penetrate through the base metal. 6.9.3 SMAW Corner and T-Joints in the Flat Welding Position A comer joint can be eitheran inside or an outside corner joint. Inside corner joints are often made by butting two base metals together to form a square- groove joint. A fillet weld is made on a square-groove joint. See Figure 6-42A. An inside corner joint can also be prepared as a bevel-groove or a J-groove joint. If a groove is prepared, a groove weld is made. See Figures 6-42B and 6-42C. An inside corner joint can be made with both a groove weld and a fillet weld. A groove weld is made first to fill the groove joint. Then a second weld, a fillet weld, is made over the groove weld. C.J-groove inside corner Joint Figure 6-42. Inside corner joints welded in the flat welding position. Note that the weld face is horizontal in the flat welding position,An outside corner joint is similar to a butt joint. If the two pieces are butted together with no groove preparation, a square-groove joint is formed. The joint an also be prepared as bevel, V> J, or U-groove Groove welds are used to complete all outside corner joints. Refer to Figure 6-43, To weld a corner joint, the electrode is held about 1/8" (8mm) from the base metal. The travel angle is often 20° and the work angle is about 45° for a fillet weld or 90° for a groave weld. No weave action is required on a groove weld or a normal sized fillet weld. Travel speed is maintained to melt the base metal and properly fill the joint. The weld on either an inside or outside corner should penetrate through the root. The weld should not penetrate through the base metal. Both edges of the bead should blend smoothly with the metal surfaces. There should be no overlapping or undercut- ting, See Figure 6-44, The bead must be straight and hhave a uniform width and contour. ‘A T-joint is formed by placing one piece of base metal on the other to form a T-shape. This joint can be welded from one or both sides. The edge of the perpendicular workpiece may be prepared to form ‘a square-, bevel, V-, J- or other type of groove. If the ‘Tjoint is to be welded from both sides, the weldment is repositioned after one weld is completed to keep ‘welding in the flat position. See Figure 6-45. A T-joint ‘A. Square-groove § “outside corer joint vA B. Bevel-groove outside corner joint Figure 6-43. Outside comer joints welded in the flat walding position, Chapter Shielded Metal Arc Welding 179 Overlap Undercut Inside corner Figure 6-44. Examples of overlap and undercut on an ‘outside and inside comer joint. B Figure 6-45. Welding a joint. A—Fillot weld in progress on a Teint in the flat welding position. B—T-joint welded with multiple passes.180 Modern Welding fillet weld is made in the same manner as the weld on an inside corner joint. These welds, like all welds, are easier to make in the downhand, or flat, welding position. A weaving motion is required only on large, wide joints. The elec- trode angles are the same as those used when running a bead. However, the welder should be certain to melt both surfaces as an inside corner or ‘joint is welded. ‘Too often, the beginner makes an inside corner or ‘Tjoint without proper fusion of the metal surfaces. 6.9.4 SMAW Butt Joints in the Flat Welding Position Ik is suggested that a butt weld be practiced on low carbon steel 1/4” to 3/8” (64mm to 9.6mm) thick. Steel 1/4” (64mm) thick and thicker should have the edge prepared prior to welding. This will ensure complete penetration of the base metal. A V-groove joint is suggested. Both metal edges should be ground to about a 45° angle. The angle should be cut to within 1/16" (1.6mm) of the bottom, as shown in Figure 6-46, Align the pieces welded with a 1/16” (6mm) root ‘opening, Tack weld the parts to hold them for welding. The first pass in a butt joint, also known as the root pass, must melt both pieces of metal and obtain complete penetration. For welding thinner base metal, only one weld pass is required. Thicker metal will require additional passes to fill the weld joint. Each pass is usually made with a 20° drag travel angle. The root pass is made with a 0° work angle. When multiple fill passes are made, a slight work angle is used to position the electrode over the place where the last weld bead contacted the side wall of the joint. The electrode should be repositioned over the Toot of the next pass. To ensure complete penetration in a groove weld, the keyhole method should be used. The keyhole is seen only on the root pass. As the weld pool forms and ‘melts through the thinner metal at the root face, a small hole is formed. The hole looks like an old-fashioned 1/46" (1.6mm) 1/16" (1.6mm) Figure 6-46. Preparing a V-groove but joint for welding “The edges have been beveled and the workpieces tack ‘welded to hold them in proper alignment. Note that both the root opening and root face are 1/16” (1.6mm). keyhole. See Figure 6-47. The keyhole is continually filled in as the weld moves ahead. If the diameter of the keyhole is kept constant, the amount of penetra- tion will be uniform as well. If the keyhole is allowed to get too large, there will be excessive penetration ‘on the back side or root side of the joint. This is not good, and in some applications, like a pipeline, it is not acceptable. Many weld joints require more than one elec- trode to complete the weld. When an electrode burns down to a very short length, lift it from the joint. Do not fill the keyhole. The weld joint should look like Figure 6-47. Place a new electrode in the electrode holder. Strike the arc about 3/8” (about 10mm) ahead of the crater. Then, move the electrode back over the rear edge of the keyhole crater to re-melt it and join the two weld beads together. Starting the arc in this way allows time for the arc to stabilize. It also ensures proper preheating of the base metal. ‘The same technique is used on any weld bead that must be stopped and restarted. The only differ- ence is there is no keyhole, except in the first pass of a butt joint. Other weld beads require the welder to re-melt the existing crater before resuming the weld. If the crater is properly melted, a continuous weld bead will be created when the welder resumes welding. If the crater is not sufficiently melted, a separate weld will be created when the welder resumes. This will result in a weak spot in the joint. Keyhole Figure 6-47. Two views of a V-groove butt weld in progress. Note the keyhole near the leading edge of the weld pool,When the end of the weld joint is reached, slowly move the arc to the back of the weld pool. This motion will fil the weld pool. When the weld pool is the same height as the rest of the weld bead, lift the electrode to break the arc. Base metals 1/4” (64mm) and thicker will require more than one weld bead to fill the oint. If two or more beads are used to complete the weld, the welder must clean the previous bead before attempting to make the next. This cleaning operation prevents slag from being trapped in the next bead or pass. The previous ‘weld bead should be penetrated by the new bead. The final bead or beads used to fill the weld joint should be built above the original top surface of the metal. See Figure 6-48. ‘When the welding of the joint is complete, allow the weld and slag to cool. Then remove the slag and wire brush the weld surface. Guard your eyes against flying particles. Always wear safety goggles when removing slag and cleaning metal. Inspect the weld forstraightness, consistent width, smoothness, penetration, gas bubbles, fusion, spatter, and buildup. It should have a clean-looking bead with straight edges and consistent bead width. The height of the bead should be consistent. The ripples should be evenly spaced. The penetration should just show through the underside of the weld joint. The weld should have no small cavities that would indicate too long an arc. It should have good fusion. Fusion refers A B OY Y WZ Sa AY i ci 1 E F 1 Figure 6-48. Arc welding joints welded with muitiple passes. ‘A—The first, or root, pass in a butt joint. B—Second pass. ‘(C—Third pass. D—Finished weld. E and F—A butt joint in ‘made from the penetration side of Chapter 6 Shielded Metal Arc Welding 181 to the bonding and blending of the filler metal and the base metal at a molecular level. Fusion results in a smooth blending of the filler and base metals at the exiges of the weld. There should not be a distinct edge or line between the filler metal and the base metal. ‘There should be little or no spatter. Spattering is the result of too long an arc or too high a current. If the ‘weldment is not making good electrical contact with the welding bench or table, the arc may wander as a weld is made. A wandering arc will result in incom- plete fusion and a nonuniform weld bead. 6.9.5 SMAW in the Horizontal Welding Position When welding a butt, edge, or outside corner joint in the horizontal welding position, the elec- trode should be pointed upward at an angle of about 20°. This is a 20° work angle. When the electrode is angled this way, its arc force counteracts the sag of the molten metal in the weld pool. The travel angle is a 20° drag angle. This means the electrode holder end of the electrode is leading the welding end of the elec- trode. See Figure 6-49. Gravity tends to work against the welder in all positions other than the flat welding position. Therefore, a short are length and lower 20° Inthe direction of travel Figure 6-49, Suggested electrode positon for welding a butt joint in the horizontal welding position, The electrode is tipped 20° forward and 20° downward. Use the suggested electrode ‘mation or one similar to it, The upward and backward motion, uses the force of the arc fo push the filler metal into position, ‘Stopping momentarily at the end of each motion will help to| eliminate undercutting,182 Modern Welding welding current should be used. A short arc with Jower welding current keeps the weld pool small. If the weld pool gets too large, it will sag down onto the lower piece and cause overlap. See Figure 6-50. Be sure to eliminate undercutting at the edge of the bead. Undercutting is usually the result of excess current for the size of the electrode used, or poor elec- trode motion. Stop momentarily at the upper end of each motion or swing of the electrode. This will deposit additional metal at the top and bottom edges of the weld bead and will help to eliminate undercutting. Ifa T- or inside-comer joint is being welded in the horizontal position. the electrode is inclined 20° in the direction of travel. This is a 20° drag travel angle. The electrode is also positioned at about a 40°50? work angle. This is 40°50" to the horizontal piece of metal as shown in Figure 6-51. The motion used is usually some type of backward slanting weave motion. The forward motion takes place as the electrode is moved from the vertical to the horizontal piece. This keeps more weld metal on the lower piece. This creates a shelf to keep the metal in the weld joint and prevents it from sagging onto the horizontal or lower piece. The suggested electrode angles for making, a fillet ‘weld on a horizontal lap joint are shown in Figure 6-52. ‘The electrode should point more toward the surface than toward the edge. It takes more heat to melt the surface of the metal than the edge of the metal Whatever electrode motion is used, remember that it should have a slight backward slant. This back- ‘ward slant lets the arc force push the filler metal up as it attempts to sag down with gravity. Short arc length e 6-50. Low welding current with a short arc length maintains a small size weld pool. A higher current with ‘corresponding longer arc length has a larger weld poo! that can sag down and cause overlap. A—I the arc gap {is too long, gravity deflects the molten filer metal before itteaches the weld. B—I the arc gap is short, the molten, filler metal reaches the weld. 6.9.6 SMAW in the Vertical Position Figure 6-53 illustrates the metal and electrode positions for welding a vertical butt joint. Welding in the vertical welding position may be done in either of two directions, The welder may weld uphill (some- times referred to as “vertically up") or dozwnhill (‘vertically down”), Regardless of the direction, the weld must be made so that electrode flux or slag is not entrapped, or included, in the weld metal. The weld must also be made so that it does not run or drip. Runs and drips can result from allowing the filler metal in the weld pool to stay molten too long, The following actions may be taken to prevent or control filler metal sagging: © Usea current setting on the low side of the recommended values that will still produce a well-fused weld. © Usea short are. This will permit more filler metal to transfer from the electrode to the weld pool. © Make multiple smaller pass welds. Molten. metal in a narrow weld pool cools more rapidly and tends to sag less. Wa, A Suggested electrode motions. B. Figure 6-51. Suggested electrode position for fillet Welding on an inside comer or T-joint. The two suggested electrode motions have a backward slant. In B, the forward ‘motion takes place on the vertical piece. Both motions use the arc force to overcome gravity.© Use a whipping motion to allow the pool to cool slightly. Quickly move the electrode tip away from the weld pool and then quickly return it to its previous position. © Use an electrode motion or weave pattern to allow the weld pool to cool. See Figure 6-53. The uphill method of welding is generally preferred. A larger weld pool can be maintained when welding uphill. A push travel angle of about 20° is used. ‘When welding downhill, the electrode slag or flux has a tendency to run into the molten weld pool. This is prevented by welding ata speed fast enough to stay ahead of the molten slag, Welding at such a rapid speed generally does not produce adequate penetra- tion. More welding passes are often required when aoa © Tv ke 20 | i I whe A ‘Suggested electrode mations B Figure 6-52. Suggested electrode position for fillet ‘welding on a horizontal lap joint. Note the two suggested backward slanting electrode motions. Chapter Shielded Metal Arc Welding 183 welding downhill because each bead is smaller than a bead made welding uphill. The downhill method is usually used on thin metal 3/16" (4.8mm) or less. See Figure 6-54. With uphill welding, the greatest problem is controlling the metal in the weld pool. If this metal becomes too hot, or the weld pool becomes too wide, the molten metal may drip down and out of the weld. ‘To control the weld pool heat, and allow the metal time to cool, a whipping motion is used. The term “whip- ping motion” refers to an action in which the elec- trode end is momentarily moved forward and raised slightly, The electrode end cannot be raised too far or the arc will stop. The electrode is then brought back to the rear of the weld pool to continue the weld. During the time that the electrode and are are moved up, Flip motion-up, forward, and Penetration B Flip the electrode Up at this point Suggested electrode ‘motions for uphill cy welding D Figure 6-53, Welding a vertical but joint. A—The whipping motion used to control and cool the weld pool. This motion may be used on any type of joint. B—The electrode should, point upward at 20°-45°, The angle may vary as required. Note the motions shown in C and D.184 — Modern Welding forward, and back again, the weld pool cools slightly. ‘This whipping action is continued throughout the weld. If more time is required for cooling, the elec- trode is moved farther forward before returning to the rear of the weld pool. Figure 6-58 shows a welder welding out of position. Vertical butt, edge, and outside comer joints can be prepared with square-, V, bevel, J, or U-groove edges. Practice pieces can be positioned and tack welded in the flat welding position. These pieces must then be held in the vertical welding position. This can be done by clamping them in a welding fixture. ‘The motion used on the vertical lap joint is shown in Figure 6-56. A small weaving motion is often Welding downhill Welding uphill Figure 6-54. The downhill and uphill welding methods. Uphill is generally preferred. With downhill welding, there sa danger of having the faling slag or flux mix with the molten metal. Whipping Whipping motion motion at and forward motion this point at this point Suggested motion for use on a vertical lap joint Figure 6-55. A welder shown making a weld onalarge Figure 6-56. A view of a vertical fillet weld in progress field-welded pipe structure. This weld requires the welder _on a lap joint. Note the suggested motions, Both use @ to weld in multiple positions. (The Lincoln Electric Co,) \whipping motion on the surtace piace,used. Forward movement and any whipping motion required is done on the surface, not on the edge. The weld pool should just touch the edge of the one piece momentarily. The electrode and weld pool are then moved away to the surface. The electrode angles used for the vertical inside corner and Toint are a 20° push travel angle and about a 45° work angle. Both angles change during the whipping motion and the side-to-side motion See Figure 6-57. This figure also shows the electrode motion suggested for the fillet weld used on this joint. All vertical welds should have the same appear- ance as welds done in the flat welding position. The bead must be straight with a uniform width, The weld bead must be properly fused, with no overlap or under- cutting, The ripples of the bead should be uniform. ‘The face of the weld should have the required contour. ‘Whipping motion

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