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WCC Module-3 Notes PDF

CDMA was developed in the 1980s and commercially deployed in 1995. It allows multiple users to access the same wireless channel simultaneously through the use of unique codes. CDMA has since evolved from 2G cdmaOne standards to 3G CDMA2000 standards, providing increased data speeds and multimedia capabilities. Key aspects of CDMA include using direct sequence spread spectrum techniques, a unique code to identify each signal, and power control to limit interference between users.

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0% found this document useful (0 votes)
73 views57 pages

WCC Module-3 Notes PDF

CDMA was developed in the 1980s and commercially deployed in 1995. It allows multiple users to access the same wireless channel simultaneously through the use of unique codes. CDMA has since evolved from 2G cdmaOne standards to 3G CDMA2000 standards, providing increased data speeds and multimedia capabilities. Key aspects of CDMA include using direct sequence spread spectrum techniques, a unique code to identify each signal, and power control to limit interference between users.

Uploaded by

BRUNDA R V
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
You are on page 1/ 57

Wireless and Cellular Communication [18EC81]

MODULE-3
CDMA System Overview
Introduction to CDMA
• Developed by Qualcomm Corporation in 1989 and continued into the early 1990s during
which it was accepted for use as an air interface standard.
• Commercially deployed in the year 1995.
• In 1980s AMPS (Advanced Mobile Phone System) was the cellular telephone system
employed.
• In 1989, TIA (Telecommunications Industry Association adopted TDMA technology as
next generation wireless systems.
• In 1992, TIA adopted IS-95 as the CDMA air interface standard for the digital
transmission technologies known as wideband spread spectrum.
• The first CDMA commercial network began operation in Hong Kong in 1995.
• Since then, CDMA systems have been used in both the cellular and PCS (Personal
Communications Service) band extensively.
• Other forms of CDMA are:
➢ Time Division CDMA (TD-CDMA)
➢ Time Division Synchronous CDMA (TD-SCDMA)
➢ Multicarrier CDMA (MC-CDMA)
➢ Wideband CDMA (W-CDMA)

Evolution of 2G CDMA
• The first form of CDMA, IS-95, specified a dual mode of operation in 800-MHz cellular
band for both AMPS and CDMA.
• First standard defined mobile station and base station requirements that would ensure the
compatibility for both AMPS and CDMA.
• The next standard IS-95A describes the structure of wideband 1.25MHz CDMA channels
and the operations necessary to provide power control, call processing, handoffs and
registration procedures for proper system operations.
• Along with the voice, circuit switched data services were provided at 14.4 kbps over these
first CDMA systems.
• With additional features, new standard, TIA/EIA-95-B accepted in 1999, provided the
compatibility of 1.8 to 2.0-GHz CDMA PCS systems with IS-95A.

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• These systems provided packet-switched data service at rates up to 64 kbps known as


2.5G CDMA technology.
• These early forms of CDMA are grouped together called cdmaOne, trademark of the
CDMA Development Group.
• Figure 3.1 shows the cdmaOne network and standards associated with various network
components.

Figure 3.1: Typical Components of cdmaOne network

Evolution of 3G CDMA
• Cdma2000 is the term used for 3G CDMA systems.
• This was one of the proposals ITU approved for 3G standard.
• It is a wideband enhanced version of CDMA, backward compatible with TIA/EIA-95-B
and provides support for data services up to 2mbps, multimedia services and advanced
radio technologies.
• The first phase of implementation is known as 1xRTT (1X Radio Transmission
Technology) over a standard 1.25-MHz CDMA channel.
• The next phase of implementation is known as cdma2000 1xEV (EV stands for
EVolutionary).
• The two versions of second implementations are:
➢ 1xEV-DO(data only)
➢ 1xEV-DV(data and voice)

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• 1xEV-DO supports asymmetrical peak data rates of 2.4mbps in the downlink direction
and 153kbps in the uplink direction.
• 1xEV-DV supports integrated voice and data at speeds up to 3mbps over an all-IP
network architecture.

CDMA BASICS
• CDMA is a multiple-access technology that is based on the use of wideband spread
spectrum digital techniques that enable the separation of signals that are concurrent in
both time and frequency.
• All signals in this system share the same frequency spectrum simultaneously.
• The signals transmitted by the base stations and mobile stations within a cell are spread
over the entire bandwidth of a radio channel and encoded in such a way as to appear as
broadband noise signals to every other mobile or base station receiver.
• The identification and subsequent demodulation of individual signals occur at a receiver
through the use of code used to originally spread the signal at the transmitter.
• This process demodulates the signal intended for the receiver while rejecting all other
signals as broadband noise.
• A specific minimum level of SNR is necessary to provide for a certain level of received
signal quality, the level of background noise or interference from all the system
transmission ultimately limits the number of users of the system and hence system
capacity.
• So, CDMA systems are carefully designed to limit the output power of each transmission
to least amount of power necessary for proper operation.
• For FDMA, the available radio spectrum is divided into narrowband channels and each
user is given a particular channel for use.
• The user confines transmitted signal power within this channel and selective filters are
used at both ends of the radio link to distinguish transmission that are occurring
simultaneously on many different channels.
• The frequency allocations can only be reused at a distance far enough away that the
resulting interference is negligible.
• Figure 3.2 shows the comparison of FDMA, TDMA and CDMA Air Interfaces.

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Figure 3.2: Comparison of FDMA, TDMA and CDMA Air Interfaces


• The TDMA scheme divides the spectral allocation into timeslots. Each user must confine
its transmitted spectral energy within the particular timeslot assigned to it.
• So, mobile and base station must employ some type of time synchronization.
• This technique increases spectral efficiency at the expense of each user’s data rate.
• In CDMA, each mobile has continuous use of the entire spectral allocation and spreads its
transmitted energy out over the entire bandwidth of the allocation.
• Using a unique code for each transmitted signal, the mobiles and the base stations are able
to distinguish between signals transmitted simultaneously over the same frequency
allocation.
• CDMA can also be combined with FDMA and TDMA technologies to increase system
capacity.
• For 2G CDMA systems, the frequency separation between adjacent carriers or channels is
1.25MHz.
• The distinction between carrier and channel:
➢ In CDMA, the carrier frequency is divided by means of codes into different channels
and each of these channels may carry information related to a separate and distinct
conversation or data connection.
➢ In TDMA, each carrier is divided into timeslots and each timeslot serves as a channel.

CDMA Frequency Bands


• Initially CDMA systems were deployed in existing Cellular Frequency Bands (Band
Class0) and Personal Communication Service(PCS) Bands (Band class1) in United
States.

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• Later 3G CDMA systems were allowed in 1710-1755MHz and 2110-2155MHz


Advanced Wireless Service (AWS) bands.
• A frequency separation of 45MHz between the forward and reverse channels is employed
when used in cellular bands.
• Mobile station transmit frequency band is 824-849 MHz and the base station transmit
frequency band is 869-894MHz.
• The Table 3.1 shows CDMA and NA-TDMA PCS channel numbers and carrier
frequencies.
• For CDMA, with a 50-KHz channel spacing, the chart indicates a total of 1200 CDMA
channel numbers over the 60MHz of allocated frequency.
• Table 3.2 shows the useable CDMA channel numbers and assigned frequencies for Band
Class1.
• Table 3.3 shows preferred set of CDMA frequency assignments for Band Class1.

Table 3.1: CDMA and NA-TDMA channel numbers and frequency assignments for the
PCS Band (Band Class1)

Table 3.2: Useable CDMA channel numbers and assigned frequencies for Band Class1

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Table 3.3: Preferred set of CDMA frequency assignments for Band Class1

Frequency Planning Issues


• Since the frequency reuse factor is N=1, CDMA frequency planning is relatively simple
compared to analog cellular systems.
• For a system that only requires one carrier per base station that carrier must be chosen
from the list of preferred CDMA channels.
• The same channel should be used by all the base stations throughout the system to take
advantage of soft and softer handoff capabilities.
• Additional system capacity can be added by the addition of new base stations or by
increasing the number of base station carriers.
• The second option is more economical.
• If intersystem issues are considered, frequency planning in the PCS bands becomes much
more problematic.
• Three cases to be considered are:
• If the two systems are both CDMA, then geographically neighboring system should not
affect one another. The pilot phase offset assignments must be considered between the
systems.
• If the second system is either an NA-TDMA or a GSM system operating in an adjacent
geographic area within the same frequency block, the service providers involved will
have to co-ordinate base station frequency utilization along the boundary between the
systems. Guard zone between the systems is required.

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• The last case to be considered is when some preexisting service is still using the PCS
frequency spectrum. Frequency co-ordination is again necessary with respect to service
and interference that it produces or can tolerate.

CDMA Network and System Architecture


• The initial CDMA (IS-95) reference architecture developed by TR-45/46 is as shown in
the Figure 3.3 below:

Figure 3.3: Initial CDMA (IS-95) Reference Architecture


• The new CDMA2000 reference architecture is shown in Figure 3.4 and it includes more
additional network access interfaces. These interfaces are mainly concerned with
evolving structure of CDMA2000 toward an all-IP core network.
• Messaging between CDMA system network element is through the use of protocols
similar to SS7.
• TIA/EIA-634-B is an open interface standard that deals with signaling between the MSC
and BSC over the A interface.
• TIA/EIA-41-D describes the protocols used between the other core network elements
(MSC, VLR, HLR, AC, etc).

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Figure 3.4: cdma2000 Reference Architecture

MSC-BSC interface functional planes


• The A interface between the MSC and BSC supports four functional planes specified by
TIA/EIA-634-B as shown in the Figure 3.5.
• Call processing and mobility management functions occur between the mobile station and
the MSC.
• Call processing services include calls originated and terminated by the subscriber, call
release, call waiting etc.,
• Mobility management functions support the typical operations of registration and
deregistration, authentication, voice privacy etc.,
• BSC passes these messages from the MSC through to the subscriber terminal over the air
interface.

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Figure 3.5: cdma2000 MSC-BSC interface functional planes


• The functions of the Radio Resource Management and transmission facilities
management occur between the MSC and the base station.
• The transmission facilities management operations are concerned with the facilities that
transport the voice, data or signaling information between the MSC and the base station.
• The Radio Resource Management operations are concerned with the maintenance of the
radio link between the subscriber and the radio base station, the operations necessary to
accomplish this and the initiation of handoff operations.

Network Components of Wireless System


• Figure 3.6 shows the major network components of cdma2000 wireless systems.

Figure 3.6: Major Network Components of a cdma2000 Wireless System

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• The details of the Network nodes found in a cdma2000 Wireless System is shown in
Figure 3.7.

Figure 3.7: Details of the Network nodes found in a cdma2000 Wireless System

Mobile-Services Switching Centre and Visitor Location Register


• The CDMA Mobile-Services Switching Center (MSC) serves as the interface between the
Public Switched Telephone Network (PSTN) and the Base Station Subsystem (BSS).
• MSC performs the functions necessary for the establishment of calls to and from the
system’s mobile subscribers.
• MSC, in conjunction with other network system elements, provide the functionality
needed to permit subscriber mobility ad roaming.
• Few operations include subscriber registration and authentication, location updating
functions, call handoffs, and call routing for roaming subscribers.
• The Visitor Location Register (VLR) functions is collocated with the MSC.
• Its function is to provide a database containing temporary information about registered
subscribers that may needed by the MSC in the performance of call control operations
and the provisioning of subscriber services for the mobiles currently registered in the
VLR service area.

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Interworking Function
• In the early CDMA systems, the Inter Working Function (IWF) node is the only gateway
between the wireless network and the Packet Data Network (PDN).
• It provides a direct connection to the PDN for packet data calls.
• It also supports circuit-switched data calls by providing internal modems for connections
to dial-up Internet Service Providers (ISPs). These circuit switched data calls are routed to
the PSTN through the MSC.
• Later, IWF typically uses Ethernet for the signaling between itself and the MSC and for
the exchange of packet data between itself and the PDN.
• In CDMA2000, the IWFs packet data transfer function is augmented by the Packet Core
Network (PCN) element.

Mobile Positioning System (MPS)


• A location system that determines the geographic position of a mobile subscriber.
• This Mobile Positioning System (MPS) is based on the Global Positioning System (GPS)
and used for emergency services.
• The ability to locate the caller is known as Enhanced 911 or E911.
• Other used of this system are “location-based services” or location-specific marketing
tools.
• For Phase 1 of the wireless E911 program, the cellular system must be able to tell a
location Public Safety Answering Point (PSAP) the location of the cellular antenna that is
handling the emergency call.
• For Phase 2 implementation, the MPS uses a form of mobile-assisted GPS and
triangulation to determine the latitude and longitude of the mobile.

Unified Messaging/Voice Mail Service (UM/VMS)


• This node integrates e-mail and voice mail access.
• This node provides messaging waiting indication using Short Message Service (SMS) and
multiple message retrieval modes including the use of Dual Tone Multi Frequency
(DTMF) or either a Web or Wireless Application Protocol (WAP) browser.
• This node connects to the PDN and the MSC.

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HLR/AC
• Home Location Register (HLR) and Authentication Center (AC) are typically collocated
in CDMA2000 systems.
• The HLR holds subscriber information in a database format that is used by the system to
manage the Subscriber Device (SD) activity.
• It includes the SD Electronic Serial Number (ESN), details of subscriber’s service plan,
any service restrictions (no overseas access) and identification of the MSC where the
mobile was last registered.
• The AC provides a secure database for the authentication of mobile subscribers when
they first register with the system and during call origination and termination.
• The AC uses Shared Secret Data (SSD) for authentication calculations.
• Both the AC and SD calculate SSD based on the authentication key or A-key, the ESN,
and a random number provided by the AC and broadcast to the SD.
• The A-key is stored in the SD and also at the AC and never transmitted over the air.
• The AC or MSC/VLR compares the values calculated by the AC and the SD to determine
the mobile’s status with the system.

PPCS and Other Nodes


• The Pre-Paid Calling Service (PPCS) node provides a prepaid calling service using the
subscriber’s home location area MSC.
• This node provides MSC with information about the subscriber’s allocated minutes and
provides the subscriber with account balance information.
• Also associated with a prepaid administration computer system that provides the
necessary database to store subscriber information and update it as needed.
• The Pre-Paid Administration System (PPAS) provides the subscriber account balance
information to the PPCS system.
• The MSC sends information about subscriber time used to PPAS for account updating.

Base Station Subsystem (BSS)


• The BSS consists of one Base Station Controller (BSC) and all the Radio Base Stations
(RBSs) controlled by the BSC.
• BSS provides the mobile subscriber with an interface to the circuit switched core network
through the MSC and an interface to the Pubic Data Network (PDN) through the Packet
Core Network (PCN).

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• There can be more than one BSS in a cdma2000 system.


• The combination of all the CDMA BSSs and radio network management system that
oversees their operation is known as the CDMA Radio Access Network or C-RAN.

Base Station Controller (BSC)


• BSC is the interface between the MSC, Packet Core Network (PCN), other BSSs in the
same system and all radio base stations that it controls.
• Provides routing of data packets between the PCN and the RBSs, radio resource
allocation (setting up and tearing down of both BSC and RBS call resources).
• Also provides system timing and synchronization, system power control, all handoff
procedures and processing of both voice and data as required.

Radio Base Station (RBS)


• RBS provides the interface between the BSC and the subscriber devices via the common
air interface.
• Its functions include CDMA encoding and decoding of the subscriber traffic and system
overhead channels and the CDMA radio links to and from the subscribers.
• Typical RBS contains an integrated GPS antenna and receiver that is used to provide
system timing and frequency references, a computer-based control system that monitors
and manages the operations of the RBS and provides alarm indications as needed,
• Also contains communication links for the transmission of both system signals and
subscriber traffic between itself and the BSC, and power supplies and environmental
control units as needed.

PLMN Subnetwork
• A cdma2000 Public Land Mobile Network (PLMN) provides mobile wireless
communication services to subscribers and typically consists of several functional
subnetworks.
• These subnetworks are known as the Circuit Core Network (CCN), the Packet Core
Network (PCN), the Service Node Network (SNN) and the CDMA Radio Access
Network (C-RAN).
• The cdma2000 PLMN subscriber has access to the PSTN and the PDN through these
subnetworks.
• These subnetworks facilitates the management of the system.

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Circuit Core Network


• The Circuit Core Network (CCN) provides the switching functions necessary to complete
calls to and from the mobile subscriber to the PSTN.
• The major network element in the CCN is the MSC.
• It is primarily concerned with the completion of voice calls between the subscriber and
the PSTN.
• The MSC is basically an extension of the PSTN that services the various cells and the
associated radio base stations within the cells.
• MSC provides circuit switching and provides feature like call charging, subscriber
roaming support and maintenance of subscriber databases.

CDMA Radio Access Network


• The CDMA Radio Access Network (C-RAN) provides the interface between the wireless
cellular subscriber and the Circuit Core Network (CCN).
• The CCN consists of the MSC and other system components involved with connections
to the PSTN for all circuit-switched voice and data calls.
• The C-RAN consists of multiple Base Station Subsystems (BSSs) and some form of
Radio Network Management (RNM) system.
• The RNM system provides Operation and the Management (O & M) support for multiple
BSSs.

Packet Core Network


• The Packet Core Network (PCN) provides a standard interface for wireless packet-
switched data service between the C-RAN and the Public Data Network (PDN).
• The PCN provides the necessary links to various IP networks to and from the C-RAN.
• The PCN consists of three main hardware nodes: Authentication, Authorization and
Accounting (AAA) server, the Home Agent (HA) and the Packet Data Serving Node
(PDSN).
• Figure 3.8 shows the elements of the PCN and the relationship of the PCN to the PDN
and the C-RAN.

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Figure 3.8: Elements of the cdma2000 Packet Core Network

Packet Data Serving Node


• The Packet Data Serving Node (PDSN) provides the needed IP transport capability to
connect the C-RAN (i.e., subscriber to Public Data Network).
• It connects the C-RAN through the Aquater interface(also called Radio-Packet (R-P)
interface).
• It also interfaces the C-RAN with the home agent and the authentication, authorization
and accounting nodes.
• It sets up, maintains and terminates secure communications with the home agent and the
authentication, authorization and accounting nodes.
• Serves as point of connection to the radio network and the IP network and provides IP
service management to offered IP traffic.
• Facilitates wireless mobile IP functionality, and also serves as a foreign agent to register
network visitors.

Authentication, Authorization and Accounting (AAA)


• AAA server authenticates and authorizes the subscriber device to employ the available
network services and applications.
• For this, it manages a database that contains user profiles.
• The user profile information includes information about Quality of Service (QoS) for the
PDSN.

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• The AAA server receives accounting information from the PDSN node that together with
session information can be used for billing of the subscriber.
• An AAA server may be configured primarily for billing purposes. In that case, the PDSN
may send accounting information to the billing AAA server and use a different AAA
server for authentication and authorization.

Home Agent (HA)


• The Home Agent has the task of forwarding all packets that are destined for the
Subscriber Device (SD) to the PDSN over an IP network.
• The PDSN then sends the packets to the SD via the C-RAN and the common air interface.
• For this operation, the HA in conjunction with the PDSN authenticates mobile IP
registrations from the mobile subscriber, performs SD registration, maintains current
location information for the SD, and performs the necessary packet tunneling.
• Tunneling means IP packets destined for a particular SD’s permanent address are rerouted
to the SD’s temporary address. If the SD is registered in a foreign network, then the SD
has been assigned a temporary dynamic IP address by the Foreign Agent and this
temporary address is sent to the HA.

Network Management System


• Modern wireless cellular systems employ sophisticated network management systems to
oversee the operation of an entire network.
• Most of the service providers have one or several Network Operations Centers (NOCs)
that serve as control points for nationwide cellular networks.
• A typical network management system has several layers that deal with various levels of
network infrastructure.
• The different levels are:
➢ Network Management System (at highest level),
➢ Sub Network Management System,
➢ Network Element Management System (at the lowest level).
• The highest level of Network Management gives an overview of the entire network
including all the subnetworks that it comprises.
• This computer-based system provides a platform to monitor the overall network.
• The system provides integrated graphical views of the complete network and modular
software applications that support the operation and maintenance of the entire network.

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• Provides a means by which operators are able to access the quality of network service and
to provide corrective action when network problems occur.
• The five functions of Wireless Network Management System are:
• Fault Management: Also known as network surveillance, is concerned with the
detection, isolation and repair of network problems to prevent network faults from
causing unacceptable network degradation or downtime.
• Using the tools provided by the system, a human operator can attempt to repair the
problem from the NOC.
• Performance Management: Concerned with the gathering and reporting of relevant
network performance statistics that can be used to continuously analyze network
operations.
• Trouble Management: Allow the display and subsequent description of occurrences that
have affected the network and also provide the operator with the ability to communicate
this information to other persons involved with the maintenance.
• If the operator at the NOC is unable to clear a trouble or a fault and depending upon the
type of problem, it must be escalated and communicated to someone in the field who will
have the responsibility of dealing with it.
• Configuration Management: Support the administration and configuration of the
network.
• These functions support the installation of new network elements as well as
interconnection of network nodes.
• Security Management: Manage user accounts and provide the ability to control and set
used-based access levels.

Subnetwork Management
• Subnetwork Management provides the management of the circuit, packet and radio
networks that compose the typical CDMA system.
• The Circuit Core Network Management System is mainly concerned with the CDMA
mobile-services switching center.
• Provides fault, performance configuration, software and hardware management functions
at the subnetwork level.
• The computer system used for this function provides an operator with access to one or
more MSCs for the performance of the various functions.

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• The Packet Core Network Management System is concerned with the PCN node of the
CDMA system.
• Along with the standard functions of fault and performance management, the PCN
management platform performs statistics administration, online documentation, backup
and restore functions and maintain dynamic network topology maps and databases for the
PCN node.
• The CDMA Radio Access Network (C-RAN) Management System is concerned with
CDMA base station subsystems.
• It configures the radio and network parameters of the system BSSs, monitor C-RAN
alarms and performance, and install or upgrade software to any network element in the C-
RAN.
• It manages user security and ability to backup and restore the configuration of any C-
RAN element.

Element Management
• Element management interface directly with a network element through a “craft” data
port.
• Using element specific software, a technician on-site with a laptop computer or off-site
through a remote connection is able to interface directly with the specific network
element.
• This type of software driven element management is usually performed at a cell site
during the initial deployment, installation and testing of a radio base station and during
any necessary diagnostic testing and troubleshooting if an escalated alarm or hardware
trouble develops with the system.

System Communication Links


• Equipment vendors are using channelized T1/E1/J1 copper pairs for connectivity from the
MSC to the PSTN.
• Recently, CDMA equipment vendors use fiber-optic interfaces to deliver SONET signals
at data rates of 155.52mbps as shown in the Figure 3.9.
• Channelized T1/E1/J1 with control information is used over the A interface between the
MSC and the BSC and between the BSC and the BRSs unchannelized T1/E1/J1 is used.
• Between the MSC and the various network elements, signaling protocol TIA/EIA-41-D is
used over T1/E1/J1 timeslots.

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Figure 3.9: Network Interfaces for CDMA Systems


• T1/E1/J1 is used to transport data between the nodes and the MSC.
• Data between the service nodes and the PDN is typically carried by Ethernet at
10/100mbps.
• Between the BSC to the PCN, fiber-optic signals at 155.52mbps are converted to Ethernet
at 10/100mbps.
• From PCN to PDN, data is carried by Ethernet at 10/100mbps rates.
• Recently, most wireless equipment vendors are offering integrated network solutions to
service provides by providing microwave links capable of T1/E1/J1 transport or higher
data rates to the PSTN.

Subscriber Devices
• Subscriber Device (SD) is a term used to describe several types of wireless phones and
data devices that perform CDMA encoding/decoding and vocoding operations for the
transmission of voice or data in a wireless mobile environment.
• Each subscriber device has a set of radio bands over which it can operate.
• The subscriber devices are divided into two broad categories depending on their
application.
• Portable devices can operate in the cellular, PCS, or in both bands and can handle the
transmission of voice, data and other nonvoice applications.
• These types of SDs are used by people for mobile voice connectivity.
• Wireless Local Loop (WLL) devices can handle the transmission of data over the CDMA
system.

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CDMA BASICS
CDMA Channel Concept
• Cellular telephone networks use various control and traffic channels to carry out the
operations to setup subscriber radio link for the transmission of data or voice conversation
and subscriber’s mobility.
• The cdmaOne and cdma2000 cellular systems are based on Code Division Multiple
Access (CDMA) technology.
• This is attained using a spread spectrum encoding technique.
• For this Walsh spreading codes are used for channel encoding.
• Walsh code consists of a binary combination of sixty-four 0s and 1s and all these are
orthogonal to one another.
• This creates 64 distinct communication channels that can all exist in the same frequency
spectrum.
• All other Walsh encoded signals will appear as broadband noise to the CDMA receiver
except for the unique signal that was created with the same Walsh code as the one the
receiver uses for demodulation.

Figure 3.10: The Basic Spread Spectrum Operation

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• Figure 3.10 shows the basic principle of an 8-bit Walsh orthogonal spreading code to
create distinct signal.
• Spreading code increases the number of bits sent in the same time interval as the original
digital signal, so increases the overall signal bandwidth.
• Two types of Pseudorandom Noise (PN) codes are used by the system, short and long PN
codes.

Forward Logical Channels


• The IS-95 CDMA Forward Channels exist between the CDMA base station and the
subscriber devices.
• The IS-95 signal occupies a bandwidth of approximately 1.25MHz.
• The spreading procedure for Forward CDMA Channels is shown in the Figure 3.11.
• The digital signal is spread by first Ex-oring with a particular Walsh code.
• Then it is further scrambled in the In-phase (I) and Quadrature phase (Q) lines by two
different short PN spreading codes.
• The short PN codes have excellent cross-correlation and auto-correlation properties that
make them useful for this application.

Figure 3.11: Basic Spreading procedure used on CDMA Forward Channels


• The outputs of the In-phase and Quadrature phase signals are passed through baseband
filters and then applied to an RF quadrature modulator integrated circuit that upconverts
the final output signal to the UHF frequency bands.
• This is combined with other forward channel element signals, amplified and the
composite signal is transmitted over the air interface.

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• The four types of logical channels in the forward direction are:


➢ Pilot channel
➢ Synchronization channel
➢ Paging channel
➢ Traffic/Power Control channel

Pilot Channel
• The CDMA Pilot channel is used to provide a reference signal for all the SDs within a
cell.
• Figure 3.12 shows the generation of the Pilot channel signal.
• The all-0s Walsh code is used for the initial signal spreading on a sequence of all 0s.
• This results in a sequence of all zeros that are further spread using the short PN spreading
sequences resulting in a sequence of 0s and 1s.
• The I and the Q signals drive a quadrature modulator.
• The resulting Pilot signal is an unmodulated spread spectrum signal.
• The short PN spreading code is used to identify the base station and the Pilot signal is
transmitted at a fixed output power usually 4-6dB stronger than any other channel.
• This is used as phase reference for coherent demodulation of all other channels and serves
as reference for signal power comparisons.

Figure 3.12: Generation of the CDMA Pilot Channel Signal

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Synchronization Channel
• Used by the system to provide initial time synchronization.
• Figure 3.13 shows the generation of the synchronization channel signal.
• Walsh code (thirty-two 0s followed by thirty-two 1s) is used to spread the
synchronization channel message.
• The same short PN spreading code with the same offset is used to further spread the
signal.
• The initial channel message has a data rate of 1200bps.
• The sync messages undergo convolutional encoding, symbol repetition and finally block
interleaving.
• This process increases the data rate to 4.8kbps.
• The sync message includes the system and network identification codes, identification of
paging channel data rates, the offset value of the short PN spreading code and the state of
the long PN spreading code.

Figure 3.13: Generation of the CDMA Synchronization Channel Signal

Paging Channels
• Used to page the SDs when there is a mobile-terminated call and to send control
messages to the SDs wen call setup is taking place.
• Figure 3.14 shows the generation of a Paging control channel message.

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• Walsh codes are used for this purpose.


• The Paging channel undergoes an additional scrambling operation using the long PN
spreading code sequence.
• The long PN code is generated by a 42-bit linear feedback shift register that gives a
sequence of length.
• This message also goes through a convolutional encoding process symbol repetition and
block interleaving before being scrambled by a slower version of the long PN code.

Figure 3.14: Generation of the CDMA Paging Channel Signal

Traffic/Power Control Channels


• The CDMA Forward Traffic Channels carry the actual user information.
• The digitally encoded voice or data can be transmitted at several different data rates.
• Rate Set 1(RS1) supports 9.6kbps maximum and slower rates of 4.8, 2.4, 1.2kbps.
• Rate Set 2(RS2) supports 14.4, 7.2, 3.6, 1.8kbps.
• Figure 3.15 shows generation of Forward Traffic Channel.
• All the CDMA system’s unused Walsh codes may be used to generate forward traffic
channels.
• The Traffic Channels are further scrambled with both the short PN sequence codes and
the long PN sequence codes before transmission.

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• Power control information is transmitted to the mobile stations within the cell over the
Traffic Channels as shown in Figure 3.16.
• This information is used to set the output power of the mobile on the reverse link and is
multiplexed with the scrambled voice bits at the rate of 800bps or 1 bit every 1.25msec.

Figure 3.15: Generation of the CDMA forward Traffic/Power Channel for


9.6kbps Traffic

Figure 3.16: Generation of the CDMA forward Traffic/Power Channel for


14.4kbps Traffic

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Reverse Logical Channels


• CDMA Reverse Logical Channels exist between the subscriber devices and the CDMA
base station.
• Encoding on the Reverse Channels is performed differently than on the Forward
Channels.
• The data is mapped into Walsh codes and transmitted.
• Each reverse channel is spread by a long PN sequence code and scrambled by the short
PN sequence code.
• The long PN sequence code is derived from the subscriber device’s 32-bit Electronic
Serial Number (ESN) and provides the means by which the user is uniquely identified
within the CDMA system.
• The two types of reverse CDMA channels are:
➢ Access channels
➢ Reverse Traffic/Power Control channels
Access Channels
• The CDMA access channels are used by the mobile to answer pages and to transmit
control information for call setup and tear down.
• Figure 3.17 shows the access channel processing for CDMA systems.
• An access message at 4.8kbps undergoes the familiar convolutional encoding, symbol
repetition and block interleaving that raises the data rate to 28.8kbps.
• The orthogonal modulation subsystem processes the signal by encoding every 6 bits into
a 64-bit Walsh code. This process raises the signal rate to 307.2kcps (chips per second).
• Next, the long PN code spreads the signal by a factor of 4 that yields a chip rate of
1.2288mcps.

Figure 3.17: Generation of the CDMA Reverse Access Channel

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• The signal is further scrambled by the short PN sequence codes.


• Next, the CDMA signal is applied to an RF quadrature modulator subsystem.
• The Offset QPSK (OQPSK) is the modulation used to produce the final UHF passband
signal.
• A delay block of one-half of a PN chip (406.9ns) used in the Q-path to implement the
OQPSK modulation.
• This modulation allows for a more power efficient and linear implementation by the
subscriber device’s RF electronics.

Traffic/Power Control Channels


• The CDMA Reverse Traffic/Power Control Channels support both voice and data.
• Figure 3.18 shows the generation of a Reverse Traffic Channel.
• The data rate at the input to orthogonal modulator subsystem is 28.8kbps.
• At the output, the signal rate is 307.2kcps.
• Next, the signal is processed by a data burst randomizer to eliminate the redundant data.
• The signal is then spread by a long PN sequence code and further scrambled by the short
PN sequence code.
• The final signal rate is the standard 1.2288mcps with a signal bandwidth of approximately
1.25MHz.

Figure 3.18: Generation of the CDMA Reverse Traffic Channel

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CDMA Frame Format


• The basic system frame size is 20ms.
• The first IS-95 systems used the 8-kbps Qualcomm-Coded Excited Linear Prediction
(QCELP) speech encoder that produced 20ms frame outputs of either 9600, 4800, 2400,
or 1200 bps (Rate Set 1) with the addition of overhead bits for error correction. The actual
net bit rates are 8.6, 4.0, 2.0, or 0.8kbps.
• A second encoder, the 13-kbps QCELP13 encoder produced the outputs of 14.4, 7.2, 3.6
and 1.8 kbps (Rate Set 2), with a net maximum bit rate of 13.35 kbps.
• The speech encoder makes use of pauses and gaps in the user’s speech to reduce its
output from a nominal 9.6 or 14.4kbps to lower bit rates and 1.2 or 1.8kbps during
silence.

Forward Channel Frame Formats


• Pilot Channel does not employ a frame format.
• The Forward Traffic Channel frames are 20ms in duration and contain a varying number
of information bits, frame error control check bits and tail bits depending upon the rate set
and the data rate.
• Figure 3.19 shows the Forward Traffic frame for Rate Set 2 at 14.4kbps.
• Forward Traffic Channel frames are further logically subdivided into sixteen 1.25ms
power control groups.
• Power control bits transmitted over the Forward Traffic Channels are randomly inserted
into the data stream of each 1.25ms power control group yielding a power control signal
rate of 800bps.

Figure 3.19: Rate Set2 Traffic Channel Structure

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Sync Channel
• The CDMA Forward Synchronization Channel provides the mobile or subscriber device
with system configuration and timing information.
• A Sync Channel message is typically broken up into sync channel frames of 32 bits each.
• The Sync Channel frame consists of Start Of Message (SOM) bit and 31 data bits.
• The start of Sync Channel is indicated by a SOM bit set to 1 in the first frame and 0 in
subsequent frames of the same message.
• At a data rate of 1200 bps, a Sync Channel frame is 26.666ms in duration.
• Three Sync Channel frames of 96bits form a Sync Channel super frame of 80ms duration.
• The sync message itself consists of field that indicates the message length in bits, the
message data bits, the error checking code bits, and additional padding bits (zero) as
needed.

Paging Channel
• The Forward Paging Channels are used to transmit system overhead information and
mobile station specific messages.
• Its data rate can be either 4800 or 9600 bps.
• The Paging Channel is formatted into 80-ms paging slots of eight half frames of 10-ms
duration.
• Each half frames starts with a Synchronized Capsule Indicator (SCI) bit that is
functionally similar to SOM bit.
• A synchronized Paging Channel message capsule begins immediately after an SCI bit set
to 1.
• A paging message must be contained in at most two successive slots.
• The length of paging cycle can vary from a minimum of sixteen slots (1.28s) to a
maximum of 2048 slots (163.84s).
• Figure 3.20 shows paging channel structure.
• The CDMA system uses the mobile station’s ESN to determine the correct slot to use for
paging of the mobile.
• Further power savings are realized by the transmission of a _DONE message by the base
station after the end of the paging message scheduled for the particular mobile.
• In case of short message that uses only several half frames of a slot, the mobile can power
down before the end of the slot to save more battery power.

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Figure 3.20: CDMA Paging Channel Structure

Reverse Channel Frame Formats


Traffic Channel
• The Reverse Traffic Channel is divided into 20ms traffic channel frames.
• It is logically subdivided into sixteen 1.25-ms power control groups and variable data
rates are sent.
• The coded bits from the conventional encoder are repeated before interleaving when the
speech characteristics are such that the encoded data rate is less than the maximum.
• When the mobile transmit data rate is maximum, all sixteen power control groups are
transmitted.
• If the transmitted data rate is one half of the maximum rate, then only eight power control
groups are transmitted.
• For a transmitted data rate of one-quarter or one-eighth, only four or two power control
groups are transmitted per frame.
• This process is known as burst transmission.
• The data burst randomizer ensures that every repeated code symbol is only transmitted
one time and that the transmitter is turned off at other times.
• This process reduces the interference to other mobile stations operating on the same
reverse channel.

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• The data burst randomizer generates a random masking pattern for the gating pattern that
is tied to the mobile station’s ESN as shown in Figure 3.21.

Figure 3.21: CDMA Reverse Channel Variable Data Rate Transmission

Access Channel
• Reverse Access Channel is used by the mobile station to communicate with the base
station.
• It is used for short message exchanges, like responses to commands from the base station,
for system registrations and for call origination requests.
• Its data rate is 4.8kbps using a 20ms frame that contains 96 information bits.
• Every access channel message is typically composed of several Access Channel frames.

CDMA System (Layer 3) Operations


• Spread spectrum technology is used to implement CDMA cellular systems.
• Few more advantages of CDMA are better immunity to interference and multipath
propagation, a frequency reuse factor of N=1, the ability to perform soft handoffs and
extremely precise power control.
• The last feature affords increased battery life since the mobile is always operated at the
minimum output power needed for satisfactory system performance.

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• Due to the complexity of operations, most system states are documented in flowchart
form within the particular standards.
• These flowcharts indicate the possible steps involved in the performance of various
system operations or traffic cases and are usually grouped by being performed by either
the mobile or base station.
• Example: state of mobile station.
• When the mobile is active it might be in the initialization, idle, access or traffic state.
• These states are illustrated and explained within the standard through the use of
flowchart.

Initialization/Registration
• CDMA system registration procedures are dependent upon the status of the mobile
station.
• The mobile may be in a detached condition (powered off or out of the system range) or in
an attached condition.
• When first turned on, the mobile goes through a power-up state, during which it selects a
CDMA system and then acquires the pilot and sync channels which allows it to
synchronize its timing to the CDMA system.

Figure 3.22: CDMA Mobile Station Initialization State

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• Figure 3.22 shows the mobile station initialization.


• When attached, the mobile may be in one of the three states as shown in Figure 3.23.
• The three states are:
➢ Mobile station idle state
➢ The system access state
➢ Mobile station control on the traffic channel state

Figure 3.23: CDMA Mobile Station Call Processing States


• In the Idle state, the mobile monitors the paging channel.
• In the System Access state, the mobile station communicates with the CDMA base
station, sending and receiving messages as shown in the Figure 3.24, while performing
various operation dictated by the different System Access sub states.
• In the Mobile Station Control on the Traffic Channel state, the mobile communicates with
the base station using the forward and the reverse traffic channels while in various traffic
channel sub states as shown in the Figure 3.25.
• The mobile may move back and forth between these three states depending upon the
movement of the subscriber and the use of the mobile.

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Figure 3.24: CDMA System Access State Flowchart

Figure 3.25: CDMA Mobile Station Control on the Traffic Channel Flowchart

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• Registration is a process by which the CDMA mobile station, through messages to the
base station, informs the cellular system of its identification, location, status, slot cycle,
and other pertinent information necessary for proper and efficient system operation.
• For slotted mode operation the mobile provides the base station with the
SLOT_CYCLE_INDEX value so that the base station may determine which slots the
mobile is monitoring.

• The ten different forms of Registrations are:


• Power up Registration: The mobile station registers when it powers on or switches
between different band classes or PCS frequency blocks, alternative operating modes, or
analog and CDMA operation.
• Power down Registration: The mobile registers when it powers off if it has previously
registered in the currently serving system.
• Time based Registration: The mobile registers whenever various timers expires.
• This process forces the mobile to register at regular intervals.
• Distance based Registration: The mobile is forced to register whenever the distance
between the current serving base station and the base station where it last registered
exceeds a certain threshold.
• The mobile station calculates this distance by using the latitude and longitude values for
the base stations involved.
• Zone based Registration: The mobile station registers when it enters a new zone.
• Registration zones are groups of base stations within a particular system and network.
• Zone registration causes the mobile to register whenever it enters a new zone that is not
on its internally stored list of visited registration zones.
• Parameter-change Registration: The mobile station registers when specific parameters
stored in its memory change or when it enters new system and is independent of roaming
status.
• Ordered Registration: The mobile station registers when requested to by the base
station through the issue of an order message.
• Implicit Registration: Whenever the mobile station successfully sends an origination
message or a page response message, the base station is able to deduce the location of the
mobile and is called implicit registration.

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• Traffic Channel Registration: Whenever the base station has registration information
for a mobile that has been assigned to a traffic channel, the base station may notify the
mobile that it is registered.
• User zone Registration: Whenever the mobile selects an active user zone, it registers.

Call Establishment
• The call setup requires various system tasks including mobile initialization, idle, system
access, traffic channel communication and call termination.
• CDMA system uses a more sophisticated form of power control for both the mobile and
the base station and uses more complex form of handoff to provide subscriber mobility
which is more transparent than GSM systems.

Initialization State
• When the mobile is first turned on, it enters the initialization state.
• In this process, the mobile searches for a pilot channel by aligning its short PN code with
a received short PN code.
• Once the valid pilot channel is acquired the mobile synchronizes with it and it has 15
seconds to locate and acquire a pilot signal.
• If the mobile cannot perform this operation, it may decide to search for an AMPS control
channel and enter an analog operational mode.
• When the mobile locates a CDMA Pilot Signal, it switches to Walsh code 32 and looks
for the start of the Sync Channel message.
• The Sync Channel message contains information about system time and the PN codes
needed to synchronize its PN codes.
• After decoding the Sync Channel, the mobile aligns its timing to that of the serving base
station.

Idle State
• Once the mobile achieves initialization it enters idle state.
• In this state, the mobile is waiting to receive calls or data messages or is ready to originate
a call or some form of data transfer.
• For subscriber connectivity and mobility, the mobile is constantly monitoring radio
channel quality, decoding Paging Channel messages to obtain system parameters, access
parameters and a list of neighboring cell sites to monitor.

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• After acquiring sufficient system information, the mobile may be allowed to enter a sleep
mode to conserve mobile battery power by using slotted mode operation.

Access State
• The CDMA mobile will enter the access state when it receives a mobile directed message
requiring an acknowledgement, originates a call or it requires registration.
• In this state, the mobile will randomly attempt to access the system.
• Access to the system is obtained when the mobile station receives a response from the
base station on the paging channel.
• Since many mobiles use the same paging channel, the signal collision at the base station
will most likely result if any of the requesting mobiles being granted access to the system.
• So, some form of collision avoidance scheme is necessary.
• For CDMA system, this access protocol is implemented through the use of access class
groups with assigned priorities, a gradual increase in access request power level, random
time delays for access requests, and a maximum number of automatic access attempts.
• Figure 3.26 shows access channel probing.
• The transmission of access probe sequences is called access attempt.

Figure 3.26: CDMA Access Channel Probing

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• Each Access Probe consist of an access channel preamble and an access channel message
capable of three to ten frames.
• This gives an Access Probe with a duration of four to twenty-six 20-ms frames.
• The two types of access messages transmitted by the mobile on the access channel are:
➢ Response message
➢ Request message
• From the Figure, the Access Channel Probing process consists of the mobile station
sending a series of sequences of access probes of increasing power levels.
• An Access Probe sequence is formed by the repeated transmission of additional access
probes until either mobile has received an acknowledgement over the paging channel or
the mobile station’s power level limit has been reached.
• If the mobile station’s first Access Probe sequence is unsuccessful, additional probe
sequences are transmitted until a successful access occurs or the maximum number of
allowed probe sequences has been exceeded.

Traffic State
• The mobile enters the Traffic State when it begins to transfer user information between
the mobile and the base station.
• The information can be voice or data that originates from the PSTN or PDN or another
mobile in the same or another network.
• In the traffic state, the mobile transmits voice and signaling information on the Reverse
Traffic Channel (RTC) and receives voice and signaling information on the Forward
Traffic Channel (FTC).
• Signaling over the traffic channel can be performed by either a blank-and-burst or dim-
and-burst process.
• The blank-and-burst method replaces 1.25ms of speech data with signaling message
bursts.
• The dim-and-burst method inserts signaling messages when speech activity is low.
• Various mode and flag bits are used to alert the receiver to the signaling method and
structure of the mixed voice and signaling frames.
• Depending upon the message, the number of frames need to send the signaling
information will vary.

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Mobile Originated Call


• To originate a call, the mobile sends a system access message on the Access Channel and
the monitors the Paging Channel for a response from the system.
• If the access is successful, a Forward Traffic Channel is assigned, and a base station
receiver is assigned for the Reverse Traffic Channel long PN code.
• The base station sends a paging channel message to the mobile with the Walsh code
information and Reverse Channel assignment.
• The mobile configures itself and begins decoding null traffic that the base station has
started to transmit over the Forward Traffic Channel.
• Mobile starts to transmit preamble over the Reverse Traffic Channel.
• The base station uses the forward traffic channel to acknowledge the preamble and the
mobile responds by starting to send traffic.
• Figure 3.27 shows the steps in timeline chart.
• During the call, there are constant power control operations taking place and if the mobile
is moving about, handoffs may occur between different base stations.

Figure 3.27: CDMA Mobile Originated Call Timeline

Mobile-Terminated Call
• The base station sends a message to the mobile on the Paging Channel.
• If attached to the system, the mobile sends an acknowledgement response on the Access
Channel.
• The base station receives the acknowledgement, configures a Forward Traffic Channel,
and assigns a receiver to the mobile’s Reverse Traffic Channel.

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• The base station begins to send null traffic on the FTC and send a Paging message
containing Walsh code and RTC information.
• The mobile configures itself and begins decoding the null traffic and transmitting a
preamble on the RTC.
• The base station acknowledges the preamble sent on the RTC.
• The mobile receives the acknowledgment and begins transmitting null traffic on the RTC.
• The base station sends an alert message for a ring tone and the display of calling number
information.
• The mobile acknowledges the message by ringing the handset and displaying the calling
number information.
• When the subscriber answers the incoming call a connection message is sent on the RTC.
• The base station acknowledges the connection message and begins to send the traffic as
shown in Figure 3.28.

Figure 3.28: CDMA BS originated Call Timeline

Call Termination
• Call termination occurs at the end of a call and can be initiated by either mobile or the
base station.
• If the mobile initiates the call termination, it sends a call termination message to the base
station, stops transmitting on the RTC and returns to the initialization state.

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• If the network initiates the call termination, the base station sends a call termination
message to the mobile. The mobile stops transmitting on the RTC and returns to the
initialization state.

Call Handoff
• Handoffs can occur during three mobile station states:
They are idle state, access state and traffic state.
• The procedures used and the type of handoff performed will depend upon the mobile’s
present state.
• In all cases, the handoffs are mobile assisted since the mobile station is tasked with
reporting signal-strength measurements of various pilot channels to the network.
• Handoffs occur when the serving sector/cell is no longer capable of supporting
communications between the mobile and itself.
• CDMA supports soft/softer handoffs.

Idle/Access Handoff
• If the mobile is in the idle state and moves from the coverage area of one sector/cell into
another, an idle handoff can occur.
• When the received signal strength of a different Pilot Channel (PC) is determined to be
twice as strong than the current PC, the mobile will start listening to the paging channel
associated with the stronger PC.
• This is known as form of hard handoff because there is a brief interruption of the
communication link.
• The access handoff may occur before the mobile begins sending access probes, during
access probes and even after it receives an access probe acknowledgement.
• An access entry handoff allows the mobile to perform a hard idle handoff from one
Paging Channel to another in the best signal-strength sector/cell just after the mobile
enters the access state.
• After the mobile has started to send access probes, it can perform an access probe handoff
if it detects a stronger pilot signal that may provide it a better chance of receiving service.
• Even after the mobile has received an access probe acknowledgement, a handoff to a
stronger pilot may be possible and necessary to prevent an access failure due to the rapid
motion of the mobile away from the current pilot and its base station.

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Soft Handoff
• A soft handoff occurs when the mobile is able to communicate simultaneously with
several new cells or a new sector of the current cell over a Forward Traffic Channel
(FTC) while still maintaining communications over the FTC of the current cell or sector.
• The mobile station can only perform a soft handoff while in the traffic state to a new cell
or sector that has the same frequency carrier.
• The use of soft handoff is associated with the near-far problem and power control
mechanism.
• If the mobile moves away from a base station and continually increases its output power
to compensate for the signal attenuation encountered at the greater distance, it will cause
interference to mobiles in neighboring cells and raise the level of background noise in its
own cell or sector.
• To overcome this problem and to make sure that the mobile is connected to the base
station with the greatest RSS, a strategy for soft handoffs has been designed.
• The optimal CDMA system operation will occur when each mobile is connected to the
nearest base station (the base station with a strongest signal) and is transmitting with a
lowest output power necessary for proper operation.
• A carefully implemented soft handover process can enhance system performance by
increasing call quality, improving coverage and increasing capacity.
• The three types of soft handoffs defined are:
➢ Softer handoff
➢ Soft handoff
➢ Soft Softer handoff
• Figure 3.29 depicts the three types of soft handoffs.
• The first type is known as Softer handoff because the handoff is between two sectors of
the same cell.
• The Soft handoff occurs between two different cells.
• Soft-Softer handoff can occur when the motion of mobile gives it a handoff choice
between two sectors of the same cell and a sector from the adjacent cell.

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Figure 3.29: Three Types of Soft CDMA Handoff


• In all CDMA handoff procedures, a number of base stations and their pilot channels are
involved.
• In a soft handoff, more than one cell simultaneously supports the mobile’s call.
• In softer handoff, more than one sector of a cell simultaneously supports the mobile’s
call.
• The CDMA mobile station will continuously scan for pilots and establish communication
with any sector or cell that has a pilot RSS that exceeds a certain threshold
value(T_ADD).
• In the same way, mobile will drop communications with a sector or cell that has a pilot
RSS less than a certain threshold (T_DROP).
• Every pilot has a different time offset for the same short PN sequence code, which is used
to differentiate cells and sectors within the system.
• The mobile’s identification of different pilot signals depends upon this property.
• The mobile categorizes the pilots as follows:
• The active set that consists of the pilots that are currently supporting the mobile’s call.
• The candidate set that consists of pilots that based upon their RSS could support the
mobile’s call.
• Neighbor set that consists of pilots not in the active or candidate set but that are
geographically nearby.
• Remaining set of pilots that consists of the rest of the pilots within the system.

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• The mobile’s continuous assessment of pilot RSS and a set of adjustable values will
determine the movement of pilot signals within these sets.
• These measurements, with information received from the serving sector/cell and mobile
station timers give rise to dynamically changing sets if the mobile moves about the
system.
• The flowchart for the same is shown in the Figure 3.30.

Figure 3.30: Flowchart of the Generation of the Active and Candidate Pilot Set for
CDMA Handoff Operations
• In most access technologies mobile station moving from one sector/cell to another must
switch to an available channel in the new sector or cell.
• This process interrupts the communications link.
• Since a CDMA system reuses the same frequency in every sector/cell within the system,
soft/softer handoff does not cause interruption in the communication link.
• This fact is every important in high-speed data transmission (no loss of data).
• It improves the system performance and reduces transmit power.

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Hard Handoff
• Hard handoff is an intercarrier handoff.
• This causes the radio link to be abruptly interrupted for a short period while the base and
mobile statin switch from one carrier frequency to another.
• The two basic types of intercarrier handoffs are:
• A hand-down is a hard handover between two different carriers within the same cell.
• A handover is a hard handoff between two different carriers in two different cells.
• The circumstances for hard handoff can be due to the particular coverage area
implementation of a service provider or the less frequent case of existence of two service
providers in adjacent areas.
• The first case is known as pocketed implementation, a service provider might use a
second CDMA carrier in individual or noncontiguous cells to provide additional capacity
during system growth or for local high-traffic hot spots.
• The Figure 3.31 shows Hard CDMA Handoffs due to Inter carrier Handoff.
• A mobile that is using the second carrier and exiting the pocket of second-carrier cells
must be handed off to the common carrier to continue the call.
• To perform this; first hand-down the call to the common carrier before the mobile leaves
the pocketed area.
• Then a soft handoff can be performed as the mobile moves across the border from the
pocketed area into the surrounding service area.

Figure 3.31: Hard CDMA Handoffs due to Inter carrier Handoff

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• Typically, this hand-down occurs at the border cells (sectors) of the pocketed area.
• Border cells must be identified and configured to operate in a slightly different fashion
than non-border cells (sectors).
• Careful examination of cell geometry and local traffic routes can aid in the selection of a
border cell (sector).
• When a mobile enters a border sector, it is instructed by the base station to issue frequent
pilot-strength measurement messages.
• This allows the sector to closely monitor the mobile’s status.
• If the pilot report indicates that the sector’s pilot has dropped below a certain threshold
level, the base station directs the mobile to hand down to the first carrier.
• The value of the threshold in this process forces this hand-down to occur before the
mobile has reached the edge of the sector.
• This process allows sufficient time for the normal soft handoff to occur as the mobile
exists at the border sector.
• This works well for a large pocket with a well-defined border cells.
• This process does not work well where insufficient first-carrier capacity is available to
accommodate the required hand-down as might be the case for an isolated cell with a
second carrier.
• The solution is to expand the second carrier pocket so that it has sufficient first-carrier
capacity to handle normal first-carrier traffic and hand-downs.
• In case where a second carrier is added to a cell to facilitate hand-downs instead of
providing normal traffic relief, the term transition cell is used instead of border cell.
• The area around the original isolated cell is known as the transition zone and hand-down
is only allowed in the transition zone providing relief for the heavily loaded original cell.
• There is possibility of disjoint systems where distinct CDMA carriers exist in different
regions due to issues like availability of appropriate spectrum.
• Figure 3.32 shows Hard CDMA Handoffs due to Disjointed Regions.
• The most common method used to provide handoff between the two regions is to
implement a border area that supports the use of both carrier frequencies and is
configured to provide hand-downs or to execute a hard handoff from one carrier to the
other as the mobile crosses the border between the two regions.
• The first scenario works well for a clearly defined border area with a predictable flow of
traffic.

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Wireless and Cellular Communication [18EC81]

Figure 3.32: Hard CDMA Handoffs due to Disjointed Regions


• If a mobile might be expected to turn around within the border area and return to the
region it had previously left, a more complex border area must be created to prevent the
possibility of thrashing (extremely undesirable) between the two carriers.
• This requires the identification of border cells that facilitate the handover from one carrier
to the other.
• These border cells are configured to make frequent pilot-strength measurements and use a
threshold value that will cause a handover from the host (current) cell to the target
(future) cell in the vicinity of the border between the two cells.

Power Control
• The objective of CDMA power control is to limit the transmitting and receiving power of
all users to the minimum levels required for proper system operation.
• The power control system precisely controls mobile transmit power in an attempt to have
all the mobile signals arrive at the base station with the same minimum required signal-to-
interference ratio.
• In IS-95, a sophisticated power control system is employed that maintains received
signals within approximately 1dB of their optimal level.
• On the reverse link, two different types of power control are implemented.

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Wireless and Cellular Communication [18EC81]

• This scheme allows the mobile output power level to be continually adjusted.
• The forward link uses its own form of mobile-assisted power control.
• Frame Error Rate (FER) is used to make power control decisions.

Forward Link Power Control


• The power for each Forward Traffic Channel (FTC) is dynamically controlled in response
to information transmitted to the base station by the mobile.
• The base station starts transmitting on the FTC at a nominal power level and then
continually reduces its output power level.
• The mobile periodically reports the FTC Frame Error Rate (FER) statistics to the base
station over the Reverse Traffic Channel (RTC).
• This report could indicate when the FER increases or when it reaches a certain threshold.
• The base station then adjusts its output power for the particular FTC accordingly.
• This adjustment can be made only once per frame (20ms), this is known as slow forward
link power control.
• As the mobile moves about or propagation or interference conditions change, the base
station changes its output power level to compensate for the changes.

Reverse Open Loop


• The path loss between the base station and the mobile station is the same in either
direction.
• From this, the mobile station makes an open loop estimate of its required output power
level when attempting a system access.
• Using this pilot signal as a reference, the mobile continually measures the RSS and
transmits a low-level signal if the pilot is strong or a higher-level signal if the pilot is
weak.
• If the access probe is not acknowledged, a stronger signal is sent on the next access probe
and so on.
• As the mobile moves about and changes its distance from the base station it will adjust its
output power for any new access probes in response to changes in the received pilot
signal power.

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Wireless and Cellular Communication [18EC81]

Fast Closed Loop


• The Forward and Reverse Channels may fade differently (when they are at different
frequencies), a fast closed loop power control scheme is used to overcome fades over the
reverse link.
• This is made possible by the transmission of a power control bit over the FTC every
1.25ms.
• At the base station, the base station receiver determines the average received signal-to-
interference ratio every 1.25ms for the mobile RTC.
• If the value is above a preset target value, the base station transmits a power control bit
set to 1.
• This instructs the mobile to reduce its output power level by 1dB.
• The transmission of 0 indicates an increase of 1dB in output power level.
• The process continues until the mobile’s output power level converges on the correct
value. This process is called inner loop power control.
• There is not a direct relationship between the FER and the signal-to-interference ratio, so
the target value is constantly updated to reflect the actual FER.
• If the FER increases the target value may be rapidly increased and the mobile’s power
will be quickly adjusted by the transmission of the appropriate power control bits. This is
called outer-loop power control.

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3G CDMA
IS-95B, Cdma2000 and W-CDMA
• A high market demand and continuing advances in the field of microelectronics
technology have motivated the cellular industry to develop numerous wireless standards
over the past few years.
• Due to the global nature of the market, cellular standards have been the focus of several
international committees.
• For next generation cellular standards, proposals submitted to ITU-R for evaluation and
adoption are W-CDMA, TD-CDMA, TD-SCDMA and EDGE.
• In all the cases, the ultimate evolution to true 3G capabilities involves the use of CDMA
technology for the air interface portion of the system.

IS-95B
• IS-95A CDMA technology was mainly designed for voice communication.
• An evolutionary improvement to IS-95A is IS-95B, which has additional mobile data
functionality to the earlier standard.
• IS-95B features the use of combinative channels. That is, a primary channel may be
combined with up to seven supplementary data channels.
• So, IS-95 should be able to support packet data services with up to a maximum transfer
throughput rate of 106.8 kbps.
• In practice, a much more realistic data rate that can be achieved by a mobile user is
64kbps.

IS-95 Forward and Reverse Channels


• To implement an increased packet data rate, IS-95B employs Supplementary Code
Channels (SCCHs) in both forward and reverse direction.
• The former Forward and Reverse Channels are now known as Fundamental CHannels
(FCHs) and these channels are primarily used for voice traffic.
• In IS-95B, the system may assign from one to seven idle CDMA channels to a user as
supplementary code channels and therefore provide the extra bandwidth capacity needed
to increase the packet data transfer rate for a subscriber.
• Several improvements made to handoff algorithms, the rest of the operations that are
supported by IS-95B are similar to those of original standard.

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• Packet and frame formats are similar as are power control functions.
• As a use of supplementary code channels in IS-95B, the function of Radio Resource
Management is more complex and sophisticated.

cdma2000
• Cdma2000 is considered one of the primary air interface technologies for implementation
of 3G cellular.
• Cdma2000 consists of two phases of development.
• The first phase involves the enhancement of IS-95B to Cdma2000 1xRTT (a single
carrier system) with enhanced packet data capabilities.
• The first release (0) of Cdma2000 1xRTT allows packet data speeds to 153.6 kbps.
• The second release (1) increased the speed to 307.2 kbps over a single 1.25MHz carrier.
• A data rate of 614.4 kbps is also included in the standard.
• The second phase of the 3G evolution, called as Cdma2000 1xEV uses enhanced higher-
level modulation schemes (8-QPSK and 16-QAM) that allow for more data bits per
CDMA frame. This consists of 2 steps:
• The first step is to migrate to Cdma2000 1xEV-DO (data only), that promises a downlink
peak data rate of up to 2.4mbps for packet data and the uplink will still use 1xRTT
technology.
• The next step, 1xEV-DV is an advanced technology, that will integrate both voice and
data on the same carrier and also retain backward compatibility with 1xRTT and promises
a peak packet data rate of 3.09mbps in the downlink direction.

Cdma2000 Differences
• The most important characteristics of Cdma2000 are its backward compatibility with IS-
95B and support high-speed packet data and multimedia services and advanced radio
technologies such as smart antennas.
• To achieve enhanced packet data transfer rates Cdma2000 has incorporated several
improvements and additions to the IS-95B air interface and the coding schemes employed
by the system.
• The standard has added additional logical channels into its Forward and Reverse Channel
structures, specified two spreading rates (1X and 3X) and numerous radio configurations
(depending on vocoding rates, optional frame lengths, spreading rates and modulation
schemes.

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• The standard has included enhancements to its radio transmission/reception technology


through the use of a reverse channel pilot, enhanced power control and additional forward
pilots that permit the utilization of diversity techniques to improve signal reception.
• The use of additional pilot signals reduces the bit error rate and frame error rates.
• The Cdma2000 specifies two spreading rates:
➢ Spreading Rate 1 (SR1) is designated as 1X and indicates a single direct sequence
spread CDMA carrier with a chip rate of 1.2288mcps.
➢ Spreading Rate 3 (SR3) is designated as 3X.
• A forward 3X CDMA channel is implemented through the use of three direct sequence
spread carriers (multicarrier CDMA) each with a chip rate of 1.2288mcps.
• A reverse uplink 3X CDMA channel is implemented with a single direct-sequence spread
carrier with a chip rate of 3.6864mcps (referred as W-CDMA).
• Cdma2000 supports different radio configurations in both the forward and reverse
directions.
• RC1 supports IS-95B backward compatibility for all services defined under Rate Set 1
whereas RC2 supports Rate Set 2 services.
• Other configurations support higher data transfer rates that depend upon the spreading
rate, base data rate (9.6 or 14.4 kbps), channel type, encoding rate and frame length.
• RC1 through RC5 and RC10 use Spreading Rate 1 while RC6 through RC9 use
Spreading rate 3.
• CDMA2000 has enhanced the IS-95 protocol stack to include advanced Layer 2
functionality.
• The new protocol stack contains both a Media Access Control (MAC) sublayer and a
signaling Link Access Control (LAC) sublayer.
• Both of these sublayers have been designed to optimize circuit-switched and packet-
switched data services.
• This optimization includes both enhanced control state functions and Quality of Service
(QoS) control functions.

Cdma2000 Forward and Reverse Channel Structures


• In the forward direction, Logical Channels are classified into three broad categories:
overhead, control and traffic channels.

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• In the overhead group, there are four Pilot Channels: Forward Common Pilot Channel,
Forward Common Transmit Diversity Pilot Channel and an Auxiliary Pilot Channel and
Auxiliary Transmit Diversity Pilot Channel.
• These Pilot Channels are used for enhanced system timings, phase, radio link
characteristic estimation, diversity reception and power reference purposes by the mobile
station.
• Additionally, Sync Channel provides Synchronization information and Paging Channels
provideIS-95B compatibility, and a quick Paging Channel provides slotted mode
operation and save mobile station battery power.
• Figure 3.33 displays the Forward Channel Structure for cdma2000.

Figure 3.33: Forward Channel Structure of cdma2000


• The Forward Control Channel Group consists of common assignment channels, common
power control channels, common control channels, broadcast control channels and packet
data control channels.
• The common assignment channel is used by the CDMA base station to acknowledge a
mobile station accessing the reverse enhanced access channel and to supply information
to the mobile about which reverse common control channel to use and information about
the associated common power control channel.

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• The common power control channels are used to transmit power control bits to multiple
mobile stations when they are operating in modes (e.g., packet data transfers) that do not
include a forward fundamental channel or a forward dedicated control channel.
• The common control channels are used by the base station to transmit mobile station
specific messages.
• The broadcast control channels are used to transmit system messages to all mobile
stations within the range of the base station.
• The packet data control channel is used by the base station to send control information for
the associated forward packet data channel.
• The forward traffic group supports the Forward Fundamental CHannel (F-FCH) and up to
seven Supplemental Code CHannels (SCCHs) for IS-95B compatibility.
• Additionally, two Supplemental Channels (SCHs) specially designed for high-speed data
services (RC3 through RC9) and two high speed packet data channels for RC10 use have
been added, along with a Dedicated Control Channel (DCCH) that is used for signaling
message support.
• In cdma2000, the fundamental channel is equivalent to the IS-95B fundamental channel.
• The fundamental channel is primarily used for voice service and supports variable rate
coding, low-rate data services and may also carry signaling messages.
• It supports 5ms frames that can be used to carry MAC messages that are required for fast
assignment of radio resources for packet data services.
• The F-FCH also carries power control information for fast closed loop power control.
• The SCCHs of cdma2000 are similar to IS-95B SCCHs.
• They can be used to support data rates of 9.6kbps and 14.4kbps.
• The forward SCHs can be used for RC3 through RC9 with data transfer rates of up to
1.0368mbps.
• F-SCHs use two types of coding, Convolutional or Turbo and may use frame lengths of
20, 40 and 80ms.
• Any MAC signaling must be carried on either an associated F-FCH or DCCH since the
SCHs do not support 5ms frames nor do they carry power control information needed to
maintain the radio link.
• The forward packet data channels are capable of data rates of 3.0912mbps with frame
lengths of 1.25, 2.5 and 5ms.

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Wireless and Cellular Communication [18EC81]

Figure 3.34: Reverse Channel Structure of cdma2000


• The Reverse Link Structure for SR1 and SR3 is shown in Figure3.34.
• IS-95B operation is indicated by the two left most columns with the reverse access,
fundamental and seven supplemental code channels whereas cdma2000 operation adds
the three right most columns in the Figure.
• In cdma2000, several channels are added such as Reverse Pilot Channel which includes
within it a Reverse Power Control Sub Channel, an enhanced Access Channel, a Reverse
Acknowledgement Channel, a Reverse Channel Quality Indicator Channel and two
Supplemental Channels.
• The Reverse Pilot Channel enhances Reverse radio link performance.
• The Reverse Pilot allows the base station to coherently demodulate signals transmitted by
the mobile station with fewer bit or frame errors.
• The Reverse Pilot is used during enhanced Access Channel operation, Reverse Common
Control Channel operation and Reverse Traffic Channel operation.
• During the first two operational modes, the Reverse Pilot is multiplexed with the other
information being sent by these channels.

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• The Reverse Acknowledgement and Channel Quality Indicator Channels are similar to
the Power Control Sub Channel and are operational for RC3 and RC4.
• The Reverse Logical Channels have frame lengths of 5, 10, 20, 40 and 80ms.
• The enhanced Access Channel allows three different modes of operation in cdma2000.
• The first mode is similar to the Access Probe used by IS-95A/B.
• The second mode of operation is Reservation Access Mode and is used by the mobile to
gain control of a Common Control Channel so that the risk of an access collision is
reduced.
• The last mode is Power Controlled Access Mode and is used in conjunction with a
Forward Power Control Channel to provide power control on Reverse Link Channels.
• The Reverse Supplemental Channels can have different data rates.
• For cdma2000, the maximum data rate for a Supplemental Channel is 1.0368mbps.
• During cdma2000 operation, there are five different configurations of Physical Channels
on Reverse Link at any time depending upon the mobile’s mode of operation and Radio
Configuration (RC1 through RC6).
• The mobile engages in standard IS-95B traffic operations using the Reverse Fundamental
Channel and up to seven Reverse Supplemental Code Channels to increase the data
transfer rate (RC1 and RC2).
• The mobile engages in an enhanced Access Channel system access to reduce the
probability of collision during access and improves the efficiency of channel usage.
• The mobile has been successful in implementing the Reservation Access mode and uses a
Reverse Common Control Channel to talk to the base station.
• In the Reverse Traffic operation mode, the Reverse Pilot and the Reverse Power Control
Sub Channel are always operational.
• The mobile station may support an R-FCH or an R-DCCH.
• Cdma2000 supports up to two Supplemental Channels for data services and since user
signaling cannot take place over the SCHs, either the R-FCH or R-DCCH must be present
continuously.

W-CDMA and UMTS


• The Universal Mobile Telecommunications System (UMTS) network architecture defines
a Core Network and a Terrestrial Radio Access Network.
• UMTS Terrestrial Radio Access Network is known as UTRAN.

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• The two networks (Core and UTRAN) are interconnected in the UMTS specification by
the lu interface.
• The integration of GSM and UMTS Core Network elements allowed by this
interconnection will facilitate network development, provisioning of network components
and introduction of UMTS based services.
• The UTRAN system allows for several radio interface models:
• Frequency Division Duplexing (FDD) or Wideband CDMA (W-CDMA) for operation in
paired frequency bands.
• Time Division Duplexing (TDD) for operation in unpaired bands.
• W-CDMA is implemented using higher chip rates than cdma2000 (3.84mcps) over 5MHz
wide bands.
• With TDD, uplink and downlink traffic can be transmitted on the same carrier frequency
but during different timeslots.
• One version of this radio interface is Time Division CDMA (TD-CDMA) and the
standard calls for a single carrier with chip rate of 3.84mcps in a 5MHz bandwidth.
• Another version of TDD is Time Division Synchronous CDMA (TD-SCDMA).
• TD-SCDMA combines both TDMA and CDMA principles with other capacity enhancing
techniques.
• The radio signal is spread by a chip rate of 1.28mcps and is contained in a 1.6MHz
bandwidth.
• This gives rise to the possible use of three TD-SCDMA carriers in the same 5MHz
bandwidth as used by TD-CDMA.
• The comparison of TD-CDMA and TD-SCDMA spectrum usage is shown in the
Figure 3.35.

Figure 3.35: TD-CDMA and TD-SCDMA spectrum usage

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