WCC Module-3 Notes PDF
WCC Module-3 Notes PDF
MODULE-3
CDMA System Overview
Introduction to CDMA
• Developed by Qualcomm Corporation in 1989 and continued into the early 1990s during
which it was accepted for use as an air interface standard.
• Commercially deployed in the year 1995.
• In 1980s AMPS (Advanced Mobile Phone System) was the cellular telephone system
employed.
• In 1989, TIA (Telecommunications Industry Association adopted TDMA technology as
next generation wireless systems.
• In 1992, TIA adopted IS-95 as the CDMA air interface standard for the digital
transmission technologies known as wideband spread spectrum.
• The first CDMA commercial network began operation in Hong Kong in 1995.
• Since then, CDMA systems have been used in both the cellular and PCS (Personal
Communications Service) band extensively.
• Other forms of CDMA are:
➢ Time Division CDMA (TD-CDMA)
➢ Time Division Synchronous CDMA (TD-SCDMA)
➢ Multicarrier CDMA (MC-CDMA)
➢ Wideband CDMA (W-CDMA)
Evolution of 2G CDMA
• The first form of CDMA, IS-95, specified a dual mode of operation in 800-MHz cellular
band for both AMPS and CDMA.
• First standard defined mobile station and base station requirements that would ensure the
compatibility for both AMPS and CDMA.
• The next standard IS-95A describes the structure of wideband 1.25MHz CDMA channels
and the operations necessary to provide power control, call processing, handoffs and
registration procedures for proper system operations.
• Along with the voice, circuit switched data services were provided at 14.4 kbps over these
first CDMA systems.
• With additional features, new standard, TIA/EIA-95-B accepted in 1999, provided the
compatibility of 1.8 to 2.0-GHz CDMA PCS systems with IS-95A.
Evolution of 3G CDMA
• Cdma2000 is the term used for 3G CDMA systems.
• This was one of the proposals ITU approved for 3G standard.
• It is a wideband enhanced version of CDMA, backward compatible with TIA/EIA-95-B
and provides support for data services up to 2mbps, multimedia services and advanced
radio technologies.
• The first phase of implementation is known as 1xRTT (1X Radio Transmission
Technology) over a standard 1.25-MHz CDMA channel.
• The next phase of implementation is known as cdma2000 1xEV (EV stands for
EVolutionary).
• The two versions of second implementations are:
➢ 1xEV-DO(data only)
➢ 1xEV-DV(data and voice)
• 1xEV-DO supports asymmetrical peak data rates of 2.4mbps in the downlink direction
and 153kbps in the uplink direction.
• 1xEV-DV supports integrated voice and data at speeds up to 3mbps over an all-IP
network architecture.
CDMA BASICS
• CDMA is a multiple-access technology that is based on the use of wideband spread
spectrum digital techniques that enable the separation of signals that are concurrent in
both time and frequency.
• All signals in this system share the same frequency spectrum simultaneously.
• The signals transmitted by the base stations and mobile stations within a cell are spread
over the entire bandwidth of a radio channel and encoded in such a way as to appear as
broadband noise signals to every other mobile or base station receiver.
• The identification and subsequent demodulation of individual signals occur at a receiver
through the use of code used to originally spread the signal at the transmitter.
• This process demodulates the signal intended for the receiver while rejecting all other
signals as broadband noise.
• A specific minimum level of SNR is necessary to provide for a certain level of received
signal quality, the level of background noise or interference from all the system
transmission ultimately limits the number of users of the system and hence system
capacity.
• So, CDMA systems are carefully designed to limit the output power of each transmission
to least amount of power necessary for proper operation.
• For FDMA, the available radio spectrum is divided into narrowband channels and each
user is given a particular channel for use.
• The user confines transmitted signal power within this channel and selective filters are
used at both ends of the radio link to distinguish transmission that are occurring
simultaneously on many different channels.
• The frequency allocations can only be reused at a distance far enough away that the
resulting interference is negligible.
• Figure 3.2 shows the comparison of FDMA, TDMA and CDMA Air Interfaces.
Table 3.1: CDMA and NA-TDMA channel numbers and frequency assignments for the
PCS Band (Band Class1)
Table 3.2: Useable CDMA channel numbers and assigned frequencies for Band Class1
Table 3.3: Preferred set of CDMA frequency assignments for Band Class1
• The last case to be considered is when some preexisting service is still using the PCS
frequency spectrum. Frequency co-ordination is again necessary with respect to service
and interference that it produces or can tolerate.
• The details of the Network nodes found in a cdma2000 Wireless System is shown in
Figure 3.7.
Figure 3.7: Details of the Network nodes found in a cdma2000 Wireless System
Interworking Function
• In the early CDMA systems, the Inter Working Function (IWF) node is the only gateway
between the wireless network and the Packet Data Network (PDN).
• It provides a direct connection to the PDN for packet data calls.
• It also supports circuit-switched data calls by providing internal modems for connections
to dial-up Internet Service Providers (ISPs). These circuit switched data calls are routed to
the PSTN through the MSC.
• Later, IWF typically uses Ethernet for the signaling between itself and the MSC and for
the exchange of packet data between itself and the PDN.
• In CDMA2000, the IWFs packet data transfer function is augmented by the Packet Core
Network (PCN) element.
HLR/AC
• Home Location Register (HLR) and Authentication Center (AC) are typically collocated
in CDMA2000 systems.
• The HLR holds subscriber information in a database format that is used by the system to
manage the Subscriber Device (SD) activity.
• It includes the SD Electronic Serial Number (ESN), details of subscriber’s service plan,
any service restrictions (no overseas access) and identification of the MSC where the
mobile was last registered.
• The AC provides a secure database for the authentication of mobile subscribers when
they first register with the system and during call origination and termination.
• The AC uses Shared Secret Data (SSD) for authentication calculations.
• Both the AC and SD calculate SSD based on the authentication key or A-key, the ESN,
and a random number provided by the AC and broadcast to the SD.
• The A-key is stored in the SD and also at the AC and never transmitted over the air.
• The AC or MSC/VLR compares the values calculated by the AC and the SD to determine
the mobile’s status with the system.
PLMN Subnetwork
• A cdma2000 Public Land Mobile Network (PLMN) provides mobile wireless
communication services to subscribers and typically consists of several functional
subnetworks.
• These subnetworks are known as the Circuit Core Network (CCN), the Packet Core
Network (PCN), the Service Node Network (SNN) and the CDMA Radio Access
Network (C-RAN).
• The cdma2000 PLMN subscriber has access to the PSTN and the PDN through these
subnetworks.
• These subnetworks facilitates the management of the system.
• The AAA server receives accounting information from the PDSN node that together with
session information can be used for billing of the subscriber.
• An AAA server may be configured primarily for billing purposes. In that case, the PDSN
may send accounting information to the billing AAA server and use a different AAA
server for authentication and authorization.
• Provides a means by which operators are able to access the quality of network service and
to provide corrective action when network problems occur.
• The five functions of Wireless Network Management System are:
• Fault Management: Also known as network surveillance, is concerned with the
detection, isolation and repair of network problems to prevent network faults from
causing unacceptable network degradation or downtime.
• Using the tools provided by the system, a human operator can attempt to repair the
problem from the NOC.
• Performance Management: Concerned with the gathering and reporting of relevant
network performance statistics that can be used to continuously analyze network
operations.
• Trouble Management: Allow the display and subsequent description of occurrences that
have affected the network and also provide the operator with the ability to communicate
this information to other persons involved with the maintenance.
• If the operator at the NOC is unable to clear a trouble or a fault and depending upon the
type of problem, it must be escalated and communicated to someone in the field who will
have the responsibility of dealing with it.
• Configuration Management: Support the administration and configuration of the
network.
• These functions support the installation of new network elements as well as
interconnection of network nodes.
• Security Management: Manage user accounts and provide the ability to control and set
used-based access levels.
Subnetwork Management
• Subnetwork Management provides the management of the circuit, packet and radio
networks that compose the typical CDMA system.
• The Circuit Core Network Management System is mainly concerned with the CDMA
mobile-services switching center.
• Provides fault, performance configuration, software and hardware management functions
at the subnetwork level.
• The computer system used for this function provides an operator with access to one or
more MSCs for the performance of the various functions.
• The Packet Core Network Management System is concerned with the PCN node of the
CDMA system.
• Along with the standard functions of fault and performance management, the PCN
management platform performs statistics administration, online documentation, backup
and restore functions and maintain dynamic network topology maps and databases for the
PCN node.
• The CDMA Radio Access Network (C-RAN) Management System is concerned with
CDMA base station subsystems.
• It configures the radio and network parameters of the system BSSs, monitor C-RAN
alarms and performance, and install or upgrade software to any network element in the C-
RAN.
• It manages user security and ability to backup and restore the configuration of any C-
RAN element.
Element Management
• Element management interface directly with a network element through a “craft” data
port.
• Using element specific software, a technician on-site with a laptop computer or off-site
through a remote connection is able to interface directly with the specific network
element.
• This type of software driven element management is usually performed at a cell site
during the initial deployment, installation and testing of a radio base station and during
any necessary diagnostic testing and troubleshooting if an escalated alarm or hardware
trouble develops with the system.
Subscriber Devices
• Subscriber Device (SD) is a term used to describe several types of wireless phones and
data devices that perform CDMA encoding/decoding and vocoding operations for the
transmission of voice or data in a wireless mobile environment.
• Each subscriber device has a set of radio bands over which it can operate.
• The subscriber devices are divided into two broad categories depending on their
application.
• Portable devices can operate in the cellular, PCS, or in both bands and can handle the
transmission of voice, data and other nonvoice applications.
• These types of SDs are used by people for mobile voice connectivity.
• Wireless Local Loop (WLL) devices can handle the transmission of data over the CDMA
system.
CDMA BASICS
CDMA Channel Concept
• Cellular telephone networks use various control and traffic channels to carry out the
operations to setup subscriber radio link for the transmission of data or voice conversation
and subscriber’s mobility.
• The cdmaOne and cdma2000 cellular systems are based on Code Division Multiple
Access (CDMA) technology.
• This is attained using a spread spectrum encoding technique.
• For this Walsh spreading codes are used for channel encoding.
• Walsh code consists of a binary combination of sixty-four 0s and 1s and all these are
orthogonal to one another.
• This creates 64 distinct communication channels that can all exist in the same frequency
spectrum.
• All other Walsh encoded signals will appear as broadband noise to the CDMA receiver
except for the unique signal that was created with the same Walsh code as the one the
receiver uses for demodulation.
• Figure 3.10 shows the basic principle of an 8-bit Walsh orthogonal spreading code to
create distinct signal.
• Spreading code increases the number of bits sent in the same time interval as the original
digital signal, so increases the overall signal bandwidth.
• Two types of Pseudorandom Noise (PN) codes are used by the system, short and long PN
codes.
Pilot Channel
• The CDMA Pilot channel is used to provide a reference signal for all the SDs within a
cell.
• Figure 3.12 shows the generation of the Pilot channel signal.
• The all-0s Walsh code is used for the initial signal spreading on a sequence of all 0s.
• This results in a sequence of all zeros that are further spread using the short PN spreading
sequences resulting in a sequence of 0s and 1s.
• The I and the Q signals drive a quadrature modulator.
• The resulting Pilot signal is an unmodulated spread spectrum signal.
• The short PN spreading code is used to identify the base station and the Pilot signal is
transmitted at a fixed output power usually 4-6dB stronger than any other channel.
• This is used as phase reference for coherent demodulation of all other channels and serves
as reference for signal power comparisons.
Synchronization Channel
• Used by the system to provide initial time synchronization.
• Figure 3.13 shows the generation of the synchronization channel signal.
• Walsh code (thirty-two 0s followed by thirty-two 1s) is used to spread the
synchronization channel message.
• The same short PN spreading code with the same offset is used to further spread the
signal.
• The initial channel message has a data rate of 1200bps.
• The sync messages undergo convolutional encoding, symbol repetition and finally block
interleaving.
• This process increases the data rate to 4.8kbps.
• The sync message includes the system and network identification codes, identification of
paging channel data rates, the offset value of the short PN spreading code and the state of
the long PN spreading code.
Paging Channels
• Used to page the SDs when there is a mobile-terminated call and to send control
messages to the SDs wen call setup is taking place.
• Figure 3.14 shows the generation of a Paging control channel message.
• Power control information is transmitted to the mobile stations within the cell over the
Traffic Channels as shown in Figure 3.16.
• This information is used to set the output power of the mobile on the reverse link and is
multiplexed with the scrambled voice bits at the rate of 800bps or 1 bit every 1.25msec.
Sync Channel
• The CDMA Forward Synchronization Channel provides the mobile or subscriber device
with system configuration and timing information.
• A Sync Channel message is typically broken up into sync channel frames of 32 bits each.
• The Sync Channel frame consists of Start Of Message (SOM) bit and 31 data bits.
• The start of Sync Channel is indicated by a SOM bit set to 1 in the first frame and 0 in
subsequent frames of the same message.
• At a data rate of 1200 bps, a Sync Channel frame is 26.666ms in duration.
• Three Sync Channel frames of 96bits form a Sync Channel super frame of 80ms duration.
• The sync message itself consists of field that indicates the message length in bits, the
message data bits, the error checking code bits, and additional padding bits (zero) as
needed.
Paging Channel
• The Forward Paging Channels are used to transmit system overhead information and
mobile station specific messages.
• Its data rate can be either 4800 or 9600 bps.
• The Paging Channel is formatted into 80-ms paging slots of eight half frames of 10-ms
duration.
• Each half frames starts with a Synchronized Capsule Indicator (SCI) bit that is
functionally similar to SOM bit.
• A synchronized Paging Channel message capsule begins immediately after an SCI bit set
to 1.
• A paging message must be contained in at most two successive slots.
• The length of paging cycle can vary from a minimum of sixteen slots (1.28s) to a
maximum of 2048 slots (163.84s).
• Figure 3.20 shows paging channel structure.
• The CDMA system uses the mobile station’s ESN to determine the correct slot to use for
paging of the mobile.
• Further power savings are realized by the transmission of a _DONE message by the base
station after the end of the paging message scheduled for the particular mobile.
• In case of short message that uses only several half frames of a slot, the mobile can power
down before the end of the slot to save more battery power.
• The data burst randomizer generates a random masking pattern for the gating pattern that
is tied to the mobile station’s ESN as shown in Figure 3.21.
Access Channel
• Reverse Access Channel is used by the mobile station to communicate with the base
station.
• It is used for short message exchanges, like responses to commands from the base station,
for system registrations and for call origination requests.
• Its data rate is 4.8kbps using a 20ms frame that contains 96 information bits.
• Every access channel message is typically composed of several Access Channel frames.
• Due to the complexity of operations, most system states are documented in flowchart
form within the particular standards.
• These flowcharts indicate the possible steps involved in the performance of various
system operations or traffic cases and are usually grouped by being performed by either
the mobile or base station.
• Example: state of mobile station.
• When the mobile is active it might be in the initialization, idle, access or traffic state.
• These states are illustrated and explained within the standard through the use of
flowchart.
Initialization/Registration
• CDMA system registration procedures are dependent upon the status of the mobile
station.
• The mobile may be in a detached condition (powered off or out of the system range) or in
an attached condition.
• When first turned on, the mobile goes through a power-up state, during which it selects a
CDMA system and then acquires the pilot and sync channels which allows it to
synchronize its timing to the CDMA system.
Figure 3.25: CDMA Mobile Station Control on the Traffic Channel Flowchart
• Registration is a process by which the CDMA mobile station, through messages to the
base station, informs the cellular system of its identification, location, status, slot cycle,
and other pertinent information necessary for proper and efficient system operation.
• For slotted mode operation the mobile provides the base station with the
SLOT_CYCLE_INDEX value so that the base station may determine which slots the
mobile is monitoring.
• Traffic Channel Registration: Whenever the base station has registration information
for a mobile that has been assigned to a traffic channel, the base station may notify the
mobile that it is registered.
• User zone Registration: Whenever the mobile selects an active user zone, it registers.
Call Establishment
• The call setup requires various system tasks including mobile initialization, idle, system
access, traffic channel communication and call termination.
• CDMA system uses a more sophisticated form of power control for both the mobile and
the base station and uses more complex form of handoff to provide subscriber mobility
which is more transparent than GSM systems.
Initialization State
• When the mobile is first turned on, it enters the initialization state.
• In this process, the mobile searches for a pilot channel by aligning its short PN code with
a received short PN code.
• Once the valid pilot channel is acquired the mobile synchronizes with it and it has 15
seconds to locate and acquire a pilot signal.
• If the mobile cannot perform this operation, it may decide to search for an AMPS control
channel and enter an analog operational mode.
• When the mobile locates a CDMA Pilot Signal, it switches to Walsh code 32 and looks
for the start of the Sync Channel message.
• The Sync Channel message contains information about system time and the PN codes
needed to synchronize its PN codes.
• After decoding the Sync Channel, the mobile aligns its timing to that of the serving base
station.
Idle State
• Once the mobile achieves initialization it enters idle state.
• In this state, the mobile is waiting to receive calls or data messages or is ready to originate
a call or some form of data transfer.
• For subscriber connectivity and mobility, the mobile is constantly monitoring radio
channel quality, decoding Paging Channel messages to obtain system parameters, access
parameters and a list of neighboring cell sites to monitor.
• After acquiring sufficient system information, the mobile may be allowed to enter a sleep
mode to conserve mobile battery power by using slotted mode operation.
Access State
• The CDMA mobile will enter the access state when it receives a mobile directed message
requiring an acknowledgement, originates a call or it requires registration.
• In this state, the mobile will randomly attempt to access the system.
• Access to the system is obtained when the mobile station receives a response from the
base station on the paging channel.
• Since many mobiles use the same paging channel, the signal collision at the base station
will most likely result if any of the requesting mobiles being granted access to the system.
• So, some form of collision avoidance scheme is necessary.
• For CDMA system, this access protocol is implemented through the use of access class
groups with assigned priorities, a gradual increase in access request power level, random
time delays for access requests, and a maximum number of automatic access attempts.
• Figure 3.26 shows access channel probing.
• The transmission of access probe sequences is called access attempt.
• Each Access Probe consist of an access channel preamble and an access channel message
capable of three to ten frames.
• This gives an Access Probe with a duration of four to twenty-six 20-ms frames.
• The two types of access messages transmitted by the mobile on the access channel are:
➢ Response message
➢ Request message
• From the Figure, the Access Channel Probing process consists of the mobile station
sending a series of sequences of access probes of increasing power levels.
• An Access Probe sequence is formed by the repeated transmission of additional access
probes until either mobile has received an acknowledgement over the paging channel or
the mobile station’s power level limit has been reached.
• If the mobile station’s first Access Probe sequence is unsuccessful, additional probe
sequences are transmitted until a successful access occurs or the maximum number of
allowed probe sequences has been exceeded.
Traffic State
• The mobile enters the Traffic State when it begins to transfer user information between
the mobile and the base station.
• The information can be voice or data that originates from the PSTN or PDN or another
mobile in the same or another network.
• In the traffic state, the mobile transmits voice and signaling information on the Reverse
Traffic Channel (RTC) and receives voice and signaling information on the Forward
Traffic Channel (FTC).
• Signaling over the traffic channel can be performed by either a blank-and-burst or dim-
and-burst process.
• The blank-and-burst method replaces 1.25ms of speech data with signaling message
bursts.
• The dim-and-burst method inserts signaling messages when speech activity is low.
• Various mode and flag bits are used to alert the receiver to the signaling method and
structure of the mixed voice and signaling frames.
• Depending upon the message, the number of frames need to send the signaling
information will vary.
Mobile-Terminated Call
• The base station sends a message to the mobile on the Paging Channel.
• If attached to the system, the mobile sends an acknowledgement response on the Access
Channel.
• The base station receives the acknowledgement, configures a Forward Traffic Channel,
and assigns a receiver to the mobile’s Reverse Traffic Channel.
• The base station begins to send null traffic on the FTC and send a Paging message
containing Walsh code and RTC information.
• The mobile configures itself and begins decoding the null traffic and transmitting a
preamble on the RTC.
• The base station acknowledges the preamble sent on the RTC.
• The mobile receives the acknowledgment and begins transmitting null traffic on the RTC.
• The base station sends an alert message for a ring tone and the display of calling number
information.
• The mobile acknowledges the message by ringing the handset and displaying the calling
number information.
• When the subscriber answers the incoming call a connection message is sent on the RTC.
• The base station acknowledges the connection message and begins to send the traffic as
shown in Figure 3.28.
Call Termination
• Call termination occurs at the end of a call and can be initiated by either mobile or the
base station.
• If the mobile initiates the call termination, it sends a call termination message to the base
station, stops transmitting on the RTC and returns to the initialization state.
• If the network initiates the call termination, the base station sends a call termination
message to the mobile. The mobile stops transmitting on the RTC and returns to the
initialization state.
Call Handoff
• Handoffs can occur during three mobile station states:
They are idle state, access state and traffic state.
• The procedures used and the type of handoff performed will depend upon the mobile’s
present state.
• In all cases, the handoffs are mobile assisted since the mobile station is tasked with
reporting signal-strength measurements of various pilot channels to the network.
• Handoffs occur when the serving sector/cell is no longer capable of supporting
communications between the mobile and itself.
• CDMA supports soft/softer handoffs.
Idle/Access Handoff
• If the mobile is in the idle state and moves from the coverage area of one sector/cell into
another, an idle handoff can occur.
• When the received signal strength of a different Pilot Channel (PC) is determined to be
twice as strong than the current PC, the mobile will start listening to the paging channel
associated with the stronger PC.
• This is known as form of hard handoff because there is a brief interruption of the
communication link.
• The access handoff may occur before the mobile begins sending access probes, during
access probes and even after it receives an access probe acknowledgement.
• An access entry handoff allows the mobile to perform a hard idle handoff from one
Paging Channel to another in the best signal-strength sector/cell just after the mobile
enters the access state.
• After the mobile has started to send access probes, it can perform an access probe handoff
if it detects a stronger pilot signal that may provide it a better chance of receiving service.
• Even after the mobile has received an access probe acknowledgement, a handoff to a
stronger pilot may be possible and necessary to prevent an access failure due to the rapid
motion of the mobile away from the current pilot and its base station.
Soft Handoff
• A soft handoff occurs when the mobile is able to communicate simultaneously with
several new cells or a new sector of the current cell over a Forward Traffic Channel
(FTC) while still maintaining communications over the FTC of the current cell or sector.
• The mobile station can only perform a soft handoff while in the traffic state to a new cell
or sector that has the same frequency carrier.
• The use of soft handoff is associated with the near-far problem and power control
mechanism.
• If the mobile moves away from a base station and continually increases its output power
to compensate for the signal attenuation encountered at the greater distance, it will cause
interference to mobiles in neighboring cells and raise the level of background noise in its
own cell or sector.
• To overcome this problem and to make sure that the mobile is connected to the base
station with the greatest RSS, a strategy for soft handoffs has been designed.
• The optimal CDMA system operation will occur when each mobile is connected to the
nearest base station (the base station with a strongest signal) and is transmitting with a
lowest output power necessary for proper operation.
• A carefully implemented soft handover process can enhance system performance by
increasing call quality, improving coverage and increasing capacity.
• The three types of soft handoffs defined are:
➢ Softer handoff
➢ Soft handoff
➢ Soft Softer handoff
• Figure 3.29 depicts the three types of soft handoffs.
• The first type is known as Softer handoff because the handoff is between two sectors of
the same cell.
• The Soft handoff occurs between two different cells.
• Soft-Softer handoff can occur when the motion of mobile gives it a handoff choice
between two sectors of the same cell and a sector from the adjacent cell.
• The mobile’s continuous assessment of pilot RSS and a set of adjustable values will
determine the movement of pilot signals within these sets.
• These measurements, with information received from the serving sector/cell and mobile
station timers give rise to dynamically changing sets if the mobile moves about the
system.
• The flowchart for the same is shown in the Figure 3.30.
Figure 3.30: Flowchart of the Generation of the Active and Candidate Pilot Set for
CDMA Handoff Operations
• In most access technologies mobile station moving from one sector/cell to another must
switch to an available channel in the new sector or cell.
• This process interrupts the communications link.
• Since a CDMA system reuses the same frequency in every sector/cell within the system,
soft/softer handoff does not cause interruption in the communication link.
• This fact is every important in high-speed data transmission (no loss of data).
• It improves the system performance and reduces transmit power.
Hard Handoff
• Hard handoff is an intercarrier handoff.
• This causes the radio link to be abruptly interrupted for a short period while the base and
mobile statin switch from one carrier frequency to another.
• The two basic types of intercarrier handoffs are:
• A hand-down is a hard handover between two different carriers within the same cell.
• A handover is a hard handoff between two different carriers in two different cells.
• The circumstances for hard handoff can be due to the particular coverage area
implementation of a service provider or the less frequent case of existence of two service
providers in adjacent areas.
• The first case is known as pocketed implementation, a service provider might use a
second CDMA carrier in individual or noncontiguous cells to provide additional capacity
during system growth or for local high-traffic hot spots.
• The Figure 3.31 shows Hard CDMA Handoffs due to Inter carrier Handoff.
• A mobile that is using the second carrier and exiting the pocket of second-carrier cells
must be handed off to the common carrier to continue the call.
• To perform this; first hand-down the call to the common carrier before the mobile leaves
the pocketed area.
• Then a soft handoff can be performed as the mobile moves across the border from the
pocketed area into the surrounding service area.
• Typically, this hand-down occurs at the border cells (sectors) of the pocketed area.
• Border cells must be identified and configured to operate in a slightly different fashion
than non-border cells (sectors).
• Careful examination of cell geometry and local traffic routes can aid in the selection of a
border cell (sector).
• When a mobile enters a border sector, it is instructed by the base station to issue frequent
pilot-strength measurement messages.
• This allows the sector to closely monitor the mobile’s status.
• If the pilot report indicates that the sector’s pilot has dropped below a certain threshold
level, the base station directs the mobile to hand down to the first carrier.
• The value of the threshold in this process forces this hand-down to occur before the
mobile has reached the edge of the sector.
• This process allows sufficient time for the normal soft handoff to occur as the mobile
exists at the border sector.
• This works well for a large pocket with a well-defined border cells.
• This process does not work well where insufficient first-carrier capacity is available to
accommodate the required hand-down as might be the case for an isolated cell with a
second carrier.
• The solution is to expand the second carrier pocket so that it has sufficient first-carrier
capacity to handle normal first-carrier traffic and hand-downs.
• In case where a second carrier is added to a cell to facilitate hand-downs instead of
providing normal traffic relief, the term transition cell is used instead of border cell.
• The area around the original isolated cell is known as the transition zone and hand-down
is only allowed in the transition zone providing relief for the heavily loaded original cell.
• There is possibility of disjoint systems where distinct CDMA carriers exist in different
regions due to issues like availability of appropriate spectrum.
• Figure 3.32 shows Hard CDMA Handoffs due to Disjointed Regions.
• The most common method used to provide handoff between the two regions is to
implement a border area that supports the use of both carrier frequencies and is
configured to provide hand-downs or to execute a hard handoff from one carrier to the
other as the mobile crosses the border between the two regions.
• The first scenario works well for a clearly defined border area with a predictable flow of
traffic.
Power Control
• The objective of CDMA power control is to limit the transmitting and receiving power of
all users to the minimum levels required for proper system operation.
• The power control system precisely controls mobile transmit power in an attempt to have
all the mobile signals arrive at the base station with the same minimum required signal-to-
interference ratio.
• In IS-95, a sophisticated power control system is employed that maintains received
signals within approximately 1dB of their optimal level.
• On the reverse link, two different types of power control are implemented.
• This scheme allows the mobile output power level to be continually adjusted.
• The forward link uses its own form of mobile-assisted power control.
• Frame Error Rate (FER) is used to make power control decisions.
3G CDMA
IS-95B, Cdma2000 and W-CDMA
• A high market demand and continuing advances in the field of microelectronics
technology have motivated the cellular industry to develop numerous wireless standards
over the past few years.
• Due to the global nature of the market, cellular standards have been the focus of several
international committees.
• For next generation cellular standards, proposals submitted to ITU-R for evaluation and
adoption are W-CDMA, TD-CDMA, TD-SCDMA and EDGE.
• In all the cases, the ultimate evolution to true 3G capabilities involves the use of CDMA
technology for the air interface portion of the system.
IS-95B
• IS-95A CDMA technology was mainly designed for voice communication.
• An evolutionary improvement to IS-95A is IS-95B, which has additional mobile data
functionality to the earlier standard.
• IS-95B features the use of combinative channels. That is, a primary channel may be
combined with up to seven supplementary data channels.
• So, IS-95 should be able to support packet data services with up to a maximum transfer
throughput rate of 106.8 kbps.
• In practice, a much more realistic data rate that can be achieved by a mobile user is
64kbps.
• Packet and frame formats are similar as are power control functions.
• As a use of supplementary code channels in IS-95B, the function of Radio Resource
Management is more complex and sophisticated.
cdma2000
• Cdma2000 is considered one of the primary air interface technologies for implementation
of 3G cellular.
• Cdma2000 consists of two phases of development.
• The first phase involves the enhancement of IS-95B to Cdma2000 1xRTT (a single
carrier system) with enhanced packet data capabilities.
• The first release (0) of Cdma2000 1xRTT allows packet data speeds to 153.6 kbps.
• The second release (1) increased the speed to 307.2 kbps over a single 1.25MHz carrier.
• A data rate of 614.4 kbps is also included in the standard.
• The second phase of the 3G evolution, called as Cdma2000 1xEV uses enhanced higher-
level modulation schemes (8-QPSK and 16-QAM) that allow for more data bits per
CDMA frame. This consists of 2 steps:
• The first step is to migrate to Cdma2000 1xEV-DO (data only), that promises a downlink
peak data rate of up to 2.4mbps for packet data and the uplink will still use 1xRTT
technology.
• The next step, 1xEV-DV is an advanced technology, that will integrate both voice and
data on the same carrier and also retain backward compatibility with 1xRTT and promises
a peak packet data rate of 3.09mbps in the downlink direction.
Cdma2000 Differences
• The most important characteristics of Cdma2000 are its backward compatibility with IS-
95B and support high-speed packet data and multimedia services and advanced radio
technologies such as smart antennas.
• To achieve enhanced packet data transfer rates Cdma2000 has incorporated several
improvements and additions to the IS-95B air interface and the coding schemes employed
by the system.
• The standard has added additional logical channels into its Forward and Reverse Channel
structures, specified two spreading rates (1X and 3X) and numerous radio configurations
(depending on vocoding rates, optional frame lengths, spreading rates and modulation
schemes.
• In the overhead group, there are four Pilot Channels: Forward Common Pilot Channel,
Forward Common Transmit Diversity Pilot Channel and an Auxiliary Pilot Channel and
Auxiliary Transmit Diversity Pilot Channel.
• These Pilot Channels are used for enhanced system timings, phase, radio link
characteristic estimation, diversity reception and power reference purposes by the mobile
station.
• Additionally, Sync Channel provides Synchronization information and Paging Channels
provideIS-95B compatibility, and a quick Paging Channel provides slotted mode
operation and save mobile station battery power.
• Figure 3.33 displays the Forward Channel Structure for cdma2000.
• The common power control channels are used to transmit power control bits to multiple
mobile stations when they are operating in modes (e.g., packet data transfers) that do not
include a forward fundamental channel or a forward dedicated control channel.
• The common control channels are used by the base station to transmit mobile station
specific messages.
• The broadcast control channels are used to transmit system messages to all mobile
stations within the range of the base station.
• The packet data control channel is used by the base station to send control information for
the associated forward packet data channel.
• The forward traffic group supports the Forward Fundamental CHannel (F-FCH) and up to
seven Supplemental Code CHannels (SCCHs) for IS-95B compatibility.
• Additionally, two Supplemental Channels (SCHs) specially designed for high-speed data
services (RC3 through RC9) and two high speed packet data channels for RC10 use have
been added, along with a Dedicated Control Channel (DCCH) that is used for signaling
message support.
• In cdma2000, the fundamental channel is equivalent to the IS-95B fundamental channel.
• The fundamental channel is primarily used for voice service and supports variable rate
coding, low-rate data services and may also carry signaling messages.
• It supports 5ms frames that can be used to carry MAC messages that are required for fast
assignment of radio resources for packet data services.
• The F-FCH also carries power control information for fast closed loop power control.
• The SCCHs of cdma2000 are similar to IS-95B SCCHs.
• They can be used to support data rates of 9.6kbps and 14.4kbps.
• The forward SCHs can be used for RC3 through RC9 with data transfer rates of up to
1.0368mbps.
• F-SCHs use two types of coding, Convolutional or Turbo and may use frame lengths of
20, 40 and 80ms.
• Any MAC signaling must be carried on either an associated F-FCH or DCCH since the
SCHs do not support 5ms frames nor do they carry power control information needed to
maintain the radio link.
• The forward packet data channels are capable of data rates of 3.0912mbps with frame
lengths of 1.25, 2.5 and 5ms.
• The Reverse Acknowledgement and Channel Quality Indicator Channels are similar to
the Power Control Sub Channel and are operational for RC3 and RC4.
• The Reverse Logical Channels have frame lengths of 5, 10, 20, 40 and 80ms.
• The enhanced Access Channel allows three different modes of operation in cdma2000.
• The first mode is similar to the Access Probe used by IS-95A/B.
• The second mode of operation is Reservation Access Mode and is used by the mobile to
gain control of a Common Control Channel so that the risk of an access collision is
reduced.
• The last mode is Power Controlled Access Mode and is used in conjunction with a
Forward Power Control Channel to provide power control on Reverse Link Channels.
• The Reverse Supplemental Channels can have different data rates.
• For cdma2000, the maximum data rate for a Supplemental Channel is 1.0368mbps.
• During cdma2000 operation, there are five different configurations of Physical Channels
on Reverse Link at any time depending upon the mobile’s mode of operation and Radio
Configuration (RC1 through RC6).
• The mobile engages in standard IS-95B traffic operations using the Reverse Fundamental
Channel and up to seven Reverse Supplemental Code Channels to increase the data
transfer rate (RC1 and RC2).
• The mobile engages in an enhanced Access Channel system access to reduce the
probability of collision during access and improves the efficiency of channel usage.
• The mobile has been successful in implementing the Reservation Access mode and uses a
Reverse Common Control Channel to talk to the base station.
• In the Reverse Traffic operation mode, the Reverse Pilot and the Reverse Power Control
Sub Channel are always operational.
• The mobile station may support an R-FCH or an R-DCCH.
• Cdma2000 supports up to two Supplemental Channels for data services and since user
signaling cannot take place over the SCHs, either the R-FCH or R-DCCH must be present
continuously.
• The two networks (Core and UTRAN) are interconnected in the UMTS specification by
the lu interface.
• The integration of GSM and UMTS Core Network elements allowed by this
interconnection will facilitate network development, provisioning of network components
and introduction of UMTS based services.
• The UTRAN system allows for several radio interface models:
• Frequency Division Duplexing (FDD) or Wideband CDMA (W-CDMA) for operation in
paired frequency bands.
• Time Division Duplexing (TDD) for operation in unpaired bands.
• W-CDMA is implemented using higher chip rates than cdma2000 (3.84mcps) over 5MHz
wide bands.
• With TDD, uplink and downlink traffic can be transmitted on the same carrier frequency
but during different timeslots.
• One version of this radio interface is Time Division CDMA (TD-CDMA) and the
standard calls for a single carrier with chip rate of 3.84mcps in a 5MHz bandwidth.
• Another version of TDD is Time Division Synchronous CDMA (TD-SCDMA).
• TD-SCDMA combines both TDMA and CDMA principles with other capacity enhancing
techniques.
• The radio signal is spread by a chip rate of 1.28mcps and is contained in a 1.6MHz
bandwidth.
• This gives rise to the possible use of three TD-SCDMA carriers in the same 5MHz
bandwidth as used by TD-CDMA.
• The comparison of TD-CDMA and TD-SCDMA spectrum usage is shown in the
Figure 3.35.