COMMUNICATION STUDIES CAPE

2021 NOTES
CAPE UNIT 1

Mohitha Chindepalli
6B
Mohitha Chindepalli
Compilation of Module 1, 2 and 3 Notes

Table of Contents
Module 1: Gathering and Processing Information 2

Module 2: Language and Community 39

Module 3: Speaking and Writing 56

Sample Module Essays 69

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Module 1: Gathering and Processing Information

Comprehension
Levels of Comprehension
 Literal: Surface meaning, denotation
 Interpretative: Connotative, implied meaning, draw inferences, make educated guesses
 Applied: taking what was said (literal) what was meant (interpretive) and extending
(applying) the concepts beyond the situation to other information
o Analysing
o Synthesizing
o Applying
Discourse
 Refers to any group of sentences written or spoken, that are linked together by their focus
on a particular topic
 This is with the intention to achieve a specific purpose
 Two broad areas of discourse are technical and artistic
Technical
 Objective
 Scientific data, figures and statistics
 Precise language
 Denotative/concrete words
 Neutral tone
 Examples are expository, argumentative, reports etc.
Artistic
 Subjective
 Opinions, bias
 Figurative language/literary devices
 Connotative words
 Affective tone
 Examples are persuasive, narrative, descriptive, reflective etc.
Types of Discourse
 Expository
o Use language for the purpose of explaining, informing or educating
o Questions answered by expository writing: who, what, where, when, why, how
o Expository texts are meant to expose information and frequently used when
writing for academic purposes

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o Expository texts are fact-based and do not contain writer’s opinion as it presents
an objective perspective about a subject or topic
o Organizational Pattern
1. Explanation of A Process/Process Analysis/Sequencing
 Pattern shows the various steps/or how something is done or how
something works
 Often used in the process of explanation
 Writers may list items in a numerical or chronological order
 Features include instructions, systematic, chronological
2. Description
 Information presented by defining what is being described looking
at its characteristics and features
 Examples are used to support descriptions
 The tone is a matter of fact with simple language
 The writer does not express any attitude as the main purpose is to
present information as accurately as possible
3. Cause and Effect
 This pattern is used in writing reports and essays
 It addresses the question of why things happen and the result of
something happening
4. Compare and Contrast
 Writer or speaker explains how two or more events, places, objects
persons are similar and how they are different
5. Problem and Solution
 This pattern gives a clear and accurate description of a problem
and how to follow it with possible solutions or remedies
 Descriptive
o Use of language for the purpose to show, evoke, recreate
o Creates a sense of impression, mental image or mood by relating to the senses, the
physical details of a person, place or thing
o Helps to create and recreate a mood
o Stir feelings, amuse or entertain
o Types:
 Objective: expository, technical writing wherein plain factual details and
characteristics are given
 Subjective: not to simple say what an object is like but also to describe
your response to it/ includes subjective details and figurative language
o Organizational Pattern
1. Spatial Order
 Shows how people or objects are arranged in a space or setting
2. Chronological order and sequential order of importance
 Describing events as they occur
 Narrative

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o Use of language for the purpose to entertain, inform
o Tells a story and gives details in a series of related events
o Use of literary devices, dialogues, action verb, narrative point of view etc.
 Persuasive
o Use language to promote beliefs, opinions or to trigger action
o Organizational Pattern
1. Psychological
 To convince/persuade by using emotional appeal
 Through ue of repetition, rhetorical questions, emotional appeal
2. Argumentative
 To convince by appeals to reason/logic/intellect
 Valid reasoning
 Relevant evidence
 Use of scientific evidence, facts, authoritative opinion
 Personal experience
 Refutation of counter arguments
 The difference between argument and persuasion is the difference
between using logic and using emotion
Analysis of Discourse
 When Analysing the Types of Discourse, You Pay Attention to:
1. Writer’s Intention
2. Purpose
3. Main Idea
4. Audience
5. Appropriateness of Registers
6. Strategies/Techniques used by the writer
7. Reliability/Credibility of Information
 Some Devices to Look Out for when analysing certain types of discourse
Exposition Analysis, classification, definition,
illustration, cause and effect, comparison
and contrast, analogy
Description Adjectives, sense data, descriptive
sequence
Narration Action verbs, dialogue, narrative point of
view, literary devices
Persuasive/Argument Persuasive: repetition, rhetorical
questions, emotional appeal

Argument: evidence, refutation or counter

argument

Language/Organizational/Rhetorical Strategies

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 Refer to devices and ways in which the writer organizes his use of language to
specifically suit his target audience and achieve his purpose
 Use of language to enhance the effectiveness of his or her message
Examples of Language/Organizational/Rhetorical Strategies
 DESCRIPTION
 Good description creates vivid images in the mind of a reader
 A writer may be asked to do objective description, where he or she must relate the
physical appearance of a person or place without suggesting any feeling or
emotion
 Most likely, however, writers will be called upon to write subjective description,
where the feelings of the writer are made obvious by the word choices in the
description
 NARRATION
 A narrative tells a story
 Therefore, most narratives will include some description
 Narratives focus on action
 EXEMPLIFICATION (EXAMPLE)/ILLUSTRATION
 We learn by example, and when we read, examples allow us to learn more quickly
than if we do not have examples
 An example usually describes a real-life situation about the idea that you, the
writer, are trying to convey.
 CAUSE AND EFFECT
 Cause and effect, as the name implies, examines the causes of a certain condition
or event
 It may also examine the results (or effects) of that same event.
 COMPARISON AND CONTRAST
 We use comparison to show how two things are alike or similar; we use contrast
to show how two things are different
 Typically, we compare things that differ from each other
 Contrast, on the other hand, focuses on the differences between two things.

 PROCESS ANALYSIS
 Process analysis asks the question "How?"
 Specifically, a process analysis paragraph or essay answers the question, "How
does this process occur?"
 Process analysis is different from giving instructions; in instructions, the purpose
is to guide someone through a procedure
 In process analysis, the purpose is to explain that procedure.
 CLASSIFICATION

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 Classification looks at a diverse group of objects (a heterogeneous group) and
looks for similarities
 The writer then creates categories based on those similarities and labels each
category.
 DIVISION
 Division takes one item and breaks it up into its constituent parts
 The purpose of a division paragraph or essay is usually for the reader to
understand the item in question
 Whereas classification looks at a heterogeneous (different) group of objects,
division looks at ONE object, or system, only
 The writer then takes that one object, describes its different components, and
shows how those components interact as a part of the whole.
Other ORGANIZATIONAL strategies that may appear in an expository discourse:
 Sequential order
 Order of importance
 Statistical data
 Anecdote
 Quotation
 Assertive language
 Evidence from authoritative/expert sources
 Inclusive language
 Statement of fact
 Inverted commas
 Active voice
 Hypophora
 Sub headings
 Rhetorical appeals
 Inductive/deductive style or reasoning
 Repetition
 Analogy
 Scientific data/details
 Historical data
 Chronological order
 Factual data/details
 Examples
 Cue words
 Step in a process approach
 Background information

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Language Techniques
 Refer to any literary device or figurative language
List of Language Techniques and Other Strategies
Language Devices and their Effects

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Device Description Effect(s) Model response

Writer’s use of evidence and
support
Facts A fact is a piece of ‐ Facts are used to The facts used in this article
information that can demonstrate or emphasise a provide medical evidence that
be demonstrated or writer's point by providing cigarettes are dangerous. The
proven to be true. evidence to support claims ‐ reference to’4,000 different
For example: chemicals’ is a fact that is
'As well as nicotine, each designed to shock the reader;
cigarette contains more than this makes the text more
4,000 different chemicals, powerful.
many of which are harmful to
the body'.
Opinions An opinion is an ‐ Like facts, opinions By expressing the strong
individual's own emphasise the point of a writeropinion that smoking is an
thoughts or beliefs but make the message more ‘awful habit’ and that ‘anyone
personal who smokes stinks,’ the writer
rather than completely factual makes the message more
‐ For example: personal, emphasises the
'Smoking is an awful habit and negative points of smoking,
anyone who smokes stinks'. and makes the reader feel
almost obliged to have a
response.
Statistics A statistic is ‐ Numerical data can be used The statistic ‘9 out of 10
numerical data like facts to emphasise and people’ emphasises the
demonstrate the point of the significant numbers opposing
writer the development and lends
‐ For example: weight to the argument that
'9 out of 10 people voted the building programme
against the proposal should not go ahead.
anecdotes A mini‐story from ‐ Enhances the argument. When the writer describes her
personal experience It makes the text more experience with an anecdote
about a person or personal and connects to ‘Just yesterday I …’ she
incident the reader’s experiences ‐ gives the text a very personal
For example: edge and many of us can
‘Just yesterday I was walking connect here with similar
home from school when …’ experiences of our own which
adds immediacy to her text.

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Quotations Evidence from ‐It can create added authority to The study stating that ‘elephants
source – and in non‐ make the could be extinct in 20 years’ is
fiction writing often text more convincing. convincing because we know it
an expert source Adds credibility to an argument. is given by an ‘animal research
‐For example: expert’ and this helps the article
‘Animal research expert Martin persuade us that something
Davis said’ All the evidence needs to be done since the
from our studies point to the evidence is being provided by
fact that elephants could be an expert in the field.
extinct in 20 years if nothing is
done to prevent tuskhunting.’
Writer’s text design ‐ devices across a text
Formal We use formal ‐This makes a text seem more The use of formal voice in this
voice language in authoritative, with more power letter gives it an authoritative
situations that are of persuasion tone. The word ’compelled’
serious or that ‐For example: makes the reader aware of the
involve people we ‘After reading an article about seriousness of the writer’s
don’t know well. the frightening increase in intention. The phrase
truancy rates in Britain, I feel ‘astoundingly high’ is a formal
Formal language is compelled to offer my views on expression which maintains the
more common when the subject. I was shocked and serious tone.
we write; There are surprised at the astoundingly
also examples where high numbers of students who
spoken English can truant every day.’
be very formal, for
example, in a speech
or a lecture.
Informal Informal language is ‐This Involves the reader at a The use of informal voice helps
voice more commonly more personal level. engage the reader as it seems
used in situations ‐It engages and makes more familiar and relaxed, and
that are more the text more it helps to form a clear picture
relaxed and involve accessible. ‐For of the writer and his attitudes. It
people we know example: makes for lively, entertaining
well. Although The problem with being a reading. In fact you could
more common when parent is kids! I know I am almost imagine him sitting in
we speak, there are sounding like something out a front of you saying these
times where writing TV sitcom, but that’s the way I words. It certainly stimulates a
can be very see it. Now don’t get me wrong, response from the reader.
informal eg, letters I love my kids, but come on –
to friends, emails or I’ve got a life, they’ve got a life,
texts. we all have. So let’s try to meet
half way.

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First A narrative mode ‐ This makes the text more By involving himself and his
person that involves one personal, gives it a personal own eating habits he makes
perspective narrator speaking voice, which interests the his case stronger. The text
of and about reader as they may feel like feels more personal and we
themselves – use of they can 'relate' to the writer can relate to his experience
‘I’ and or that they 'know' them because eating meat is
personal pronouns somehow. It invites empathy something most of us do. He
like ‘we’ as the writer is likely to opens out to include the
‘us’ express personal thoughts personal pronoun ‘we’ which
and feelings. The inclusive gives his text an inclusive
pronoun ‘we’ can make the feel and makes it more
reader feel part of what is powerful.
being written.
For example:
As a committed meat‐eater I
have to acknowledge that if I
want my grandchildren ever
to enjoy a perfect steak I must
address my habits now: all
this animal munching cannot
go on. We all need to see
meat eating as more of a
luxury.

Third In narrative, it is a ‐ Third person narration The use of third person

person mode that involves allows for a separation perspective here helps create
perspective the narrator between the narrator and the a more impersonal and
referring to character and allows for more reflective report. The purpose
characters as information to be revealed to is to inform and it helps
"he"/"she"/"it"/etc . the audience of which even maintain a distance between
the character may not be the subject and the opinions
In non‐fiction it aware. of the writer. It is for the
works in a slightly Third person perspective in audience to read, reflect and
different way non‐fiction is appropriate to form an opinion on the
retain a more impersonal and subject.
distant perspective.
‐For example:
As a means of discouraging
children from a couch potato
lifestyle, it ranks among the
more bizarre solutions.
A designer has come up with
a device that stops the user
watching television until they
have done enough exercise.

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Direct Direct address is ‐ Directly addressing the reader The writer is sharing a feeling
address ( when the text involves them in the text and that is not just personal but
Second addresses the reader makes them think harder something many adults will have
person in a way that makes about what the text is 'saying'. experienced – that thrill of
perspective it sound personal ‐It can create a friendly tone and passing your driving test and the
) achieved through use involve the reader making it feel freedom it gives you. An adult
of second person as though the text is addressed reader will feel more involved
narration 'You'. directly at the reader involving because they share the same
them personally. It can feel emotional response.
friendly, inviting even confiding.
It can also feel forceful and
persuasive.

‐For example:
‘It’s a feeling that stays with you
forever. That wonderful moment
when you sit behind the wheel
and notice that for the first time
that the passenger seat isn’t
occupied by an instructor or
examiner.’

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Tone Tone is the author’s Tone affects the way we read and The first extract has an
attitude to the topic. understand and respond to a text. enthusiastic tone. Marla’s
Objective tone is excitement is conveyed through
impartial – it does not ‐For example: the use of the words ’flew’
show any feelings for Marla leapt down the stairs, two ‘threw’ showing the speed with
or against. at a time, flew into the living which she moved. By stating
Subjective tone is room, threw open the window, that she ‘basked’ in the ‘glory’
personal, biased, and basked in the glory of the we are shown Marla’s delight in
emotional and often freshly fallen snow. the experience of the freshly
informal. Then Marla plodded downstairs fallen snow.
Tone is expressed to the living room, where she
through the words reluctantly opened the window to The second extract has a gloomy
and details the author find that the sticky, freezing white tone. The word ‘ plodded’
selects. stuff was falling from the sky for reflects her mood and lack of
the first time that year. Ugh. enthusiasm is shown through the
use of
‘reluctantly.’ By describing the
snow as ‘freezing white stuff’ she
is avoiding making any
emotional or connection with it.
The final word ‘Ugh.’ Confirms
her negative response.

Writer’s text design ‐ devices within a text

Rhetorical A question that ‐ Rhetorical questions are The use of the rhetorical
questions does not require an used to engage and involve question in the first line of
answer the reader by making them this song engages the reader
think. These are typically from the start and makes
used to make a text more them think about the
persuasive. ‐ For example: metaphor. The rest of the
'How many roads must a song regularly uses rhetorical
man walk down before you questions and so increases
call him a man?' (Bob Dylan) the persuasiveness of the
text. Rhetorical questions
make demands of the
listener; their response is
required, even
subconsciously, and they are
no longer a passive listener.

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List of three Three words or ‐ This technique helps Presenting three key core
reasons put emphasise the point of the skills ‘talented, skilful and
together in a list text and helps cement the focused’ as a list is effective
words in the mind of the as it helps fix the words in
reader. the reader’s mind. List of
‐ For example: three is a powerful tool for
To get to the top of their making words memorable;
sport, footballers need to be the human brain likes
talented, skilful and focused. patterns and structure, and
rhythm. By using groups of
three, the brain recognises
the pattern and stores it more
easily in the memory.

Assertive Writing which ‐It gives the text an ‘Everybody knows that…’ is
language presents authoritative edge –makes it a powerful opening phrase to
information in a sound indisputable the sentence. The writer is
powerfully worded ‐For example: writing with a sense of
way ‘Everybody knows that …’ authority and it leads the
It often uses ‘It is undeniable that …. ‘ reader to accept his word on
imperatives eg this subject without question.
must / have to
Indirect A technique which This technique engages the ‘Imagine’ is a powerful
involvement requests the reader audience opening word as it asks the
to be involved the ‐For example: reader to use their
in a particular ‘Imagine …’ imagination to picture the
through a key word ‘Think of …’ scenario that follows. This is
‘Picture, if you will …. effective in making the
reader feel more a part of the
text. It is a direct appeal to
ethos, and is extremely
effective at the start or end of
a speech, in particular.

Alliteration The repetition of ‐ Alliteration gives variation in The alliteration used for the
initial consonant sentences, which interests the phrase ‘surging snow’ is
sounds at the start reader. It can also be used to effective as it gives the idea of
of two or more make a particular point 'stand the snow always moving and
words out'. helps convey the struggle the
‐ For example: writer experienced climbing
The surging snow buffeted Everest the hard way.
over and around me Alliteration is used for effect
within the context of the
words on the page, but it
always offers the mirroring

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and pattern that the human

brain recognises and stores
more easily in the memory.

Repetition Repetition is the ‐ Repetition is used to Martin Luther King’s speech

repeated use of the emphasise a certain point and is given added power by the
same word or usually makes a text more use of repetition. His five
phrases powerful developed dreams stem from
‐ For example: his introductory reference to
I still have a dream. It is a the American Dream. The
dream deeply repetiton is given added
rooted in the American weight by being use as the
Dream. starting phrase for each of his
I have a dream that one day dream examples. The use of of
this nation will … a single short sentence at the
I have a dream that one day on end ‘I have a dream today.’ Is
the red hills of Georgia… very powerful because the
I have a dream that one day listening can connect with
eve n… each of the ideas he has
I have a dream that my four embedded in listeners’ minds.
little children one day will …
I have a dream today.
Punctuation The use of certain ‐ Punctuation helps structure
marks to clarify sentences as well as intonation
meaning of written clues. These variations keep
material by the reader interested and
grouping words engaged.
grammatically into The description is written in
sentences and one long sentence to give a
clauses and phrases Example 1 ‐ Long sentences sense of the continued onward
There are three There is in the Midlands a movement of the tram car.
examples here: single tramway system which The changing pace of the tram
Long sentences, boldly leaves the county town is dictated by the commas.
short sentences and and plunges off into the black The overall effect is create a
ellipsis. industrial countryside, up ‐hill visual impression for the
But there are many and down dale, through the reader of the relentless
more uses long ugly villages of
of punctuation. workmen’s houses,

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Be aware of the over canals and railways, past speed and distance of the
different uses churches perched high and journey emphasised by words
and the reasons for nobly over the smoke and such as ‘plunges’ and ‘rush’
the uses. shadows, through stark, grimy The upward and downward
cold little market places, tilting movement makes it feels like a
Long sentences or away in a rush past rollercoaster ride.
short sentences are cinemas And shops down to the
chosen for a purpose hollow where the collieries are,
by a writer as part of then up again past s little rural
the crafting process. church, under the ash trees, on
in a rush to the terminus, the
Long sentences can last little ugly place of industry,
be effective when the cold little town that shivers
trying to build a on the edge of the wild, gloomy
picture or idea in a country beyond. ‘A decision was needed.’ Is
reader’s presented as a short sentence to
mind. Example 2 – Short sentences convey its meaning – that there
A decision was needed. I is no time for discussion, only
Short sentences pointed at my watch. ‘Ten action. The subsequent short
make information minutes’ I said. Pertemba sentences help embed the idea
snappy and quick, agreed. That helped us – it that they have to act quickly.
which can make shifted some responsibility to They are experiencing minus
certain points 'stand the watch. I fumbled in my sack centigrade temperatures so they
out' more or give and pulled out our stove to do not want to linger in the cold
variation within the leave behind. The time was up. discussing the matter. They
text to keep the We had to continue the climb. need to move on and this is
reader interested effective conveyed through the
Short sentences are use of short sentences.
also effective in
building tension The ellipsis is effective because
and to make a it gives a pause for effect
dramatic point. Example 3 – Ellipsis (When allowing the reader to connect
elements have been omitted the X Factor and ‘talons/talent’
from a sentence, phrase or word . The pun for ‘got talons’ ( Got
Ellipsis can (they're 'missing'). Talent’ ) works better with
demonstrate a more ellipsis because it prepares you
relaxed register and ‘Forget the X Factor . . . for the joke which follows
an informal way of Mongolia’s got talons’
writing making the (Headline for an article about
text more the annual Eagle Festival in
personal. Mongolia )
Contractions are
examples of
ellipsis,('I'm hungry'
is less

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formal than 'I am

hungry'.)

Ellipsis can also

be used to
indicate a
dramatic pause ‘.
. .’ showing
words are
missing

Writer’s word choices

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Emotive Emotive language is ‐This helps involve the reader The leaflet is intended to be
language designed to make and make them feel a persuasive and its use of
the reader feel particular way. emotive language helps convey
something and have It creates an emotional its powerful message. Use of
an response from the the word
emotional response reader ( eg anger, shock, guilt ‘agonising’ to describe the
to the text. ). chase creates the impression
It is often used to manipulate that the suffering experienced
readers’ feelings It can create a in the chase is immense. The
positive or negative effect word ’ripped’ is a powerfully
emotive word which conveys
‐ For example: the brutality of the death of
The hunted animals are not these hunted animals.
killed quickly – that is a myth.
There is a long agonising chase
before they are ripped limb
from limb.

Imagery Simile ‐ This helps create an image

A figure of speech within the reader's mind,
that expresses a which helps interest them in
resemblance the text ‐ For example:
between things of 'Cold as snow'
different
kinds (usually
formed with ‐ This helps create an image
'like' or 'as') within the reader's mind, which
Metaphor helps interest them in
A figure of speech
in which an
expression is used
to compare

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one thing to the text ‐ The image of the

another by For smoke rising in the
saying example: sky is made stronger
it 'is' that other ‘You are driving me up the wall’ in the mind by the
thing use of ‘thick’ and
‐ This gives a more detailed image in ‘black.’ We see the
the mind of the reader much like a colour but are also
Personification simile or metaphor whilst keeping the aware of the texture.
Personification is reader interested through varied The smell is
used to give devices ‐ For example: effectively expressed
human qualities 'The pipes screeched in the night' through the use of the
or characteristics negatively emotive
to animals or word ‘stench.’
objects
‐ Five senses gives more detail to text
and helps create an image within the
reader's mind.
‐ For example:
Five senses 'The smoke was thick and black as it
Imagery rose from the earth accompanied by the
descriptions of stench of scorched wood'.
sounds, sights,
smells, feelings,
tastes

Exaggeration Hyperbole is ‐Hyperbole can be used to emphasise a The use of the phrase
and extreme point, express a strong emotion, or ‘earth shattering’
Hyperbole exaggeration. evoke humour due to the exaggeration. creates the idea that
‘If my mum find ‐ For example: like 'making a mountain the event is a major
out she’ll kill out of a molehill' an exaggeration such event that will
me’ as saying 'My life is over' when the impress anyone who
Internet is broken is an overstatement. attends. If you do
It can also create a persuasive impact. attend it ‘will blow
‐For example: you mind way’ giving
the impression that
not only is this event
not to missed – it will
never be forgotten.
‘This earth‐shattering event will blow
your mind away’

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Puns A pun is a play ‐ Puns are often considered witty and The pun effectively
on words. Puns are used to engage the reader by connects the reader
usually use making them laugh. It with the subject of
words that have a is a clever use of language. the article in a sharp
double meaning ‐ For example: and focused way.
or that sounds ‘The Burning Issue’ Deforestation is
the same but ( The headline for an article on about the burning
have different deforestation ) down of forests but
meanings the writer has also
established his
debating point
through the title,
because it is a
burning issue – a hot
topic that needs to be
considered seriously.

Evaluating Credible/Believable Information

 Here are a few questions to ask when evaluating information:
1. Is the source of information an expert in the field of knowledge on which he
speaks or writes?
2. Does the information given make a logical sense and agrees with what is known
generally on the given topic?
3. Do other experts in the field of knowledge agree with the information given by
the speaker or writer?
4. Is evidence presented to support the claims made by the speaker or writer?
5. IS there a clear and obvious bias by the speaker/writer presenting the information
that will affect how much you can trust the information to be true?
Discussing the Intended Audience
 Diction
 Organization
 Subject matter
 Content density
 Dissemination

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Research
 Organized and systematic way of finding answers to questions
 Primary Research: original and researcher designs and carries out the research
 Qualitative
o Based on information findings taken from observation, interviewing and
rom tracing patterns of behaviour
o Helps to understand how people feel and why they feel as they do
o In depth nature as one collects significant amounts of information or data
o Samples tend to be smaller
o Duration of research is longer
o Examples: Historical, Ethnographic
 Quantitative
o Requires usage of surveys for statistical analysis
o Requires a large sample- researcher is not likely to have contact with the
participants in the research process
o Examples: Descriptive, Correlational
 Secondary Research: one that depends on accessing information that has already been
researched and can be found in books and other sources

Research Concepts
 Primary sources
o Primary sources are original materials on which other research is based
o They are not interpreted or evaluated
o Examples of primary sources are data gathered by a questionnaire, statistics of
population from the Government census or a first report of a research experiment
and its finding
 Secondary sources
o Secondary sources are less easily defined than primary sources
o Secondary sources interpret and analyse primary sources
o Examples might be text books, or journals which review others work
o It is not always easy to distinguish primary from secondary sources
o A newspaper article is a primary source if it reports events, but a secondary
source if it analyses and comments on those events
Evaluating Reliability and Validity
 In evaluating sources there are two elements reliability and validity
 For a data source to be accurate and credible, high levels of reliability and validity is the
aim

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 Both elements are equal in importance in judging the accuracy and credibility of a
source.
Reliability – Can the source provide the data?
For a source to be reliable, we must evaluate the ability of the source to provide the information.
We are looking at the question “Is it likely that this source can provide this data?”

The issue is therefore authority. To evaluate authority we can look at several aspects of the data
source.

Author - Is the author an expert in the field? What qualifications does he have? For example an
article on a website about HIV+ written by medical doctor might have more authority than one
written by someone without qualification.

Professional standards. – Does the author have certain professional standards? The example of
a doctor immediately comes to mind. Similarly, academic writers who are published in academic
journals or books have to conform to standards and have their work checked by other academics.
Journalists mostly operate within a professional approach, especially large international
newspapers such as the New York Times or the Guardian (UK). Authority can mean expertise.

Publisher – Is the publisher reputable? Academic publishers need to maintain their reputation
for accurate factual information, so they also have editors to ensure a high standard. Other
publishers such as newspapers, magazines etc. need to avoid legal action for libel (telling lies
about someone) so they also should be careful to print the truth.

Organization or Institution – If the data is from an organisation, for example the United
Nations, we need to evaluate their reputation and their role or responsibilities. For example
statistics on the economy from the East Caribbean Central Bank would come from a highly
reliable source as the bank use the statistics to conduct the very important business of issuing
bank notes and controlling the money supply in the region.

Research method – Could the research method chosen generate the data necessary? For
example in researching teen pregnancy, would carrying out an interview of an expert generate
the data needed? Or, would questionnaires of teens be a better choice?

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Validity – Is the data true?

A source could have high levels of reliability. For example, academic research published in an
academic journal by the leading expert in the field. However, the data may have a low level of
validity in that it might be out of date. Equally, it may be possible that a source might not be
considered highly reliable, for example an internet site which does not have the name of the
author, organization who maintains the site etc. However, the data is still true or valid.

In evaluating validity we need to look at accuracy and bias.

To evaluate accuracy we can look at several aspects of the data.

Currency – When was the data published or gathered? Could the information be out of date? For
example statistics on rates of HIV+ infection will need to be up to date to be accurate.

Relevance – Does the information relate to the circumstances you are applying it to? For
example, will research carried out in the United States apply to the Caribbean?

Data collection – Was the data collected by reliable methods? Was it accurately recorded?

Sample size – Was the sample size large enough for generalization to be accurate? For example,
if a newspaper article has only interviewed one person in a large crowd can we assume that all
the points of view are represented? Similarly, with social research, the sample size is vital to
judging whether the data is representative of the population as a whole.

Replicable – Do other sources have similar information? Would another similar piece of
research have the same result? This is particularly relevant to sources such as the internet which
lack of references.

To evaluate bias we can look at:

Representation – Does the sample include all the variables within the population such as age,
gender, social class, religion, education level which might affect response? Even with a large
sample if the sample is not representative then bias in the data will occur.

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Cultural bias – Has the data been collected by someone of the same or a different culture. For
example, a Western researcher may misinterpret a non-Western culture and be biased due to
racism or other factors. Similarly, when researching within one’s own culture, being subject to
the same values and beliefs as the subjects may cause one not to question certain responses. For
example, when evaluating religious or other beliefs.

Political bias – Is the data being presented from either a right wing or a left wing perspective.
The conservative agenda (e.g. free market economics, personal liberty above all other rights and
fundamental religious views) will differ from the liberal agenda (e.g. some control of the market
for social gain, social control for the good of society, religious tolerance for different views).

Social bias – Aspects such as gender, race, age and social class may affect the presentation of
data. For example, a women’s perspective on sexual equality may differ from a man’s views.

Faulty research methods – Even the best academic researchers can make mistakes and
inexperienced researchers such as a student may have issues with poorly designed and executed
questionnaires and interviews. Mistakes within the research method inadvertently cause bias.
This is why academic research is reviewed by several other academics to evaluate the
methodology and avoid bias in the conclusions or faulty conclusions.

Aim of the source in presenting the data – The reason for the data being presented will have an
effect on bias. For example, a Government might present certain statistics on economic
performance if they are favourable and might avoid others. Whilst the data is valid, there might
still be bias in that other relevant information is not present. If the source’s aim is persuasive,
again there may be bias - for example commercial sites wishing to sell products.

The Research Process

The research process is systematic and has several stages:

(a) Selection of topic

The general area for research will be determined by either academic consideration (e.g. to further
knowledge on one particular area) or by a specific need for information (e.g. to make a decision

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on services for example whether to implement an associate degree)

(b) Research question

The research question is the narrowing of focus from a topic. For example the topic, Associate
Degrees at Community College may have a research question “The impact of implementation
Associate Degrees at Community College”.

(c) Thesis
It may be at this stage a thesis will be proposed or it may be that some preliminary data gathering
will take place before the thesis. For our example our thesis which we are seeking to either prove
or disprove will be “Fewer students will take an Associate Degree compared with the current
student numbers taking the A level programme”.

(d) Designing the research instrument

A research instrument is the way in which data (the facts) is gathered. It may be that research
will be carried out solely through reviewing others research (library / book review) or combined
with data gathering through research instruments such as surveys, experiments or observations.
When designing the research instrument, the focus will be the goal of the research question and
the thesis.

(e) Gathering data

The research will use the various instruments to collect information about the topic.

(f) Recording data

Accurate recording of data is central to research. Both primary and secondary research can be
biased by incorrect recording.

(g) Analyzing and evaluation of the data

The data will be assessed against the thesis as well as other conclusions being sought for the
research question. It may be that the research might show fewer students would take the A level
programme. However, other data gathered might show that more students who previously would
not have taken the A level programme would take the Associate degree

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(h) Presentation of results

The research question is used to provide a framework for presenting the findings.

(i) Review of results

In many instances the research process and results are reviewed by either the researcher’s peers
or in an academic evaluation process.

Process of Collecting Data: Interview, questionnaire, observation, case studies

Questionnaire: may be mailed, used over the phone, via face to face interaction
Advantages:
1. it is a quick efficient means of collecting data
2. guarantees anonymity
3. used to survey a large population
4. facilitates the quick reporting and analysis of the data
5. aids easy sorting summarizing and reporting of data
6. allows for easy administering and can be easily and reliably scored

Disadvantages:
1. limits the scope for asking probing questions
2. it is inflexible
3. make assessment of the motivation of the respondent difficult
4. responses are not always objective and may be misleading
5. the items to be forced – choice
6. it is usually limited in the kinds of information that it can elicit
7. they have short spaces for responses

Interviews:
Advantages - It allows:
1. the individuals to contribute their own views on an issue
2. greater flexibility on the part of the researcher and respondent
3. the interviewer to gather more in-depth information and return of data
4. the researcher/respondent to explain, clarify, and correct any
misinterpretation that might arise

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Disadvantages:
1. it is open to bias and subjectivity
2. it may collect unnecessary and irrelevant details
3. it does not allow for anonymity
4. the questions asked may cause the respondent discomfort

Observation
Advantages:
1. it allows for collection of primary data in a natural setting
2. it can high return of data
3. allows the researcher flexibility
4. it reduces bias and possible interference

Disadvantages:
1. it may be affected by researcher bias
2. the reactions of the respondents may be misinterpreted
3. important and relevant information may be missed
4. actions and behaviours never remain static
Research Designs
1. Historical Research – systematic collection and objective evaluations of data related to
past occurrences in determine causes, effects, trends. This design involves four important
steps-defining the problem which would include formulating the hypothesis, locate the
relevant sources of information, summarizing and evaluating it and presentencing and
interpreting the findings.
2. Descriptive Research – describe existing conditions without analyzing relationships
among variables. Three designs fall here: 1. Correlation - examines the extent to which
differences in one variables are related to the differences in one or more other variable; 2.
Observation – here the researcher observes how people act or how things look. 3. Survey
Research – seeks to establish patterns of cause and effect relationships between variables.
Two types of survey – social and public. Social surveys seek to establish cause and
effects of a social phenomenon, while public opinion surveys seek to find out what
people think about a particular issue.

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3. Experimental – test hypothesis by an experiment using an experimental and a control

group
4. Case Study - there is an in-depth investigation of an individual, group, or institution in
order to determine variables and relationships among variables over a period of time.
Here, extensive data is collected. Includes observation, interviews, and documents.
5. Action Research: focusses on finding a solution to a local problem in a local setting. The
problem is identified and all participants set out to investigate the reasons for the problem
and to arrive at a solution to the problem.
Questionnaire
How to Develop a Questionnaire for Research

A questionnaire is a technique for collecting data in which a respondent provides answers to a

series of questions. To develop a questionnaire that will collect the data you want takes effort
and time. However, by taking a step-by-step approach to questionnaire development, you can
come up with an effective means to collect data that will answer your unique research question.

Designing Your Questionnaire

1
Identify the goal of your questionnaire. What kind of information do you want to gather with
your questionnaire? What is your main objective? Is a questionnaire the best way to go about
collecting this information?
 Come up with a research question. It can be one question or several, but this should be the focal
point of your questionnaire.
 Develop one or several hypotheses that you want to test. The questions that you include on your
questionnaire should be aimed at systematically testing these hypotheses.

2
Choose your question type or types. Depending on the information you wish to gather, there
are several possible types of questions to include on your questionnaire, each with unique pros
and cons. Here are the types of commonly used questions on a questionnaire:
 Dichotomous question: this is a question that will generally be a “yes/no” question, but may also
be an “agree/disagree” question. It is the quickest and simplest question to analyze, but is not a
highly sensitive measure.

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 Open-ended questions: these questions allow the respondent to respond in their own words. They
can be useful for gaining insight into the feelings of the respondent, but can be a challenge when
it comes to analysis of data. It is recommended to use open-ended questions to address the issue
of “why.”
 Multiple choice questions: these questions consist of three or more mutually-exclusive categories
and ask for a single answer or several answers. Multiple choice questions allow for easy analysis
of results, but may not give the respondent the answer they want.
 Rank-order (or ordinal) scale questions: this type of question asks your respondent to rank items
or choose items in a particular order from a set. For example, it might ask your respondents to
order five things from least to most important. These types of questions forces discrimination
among alternatives, but does not address the issue of why the respondent made these
discriminations.
 Rating scale questions: these questions allow the respondent to assess a particular issue based on
a given dimension. You can provide a scale that gives an equal number of positive and negative
choices, for example, ranging from “strongly agree” to “strongly disagree.” These questions are
very flexible, but also do not answer the question “why.”
3
Develop questions for your questionnaire. The questions that you develop for your
questionnaire should be clear, concise, and direct. This will ensure that you get the best possible
answers from your respondents.
 Write questions that are succinct and simple. You should not be writing complex statements or
using technical jargon, as it will only confuse your respondents and lead to incorrect responses.
 Ask only one question at a time. This will help avoid confusion
 Beware of asking for private or “sensitive” information. This can be something as simple as age
or weight, or something as complex as past sexual history.
 Asking questions such as these usually require you to anonymize or encrypt the demographic
data you collect.
 Determine if you will include an answer such as “I don’t know” or “Not applicable to me.”
While these can give your respondents a way of not answering certain questions, providing these
options can also lead to missing data, which can be problematic during data analysis.
 Put the most important questions at the beginning of your questionnaire. This can help you
gather important data even if you sense that your respondents may be becoming distracted by the
end of the questionnaire.

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4
Restrict the length of your questionnaire. Keep your questionnaire as short as possible. More
people will be likely to answer a shorter questionnaire, so make sure you keep it as concise as
possible while still collecting the necessary information. If you can make a questionnaire that
only requires 5 questions, do it.
 Only include questions that are directly useful to your research question. A questionnaire is not
an opportunity to collect all kinds of information about your respondents.
 Avoid asking redundant questions. This will frustrate those who are taking your questionnaire.

5
Identify your target demographic. Is there a certain group of people who you want to target
with your questionnaire? If so, it is best to determine this before you begin to distribute your
questionnaire.
 Consider if you want your questionnaire to collect information from both men and women. Some
studies will only survey one sex.
 Determine whether you want your survey to collect information from both children and adults.
Many surveys only target certain age ranges for which the questions are applicable.
 Consider including a range of ages in your target demographic. For example, you can consider
young adult to be 18-29 years old, adults to be 30-54 years old, and mature adults to be 55+.
Providing the age range will help you get more respondents than limiting yourself to a specific
age.
 Consider what else would make a person a target for your questionnaire. Do they need to drive a
car? Do they need to have health insurance? Do they need to have a child under 3? Make sure
you are very clear about this before you distribute your questionnaire.
6
Ensure you can protect privacy. Make your plan to protect respondents’ privacy before you
begin writing your survey. This is a very important part of many research projects.
 Consider an anonymous questionnaire. You may not want to ask for names on your
questionnaire. This is one step you can take to prevent privacy, however it is often possible to
figure out a respondent’s identity using other demographic information (such as age, physical
features, or zipcode).

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 Consider de-identifying the identity of your respondents. Give each questionnaire (and thus, each
respondent) a unique number or word, and only refer to them using that new identifier. Shred any
personal information that can be used to determine identity.
 Remember that you do not need to collect much demographic information to be able to identify
someone. People may be wary to provide this information, so you may get more respondents by
asking less demographic questions (if it is possible for your questionnaire).
 Make sure you destroy all identifying information after your study is complete.

Writing your questionnaire

1
Introduce yourself. Your introduction should explain who you are, and what your credentials
are. You should clarify if you are working alone or as a part of a team. Include the name of the
academic institution or company for whom you are collecting data. Here are some examples:
 I’m Kelly Smith, a 6th form student at Campion College. This questionnaire is part of my final
exam in Communication Studies.
2
Explain the purpose of the questionnaire. Many people will not answer a questionnaire
without understanding what the goal of the questionnaire is. No long explanation is needed;
instead, a few concise sentences will do the trick. Here are some examples:
 This questionnaire will ask you 15 questions about your eating and exercise habits. We are
attempting to make a correlation between healthy eating, frequency of exercise, and incidence of
cancer in mature adults.
3
Reveal what will happen with the data you collect. Are you collecting these data for a class
project, or for a publication? Are these data to be used for market research? Depending on what
you intend to do with the data you collect from your questionnaire, there may be different
requirements that you need to pay attention to before distributing your survey.
 Remember that transparency is best. It is important to be honest about what will happen with the
data you collect.
 Include an informed consent form, if necessary. Note that you cannot guarantee confidentiality,
but you will make all reasonable attempts to ensure that you protect their information.

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4
Estimate how long the questionnaire will take. Before someone sits down to take your
questionnaire, it may be helpful for them to know whether the questionnaire will take them 10
minutes or 2 hours. Providing this information at the onset of your questionnaire is more likely to
get you more complete questionnaires in the end.
 Time yourself taking the survey. Then consider that it will take some people longer than you, and
some people less time than you.
 Provide a time range instead of a specific time. For example, it’s better to say that a survey will
take between 15 and 30 minutes than to say it will take 15 minutes and have some respondents
quit halfway through.
 Use this as a reason to keep your survey concise! You will feel much better asking people to take
a 20 minute survey than you will asking them to take a 3 hour one.
5
Describe any incentives that may be involved. An incentive is anything that you can offer as a
reward at the end of the questionnaire. Incentives can be many types of things: they can be
monetary, desired prizes, gift certificates, candy, etc. There are both pros and cons to offering
incentives.
 Incentives can attract the wrong kind of respondent. You don’t want to incorporate responses
from people who rush through your questionnaire just to get the reward at the end. This is a
danger of offering an incentive.
 Incentives can encourage people to respond to your survey who might not have responded
without a reward. This is a situation in which incentives can help you reach your target number
of respondents.
 Consider the strategy used by SurveyMonkey. Instead of directly paying respondents to take
their surveys, they offer 50 cents to the charity of their choice when a respondent fills out a
survey. They feel that this lessens the chances that a respondent will fill out a questionnaire out
of pure self-interest.
 Consider entering each respondent into a drawing for a prize if they complete the questionnaire.
6
Make sure your questionnaire looks professional. Because you want people to have
confidence in you as a data collector, your questionnaire must have a professional look.
 Always proof read. Check for spelling, grammar, and punctuation errors.
 Include a title. This is a good way for your respondents to understand the focus of the survey as
quickly as possible.

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 Thank your respondents. Thank them for taking the time and effort to complete your survey.

Distributing Your Questionnaire

1
Do a pilot study. Ask some people you know to take your questionnaire (they will not be
included in any results stemming from this questionnaire), and be prepared to revise it if
necessary. Plan to include 5-10 people in the pilot testing of your questionnaire. Get their
feedback on your questionnaire by asking the following questions:
 Was the questionnaire easy to understand? Were there any questions that confused you?
 Was the questionnaire easy to access? (Especially important if your questionnaire is online).
 Do you feel the questionnaire was worth your time?
 Were you comfortable answering the questions asked?
 Are there any improvements you would make to the questionnaire?
2
Disseminate your questionnaire. You need to determine the best way to disseminate your
questionnaire is. There are several common ways to distribute questionnaires: Use an online site,
such as SurveyMonkey.com. This site allows you to write your own questionnaire with their
survey builder, and provides additional options such as the option to buy a target audience and
use their analytics to analyze your data.
 Consider using the mail. If you mail your survey, always make sure you include a self-addressed
stamped envelope so that the respondent can easily mail their responses back. Make sure that
your questionnaire will fit inside a standard business envelope.
 Conduct face-to-face interviews. This can be a good way to ensure that you are reaching your
target demographic and can reduce missing information in your questionnaires, as it is more
difficult for a respondent to avoid answering a question when you ask it directly.
 Try using the telephone. While this can be a more time-effective way to collect your data, it can
be difficult to get people to respond to telephone questionnaires.
3
Include a deadline. Ask your respondents to have the questionnaire completed and returned to
you by a certain date to ensure that you have enough time to analyze the results.
 Make your deadline reasonable. Giving respondents up to 2 weeks to answer should be more
than sufficient. Anything longer and you risk your respondents forgetting about your
questionnaire.

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 Consider providing a reminder. A week before the deadline is a good time to provide a gentle
reminder about returning the questionnaire. Include a replacement of the questionnaire in case it
has been misplaced by your respondent.

Types of Questionnaire Formats

There are two types of questionnaire questions, open-ended and closed-ended. Following
description will help you understand the format of questionnaire better, have a look:

1. Open Format Questions

Open format questions or open-ended questions give your audience an opportunity to express
their opinions in a free-flowing manner. These questions don't have predetermined set of
responses and the respondent is free to answer whatever he/she feels right. By including open
format questions in your questionnaire, you can get true, insightful and even unexpected
suggestions. Qualitative questions fall under this category.

An ideal questionnaire would include an open-ended question at the end of the questionnaire that
seeks feedback and/or suggestions for improvements from respondents.

Example of an Open Format Question

2. Closed Format Questions

Multiple choice questions, where respondents are restricted to choose among any of the given
multiple choice answers are known as closed format or closed-ended questions. There is no fixed
limit as to how many multiple choices should be given; the number can be even or odd.

One of the main advantages of including closed format questions in your questionnaire design is
the ease at performing preliminary analysis. These questions are ideal for calculating statistical
data and percentages, as the answers set is known. Closed ended questions can also be asked to
different groups at different intervals to efficiently track their opinion about a

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product/service/company over time. Closed-ended questions can be further classified into 7

types.

Example of a Closed Format Question

Classification of Closed Format Questions for Questionnaire Design

There are 7 ways in which pollsters can create polling or survey questions for their respondents
to collect accurate statistical data. Following is a list of 7 types of closed-ended questions that
can be a part of your questionnaire design:

A. Leading Questions
Questions that force your audience for a particular type of answer are known as leading
questions. In a leading question, all the answers would be equally likely. An example of a
leading question would be a question with choices such as, fair, good, great, poor, superb,
excellent etc. These questions are meant to get an opinion from the audience in limited words.

Example of a Closed-Ended Leading Question

B. Importance Questions
In importance questions, the respondents are usually asked to rate the importance of a particular
issue, on a rating scale of 1 to 5. These questions can help you understand things that hold
significance to your respondents and allow you make business critical decisions.

Example of a Closed-Ended Importance Question

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C. Likert Questions
Likert questions can help you ascertain how strongly your respondents agree to a particular
statement. Such type of questions also help you assess how your customers feel towards a certain
issue, product or service.

Example of a Closed-Ended Likert Question

D. Dichotomous Questions
These are simple questions that ask respondents to answer in a yes or no. One major drawback
with dichotomous questions is that it cannot analyze the answers between yes and no, there is no
scope for a middle perspective.

Example of a Closed-Ended Dichotomous Question

E. Bipolar Questions
Bipolar questions are the ones having two extreme answers written at the opposite ends of the
scale. The respondents are asked to mark their responses between those two.

Example of a Closed-Ended Bipolar Question

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F. Rating Scale Questions

In rating scale questions, the respondents are asked to rate a particular issue on a scale that
ranges between poor to good. Rating scale questions usually have an even number of choices, so
that respondents are not given the choice of selecting a middle option.

Example of a Closed-Ended Rating Scale Question

G. Buying Propensity Questions

Buying propensity questions try to assess the future intentions of customers and determine
respondent's buying intention. These questions ask respondents if they want to buy a particular
product, what requirements they want to be addressed, and whether they would buy such a
product in future.

Example of a Closed-Ended Buying propensity Question

Questions to Be Avoided In a Questionnaire

There is something more important than knowing the questionnaire format and what type of
questions to be asked in a questionnaire. It is understanding, what questions need to be avoided
in a survey or poll.

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Take care to avoid following type of questions when preparing a questionnaire:

1. Embarrassing Questions
Questions that ask respondents details about their personal and private matters are embarrassing
questions. Such types of questions are better to be avoided as you risk losing trust of your
respondents. Your respondents might also feel uncomfortable to answer such questions and
might refuse to answer your questionnaire altogether.

2. Positive/ Negative Connotation Questions

Since most verbs, adjectives and nouns in the English language have either a positive or negative
connotations, questions are bound to be taken as either positive or negative. While defining a
question, strong negative or positive overtones must be avoided. You will get different data
depending on the positive or negative connotation of your question. Ideal questions should have
neutral or subtle overtones.

3. Hypothetical Questions
Hypothetical questions are based on speculation and fantasy. An example of a hypothetical
question would be "If you were the CEO of an ABC organization what would be the changes that
you would bring?" Questions such as these, force respondents to give their ideas on a particular
subject, and generally the data collected through such questions are inconsistent and unclear.
Hypothetical questions should be avoided in questionnaires.

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Listening
 Process of receiving sounds and unconsciously making sense and meaning of them
 Types of Listening:
1. Comprehensive- listening to understand a message from a speaker
2. Appreciative-listening for pleasure and for entertainment, not much attention
paid
3. Empathetic- listening as a means of emotional or moral support and the
providing of feedback to assure the speaker that he or she is being listened to
4. Critical- listening with a view to evaluate the content and forms of a message
 These types are all purposes of listening as well
 Listening Process
1. Hearing
2. Perceiving
3. Attending
4. Comprehending
5. Responding
 Barriers to Effective Listening
o Daydreaming
o Poor posture
o Mentally arguing with speaker
o Negative attitude to the speaker or message
o Pre-set ideas about the topic
o Physical discomfort
o Speaker’s voice, gesture or appearance
 Techniques for Effective Listening
o Prepare to Listen
o Pay Attention
o Listen for Key Words
o Defer your Opinion
o Make notes
o Establish eye contact whenever possible

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Module 2: Language and Community

Language and Community
 This is under the assumption that language is a social pillar of the community
 Language is indispensable to the survival of human communities
Generic Language Vs. Individual Language
 Language can be defined as the system of spoken and written sounds and symbols that is
used to communicate
 System means formally organized with independent parts/an inborn potential to use
linguistic system of signs and sounds (code) for the purpose of communication that is
shared by all human beings
 In contrast, “A Language” is the ‘tongue’ or the system of communication which is
specific to one group
 I.e. Different cultures or geographical regions have developed their own languages which
have characteristics that suit their situation
Communication: Man Vs. Animal
 Human beings and animals are different in the way that humans dominate over all the
other species on the planet
 Humans ability to:
o Conceptualize abstract ideas
o Develop ideas
o Engage in problem solving
o Extend its knowledge
o Invent tools
o Organize himself in a complex society
 Animals also have their own system of communication by which they send and receive
ideas about their needs and feelings, however it is less complicated than human language
in ways that it is:
o not reflective or descriptive
o not predominantly vocal
o is instinctive
 Therefore, while all languages facilitate communication, communication is not
synonymous with language
 Animals do not have language based on the nature of language and purpose of language
Nature of Language or Characteristics
 Uniquely Human
o Used within human societies for the purpose of communicating
o Occurs natural for humans who do not have to consciously convert their thoughts
into speech

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 Non-Instinctive
o Humans are not born possessing a language
o They are born with a predisposition towards acquiring language
o However, the language we learn to speak is culturally determined-dependent not
necessarily on the language our parents speak
 Systematic
o Consistent of rules and convention that regulate its structure, pronunciation and
order
o Its system provides the framework to generating and producing speech acts
appropriate for an infinite number of situations, rather than providing us with a
finite store of readymade utterances
o Hence the language system allows us to forever create speech acts never before
uttered
 Symbolic (arbitrary)
o There is hardly a fixed and inherent association between words in a language and
the object or ideas that the words signify
o The meaning of the symbols used to represent certain concepts is determined by
the speakers within the language communities (groups that speak a particular
language)
 Dynamic (evolutionary)
o Language is always changing as new words are always being added to its lexicon
or system of words and words which become archaic are dropped from uses
o Meanings of words change with the passage of time
 Maturational
o As a normal human being develops and grows older, he will gain the use of more
words and more complex sentences than he was formally taught
o The brain will generate novel words and utterances and the speaker will even use
old words and expression in new ways
o Thi keeps language dynamic
 Verbal
o Must be spoken to meet the requirement of language
o This is why animal and other nature sounds are not considered language
The Linguistic Sign
 Language is composed of signs which are the figures, marks or devices that are used to
express a particular meaning
 The linguistic sign stands for something other than itself and it has two components:
o Signal- the letters, words and icons that make up the sign
o Signified- the thought and ideas that the sounds and images of the signal
represent
 Three Types of Signs:
1. Symbolic

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o Involves signals that are arbitrary in meaning and do not resemble what
they stand for
o These are socially determined by the people who use the signs
o Examples are language in general, letters in the alphabet, punctuation
marks, words, phrases, sentences, numbers, Morse codes, flags etc.
2. Iconic
o Consists of signals that resemble the thing or idea that they stand for
o Examples are pictures, models, imitative gestures
3. Indexical Sign
o Signals which are directly connected in some way to the thing that they
represent
o The relationship between the indexical sign and what is stands for is not
arbitrary
o Examples are smoke and fire, symptoms of an illness and such
Functions and Purpose of Language
 Communicative Function
o Language allows us to engage in complex communication about abstract concepts
and contingency planning whether real or imagined
o It allows to comprehend ideas that are completely new to us, as well as to
rearrange and communicate our thoughts and feelings in different ways
o It is used referentially when its primary function is to convey information, such as
directions etc.
 Expressive Function
o Language allows us a creative vent to our feelings, ideas and emotions, both in
speech and in writing
o Language is used affectively when the primary aim is not simply to communicate
information but to select the more appropriate way to communicate ideas that
show respect for the person involved and the context of communication
o It is used aesthetically when the user’s main emphasis is to reveal pleasure that
can result from the images, play of meanings, sounds and rhythm within the
language use
 Reflective Function
o Language allows one to process and uses past events and experiences to impact
and alter our present situations
 Identification Function
o Provides and reinforces our sense of identity in two significant ways
1. Gives users a sense of identity as a part of a larger community
2. Marks off the individual user as being different from all other users with
the language community. One’s idiolect is his or her use of certain
words and pronunciation unique to him or her
o Language is used phatically when its primary purpose is to facilitate daily social
interactions and intercourse

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o Language shapes our cultural world view, by providing insight into how cultures
work and how they change and shape one’s use of language
 Meta-Linguistic Function
o Using language to speak about language, how it is used, how we use it and how
its use affects us and others
o When language is used aesthetically to talk or write about literature or grammar
and the effect of speech or such has on us, the meta-linguistic function comes out
Language in Society
 Functions and Purposes of Language in Society
o Main tool used to establish society and keep it together
o Society is able to create agreed rules and regulations, convey and receive
information for its survival
o Pass on its culture through oral and written forms
o Facilitate the development of science and technology
o Resulted in the creation of formal learning institutions and educational structures
o Recreational purposes
 Language is common to all societies and it is a distinguished feature of all human
societies and influences one’s culture and thought processes
 Language situations vary from region to region, country to country and community to
community
 Modern Language Situation
o Each society is distinct in terms of language or languages used
o Societies where only one language is used- monolingual
o Societies that use more than one language- bilingual
o Societies using multiple languages- multilingual
 Factors Influencing Language
o Historical Factors
 Related to colonization or migration
o Social Factors
 Social dominance of a group ensures that its dialect becomes the one that
assumes the place of importance in society
 This will be considered to be the standard language in society
 Much of the dynamism of a language is as a result of constant social
change and the emergence of new cultural phenomena as a result
 However, the elements of social and economic class always affect attitude
to and choice of language.
 Social factors also determine which types of language are considered
desirable and which ones are improper
o Cultural Factors
 Global movement of people has been a major influence on language
 Many migrants and refugees are eager to assimilate quickly as much of the
new culture as they can, to facilitate their ability to fit in with their society

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 The coexistence of different languages from different cultures in a society
results in linguistic changes in all the languages
o Political Factors
 The official language of a country is normally indicated in the national
constitution or other official sources
 Recognition given to other languages is also a political or government
decision
 Political influences on language can determine the extent to which
minority languages or dialects are accepted, recognized or utilized in a
society
Language Situations in the Caribbean
 Caribbean is described as a complex linguistic region, largely because its complicated
history has resulted in an array of languages, dialects and vernacular forms
 The arrival of the European colonists in the 15th and 16th centuries meant that non-
indigenous languages began to take root in the society
 Many of these Europeans were themselves speakers of non-standard dialects and no one
variety of English, French, Portuguese, Dutch or Spanish was spoken
 When the need arose for cheap labour to work on the plantations, Africans were captured,
enslaved and imported primarily from countries along the West Coast of Africa
 Many of them were also speakers of various non-standard dialects of their own languages
 However, in order to minimize communication among the slaves as a security measure,
plantation owners mixed the slaves whom they brought
 So few African speaking the same language could be found on any one plantation
 After emancipation of the enslaved Africans, estate owners began recruiting indentured
labourers from India, China and some Portuguese territories
 These people introduced an even greater potpourri of dialects
 The last major group of non-indigenous people came from Syria and Lebanon
 They came primarily to Trinidad and, to a lesser extent, Jamaica and the southern island
chain
Language in the Caribbean
 Pre-Columbian Situation
o Arawak and Cariban languages spoken in mainland territories spread into the
island territories
o Contact/conflict – Island Carib, and Arawak language which has incorporated
Carib elements
 Effect of European Colonization on This Situation
o The demise of the indigenous languages; Black Caribs deported to Belize
(Spanish conquistadores)
o The introduction of European languages (the landing of Christopher Columbus –
Spanish; French settlers; Portuguese settlers)

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o The introduction of African Languages (African slaves, speaking various
languages, create a common means of communication)
o The introduction of Asian languages (Chinese settlers come as labourers; East
Indian settlers come as labourers)
 The Development of a Caribbean Identity
o Caribbean varieties of European languages
o Caribbean varieties of Asian languages
o The emergence of Creole languages
o The fate of African languages in the Caribbean: words/Ritual languages
 The Language of the Caribbean Today
o Indigenous languages survive in the mainland territories but are under threat
o The Caribbean is divided into Spanish-speaking, English-speaking, French-
speaking and Dutch-speaking communities
o English, French, and Dutch are elite/minority languages
o The Spanish legacy consists mainly of indigenized standard varieties;
additionally, Papiamentu (vernacular, ABC islands), Palenquero (Maroon, Creole,
Colombia)
o In several Caribbean territories, Creole languages are majority languages
o In several Caribbean territories, change in colonial ownership has resulted in a
modern situation where the official language and the Creole language do not
match
o Dutch Creoles, once spoken in Guyana (Berbice Dutch and Skepi Dutch) and St.
Thomas and St John (Negerhollands), have not survived the twentieth century;
English-Lexifer Creole has spread at their expense
o In “Dutch” Caribbean territories, Creole languages are spoken of English
(Suriname), mixed English – Portuguese (ABC islands) lexical bases
o Spanish and Dutch show that colonial and linguistic dominance are not
necessarily commensurate
o In Suriname, Asian languages have viable speech communities (Sarnami Hindi)
Jamaican Language Continuum
 This shows the range of languages and language dialects spoken in Jamaica
 This is referred to as a continuum since not every point is a separate language
 One will switch from one to the other in a conversation and the continuous change of
Creole into becoming more like English is called Decreolization
 Stages of the Continuum:
o Basilect
 Form of Creole with more African derived features than other form and is
said to be the first point on the continuum
 Spoken in rural areas by uneducated persons (controversial view)
o Mesolect
 Form of Creole with more English derived features than the Basilect and is
said to be the point on the continuum next to Basilect

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 Spoken by urban and educated persons
o Acrolect
 Jamaican Standard English and it is the last point on the continuum
 Most spoken in formal situations
Linguistic Features of Jamaican Creole
 The four linguistic features are:
1. Phonology
2. Lexicon
3. Grammar
4. Syntax
Lexical Features
 This refers to the vocabulary of a certain language
 For Caribbean Creole English, many of the lexical terms are derived from English,
however some are derived from other languages as well
 In Jamaican Creole English, some English words have been compounded to create nouns,
adjectives and verbs which do not exist in English
 Examples of Compound Nouns
o Eye-water: tears
o Hand-middle: palm
o Nose-hole: nostrils
o Neck-back: nape
o Arm-hole: armpit
o Head-top: crown
o Foot-bottom: Sole
 Examples of Compound Adjectives
o Hard-ears: stubborn
o Sweet-mount: flatter
o Bad-mouth: to discourage by destructive criticism
o Force-ripe: forward, precocious
o Red-eye: envious
 Creole words are also formed by reduplication, which is basically base words which are
repeated to form new word
 Examples of Reduplication
o Freni-freni: very friendly
o Chati-chati: talk excessively or out of turn
 The usage of some creole words, similar to English do not have the same meaning in
English as they do in Creole
 Examples of Lexical Words

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Lexical Item English Meaning Creole English Meaning

Ignorant Lacking in knowledge or Irritable and lancing in
information self- control
Tea A beverage or a drink made Any hot beverage
from dried leaves of an
evergreen Asian shrub
Belly A person’s stomach Pregnant/ resentment
Dark With little or no light To be bashful and
introverted

Phonological Features
 Sound system of Jamaican Creole English is not identical to that of English
 E.g. the English word ‘this’ is pronounced as ‘dis’ the word ‘with’ is pronounced as ‘wid’
and ‘these’ is pronounced as ‘dese’
 Final consonance clusters are not said in some words in Jamaican Creole
 E.g. ‘child’ is pronounced as ‘chile’ and ‘last’ is pronounced as ‘las’
 Colloquial Aphesis is the tendency to omit unstressed syllables in pronunciation
 E.g.
o Kaazn- because
o Gainst- against
o Kaal- call
o Dawta- daughter
Grammatical Features
 Possession
o Instead of adding the apostrophe s, creole English uses the word ‘fi’
Creole English Standard English
A fi Jon mango It is John’s mango
A fi mi mango It is my mango
 Pluralization
o In English, plurals are signalled by the addition of a suffix to the regular nouns or
by the changing of the noun form as is the case with irregular verbs
o In Creole the plurals are signalled by the addition of word ‘dem’ to the noun
phrase
o Examples:
 De bwoy dem- the boys
 De two book dem- the two books
 Mary dem want to come- Mary and her friends want to come

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o ‘Dem’ is also multifunctional and not solely restricted to marking plurals of count
nouns
o It can be used as a pronoun
o Examples:
 Dem a come- They are coming
 Mi si dem a come- I see them coming
 Dem boy de ready now- Those boys are ready now
 Copula Verb Construction
o In English a copula links the subject of a sentence to the predicate
o It is derived from the verb ‘to be’
o Jamaican Creole English, in contrast, can have a zero copula use structure
o Examples
 I am Happy- Mi Happy, I happy
 The Past Tense
o Verb forms do not change in Jamaican Creole to signal the past tense
o Examples:
 Mi drive de van yesterday
 Him did see mi at the beach las Sunday
Syntax
 In creole English the ordering and placements of phrases and sentences are used to
highlight and emphasize different aspects of meaning in a sentence
 This is known as front focussing
 Is Pam eat de mango, focus is on the doer
 Is yesterday Pam eat de mango, focus is on yesterday
 Is eat Pam eat de mango? Focus is on action

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Communication Technology
Terms Relating to Effective and Ineffective Communication
 Miscommunication
o When there is a discrepancy in meaning between what a communication intends a
message to convey and what the audience actually perceives the message to mean
 Misinformation
o Cause of miscommunication or giving of erroneous information or impression
o Meaning is a shared transaction between participants in the communication
process
o If both do not have the same understanding of what the message means
misinformation is inevitable
o E.g. Use of irony, voice inflexion, words changing with new meaning
 Disinformation
o Deliberate dissemination of information intended to mislead and give the wrong
impression or used to manipulate
Background on Communication Technology
 Human communication is necessary because we are social beings
 Progress of technological advancements from the BCE times to CE times can be tracked
 Cave paintings, carrier pigeons, marathon men, smoke signals and etc.
 African tribes used talking drums

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 Now we use postal services, newspapers, radio, telephone, telegrams, bullroarer and in
more modern times the internet
 Definition of Communication Technology
o Refers to the application of scientific advancements in telephony (vice and
voiceless) to process of communication with the aim of making it more efficient
Common Technologies in Use Today
1. Instant Messaging (IM, Live Chat)
o Advantages
 Immediate communication
 Accountability
 Affordable
 Productive
o Disadvantages
 Requires hardware
 Requires internet
 Internet is not always safe and privacy may be an issue
2. Telephone
o Advantages
 Immediate communication
 Accountability
 Conferencing
 Voicemail
o Disadvantages
 Expensive international calling rates
 Both sender and receiver must have phones
3. Cellular Phone
o Advantages
 Mobility
 duality
o Disadvantages
 Battery life is short
 Cell phones are expensive and the rates are also expensive
 Signal coverage varies
 Both sender and receiver must have access to either cellular
or telephone technology
4. Email
o Advantages
 Emails are delivered quickly
 Efficient enough to be sent to multiple students
 Inexpensive
 Convenient
o Disadvantages

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 Must have relevant device
 Inboxes may be crowded
 No guarantee of email was delivered
 Persons must be able to read
 Emails can lack privacy and accounts are often hacked
5. Facsimile
o Advantages
 Can transmit data over long distances (range)
 Convenience because a large amount of documents can be sent
 Cost effective
 Hard copies are received by receiver and can be available for future
o Disadvantages
 Consumes paper can be challenge if the receiver has not loaded paper in
their system
 Both parties must have a fax machines
 Sender must make sure fax numbers are correct
 Receiver must be able to read
6. Television
o Advantages
 Facilitates both audio and visual signals
 Facilitates mass communication
o Disadvantages
 Television channels can be changed and message missed
 Advertising and airtime can be very expensive
 The receiver can respond directly or have real time conversation in most
instances
7. Radio
o Advantage
 Relatively inexpensive
 A form of mass communication
 Radio can be found anywhere in any appliance store
 It is convenient and can be listened to when the receiver is doing other
things
o Disadvantages
 Only audio communication
 Interference from other devices and appliances
 The flow of information is one way
8. Electronic Billboard
o Advantages
 Both audio and visual communication can be transmitted
 Facilitates mass communication
 Images can be animated
o Disadvantages

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 Dependant on electricity (for the most part)
 Receiver must be able to read
 Placement may not be convenient for receivers to stop
 More visually appealing at night
9. Videoconferencing
o Advantages
 Facilitates both audio and visual communication
 Real time communication
 Receiver can consider both verbal and non-verbal aspects of the message
o Disadvantage
 Expensive to implement
 Persons need to have special training and computer literacy
 High maintenance cost
 Both sender and receiver must have the requisite technology
10. Video Chat
o Advantages
 Affordable
 Laptops, webcams, tablets and smart phones are popular
 Can conduct live meetings and Receiver can consider both verbal and
nonverbal aspects of the message
o Disadvantages
 Both sender and receiver must have the technologies and programs
necessary
11. Personal Digital Assistants
o Advantages
 Facilitates intra-personal communication
 Affordable
 Can store large quantities of information
o Disadvantages
 Features can be distracting
 Users must be able to read and use device
 User must be able to remember where information is stored in the PDA
12. Social Media
o Advantages
 The ability to share information in an unrestricted manner
 It facilitates 24-hour access
 It enables real time instant communication
 Inexpensive
 Entertaining but can also facilitates academic pursuits and business
o Disadvantages
 Can be used irresponsibly
 Privacy can easily be invaded by hackers
 Inappropriate content is often posted

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 Both sender and receiver must have the apps required
Language Elements/Indicators
 Language Registers
 Kinds of English appropriate to a particular purpose or situation
 Refers to the level of formality/informality and tone that are correct for a specific
context
 A register can refer to either written or spoken language
 In deciding which register is suitable for a given situation one has to consider
factors such as:
 Audience for which communication is intended
 Nature of the subject matter being spoken or written about
 Medium which may or may not include non-verbal elements of
communication
 Writer’s attitude towards the content he writes about
 Formal
 For use in formal social settings
 Involves use of Standard English
 Casual
 For use between friends/acquaintances in a non-formal setting
 Usually marked by use of slang and ellipsis
 Intimate
 For use between people who are very close
 Usually marked by minimal sentence structure, ellipsis, non-verbal
elements of communication
 Specialized words/expression restricted in meaning to those involved in
this intimate relationship
 Consultative
 For use in a situation where the listener is expected to give some form of
continuous feedback based on the information provided by the speaker
 Frozen
 For use in print and public speeches, sermons and recitations for which no
direct response from a reader/listener is expected
 Private
 For use when one is speaking or thinking to themselves
 Dialectal Variations
 Refers to spoken and written different in the use of language within a speech
community (English in this case)
 Speech related variation within the Caribbean may all be located in the creole
continuum
 This is a spectrum of language variation linking the more standard end of the
linguistic range to the creole end
 Acrolect refers to the standard variety of the language

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 Mesolectal refers to the varieties which are closer in features to the standard
language which are primarily used in urban areas
 The Basilect represents the variety mainly used in the rural areas and which has
mainly creole features
 Types of Dialectal Varieties:
 Foreign English
 Used mainly by tourists and expatriates from other countries where
English is a major language
 It may also be spoken by Caribbean nationals who try to imitate the
accent of tourists with whom they associate
 Radio and Television English
 Involve sound and the human voice in the electronic media
 Can be divided into newscasts, music programmes, advertisements
and general public features
 Erudite English
 Language containing features that show that the speaker is
knowledgeable of words, phrases and idiom, especially older one
and foreign ones which are considered to be difficult
 Colloquial English
 Refers to English which is characteristically West Indian without
being Creole English-marked by differences in pronunciation, pitch
and syntax
 Rasta English
 Variety of English made popular by the Rastafarian cult which
consists of biblical and apocalyptic words
 Words related to Africa or African things, punning or playing on
words “I” words
 Profane English
 Refers to impolite and shocking expressions and obscenities (used
in cursing) involving God, religious things, sex, sexual organs and
practices
 Attitudes to Language
 These attitudes towards the English spoken in the Caribbean result from a number
of factors including historical and social ones
 Crucial to the attitude one adopts are two considerations:
1. The association of education, formality and good taste with
Standard English
2. Question as to whether creole English is fitting and
appropriate for certain uses
 Attitudes to the use of language may include
 Pride
 Confidence
 Celebration

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 Contempt
 Shame
 Ridicule
 Code switching or adopting the variety of English spoken by others can be a sign
of lack of confidence and pride in one’s mother tongue
 Communicative Behaviours
 Refers to communicating impressions to others without being aware of doing so
(unconscious) and without even wishing to do so (inevitable)
 Elements
1. Vocalics: use of volume, rate, tone and pitch of voice to give dimension to
meaning
2. Proxemics: use of space to communicate
3. Artifacts: objects that relay a message about you
4. Movement: posture, gesture, eye contact, facial expression that say
something about you
5. Chronemics: attitude and use of time that communicate something about
you
6. Our five senses: these convey information to you about others
 Functions of Non-Verbal Communication
1. Substituting for words
2. Reinforcing words
3. Regulating how the verbal message is received
4. Contradicting the verbal message
5. Managing the impression or the way other people perceive you
6. Establishing relationship

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Module 3: Speaking and Writing

Communication
 Transmission of information or signals from one party to another
 Activity that serves to connect senders and receivers of messages through space and time
 Process by which information is exchanged between individuals through a common
system of symbols, signs or behaviours
Elements of Communication
 Sender (Source)
 Message (Information)
 Channel/Medium (Means of Communicating Message)
 Receiver (Target for Message)
 Feedback (Response)
Process of Communication
1. Encoding
o Begins with idea to be conveyed
o Conceptualisation phase
o Hard to convey an idea without putting it in a comprehensive or understandable
form
o Idea must be encoded or given a format in words, actions or depictions
o Represent an idea in a way that enables it to be brought across to people
2. Selecting A Channel or Medium
o Dependent on:
 Type of Message
 Number of Receivers
 Immediacy of Response
o This medium should support and enhance the opportunity for the receiver to
receive accurately what the actual message is
o Should depend on the context of the situation or the nature of the message
o If the message is public or private, if the audience is an individual or group or
whether a feedback is necessary instantly or not
3. Decoding and Interpretation
o The decoder is the receiver
o This receiver uses past experiences, lessons, language, opinion, perception etc. to
decode the message sent
o This is used to interpret the meaning of the message
o However, misinterpretation can take place, therefore the receiver/decoder should
seek clarification by giving feedback to the message

4. Feedback
o Communication is not linear

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o The receiver processes information and decodes it, then sends a response to the
sender
o No response or minimal response is also a feedback
o Feedback determines if there will be further communication, therefore it is as
important as the original message
o Feedback can be in the form of actions, physical reaction, speech, writing etc.
Barriers and Facilitators
 Noise
o Anything that detracts from the sent message and hinders effective
communication
 Sender
o Sender’s attitude, prejudices, frame of reference and language
 Receiver
o Receiver’s attitudes, background and the experiences that affect the decoding
process
 Channel/Medium
o Traffic noise, static (external)
o Speech Impediments or lack of clarity in writing or speaking (internal)
Barriers
 Anything that affects the understanding of a message
 Result of type of language used, the medium/channel used to convey the information or
vagueness of a message
Categories of Barriers
 Semantic Noise
o Stems from barriers in language use
o Example: Difference between creole/dialect and standard English
 Physiological Noise
o May be caused when the speaker or the listener has speech or articulation issues
o Hearing loss, memory loss or visual impairment
o Cognitive and mental barriers
o Example: prejudice in either the sender or receiver, personal feelings such as false
expectations and extreme emotionalism (anger, love)/attitudes, perception, culture
etc.
 Environmental Noise
o Classroom, traffic, awful smell, inadequate ventilation etc.

Facilitators

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 Help in passing the information facilitating a mutual understanding
 These may be tangible or intangible
Tangible Facilitators
 Appropriate or familiar language/appropriate medium or channel/accessible
channel/audio or visual aids (books, computer, microphones etc.)
Intangible Facilitators
 Motivators such as the drive to succeed, positive attitudes in an individual’s relationship
with others
Effective and Ineffective Communication
1. Effective
o Sender and receiver interpret the message the same way
2. Ineffective
o Sender and receiver are not on the same page
o What the sender wants to convey is not what the receiver understands
o Due to misunderstanding caused by emotional and social sources of noise
o E.g. preoccupation, lack of attention, lack of listening to understand but rather to
respond
o In order to make the communication effective one must pay attention to what is
communicated, how you communicate and the feedback you receive
Forms of Communication
 Verbal
o Spoken (conversation, speeches, storytelling, debates etc.)
o Written (expository, argumentative/persuasive, narrative, descriptive, reflective
etc.)
 Non-Verbal
o Information sent not using words but using elements such as
 Proxemics: use of space to communicate meaning
 Kinesics/Movement: use of posture, gestures, eye contact, facial
expression and other body language to convey meaning
 Chronemics: how attitude to, and use of time conveys information about
people
 Artifacts: use of objects such as jewellery, dress etc. to convey meaning
 Graphic and Symbols: use of charts, tables diagrams etc. to convey
meaning
 Paralanguage/Vocalics: use of charts, tables, diagrams etc. to convey
meaning
 Senses: how the five senses convey impression about people
 Others are role play, miming and simulation

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o Six Basic Functions of Non Verbal Communication
1. Substituting for words
2. Reinforcing words
3. Regulating how the verbal message is received
4. Contradicting the verbal messages
5. Managing impression or controlling people’s perception
6. Establishing relationships with a particular group or individual
Contexts of Communication
 Circumstances and the environment within which communication occurs
 Communication does not occur in a vacuum (occurs within a context)
 Appropriateness of the form of communication you select should be in relation to its
context
 Non-verbal modes of behaviour can be inappropriate to the context of the communication
in which you are engaged and modes of speech and writing can as well
 Context of communication may be either formal or informal and all elements of the
communication should reflect this
 Formal
o One in which certain societal norms would be evident and there would be
perceived patterns of behaviour
 Informal
o One where individuals or groups would not be constrained by specified ways in
which communication would take place
Levels of Contexts of Communication
 Intrapersonal
o Reflexive function of language
o When we communicate with ourselves
o Thinking, daydreaming, imagining, contemplating, inner speech, self-talk or inner
or interior monologue
 Interpersonal
o Communication or interaction involving two or more people e.g. interviews
o Contextual (exist in the temporary state)
o Conversations
o Intimate-developmental (share a relationship)
 Small Group (3-15)
o Communication within a small network of persons and requires the following
conditions
 Leadership, peer conference, roles and norms as well as shared goals,
beliefs or interests
o For example, families, work groups, leadership and business meetings
Different Contexts of Communication

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1. Organizational
o Communication within a collection of individuals or groups in a formal or
structured setting (business, government, educational purposes)
2. Academic
o Specialized type of writing that is geared for an audience that has expertise in the
field of study and who can critically assimilate and evaluate it
o Communication that takes place within the realm of a formal education system
(essay, research paper)
3. Public
o This involves one person who is the dominant focus of the communication
process addressing an audience
o Primary sender while the others are the receivers (speeches, debates)
4. Intercultural
o When the sender and receiver of messages are from different backgrounds and is
also called cross-cultural communication
o E.g. communicating across social sub-groups, tourism
Types of Speaking and Writing
 Two main ways that human beings communicate verbally are through speaking and
writing
 Speaking: Oral Communication
o Vocalized form of human communication through the use of uttered sounds for
auditory communication
o Based upon the syntactic combination of lexicons and names that are drawn from
very large vocabularies
o Types:
 Expository Speeches
 Conversations
 Face to Face
 Interview
 Meeting
 Oral Briefing
 Public Address
 Conference
o Advantages
 Direct medium of communication
 Advantages of physical proximity and usually, both sight and sound of
sender and receiver
 Allows instant interchange of opinion, views, attitudes
 Instantaneous feedback
 Easier to convince or persuade
 Allows for contribution and participation from all present
o Disadvantages

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 More difficult to hold ground in the face of opposition
 More difficult to control when a number of people take part
 Lack of time to think things out-quality of decision making may be
inferior
 Often no written record of what has been said
 Sometimes disputes results over what was agreed
 Writing: Written Communication
o Representation of language in a textual medium through the use of a set of signs
or symbols such as letters that express some meaning
o Types:
 Essay, Journal
 Diaries
 Letter
 Memorandum
 Report
 Abstract
 Minutes
 Article
 Press Release
o Advantages
 Provides written record and evidence of dispatch and receipt
 Capable of relaying complex ideas
 Provides analysis, evaluation and summary
 Disseminates information to dispersed receivers
 Can confirm, interpret and clarify oral communications
 Forms basis of contract or agreement
o Disadvantages
 Can take time to produce
 Can be expensive
 Communication tends to be formal and distant
 Can cause problems of interpretation
 Instant feedback is not possible
 Once dispatched, difficult to modify message
 Does not allow for exchange of opinion, views or attitudes except over a
period of time

Logical Fallacies

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 This is defined as the error of reasoning
 These are flawed statements that sound true
 They are usually used to strengthen and argument, however if the reader finds them the
argument backfires and damages writer’s credibility
Types of Logical Fallacies
1. Bandwagon Approach
o Appeal to Popularity
o “It must be good or cool since everyone is doing it”
2. Slippery Slope
o A fallacious argument built on the supposition that a small step will lead to a
larger chain of events
o “Marijuana is the gateway drug”
3. Appeals to Authority
o Using a celebrity or authority figure’s name to support an issue which is not really
his or her area of expertise
o “Taylor Swift said that Paracetamol treats cancer”
4. Card Stacking
o Considered a fallacy of omission
o Material is left out or taken out of context, ignoring evidence that does not
support your opinion
5. Hasty Generalizations
o Biggest error in reasoning and this is a type of inductive reasoning
o “The last two mass murderers were from Michigan. Obviously, people from
Michigan are dangerous”
6. Begging the Question
o A is true because A is true
o “Chocolate is healthy because it is good for you”
7. Straw Man
o A fallacy of distraction or an irrelevant conclusion
o “How could he possibly cheat on his taxes? He’s such a great father!”
8. Appeals to Pity
o Appealing to someone’s emotion in order to distract them from the truth
9. Ad Hominem
o To the man which means pointing out a negative characteristic to support one’s
argument
o “How could Mary know anything about cars? She’s a woman!”
10. Non Sequitur
o Conclusion doesn’t logically follow the premise
o Men are human. Mary is a human. Therefore, Mary is a man
11. Guilt by Association
o A false correlation between two events
o “9/11-Sandy Hook Shooting”

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12. Faulty Cause/Effect
o “We have been in business 50 years- that makes us the best!”
13. False Needs
o “If parents want intelligent children they must buy baby Mozart!”
14. Either/Or Fallacy
o Also known as false dilemma
o “You’re either part of the solution or part of the problem”
15. Post Hoc
o Arguer infers that because one event follows another, the first event must be the
cause of the second event
o Causation without correlation
o “The rooster crowed, the sun came up. Therefore, the rooster made the sun come
up”
Advertising
 Promotion of a product, service or idea
 Media refers to the means of communication, here are the categories:
1. Print Advertising
2. Outdoor Advertising
3. Broadcast Advertising
4. Covert Advertising
5. Public Service Advertising
 Techniques That Advertisements Use
o Persuasive Language
o The Slogan
o Sound Repetition
o Verbal Imagery
o Imperative Sentences
o Visual Effects
o Typography
o Colour

Rhetoric in Advertising

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 This is the art of using words in a certain way to influence (appeal to) or evoke emotions,
opinions, attitudes and behaviours
 The three rhetorical appeals are ethos, pathos and logos
Ethos
 This appeal uses credibility to influence readers or viewers
 For example, you trust a certified doctor on what he says about a certain tablet
Pathos
 Appeals to our emotions or feelings
 This can also include humour, shock value, or appeal to physical sensations like taste
Logos
 This is related to the word Logic or reasoning
 When you use logos, you appeal to your audience’s brains
 Make a good point or present research based evidence
Deductive Vs. Inductive Reasoning
Deductive Reasoning vs. Inductive Reasoning
By Alina Bradford - Live Science Contributor July 25, 2017
During the scientific process, deductive reasoning is used to reach a logical true conclusion.
Another type of reasoning, inductive, is also used. Often, people confuse deductive reasoning
with inductive reasoning, and vice versa. It is important to learn the meaning of each type of
reasoning so that proper logic can be identified.

Deductive reasoning
Deductive reasoning is a basic form of valid reasoning. Deductive reasoning, or deduction, starts
out with a general statement, or hypothesis, and examines the possibilities to reach a specific,
logical conclusion, according to California State University. The scientific method uses
deduction to test hypotheses and theories. "In deductive inference, we hold a theory and based on
it we make a prediction of its consequences. That is, we predict what the observations should be
if the theory were correct. We go from the general — the theory — to the specific — the
observations," said Dr Sylvia Wassertheil-Smoller, a researcher and professor emerita at Albert
Einstein College of Medicine.

Deductive reasoning usually follows steps. First, there is a premise, then a second premise, and
finally an inference. A common form of deductive reasoning is the syllogism, in which two
statements — a major premise and a minor premise — reach a logical conclusion. For example,
the premise "Every A is B" could be followed by another premise, "This C is A." Those
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statements would lead to the conclusion "This C is B." Syllogisms are considered a good way to
test deductive reasoning to make sure the argument is valid.

For example, "All men are mortal. Harold is a man. Therefore, Harold is mortal." For deductive
reasoning to be sound, the hypothesis must be correct. It is assumed that the premises, "All men
are mortal" and "Harold is a man" are true. Therefore, the conclusion is logical and true. In
deductive reasoning, if something is true of a class of things in general, it is also true for all
members of that class.

According to California State University, deductive inference conclusions are certain provided
the premises are true. It's possible to come to a logical conclusion even if the generalization is
not true. If the generalization is wrong, the conclusion may be logical, but it may also be untrue.
For example, the argument, "All bald men are grandfathers. Harold is bald. Therefore, Harold is
a grandfather," is valid logically but it is untrue because the original statement is false.

Inductive reasoning
Inductive reasoning is the opposite of deductive reasoning. Inductive reasoning makes broad
generalizations from specific observations. Basically, there is data, then conclusions are drawn
from the data. This is called inductive logic, according to Utah State University.

"In inductive inference, we go from the specific to the general. We make many observations,
discern a pattern, make a generalization, and infer an explanation or a theory," Wassertheil-
Smoller told Live Science. "In science, there is a constant interplay between inductive inference
(based on observations) and deductive inference (based on theory), until we get closer and closer
to the 'truth,' which we can only approach but not ascertain with complete certainty."

An example of inductive logic is, "The coin I pulled from the bag is a penny. That coin is a
penny. A third coin from the bag is a penny. Therefore, all the coins in the bag are pennies."

Even if all of the premises are true in a statement, inductive reasoning allows for the conclusion
to be false. Here's an example: "Harold is a grandfather. Harold is bald. Therefore, all
grandfathers are bald." The conclusion does not follow logically from the statements.

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Inductive reasoning has its place in the scientific method. Scientists use it to form hypotheses
and theories. Deductive reasoning allows them to apply the theories to specific situations.

Abductive reasoning
Another form of scientific reasoning that doesn't fit in with inductive or deductive reasoning is
Abductive. Abductive reasoning usually starts with an incomplete set of observations and
proceeds to the likeliest possible explanation for the group of observations, according to Butte
College. It is based on making and testing hypotheses using the best information available. It
often entails making an educated guess after observing a phenomenon for which there is no clear
explanation.

For example, a person walks into their living room and finds torn up papers all over the floor.
The person's dog has been alone in the room all day. The person concludes that the dog tore up
the papers because it is the most likely scenario. Now, the person's sister may have brought by
his niece and she may have torn up the papers, or it may have been done by the landlord, but the
dog theory is the more likely conclusion.

Abductive reasoning is useful for forming hypotheses to be tested. Abductive reasoning is often
used by doctors who make a diagnosis based on test results and by jurors who make decisions
based on the evidence presented to them.

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Discussion topic – Describe those strategies and visual aids that could be used to enhance your
presentation to both audiences
• Posters
• Charts
• PowerPoint slides
• Models
• Pictures/photos
• Dry erase boards
• Overhead transparencies
• Puppet show
• Movie clips
• Audio clips
Discussion topic – your proposal must address the maintenance of the theme of a campaign
 You can maintain your theme through the use of a variety of media such as speeches,
discussion, dramatic presentations, songs, jingles, T-shirts
 You can use different channels such as TV, radio, Facebook, theatre, newspapers,
bumper stickers
 Maintenance of the theme is dependent on the effort that you put into the daily
bombardment over the specific period of time.
 Discussion topic – your proposal must address targeting difference kinds of audience in
the campaign
 The members of the community are the various audiences which you need to put into
categories according to age, gender, education, occupation, ethnicity etc
Choose a medium that will best deliver the message to each of the audiences
Discussion topic – Evaluation of the campaign
 You must still decide which evaluation method(s) to use.
 For example, if you are interested in knowing whether a community campaign was
successful in influencing how community members view their relationship with the
environment, you may select attitudes toward recycling as the indicator of change. But
how can you measure attitudes toward the environment? Could you use a questionnaire?
Might personal interviews be appropriate?
What other methods could you use to evaluate?
 Focus groups
 Suggestion box
 Face book page
 Observation

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Discussion topic – The appeals to the target group
 Whenever you are asked to discuss ‘appeals’ you are to remember that a seller, a debater
or anyone who is trying to win or persuade someone always appeal on grounds of ethos,
pathos and logos and so they:
 Appeal to reason or logic, using facts and figures
 Appeal to emotions, using emotive words and slogans; jingles; visuals;
 Appeal to ethos
Discussion topic – The effectiveness of strategies to be used to encourage awareness
 Use of catchy tune or jingle
 Use of popular local personality as voice over
 Placing ads in school newspapers or magazine pull-out
 Sponsoring school-related or community based events
 Use of promotional merchandise like cups, key rings with the name of company, pencils,
pencil cases, pens, knapsacks, tote bags, T-shirts, wrist band
 Creation of a mascot that will appear at malls
Discussion topic – Justification for at least three specific strategies to be used to promote a
campaign in a school community
 Posters to attract and inform
 Banners to attract, inform and excite
 Articles in school newspaper – aimed at informing and winning credibility
 Messages posted on social network sites/media – to attract the extended school
community (Facebook, Instagram, blog, Google+)
 Face –to- face invitation – adding that personalized touch to the campaign
 T – Shirts to advertise the campaign
 Use of different varieties of language - to appeal to different kinds of audiences
 Use of different registers – to appeal to different kinds of audiences

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Sample Module Essays

Module 1 Essays
Sample Essay 1
a) In no more than 30 words, state the writer’s main point
b) State the writer’s purpose
c) Discuss the intended audience
d) Identify and comment on three strategies and three techniques that the writer uses to
achieve his purpose.
e) Comment on the credibility of the information presented

Adapted from Message from a Bullied Child

Reading the story published in The Sunday Gleaner of September 17 about the young lady who
attempted suicide to escape the daily torment of unkind children at her school, brought back so
many bad memories of my own time as a student in high school.
Like that young lady, for a long time I was ruthlessly harassed, labelled, teased, and even
physically assaulted by a group of boys who seemingly took pleasure in making my every
waking moment a horror story. The emotional trauma of that period in my life is only now
beginning to dissipate almost two decades later, and the hurt and feelings of betrayal caused by
some school administrators and their lack of foresight and empathy have left deep emotional
scars that are still painful, even as an adult.
Every year when the new term begins, we read stories of children (and even young adults) who
are terrified to return to their institutions of learning because they feel unsafe. The first ever
national study on bullying, commissioned by the Child Development Agency, titled
Investigation the Prevalence and Impact of Peer Abuse (Bullying)on the Development of
Jamaica’s Children, was funded by UNICEF and conducted by PSearch Associates Co.
Limited. It found that 60-65 percent of students have been bullied at some time in their lives. 70
percent of the 1,867 students surveyed said that they were bullied over the course of 2013 – 14
school year. Of the number who reported ever being bullied, a total of 66.9 percent were females
and 62.9 percent were males (sic). These cycles of hostility often escalate because for some
reason, we believe our culture of violence is endemic, and a rough school environment is par for
the course to surviving adulthood in Jamaica.

As a nation, we have habitually turned a blind eye to the serious abuses taking place in our
school system, and because so many administrators lack the emotional intelligence or the moral
fortitude to intervene, they sit back comforted by the attitude that 'boys will be boys', or 'what
doesn't kill you makes you stronger'.

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Because of this, so many of our youth struggle with post-traumatic stress well into adulthood,
making them maladjusted, angry or withdrawn. As one of the young people who was targeted
and endured years of daily torture, I am here to definitively state that more must be done, starting
with a recognition that teasing, bullying, abuse, and intolerance of difference is not permissible.
Must End Bullying
We scorn and ridicule those who are honest enough with themselves to say they cannot manage
the torment, and we then dismiss those who find a way out of hell as weaklings because they
weren't strong enough to endure the pain.
The hurt that so many of our children face at school, whether from unkind and unbalanced peers,
or callous and emotionally obtuse administrators, must end. Collectively as a society, we must
recognise the damage we are doing to ourselves by allowing it to continue unabated.
This change in our attitude towards all forms of interpersonal violence in the school environment
must come not merely with the annual lip service we hear from the school principals, who
themselves are often complicit with the creation and maintenance of the culture of intolerance in
their schools; not from the education ministry and its empty soliloquies decrying activities in
schools that it regularly perpetuates within its own walls; and not even from pastors and
guidance counsellors, who often behave as though the torment of teenagers is just recompense
for their iniquitous inclinations; but sincerely, because Jamaica can never become the place of
choice to live, work and raise families if our children do not want to go to school for fear that
they will not make it out alive.
I can say, without hesitation, that as a country, we misunderstand the importance of creating safe
and wholesome environments in which all of us can thrive. We have become so accustomed to
living in a war zone that we feel our schools are there to prepare us for life in our own battlefield
and not to prepare us for the world in which Jamaica is but a (very) small part.

Those with the means to insulate their children from these hostile environments needn't fret that
their offspring might be kicked, stabbed, or psychologically damaged, while administrators
giggle among themselves.
To all the children struggling with feelings of inadequacy and self-doubt, don't let them prevail.
Find your inner strength and persevere. Find someone trustworthy to talk to, write poems, play
music, dance, sing, act silly, do the things you enjoy and that make you happy.
Years from now, you will see those who torment you for what they really are: weak, insecure,
and jealous of your strength, which is why they try so hard to bury it.
- The Gleaner, September 26, 2017 – 9:00AM. Brian-Paul Welsh is a writer and public affairs commentator.

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Essay
The main point is that Jamaicans habitually ignore bullying abuses taking place in our
school system because many administrators lack the emotional intelligence or the moral fortitude
to stop it. The writer’s purpose is to expose the culture of bullying abuse faced by Jamaican
children, highlight the psychological damage it causes and persuade those who have authority
and who been victimized to bring such abuse to an end.
To begin with, this passage is intended for a general audience who may have a concern
about bullying because the language used can be easily understood by the average person, the
content is of general interest to adults and children alike, there is the use of a sub-heading to help
easy comprehension, examples are given to support the writer’s main point and it is published in
a daily newspaper.
Secondly, the writer uses certain language strategies that help to achieve his purpose. The
writer includes statistical information on bullying from the Child Development Agency study to
explain how widespread and serious the problem of bullying is in Jamaica. The writer mentions
the case from the Sunday Gleaner of the young lady who attempted suicide after being bullied in
order to introduce his main argument and create sympathy for victims of bullying. The writer
uses a number of short paragraphs to emphasize key elements in his argument against bullying
such as the anecdote of the bullied young lady in paragraph one and attitude of many insensitive
administrators in paragraph four and to make key points of his message easy to understand. The
writer uses a subheading in the passage to generate interest and focus the audience on specific
segment of content and also to indicate the aspect of his topic which he will go on to discuss.
Thirdly, the writer utilizes language techniques to convey his purpose to the readers. The
writer uses repetition of the word “torment” four times in the passage to emphasize the negative
psychological impacts that bullying has on its victims. The writer uses the metaphor, “making
my every waking moment a horror story,” to illustrate the constant terror and fright of being
bullied. The writer uses the apostrophe towards the end of the passage as a call to action which
he hopes will motivate victims of bullying to persevere and overcome their tormenters.
Lastly, the information is credible because it is based in part on the personal experience
of the author, it is supported by evidence from a trusted government agency (the Child
Development Agency), it is current within five years and because it generally agrees with what
we know about the effects of bullying on victims.
Conclusion (This conclusion is general and a small summary of wha was said above).

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Sample Essay 2

Read the extract below carefully and then answer the question that follows.

The climate-change catastrophe should have convinced policymakers by now that they ignore
science at their peril. Another arena in which science has been disregarded is educational policy,
which has resulted in the “chasm of academic achievement” between boys and girls in Jamaican
high schools.
Although the number of boys and girls in Jamaica is roughly equal, in 2005 (the latest data I can
find), 48,992 boys and 81,111 girls sat CSEC subjects, and the girls out-performed the boys in all
arts subjects and all science subjects, except Mathematics. More than twice the number of
females (67 per cent) are enrolled in the UWI than males (33 per cent), and 59 per cent of those
enrolled in post-secondary non-tertiary education are women. There is gender injustice here.
In both primary and private preparatory schools, girls outperform boys in the Grade Six
Achievement Test (GSAT) * - in all subject areas and across all regions. Why is this? Is it
because boys learn differently from girls, and Jamaica’s school system is hopelessly feminized,
putting boys at a disadvantage? Maybe. But it seems to me that the analysis of male educational
underperformance ignores major scientific findings that have been known for some decades, and
which have been reinforced or confirmed by recent research.
GIRLS DEVELOP FASTER

Let me quote from by column of April 16, 2010 entitled ‘Gender Justice’: “At the age of 12-13
years, the girls will run academic circles around the boys and give them feelings of inferiority;
and it is likely that – early on – the boys will develop a negative image of themselves and
aggressive feelings towards women.”

Boys’ academic performance will fall and disciplinary problems will begin to emerge. Their
female classmates will do well at CXC examinations and go on to university; after high school,
many of the boys will join the walk-street, kick-stone posse. We are seeing the negative effects
already. A scientific study published in the medical journal, Cerebral Cortex on December 19,
2013 reports that females generally mature faster during childhood and adolescence in certain
cognitive and emotional areas than males, because girls tend to optimise brain connections
earlier than boys.

Dr Marcus Kaiser of Newcastle University in the United Kingdom reported: “Previous studies
have shown that the brain does a lot of reorganising during puberty. At that age of about 10-12
years, you start to see a lot of activity in the brains of girls as this pruning takes place, but it was
between 15-20 for boys.” It is, therefore, natural at age 11 for girls to do better than boys at the
GSAT, and at age 16 at CSEC. Knowingly or unknowingly, our educational system is designed
to favour girls. It is true to say that the marginalisation of the Jamaica male happens by design.
SAME-SEX SCHOOLS

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The Trinidad Express of March 26, 2010 had a story titled, ‘Minister: Shift to same-sex schools
to target males’. The article begins “Education Minister Esther Le Gendre said yesterday that the
underperformance of male students in this country was the main reason for a push to convert
some 20 secondary schools to same-sex schools.”

Even before this, Jamaica was behind Trinidad in educational achievement. We must convert co-
ed high schools to single-sex schools, and build more grammar schools for boys only to redress
the gender issue which is woven into the fabric of Jamaican society.

Adapted from Peter Espeut, “Gender Injustice”.

The Gleaner, Friday, 8 January 2016.
* Same as Common Entrance Examination in some countries

Write an essay, in no more than 500 words, in which you

 state the writer’s main point

 state the writer’s purpose
 discuss FOUR organizational strategies and/or language techniques the writer uses to
achieve this purpose
 evaluate the credibility of the information presented

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Essay
Analysis of Article

In the article, adapted from Peter Espeut, “Gender Injustice”, The Gleaner, Friday, 8

January 2016, the main point of the writer is that educational practice in Jamaica results in male

underperformance by ignoring scientific evidence that boys lag behind girls in maturation and

development and this needs to be addressed. females outperform males in academics and the

effects of this on the males’ confidence. Therefore, the writer’s purpose is to enlighten the public

that boys are at a disadvantage and programmed for failure in the Jamaican educational system,

which puts them against girls who are developmentally more advanced than they are at similar

ages, which needs to be addressed. Consequently, the writer uses specific language strategies and

techniques to achieve his purpose and also to portray the credibility of the information

presented.

To begin with, the writer utilizes specific strategies to achieve his purpose.

Firstly, his use of statistics “number of females (67 per cent) are enrolled in the UWI than males

(33 per cent) and 59 per cent of those enrolled in post-secondary non-tertiary education are

women” offers hard evidence to highlight the gender imbalance present in academic institutions.

Secondly, the writer’s claim is also supported by expert’s knowledge as cited from the article,

Cerebral Cortex, “Females generally mature faster during childhood and adolescence…” which

adds to the soundness of his argument and allows the reader to be more inclined to believe and

trust the information. Thirdly, the writer uses sub-headings, “GIRLS DEVELOP FASTER” and

“SAME-SEX SCHOOLS” which allow easier comprehension of the information and also give

clue as to where specific information can be found/to navigate to specific information. Thus,

through these language strategies, the writer’s purpose is accomplished.

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Additionally, the author utilizes language techniques to convey his purpose to the reader.

The writer’s rhetorical question, “Why is this?” focuses the argument on the developmental

difference between the sexes and the built in disadvantage that boys face to invoke a sense of

injustice in the public consciousness about boy’s educational plight. Thus, through this language

technique, the writer’s purpose is accomplished.

Accordingly, the use of these language strategies and the technique reflect the credibility

of the information presented. Although the writer’s tone is subjective, the evidence that he

presents adds to the credibility. “Previous studies have shown that the brain does a lot of

reorganizing during puberty...” was stated by Dr. Kaiser of Newcastle University in the United

Kingdom. The use of this expert knowledge makes the text more convincing, therefore adding

credibility to the argument. The statistics such as the percentage distribution of the gender of

students enrolled at the University of West Indies and the statistics of the percentage passes in

the GSAT examinations stated in the article support the credibility as well.

In light of these points, the article focuses on the causes and effects of the gender

differences as it relates to academic proficiency. Through the use of language strategies such as

statistics, citation of expert knowledge and organizational patterns and rhetorical questions as the

language technique, the writer’s purpose is achieved. Lastly, the credibility of the information

presented is supported by expert evidence quoted in the piece.

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Module 2 Essays
Sample Essay 1

Read the extract below carefully and then answer the question that follows.

The wedding was only a day away.

Snooker thought he could hear the sweat spilling out of his pores. Talking to himself, old-
woman-like in trouble, he started: “Is downright, absolute stupid to make me harness myself in
dis mornin’ costume … I ain’t no Prince Phillip or ever want to be …”

A pause drew his attention to the morning suit he rented. The top hat sat on its crown,
almost imitating itself. It provoked Snooker. He watched it, swore at it, then stooped as though
he was going to sit on it.

“Now what you think you doin’?”

Snooker was alerted. He heard the closing creak of the door and the blurred chuckle of
Knickerbocker’s voice redeeming the status of the top hat.

Snooker was silent. He watched Knickerbocker hold the top hat out like some
extraordinary fruit in his hand.

“Is what Beresford think it is at all?” he said, turning his back on the suit to face
Knickerbocker. “My body, not to mention my face, ain’t shape for dis kind o’ get-up.”

“Even the beggar can be king”, said Knickerbocker, “an’ this is de kind o’ headpiece
kings does wear.” He cuddled the top hat to his chest. “An’ tomorrow,” he added, lifting his head
towards Snooker, “I goin’ to play king.”

Adapted from George Lamming, “A Wedding in Spring”. Commonwealth.

Short Story, Anna Rutherford and Donald Hannah (eds.),
Macmillian Publishers, 1985, p. 44.
Essay

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This extract focuses on the main character, Snooker’s conflicting thoughts as he prepares

to attend a wedding. Through the use of dialectal variation, grammatical features and non-verbal

communication, one is able to gain insights into specific details present in the passage.

The two main types of dialectal variants found in the extract are the Caribbean Standard

English and Caribbean Creole, and these are contrasted to highlight the difference in social

classes between the characters. The constant mention of a “king” or “prince” in the extract brings

English traditions to light, however both men are used as contrasts to these positions. Snooker

renounces his wedding outfit and by extension, English traditions when he says, “I ain’t no

Prince Phillip or ever want to be …”, which is said in Caribbean Creole, demonstrating that he

wishes to stay true to his culture. On the other hand, Knickerbocker uses both variants at

different points. His use of Standard English is seen when he says, “Even the beggar can be

king,” where he places himself in the role of the beggar, all while aspiring to “play king,” and

move up the hierarchy, so he speaks like a king in that line. In contrast, Knickerbocker uses

creole when addressing Snooker, as they seem to be acquainted with each other, and are in an

informal setting. He also speaks like this when he holds or refers to the hat, which would

naturally make him excited as he holds it and what it represents in a high esteem.

Additionally, two grammatical features present in the extract are the zero copula use and

the use of the double negatives. The zero copula use is evident in “Now what you think you

doin’?” and “I goin’ to play king.”, and the use of the double negative is shown in the phrase “I

ain’t no Prince Phillip or ever want to be …” Both grammatical features are unique to the Creole

English, which is mainly spoken by Snooker in this excerpt and brings light to his linguistic

background and social class and authenticates the Caribbean environment for readers.

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Moreover, the characters’ non-verbal communications are very effective to highlight their

feelings towards the wedding. Snooker’s actions hold contempt, which is demonstrated when he

silently watches the hat then stoops to sit on it, whereas Knickerbocker communicates how

precious the wedding is for him which is evident when he “[cuddles] the top hat to his chest”.

This effectively shows how special the wedding and English traditions, represented by the hat,

are to Knickerbocker. Snooker and Knickerbocker’s attitudes serve as contrasts, thus, the writer

uses such communicative behaviour to portray their differences.

In essence, the writer uses the contrast in dialect, grammatical features and non-verbal

communication to convey to the reader the deeper meaning of the script. It is through these

aspects that allow the reader to have a realistic and comprehensive experience.

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Sample Essay 2
Read the excerpt below and answer the questions that follow.

“This damn country so backwards, eh! I don’t know how anything functions here. You think that
if you were in America, you could get away with playing music so loud?” Beulah was walking
around her shop like an ant just bite her. I sat on my corner stool, willing her to calm down. All I
wanted was a pack of potato chips but Beulah was in a mood.
“People here have no consideration,” she saying as she sweep the floor, re-pack the tuna tins and
wipe her hands for the umpteenth time.
“They passed a law in the country hindering people from playing music so loud but everyday
that blasted neighbour has to play his music for the whole country to hear! The heavy bass is
rocking your heart and shaking your house but where is the police when you call them? You
think America has this problem?”
I was going to tell Beulah that in America, police busier with more important crimes like murder
and robberies to take on loud music but I just stay quiet. Beulah would never understand that is
we who make this country into what it is, that it is all we have for we-selves.
The next month, when I went by Beulah, she all over the place like a jumping jack.
“Miss Margaret! Ah so glad you come, eh. Ah was wonderin when ah go see you to tell the good
news!” I just stare at Beulah. The American accent she had last month was gone completely.
“Hear dis nah Miss Margaret … ah leaving the country. Meh bredder from Louisiana send a
ticket for meh and I just geh meh visa papers and ting fix up! I going nex’ week!”

In an essay of not more than 500 words, discuss the use of language in the excerpt, concentrating
on the following:
a) The relation between the writer’s use of language and the context of the narrative
b) The appropriateness of the narrator’s language
c) Whether Beulah’s language was motivated by linguistic and/or non-linguistic factors.
d) Ways in which a video presentation of this interaction would help highlight the fact
that these are Caribbean speakers communicating in a Caribbean setting

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The excerpt focuses on a shop owner, Beulah, who openly criticizes the operation of her under-
developed country in contrast to developed countries such as America. Through the use of
language, readers are able to gain insights into specific details of the excerpts.

The writer uses a contrast between Creole English and Standard English to indicate two
extremely different perspectives. In the first half of the excerpt, Beulah speaks in Standard
English, whereas it is the narrator who uses dialect. This perspective is evidenced by Beulah’s
upper register vocabulary such as “hindering” and “consideration” which creates an educated
tone suggesting that the character aspires towards the upper class society. In contrast, the
narrator’s use of simile grounded in local fauna, such as “like an ant just bite her” , which
coupled with her reference to “a jumping jack”, develops Caribbean imagery that affirms
national pride and patriotism. She uses the subject possessive pronoun in the object of the
sentence to emphasize self-identity. A case in point is when she questions the logic in Beulah’s
criticisms of the country that is “all we have for we-selves.” By this comment, the narrator
indicates introspection that categorizes herself with her country. Furthermore, while Beulah
negates her country’s language, Miss Margaret is not ashamed of her dialect. The verb remains
in the present plural form instead of the past tense used in Standard English; for example, “she
sweep the floor, re-pack the tuna tins and wipe her hands” while local clichés and slang are as
common as exaggeration. There is the cliché, “for the umpteenth time”; the exaggeration, “play
his music for the whole country to hear”; and the saying, “she all over the place like a jumping
jack.” By infusing the passage with dialect, the writer creates a Caribbean atmosphere that places
the reader in the same environment or setting as the character, thus enhancing its realism.

Moreover, the narrator’s language as a form of Creole English is appropriate for various reasons.
Firstly, it creates a relaxed conversational tone that enhances the setting of a rural parlour or shop
as well as the relationship between the narrator and Beulah. Even though the latter refers to the
former as “Miss Margaret” specifically with a title afforded to clients, the atmosphere is informal
enough to appeal to the lower register in society. Further to this, the narrator’s use of dialect
reaffirms her pride in her country by way of its language. She is not ashamed to speak or even
think in Creole English, which serves to make poignant the contrast between her personality and

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Beulah’s. In this way, the theme of national identity and pride in one’s country is developed.
Additionally, the narrator’s language is a method by which the reader can identify with what is
being discussed. Due to the fact that the dialect is a first language for Caribbean readers, and
Standard English can distance the reader from the subject matter, Creole English can have the
adverse effect. The reader can relate to what is being said and done, thus making the issue more
realistic. Another consequence is that subconsciously, by reading dialect, the reader will
appreciate the importance of dialect and break away from the common perspective exhibited by
Beulah, that there is no place for it in a developed country.

In contrast to the narrator’s language, which is consistently in dialect, Beulah’s language differs
first from Standard English to dialect. The first type indicates influences from both linguistic and
non-linguistic factors. She is capable of speaking in this way since her island was influenced by
America via geographical proximity and the media. It is likely that Beulah grew up with
American music, television shows, movies, styles and tourist all of which speak with an
American accent. Therefore, the American language comes easily, particularly when the
intention of the speaker is to sound authoritative or intelligent. From this assertion, one can see
the influence of non-linguistic factors, as she perceives the American phonetic to imply
superiority and social mobility as she aspired to move up to a higher status in life. The fact that
in her excitement she slips into dialect shows how influential her native language is and also how
the non-linguistic factors of society and its heritage of colonial dependency have motivated her
previous tirade on her country’s worthlessness.

Therefore, a video presentation would be helpful in highlighting the pronunciation, body

language and facial expressions of the Caribbean speakers as they communicate within the
setting of a shop. Firstly, the video would reflect not only the American accent that Beulah
initially spoke but also her change to dialect and those of the narrator. This use of the local
dialect is particularly important since it allows foreigners who are unfamiliar with creole English
to understand the local accent. Since the dominant factor of the extract indicates the dual
perspectives between Miss Margaret and Beulah, the sense of auditory/sound from a video would
make the passage more effective by developing this dynamic. In addition, the scene in which the
characters converse would also be depicted in the video. In this way, the imagery of the shop

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with customers and its local sound and music would create the tropical ambience. Thus, the
contrast between the Caribbean background and her American accent becomes even more
poignant. One might even find the difference more appealing with the image of Beulah’s
physical appearance and attire. Finally, the drama of frustration at the neighbour’s loud music
and the excitement at the approved visa could be portrayed in the video as the character’s body
language and facial expression can be seen. Consequently, the event is transformed from words
to images and sound, thus creating a sense of realism.

Overall, the writer uses language to highlight aspects of the excerpts that allows the reader to
develop a more comprehensive and realistic experience with it.

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Sample Essay 3

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Write an essay, in no more than 500 words, in which you discuss the following:
a) THREE dialectal variations used in the extract

b) THREE communicative behaviours displayed by Edward

c) FOUR ways in which Edward’s contempt for his homeland could be dramatized in a

video presentation

Module 2 Essay

This excerpt focuses on Edward and his anger with Trinidad for not recognizing and

rewarding his skill in a poster competition. Due to this, he preaches about his admiration for

America and talking about his homeland, Trinidad, in a demeaning manner. Through the use

of dialectal variation and communicative behaviour the writer portrays Edward’s contempt

for Trinidad, which can also be dramatized and enhanced in a video presentation.

Primarily, the writer uses dialectal varieties to depict Edward’s averse nature towards his

homeland. He speaks mostly in Caribbean Creole English, which is evident when he says,

“What they know about anything...”. Additionally, he imitates the Foreign English dialect

when he says with an accent, “What’s cooking, Joe?”, to show how Americans communicate.

Also, the use of Standard English comes out when Edward says, “In America, this street

could pass for a sidewalk”. Edward’s homeland is Trinidad, which influences the way he

naturally speaks. However, his attempts to use Standard English and Foreign English is

evidence of Edward’s awe of the American lifestyle.

Moreover, Edward’s communicative behaviour also supports that fact that he looks down

on his homeland. An example of this is, when he returned to Miguel Street “swaggering”

which is indicative of his pride in associating with the Americans, specifically with the

sentry. Equally important, vocalics are evident when he switches his accent when speaking

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with the American sentry. This shows his desire to associate himself with the Americans.

Furthermore, the writer uses chronemics, such as “One Sunday…” and “Used to say…”,

to show how often Edward would speak about America and compare it to Trinidad.

Therefore, Edward’s disgust with Trinidad is reflected through his non-verbal actions.

Therefore, the use of a video presentation would be helpful to highlight Edward’s facial

expression, body language and tone of voice in displaying his contempt for Trinidad.

Commencing, the video would show Edward’s hand gestures to visualise a size comparison,

showing how exponentially larger America’s streets are compared to Trinidad’s own.

Additionally, his gestures could be used to illustrate the narrowness of the streets. Pertaining

to facial expressions, Edward would have a grimace on his face whenever he compares

Trinidad to America, especially after losing the competition to display his unpleasant

disposition from Trinidad. Furthermore, Edward’s tone of voice would vary depending on

which country he is speaking of. For Trinidad, Edward would have a caustic tone meanwhile

for America, he would have a tone of admiration. Concluding, the use of a video

presentation would enhance Edward’s contempt for Trinidad through the use of body

language, tone of voice and facial expressions.

Overall, the writer uses dialectal varieties of language as well as communicative behaviours

to enhance the script and use of a video presentation would give the readers and viewers a

more realistic experience with Edward’s emotions, feelings and gestures.

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Module 3 Essays
Sample Essay 1
Read the scenario below and answer the question that follow.
Your government has just constructed a new, impressive market for the sale of vegetables, meats, clothes
and household items. However, the authorities are worried that misuse, neglect or untidiness may
deteriorate the market quickly. They have, therefore, asked you to embark on a campaign that would
appeal to the vendors to maintain the facilities in its pristine conditions.
Discuss your approach in creating the campaign concerning
a) The communication challenges you would expect to find when targeting the vendors
b) The information that must be relayed, and the vocabulary and register you would consider
appropriate
c) Any other organizational strategies as well as visual approaches you would employ in your
campaign.

The campaign for the new market, under the theme: “Our Home Away from Our Homes” will be
an ongoing exercise for a period of six weeks. The primary purpose of the campaign is to appeal
to the vendors to maintain the market’s facilities in its pristine conditions. In order to achieve this
purpose, there are certain considerations one would have to bear in mind in the creation of the
campaign.
Before conducting the campaign, one must identify the communication challenges when
targeting the vendors. Specifically, one must recognize that these vendors form part of society
who use a low register and therefore communicate in local dialect or Basilect. If the message was
conveyed in Standard English, then it may not only imply a condescending tone but may also
distance the vendors from the message. They would not identify with its information and,
subsequently, feel no responsibility towards the new market. Another challenge is the medium
used to conveyed this message. A speech or letter would not have effective results since there is
no guarantee that all would be present for the speech or that they would have the discipline and
control to remain attentive throughout the entire speech. Therefore, the challenges would be to
find the most effective way to convey the message to the masses and ensure that they understand.

With these challenges in mind, the information must be concise, direct, simple in vocabulary,
using low register and, in various strategies, use in both in the Acrolect English and Basilect.
While the latter is to ensure that there is no distortion in decoding the message since Basilect
appeals to them as responsible equals, the former is needed to maintain some authority in the
matter. Thus, they would view the message as a system of rules that must be followed when
using the market. Responsibility, then, is taken seriously and not as a passing whim. Moreover,
information to be given should include first the identification of a newly renovated market and
its benefits to all, particularly the vendors. Second, the logical need to maintain its cleanliness is

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linked to the vendors, who spend most of their time in it. As a result, they would see undebatable
reason in the responsibility being theirs. Finally, a list of rules is itemized to ensure that the
vendors understand how their responsibility must be acted upon. A chart showing an aerial map
of the market could not only be given to each vendor but also posted at various sections of the
area allocating responsibility of certain sectors to certain vendors by reason of their stall or
geographic situation. In this way, diagrams may be more effective than words.
Others strategies include making the chart coloured, specifying each colour to represent a sector.
In this way, green, for example, will correlate to certain vendors in charge of the sectors. One
may even go further to post the green colour in or bordering the named sector so that there is no
confusion. Apart from charts and letters, posters and cartoons can also be put up at points in the
market. There, posters would have vibrant colours to maintain the interest of the passers-by and
vendors while also including the rule that ensure the cleanliness in the market. In posters, these
rule could be in various font and font size and with elaborate bullets. Cartoons of a clean a
market may even be inserted on the posters showing caricatures following the rules, while the
call-outs would be in dialect. These strategies would also imply that taking responsibility is not a
laborious chore but easy to follow. From time to time, fliers may be circulated to the vendors
with new approaches to cleanliness or updates on the cleanest sector. The fliers would not only
keep the vendors’ responsibility upper-most in their minds but also keep them abreast of any
latest developments. These fliers, however, should be given individually to avoid further clutter
from wasted fliers. Ironically, this may compound the problem of untidiness. In the public
address system, if there is one, a song about having pride in one’s surroundings may be
composed and played regularly. While tactic puts the listeners in a cheerful frame of mind as the
song would be lively and rhythmic, it simultaneously reinforces the rules.
In essence, all these considerations would ultimately achieve the purpose of the campaign which
is to appeal to the vendors to maintain the market’s facilities in its pristine conditions.

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Sample Essay 2
Read the scenario below and answer the question that follow.
There has been a flood in your community as a result of extensive littering and deforestation. A group of
young people from your neighbourhood has decided to launch a campaign to make people aware of their
duty to protect the environment. You have been chosen to head this group to ensure that the campaign is
effectively planned and executed.
In an ESSAY of no more than 500 words, discuss how your group proposes to make the campaign
effective. Your proposal must address the following:
a) Maintenance of the theme of the campaign
b) Targeting of different kinds of audience in the campaign
c) Use of language in campaign messages
d) Evaluation of the campaign

The campaign, under the theme, “Protect Our Environment” will run from June 1,
2021 to May 14, 2021. The primary focus of the campaign is to develop
individuals’ awareness of their responsibility in protecting the environment. To
ensure the effectiveness of the campaign, the team will consider factors such as
theme, audience, language, and methods of evaluation.
To ensure that the theme is maintained throughout the campaign, the team will
identify appropriate media that would help to sensitize the neighbourhood about
their duty to protect the environment. Through the use of jingles and catchy
slogans, advertisements, flyers, dramatic presentations, quizzes, speeches,
lecturers, text messages, emails, billboards, public address system, radio,
television, internet, neighbourhood meetings, it is hoped that the theme would
become a part of everyone’s daily life.
Therefore, to target different kinds of audience in the campaign, the team would
profile the neighbourhood by various demographics including age, gender, social
class, ethnicity, educational background, and occupation. Thus, for children
between three to eleven years old, cartoons, skits, and jingles would be
incorporated in the classrooms as part of the learning activities (why?) For
secondary and tertiary students, there would be speeches, essay competitions,
debates, and lecturers on matters concerning the protection of the environment.
(why?) Also, text messages and emails for those who work in
companies/organizations (why?) likewise, advertisements such as billboards and
advertisements via the internet, radio and television would target the general
public. (Why?)

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Another consideration for the effectiveness of the campaign, would be the use of
language with specific audience in mind. Example, for the less educated audience
the team would use simple everyday structures, lexical items and idioms in an
informal and semiformal register (why?) The tone would be both casual and
serious (why?) For the more educated audience, a formal register, or a combination
of semiformal and formal registers (why?) The overall tone would be serious with
a sense of urgency for their cooperation in the matter (why?)
Furthermore, to ensure that the campaign is effective, research instruments and
methods would be applied before, during, and at the end of the campaign. Thus,
use of focus groups, interviews, questionnaire, observation before, during, and
particularly after the campaign would be conducted in order to assess the
effectiveness of the campaign. (Justify effectiveness in each case)

Conclusion

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Sample Essay 3
As a recent participant in the Travel and Earn Programme, which gives Grade 12 students the
opportunity to travel to other cities and work for the summer while making a contribution to
national life, you are chosen as your local school representative to promote this programme.

In an essay of no more than 300 words, discuss the plan of action that you propose to undertake
to promote this programme to students and parents in your school for the upcoming summer.
Your plan must include the following:

 THREE different types of rhetorical appeals for reaching person who have doubts about

the programme

 THREE promotional strategies for communicating the message to your target audiences

 ONE language register and ONE dialectal variety that would be considered appropriate

for ONE of your audiences

The campaign for the new Travel and Earn Programme will be launched in June 2021

and last three weeks. It aims to allow Grade 12 students of Cherry High School(C.H.S), the

opportunity to travel to other cities and work for the summer while making a contribution to

national life. To ensure maximum participation, logos, pathos and ethos and promotional

strategies such as promotional novelties and celebrity endorsement will be used. The message

will also be communicated in Mesolect variety using a casual register.

Fundamentally, logos, pathos and ethos appeal will be used to encourage youth

participation in the programme. To promote the logical appeal, statistics from alumni of C.H.S.

will show that students who engage in work and study programmes are better equipped and well

experienced for their work field, giving them a better advantage in the working world. To foster

emotional appeal, the parents and students will be informed of the experiences of different

cultures and relationships while earning money giving them a sense of independence.

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Endorsement of the principal and Guidance Counsellors will also be used to promote the ethos

appeal by giving the parents a sense of trustworthiness and legitimize the programme. Data from

graduates of C.H.S, the opportunity of experiencing a new culture and the approval from school

officials will eliminate any doubts that the students and parents have about the programme.

Furthermore, the strategies that would be used to promote the programme inorder to

communicate to the audience are promotional novelties and celebrity endorsement. Promotional

novelties such as branded shirts, backpacks and water bottles will leave a positive impression on

the audience, allow the message to be remembered and consequently broadcasted. Through

celebrity endorsement the message from the programme is easily persuaded to adolescence from

ages 18-20. Danielle Mullings and Joseph Davis are stellar examples of largely respected

students who have a large following on social media which will encourage a bandwagon effect

within the adolescent population.

Ultimately, before conducting the campaign, one must select the most suitable language

register and dialect. When utilizing the Mesolect variety and the casual register, the message will

not be portrayed as too informal nor too high-class for persons from contrasting social classes.

The register used maintains the importance and effectiveness of the message allowing questions

to be asked and answered, hence bettering the understanding of the programme by the parents.

Hence, the use of logos, pathos and ethos and promotional strategies such as promotional

novelties and celebrity endorsement and the appropriate use of register will accomplish the

purpose of the campaign which promotes the Travel and Earn Programme to Grade 12 students

of Cherry High School and their parents.

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