First-Order Logic

LESSON 8
Reading
Chaper 8

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Outline
Why FOL?
Syntax and semantics of FOL
Using FOL
Wumpus world in FOL
Knowledge engineering in FOL

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 Pros and cons of propositional
logic
 Propositional logic is declarative

 Propositional logic allows partial/disjunctive/negated information

◦ (unlike most data structures and databases)
◦

Propositional logic is compositional:


◦ meaning of B1,1  P1,2 is derived from meaning of B1,1 and of P1,2
◦

 Meaning in propositional logic is context-independent

◦ (unlike natural language, where meaning depends on context)

◦

 Propositional logic has very limited expressive power

◦ (unlike natural language)

◦ E.g., cannot say "pits cause breezes in adjacent squares“
◦ except by writing one sentence for each square
◦

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First-order logic
Whereas propositional logic assumes the world contains facts,
first-order logic (like natural language) assumes the world contains

◦ Objects: people, houses, numbers, colors, baseball games, wars, …

◦
◦ Relations: red, round, prime, brother of, bigger than, part of, comes
between, …
◦ Functions: father of, best friend, one more than, plus, …
◦

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Syntax of FOL: Basic elements
Constants KingJohn, 2, NUS,...
Predicates Brother, >,...
Functions Sqrt, LeftLegOf,...
Variables x, y, a, b,...
Connectives , , , , 
Equality =
Quantifiers , 

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Atomic sentences
Atomic sentence = predicate (term1,...,termn)
or term1 = term2

Term = function (term1,...,termn)

or constant or variable

E.g., Brother(KingJohn,RichardTheLionheart) >

(Length(LeftLegOf(Richard)), Length(LeftLegOf(KingJohn)))

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Complex sentences
Complex sentences are made from atomic sentences using connectives

S, S1  S2, S1  S2, S1  S2, S1  S2,

E.g. Sibling(KingJohn,Richard)  Sibling(Richard,KingJohn)

>(1,2)  ≤ (1,2)

>(1,2)   >(1,2)

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Truth in first-order logic
Sentences are true with respect to a model and an interpretation

Model contains objects (domain elements) and relations among them

Interpretation specifies referents for

constant symbols → objects

predicate symbols → relations

function symbols → functional relations

An atomic sentence predicate(term1,...,termn) is true

iff the objects referred to by term1,...,termn
are in the relation referred to by predicate

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Models for FOL: Example

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 Universal quantification
<variables> <sentence>

Everyone at NUS is smart:

x At(x,NUS)  Smart(x)

x P is true in a model m iff P is true with x being each possible object in the model

Roughly speaking, equivalent to the conjunction of instantiations of P

At(KingJohn,NUS)  Smart(KingJohn)
 At(Richard,NUS)  Smart(Richard)
 At(NUS,NUS)  Smart(NUS)
 ...

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A common mistake to avoid
Typically,  is the main connective with 

Common mistake: using  as the main connective

with :
x At(x,NUS)  Smart(x)
means “Everyone is at NUS and everyone is smart”

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Existential quantification
<variables> <sentence>

Someone at NUS is smart:

x At(x,NUS)  Smart(x)$

x P is true in a model m iff P is true with x being some possible object in the model

Roughly speaking, equivalent to the disjunction of instantiations of P

At(KingJohn,NUS)  Smart(KingJohn)
 At(Richard,NUS)  Smart(Richard)
 At(NUS,NUS)  Smart(NUS)
 ...

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Another common mistake to
avoid
Typically,  is the main connective with 

Common mistake: using  as the main connective with

:

x At(x,NUS)  Smart(x)

is true if there is anyone who is not at NUS!

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Properties of quantifiers
x y is the same as y x

x y is the same as y x

x y is not the same as y x

x y Loves(x,y)
◦ “There is a person who loves everyone in the world”
◦

y x Loves(x,y)
◦ “Everyone in the world is loved by at least one person”
◦

Quantifier duality: each can be expressed using the other

x Likes(x,IceCream) x Likes(x,IceCream)

x Likes(x,Broccoli) x Likes(x,Broccoli)

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Equality
term1 = term2 is true under a given interpretation if
and only if term1 and term2 refer to the same
object

E.g., definition of Sibling in terms of Parent:

x,y Sibling(x,y)  [(x = y)  m,f  (m = f) 

Parent(m,x)  Parent(f,x)  Parent(m,y)  Parent(f,y)]

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 Using FOL
The kinship domain:

Brothers are siblings

x,y Brother(x,y)  Sibling(x,y)

One's mother is one's female parent

m,c Mother(c) = m  (Female(m)  Parent(m,c))

“Sibling” is symmetric

x,y Sibling(x,y)  Sibling(y,x)

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 Using FOL
The set domain:

s Set(s)  (s = {} )  (x,s2 Set(s2)  s = {x|s2})

x,s {x|s} = {}

x,s x  s  s = {x|s}

x,s x  s  [ y,s2} (s = {y|s2}  (x = y  x  s2))]

s1,s2 s1  s2  (x x  s1  x  s2)

s1,s2 (s1 = s2)  (s1  s2  s2  s1)

x,s1,s2 x  (s1  s2)  (x  s1  x  s2)

x,s1,s2 x  (s1  s2)  (x  s1  x  s2)

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Interacting with FOL KBs
Suppose a wumpus-world agent is using an FOL KB and perceives a smell and a breeze (but no glitter) at t=5:

Tell(KB,Percept([Smell,Breeze,None],5))
Ask(KB,a BestAction(a,5))

I.e., does the KB entail some best action at t=5?

Answer: Yes, {a/Shoot} ← substitution (binding list)

Given a sentence S and a substitution σ,

Sσ denotes the result of plugging σ into S; e.g.,

S = Smarter(x,y)
σ = {x/Hillary,y/Bill}
Sσ = Smarter(Hillary,Bill)

Ask(KB,S) returns some/all σ such that KB╞ σ

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Knowledge base for the
wumpus world
Perception
◦ t,s,b Percept([s,b,Glitter],t)  Glitter(t)
◦

Reflex
◦ t Glitter(t)  BestAction(Grab,t)

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 Deducing hidden properties
x,y,a,b Adjacent([x,y],[a,b]) 
[a,b]  {[x+1,y], [x-1,y],[x,y+1],[x,y-1]}

Properties of squares:
s,t At(Agent,s,t)  Breeze(t)  Breezy(s)

Squares are breezy near a pit:

◦ Diagnostic rule---infer cause from effect

s Breezy(s)  \Exi{r} Adjacent(r,s)  Pit(r)$

◦ Causal rule---infer effect from cause

r Pit(r)  [s Adjacent(r,s)  Breezy(s)$ ]

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 Knowledge engineering in FOL
1. Identify the task

2.

2. Assemble the relevant knowledge

3.

3. Decide on a vocabulary of predicates, functions, and constants

4.

4. Encode general knowledge about the domain

5.

5. Encode a description of the specific problem instance

6.

6. Pose queries to the inference procedure and get answers

7.

7. Debug the knowledge base

8.

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The electronic circuits domain
One-bit full adder

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 The electronic circuits domain
1. Identify the task
2.
◦ Does the circuit actually add properly? (circuit verification)
◦

2. Assemble the relevant knowledge

3.
◦ Composed of wires and gates; Types of gates (AND, OR, XOR, NOT)
◦
◦ Irrelevant: size, shape, color, cost of gates
◦

3. Decide on a vocabulary
4.
◦ Alternatives:
◦
Type(X1) = XOR

Type(X1, XOR)
XOR(X1)

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 The electronic circuits domain
4. Encode general knowledge of the domain
5.
◦ t1,t2 Connected(t1, t2)  Signal(t1) = Signal(t2)
◦ t Signal(t) = 1  Signal(t) = 0
◦
◦ 1≠0
◦
◦ t1,t2 Connected(t1, t2)  Connected(t2, t1)
◦
◦ g Type(g) = OR  Signal(Out(1,g)) = 1  n Signal(In(n,g)) = 1
◦
◦ g Type(g) = AND  Signal(Out(1,g)) = 0  n Signal(In(n,g)) = 0
◦
◦ g Type(g) = XOR  Signal(Out(1,g)) = 1  Signal(In(1,g)) ≠ Signal(In(2,g))
◦
◦ g Type(g) = NOT  Signal(Out(1,g)) ≠ Signal(In(1,g))
◦

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The electronic circuits domain
5. Encode the specific problem instance
6.
Type(X1) = XOR Type(X2) = XOR
Type(A1) = AND Type(A2) = AND
Type(O1) = OR

Connected(Out(1,X1),In(1,X2)) Connected(In(1,C1),In(1,X1))
Connected(Out(1,X1),In(2,A2)) Connected(In(1,C1),In(1,A1))
Connected(Out(1,A2),In(1,O1)) Connected(In(2,C1),In(2,X1))
Connected(Out(1,A1),In(2,O1)) Connected(In(2,C1),In(2,A1))
Connected(Out(1,X2),Out(1,C1)) Connected(In(3,C1),In(2,X2))
Connected(Out(1,O1),Out(2,C1)) Connected(In(3,C1),In(1,A2))

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The electronic circuits domain
6. Pose queries to the inference procedure
7.
What are the possible sets of values of all the terminals for the adder circuit?

i1,i2,i3,o1,o2 Signal(In(1,C_1)) = i1  Signal(In(2,C1)) = i2 

Signal(In(3,C1)) = i3  Signal(Out(1,C1)) = o1 
Signal(Out(2,C1)) = o2

7. Debug the knowledge base

8.
May have omitted assertions like 1 ≠ 0

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Summary
First-order logic:

◦ objects and relations are semantic primitives

◦ syntax: constants, functions, predicates, equality, quantifiers
◦

Increased expressive power: sufficient to define wumpus world

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