Physics For Engineers Tah Module PDF
Physics For Engineers Tah Module PDF
INTRODUCTION: In this chapter, we explore heat and temperature. It is not always easy to
distinguish these terms. Heat is the flow of energy from one object to another. This flow of
energy is caused by a difference in temperature. The transfer of heat can change temperature,
as can work, another kind of energy transfer that is central to thermodynamics. We return to
these basic ideas several times throughout the next four chapters, and you will see that they
affect everything from the behavior of atoms and molecules to cooking to our weather on Earth
to the life cycles of stars.
OBJECTIVE:
Heat is familiar to all of us. We can feel heat entering our bodies from the summer Sun or from
hot coffee or tea after a winter stroll. We can also feel heat leaving our bodies as we feel the
chill of night or the cooling effect of sweat after exercise.
Temperature
The concept of temperature has evolved from the common concepts of hot and cold. The
scientific definition of temperature explains more than our senses of hot and cold. As you may
have already learned, many physical quantities are defined solely in terms of how they are
observed or measured, that is, they are defined operationally.
Temperature
is operationally defined as the quantity of what we measure with a thermometer. As we will
see in detail in a later chapter on the kinetic theory of gases, temperature is proportional to the
average kinetic energy of translation, a fact that provides a more physical definition.
Differences in temperature maintain the transfer of heat, or heat transfer, throughout the
universe. Heat transfer is the movement of energy from one place or material to another as a
result of a difference in temperature
Thermal Equilibrium
• All matter is made up of atoms that are moving…even solid objects have atoms that are
vibrating.
Temperature
• The Measure of the average kinetic energy of all the particles in the object
• The atoms mass and speed determine the temperature of the object
Thermal Expansion
• This is why bridges are built with short segments with small breaks to allow for
expansion
Joints such as this one are used in bridges to accommodate thermal expansion.
∆L = αLo∆T
where L is the original length is the change in length with respect to temperature, and α is
the coefficient of linear expansion, a material property that varies slightly with temperature.
As α is nearly constant and also very small, for practical purposes, we use the linear
approximation:
ΔV=βVΔT
Where β is the coefficient of linear expansion, or cubical expansion coefficient β=3α.
Example.
1. Suppose your 60.0-L (-gal) steel gasoline tank is full of gas that is cool because it has just
been pumped from an underground reservoir. Now, both the tank and the gasoline have
a temperature of 15oC . How much gasoline has spilled by the time they warm to 35 oC ?
Solution
Use the equation for volume expansion to calculate the increase in volume of the steel tank:
ΔVs = βsVsΔT.
The increase in volume of the gasoline is given by this equation:
ΔVgas = βgasVgasΔT.
Find the difference in volume to determine the amount spilled as
Vspill =ΔVgas −ΔVs.
Alternatively, we can combine these three equations into a single equation.
Vspill = (βgas −βs)VΔT
= [(950−35)×10−6/ oC](60.0 L)(20.0 oC)
= 1.10 L
(Note that the original volumes are equal.)
Significance
This amount is significant, particularly for a 60.0-L tank. The effect is so striking because the
gasoline and steel expand quickly. The rate of change in thermal properties is discussed later in
this chapter.If you try to cap the tank tightly to prevent overflow, you will find that it leaks
anyway, either around the cap or by bursting the tank. Tightly constricting the expanding gas is
equivalent to compressing it, and both liquids and solids resist
• Conduction
• Convection
• Radiation
Conduction
• The process that moves energy from one object to another when they are touching
physically.
A molecular picture of heat conduction will help justify the equation that describes it.
Figure1.7.3 shows molecules in two bodies at different temperatures Th and Tc, and for “hot”
and “cold.” The average kinetic energy of a molecule in the hot body is higher than in the colder
body. If two molecules collide, energy transfers from the high-energy to the low-energy
molecule. In a metal, the picture would also include free valence electrons colliding with each
other and with atoms, likewise transferring energy. The cumulative effect of all collisions is a
net flux of heat from the hotter body to the colder body. Thus, the rate of heat transfer
increases with increasing temperature difference ΔT = Th −Tc . If the temperatures are the
same, the net heat transfer rate is zero. Because the number of collisions increases with
increasing area, heat conduction is proportional to the cross-sectional area—a second factor in
the equation.
Molecules in two bodies at different temperatures have different average kinetic energies.
Collisions occurring at the contact surface tend to transfer energy from high-temperature
regions to low-temperature regions. In this illustration, a molecule in the lower-temperature
region (right side) has low energy before collision, but its energy increases after colliding with a
high-energy molecule at the contact surface. In contrast, a molecule in the higher-temperature
region (left side) has high energy before collision, but its energy decreases after colliding with a
low-energy molecule at the contact surface.
A quantity that affects the conduction rate is the thickness of the material through which heat
transfers. Figure shows a slab of material with a higher temperature on the left than on the
right. Heat transfers from the left to the right by a series of molecular collisions. The greater the
distance between hot and cold, the more time the material takes to transfer the same amount
of heat.
Heat conduction occurs through any material, represented here by a rectangular bar, whether
window glass or walrus blubber.
Q =mLf (melting/freezing)
Q =mLv(vaporization/condensation)
Quantities appear in a simple equation deduced from and confirmed by experiments. The rate
of conductive heat transfer through a slab of material, such as the one in Figure , is given by
P= =
where P is the power or rate of heat transfer in watts or in kilocalories per second, A and d are
its surface area and thickness,and k is the thermal conductivity of the material.
Example :
1. A polystyrene foam icebox has a total area of 0.950m 2 and walls with an average
thickness of 2.50 cm. The box contains ice, water, and canned beverages at 0 oC .
The inside of the box is kept cold by melting ice. How much ice melts in one day if
the icebox is kept in the trunk of a car at 35 oC?
Strategy
This question involves both heat for a phase change (melting of ice) and the transfer of heat by
conduction. To find the amount of ice melted, we must find the net heat transferred. This value
can be obtained by calculating the rate of heat transfer by conduction and multiplying by time.
Solution
First we identify the knowns.
P= =
The heat used to melt the ice is Q=m Lf . We insert the known values:
P= = 13.3W.
Multiplying the rate of heat transfer by the time we obtain
Q = Pt = (13.3W)(86, 400 s) = 1.15×106J.
We set this equal to the heat transferred to melt the ice Q=m Lf , and solve for the mass m:
m= =
m =3.44 kg.
Convection
• The process that transfers energy by the movement of large numbers of particles in the
same direction within a liquid or gas.
• Cycle in Nature
• Boiling water and heating a room
Convection in Nature
1. Cooler denser air sinks and flows under the warmer air (less dense) to push the warmer
air upward
3. This cooling and movement of warmer air upward creates the cycle of convection
1. The average person produces heat at the rate of about 120 W when at rest. At what
rate must water evaporate from thebody to get rid of all this energy? (For simplicity,
we assume this evaporation occurs when a person is sitting in the shade and
surrounding temperatures are the same as skin temperature, eliminating heat
transfer by other methods.) Lv = 2430 kJ/kg
Strategy
Energy is needed for this phase change (Q=m Lv). Thus, the energy loss per unit time is
= = = 120W = 120 J/s.
We divide both sides of the equation by Lv to find that the mass evaporated per unit time is
=
Radiation
You can feel the heat transfer from the Sun. The space between Earth and the Sun is largely
empty, so the Sun warms us without any possibility of heat transfer by convection or
conduction. Similarly, you can sometimes tell that the oven is hot without touching its door or
looking inside—it may just warm you as you walk by. In these examples, heat is transferred by
radiation (Figure ). That is, the hot body emits electromagnetic waves that are absorbed by the
skin. No medium is required for electromagnetic waves to propagate. Different names are used
for electromagnetic waves of different wavelengths: radio waves, microwaves, infrared
radiation, visible light, ultraviolet radiation, X-rays, and gamma rays.
Most of the heat transfer from this fire to the observers occurs through infrared radiation. The
visible light,although dramatic, transfers relatively little thermal energy. Convection transfers
energy away from the observers as hot airrises, while conduction is negligibly slow here. Skin is
very sensitive to infrared radiation, so you can sense the presence of a fire without looking at it
directly. (credit: Daniel O’Neil)
• The energy that travels by electromagnetic waves (visible light, microwaves, and
infrared light)
• Radiation from the sun strikes the atoms in your body and transfers energy
The rate of heat transfer by emitted radiation is described by the Stefan-Boltzmann law of
radiation:
P = σAeT 4
The Stefan-Boltzmann equation needs only slight refinement to deal with a simple case of an
object’s absorption of radiation from its surroundings. Assuming that an object with a
temperature T1 is surrounded by an environment with uniform temperature T2, the net rate of
heat transfer by radiation is
Strategy
We can solve this by using the equation for the rate of radiative heat transfer.
Solution
Insert the temperature values T2 = 295K and T1 = 306K so that,
Pnet = σeA(T1 4 – T2 4)
Pnet =(5.67×10−8 J/s ⋅m2 ⋅K4)(0.97)(1.50m2)[(295K)4 −(306K)4]
Pnet = −98.53 J/s = −98.53W
SUMMARY