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Physics For Engineers Tah Module PDF

This document provides an introduction to a physics module on temperature and heat for engineering students. It will define key concepts such as temperature, heat transfer, and the three mechanisms of heat transfer: conduction, convection and radiation. The objectives are to explain these fundamental concepts, how to measure and convert between temperature scales, and solve related problems involving heat transfer and thermal expansion.

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0% found this document useful (0 votes)
150 views15 pages

Physics For Engineers Tah Module PDF

This document provides an introduction to a physics module on temperature and heat for engineering students. It will define key concepts such as temperature, heat transfer, and the three mechanisms of heat transfer: conduction, convection and radiation. The objectives are to explain these fundamental concepts, how to measure and convert between temperature scales, and solve related problems involving heat transfer and thermal expansion.

Uploaded by

FRANCES VISAYA
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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PHYSICS FOR ENGINEERS

MODULE:Temperature and Heat

INTRODUCTION: In this chapter, we explore heat and temperature. It is not always easy to
distinguish these terms. Heat is the flow of energy from one object to another. This flow of
energy is caused by a difference in temperature. The transfer of heat can change temperature,
as can work, another kind of energy transfer that is central to thermodynamics. We return to
these basic ideas several times throughout the next four chapters, and you will see that they
affect everything from the behavior of atoms and molecules to cooking to our weather on Earth
to the life cycles of stars.
OBJECTIVE:

By the end of this section, you will be able to:

 Define temperature and describe it qualitatively


 Explain thermal equilibrium
 Explain the zeroth law of thermodynamics
 Describe several different types of thermometers
 Convert temperatures between the Celsius, Fahrenheit, and Kelvin scales
 Explain phenomena involving heat as a form of energy transfer
 Solve problems involving heat transfer
 Explain some phenomena that involve conductive, convective, and radiative
heat transfer
 Solve problems on the relationships between heat transfer, time, and rate of heat
transfer
 Solve problems using the formulas for conduction and radiation

Heat is familiar to all of us. We can feel heat entering our bodies from the summer Sun or from
hot coffee or tea after a winter stroll. We can also feel heat leaving our bodies as we feel the
chill of night or the cooling effect of sweat after exercise.
Temperature

The concept of temperature has evolved from the common concepts of hot and cold. The
scientific definition of temperature explains more than our senses of hot and cold. As you may
have already learned, many physical quantities are defined solely in terms of how they are
observed or measured, that is, they are defined operationally.

Temperature
is operationally defined as the quantity of what we measure with a thermometer. As we will
see in detail in a later chapter on the kinetic theory of gases, temperature is proportional to the
average kinetic energy of translation, a fact that provides a more physical definition.
Differences in temperature maintain the transfer of heat, or heat transfer, throughout the
universe. Heat transfer is the movement of energy from one place or material to another as a
result of a difference in temperature

Thermal Equilibrium

An important concept related to temperature is thermal equilibrium. Two objects are


in thermal equilibrium if they are in close contact that allows either to gain energy from the
other, but nevertheless, no net energy is transferred between them. Even when not in contact,
they are in thermal equilibrium if, when they are placed in contact, no net energy is transferred
between them. If two objects remain in contact for a long time, they typically come
to equilibrium. In other words, two objects in thermal equilibrium do not exchange energy.

Experimentally, if object A is in equilibrium with object B, and object B is in equilibrium with


object C, then (as you may have already guessed) object A is in equilibrium with object C. That
statement of transitivity is called the zeroth law of thermodynamics. (The number “zeroth”
was suggested by British physicist Ralph Fowler in the 1930s. The first, second, and third laws of
thermodynamics were already named and numbered then. The zeroth law had seldom been
stated, but it needs to be discussed before the others, so Fowler gave it a smaller number.)
Consider the case where A is a thermometer. The zeroth law tells us that if A reads a
certain temperaturewhen in equilibrium with B, and it is then placed in contact with C, it will
not exchange energy with C; therefore, its temperature reading will remain the same
(Figure 1.2.11.2.1). In other words, if two objects are in thermal equilibrium, they have the
same temperature

Temperature Depends on Particle Movement!

• All matter is made up of atoms that are moving…even solid objects have atoms that are
vibrating.

• The motion from the atoms gives the object energy.

The Kinetic Theory of Matter


• All of the particles that make up matter are constantly in motion

• Solid= vibrating atoms

• Liquid= flowing atoms

• Gas= move freely

• Plasma= move incredibly fast and freely

Temperature

• The Measure of the average kinetic energy of all the particles in the object

• The atoms mass and speed determine the temperature of the object

Types Of Temperature Scales:

In temperature measurement, three types of scales are currently used in measuring


temperature. They are:

• I. The Celsius scale


• II. The Fahrenheit scale
• III. The Absolute or thermodynamic or kelvin scale
Example.
1. “Room temperature” is generally defined in physics to be 25oC. (a) What is
room temperature in oF? (b) What is it in K?
Solution :
Strategy To answer these questions, all we need to do is choose the correct conversion
equations and substitute the known values.
To convert from oC to oF, use the equation
TF= TC+32
Substitute the known value into the equation and solve:
TF= (25)+32
TF=77oF
Similarly, we find that TK=TC+273.15
TK=25+273.15
TK= 298.15 K
2. “Room temperature” is generally defined in physics to be 75oF. (a) What is
room temperature in oC? (b) What is it in F?
Solution :
Strategy To answer these questions, all we need to do is choose the correct conversion
equations and substitute the known values.
To convert from oF to oC, use the equation
TC= (TF-32)
Substitute the known value into the equation and solve:
TC= (75-32)
TC= 23.89oC
Similarly, we find that TK=TC+273.15
TK=23.89+273.15
TK= 297.04 K

Thermal Expansion

The expansion of alcohol in a thermometer is one of many commonly encountered examples


of thermal expansion, which is the change in size or volume of a given system as
its temperature changes. The most visible example is the expansion of hot air. When air is
heated, it expands and becomes less dense than the surrounding air, which then exerts an
(upward) force on the hot air and makes steam and smoke rise, hot air balloons float, and so
forth. The same behavior happens in all liquids and gases, driving natural heat transfer
upward in homes, oceans, and weather systems, as we will discuss in a upcoming section. Solids
also undergo thermal expansion. Railroad tracks and bridges, for example, have expansion
joints to allow them to freely expand and contract with temperature changes.
• All gases, liquids, and most solids expand when their temperature increases.

• This is why bridges are built with short segments with small breaks to allow for
expansion
Joints such as this one are used in bridges to accommodate thermal expansion.

LINEAR EXPANSION OF SOLIDS: When a solid is subjected to a rise in temperature ( , its


increase in length (∆L) is very nearly proportional to its initial length (Lo) multiplied by ∆T.

∆L = αLo∆T

where L is the original length is the change in length with respect to temperature, and α is
the coefficient of linear expansion, a material property that varies slightly with temperature.
As α is nearly constant and also very small, for practical purposes, we use the linear
approximation:

Volume Expansion: If a volume Vo expands to Vo + ∆V when sunjected to temperature rise ∆T.

ΔV=βVΔT
Where β is the coefficient of linear expansion, or cubical expansion coefficient β=3α.
Example.
1. Suppose your 60.0-L (-gal) steel gasoline tank is full of gas that is cool because it has just
been pumped from an underground reservoir. Now, both the tank and the gasoline have
a temperature of 15oC . How much gasoline has spilled by the time they warm to 35 oC ?
Solution
Use the equation for volume expansion to calculate the increase in volume of the steel tank:
ΔVs = βsVsΔT.
The increase in volume of the gasoline is given by this equation:
ΔVgas = βgasVgasΔT.
Find the difference in volume to determine the amount spilled as
Vspill =ΔVgas −ΔVs.
Alternatively, we can combine these three equations into a single equation.
Vspill = (βgas −βs)VΔT
= [(950−35)×10−6/ oC](60.0 L)(20.0 oC)
= 1.10 L
(Note that the original volumes are equal.)

Significance
This amount is significant, particularly for a 60.0-L tank. The effect is so striking because the
gasoline and steel expand quickly. The rate of change in thermal properties is discussed later in
this chapter.If you try to cap the tank tightly to prevent overflow, you will find that it leaks
anyway, either around the cap or by bursting the tank. Tightly constricting the expanding gas is
equivalent to compressing it, and both liquids and solids resist

Mechanisms of Heat Transfer

The Transfer of Energy as Heat.

• Energy moves heat in three ways

• Conduction

• Convection

• Radiation

Conduction

• The process that moves energy from one object to another when they are touching
physically.

• Conductors: materials that transfer energy easily.

• Insulators: materials that do not transfer energy easily.


• Examples: hot cup of cocoa transfers heat energy to cold hands

A molecular picture of heat conduction will help justify the equation that describes it.
Figure1.7.3 shows molecules in two bodies at different temperatures Th and Tc, and for “hot”
and “cold.” The average kinetic energy of a molecule in the hot body is higher than in the colder
body. If two molecules collide, energy transfers from the high-energy to the low-energy
molecule. In a metal, the picture would also include free valence electrons colliding with each
other and with atoms, likewise transferring energy. The cumulative effect of all collisions is a
net flux of heat from the hotter body to the colder body. Thus, the rate of heat transfer
increases with increasing temperature difference ΔT = Th −Tc . If the temperatures are the
same, the net heat transfer rate is zero. Because the number of collisions increases with
increasing area, heat conduction is proportional to the cross-sectional area—a second factor in
the equation.

Molecules in two bodies at different temperatures have different average kinetic energies.
Collisions occurring at the contact surface tend to transfer energy from high-temperature
regions to low-temperature regions. In this illustration, a molecule in the lower-temperature
region (right side) has low energy before collision, but its energy increases after colliding with a
high-energy molecule at the contact surface. In contrast, a molecule in the higher-temperature
region (left side) has high energy before collision, but its energy decreases after colliding with a
low-energy molecule at the contact surface.

A quantity that affects the conduction rate is the thickness of the material through which heat
transfers. Figure shows a slab of material with a higher temperature on the left than on the
right. Heat transfers from the left to the right by a series of molecular collisions. The greater the
distance between hot and cold, the more time the material takes to transfer the same amount
of heat.

Heat conduction occurs through any material, represented here by a rectangular bar, whether
window glass or walrus blubber.
Q =mLf (melting/freezing)
Q =mLv(vaporization/condensation)
Quantities appear in a simple equation deduced from and confirmed by experiments. The rate
of conductive heat transfer through a slab of material, such as the one in Figure , is given by
P= =
where P is the power or rate of heat transfer in watts or in kilocalories per second, A and d are
its surface area and thickness,and k is the thermal conductivity of the material.
Example :

1. A polystyrene foam icebox has a total area of 0.950m 2 and walls with an average
thickness of 2.50 cm. The box contains ice, water, and canned beverages at 0 oC .
The inside of the box is kept cold by melting ice. How much ice melts in one day if
the icebox is kept in the trunk of a car at 35 oC?
Strategy
This question involves both heat for a phase change (melting of ice) and the transfer of heat by
conduction. To find the amount of ice melted, we must find the net heat transferred. This value
can be obtained by calculating the rate of heat transfer by conduction and multiplying by time.
Solution
First we identify the knowns.

k = 0.010W/m⋅ oC for polystyrene foam, A = 0.950m2 , d = 2.50 cm = 0.0250m Tc = 0oC


Th = 35.0OC, t = 1 day = 24 hour = 86,400 s.
Then we identify the unknowns. We need to solve for the mass of the ice, m. We also need to
solve for the net heat transferred to melt the ice, Q= mLf. The rate of heat transfer by
conduction is given by

P= =
The heat used to melt the ice is Q=m Lf . We insert the known values:
P= = 13.3W.
Multiplying the rate of heat transfer by the time we obtain
Q = Pt = (13.3W)(86, 400 s) = 1.15×106J.
We set this equal to the heat transferred to melt the ice Q=m Lf , and solve for the mass m:

m= =
m =3.44 kg.
Convection

• The process that transfers energy by the movement of large numbers of particles in the
same direction within a liquid or gas.

• Cycle in Nature
• Boiling water and heating a room

Convection in Nature

1. Cooler denser air sinks and flows under the warmer air (less dense) to push the warmer
air upward

2. As the warmer air rises it cools and becomes more dense

3. This cooling and movement of warmer air upward creates the cycle of convection

1. The average person produces heat at the rate of about 120 W when at rest. At what
rate must water evaporate from thebody to get rid of all this energy? (For simplicity,
we assume this evaporation occurs when a person is sitting in the shade and
surrounding temperatures are the same as skin temperature, eliminating heat
transfer by other methods.) Lv = 2430 kJ/kg
Strategy
Energy is needed for this phase change (Q=m Lv). Thus, the energy loss per unit time is
= = = 120W = 120 J/s.
We divide both sides of the equation by Lv to find that the mass evaporated per unit time is
=

= = 0.0494 g/s = 2.96 g/min.

Radiation

You can feel the heat transfer from the Sun. The space between Earth and the Sun is largely
empty, so the Sun warms us without any possibility of heat transfer by convection or
conduction. Similarly, you can sometimes tell that the oven is hot without touching its door or
looking inside—it may just warm you as you walk by. In these examples, heat is transferred by
radiation (Figure ). That is, the hot body emits electromagnetic waves that are absorbed by the
skin. No medium is required for electromagnetic waves to propagate. Different names are used
for electromagnetic waves of different wavelengths: radio waves, microwaves, infrared
radiation, visible light, ultraviolet radiation, X-rays, and gamma rays.

Most of the heat transfer from this fire to the observers occurs through infrared radiation. The
visible light,although dramatic, transfers relatively little thermal energy. Convection transfers
energy away from the observers as hot airrises, while conduction is negligibly slow here. Skin is
very sensitive to infrared radiation, so you can sense the presence of a fire without looking at it
directly. (credit: Daniel O’Neil)

• The energy that travels by electromagnetic waves (visible light, microwaves, and
infrared light)

• Radiation from the sun strikes the atoms in your body and transfers energy

The rate of heat transfer by emitted radiation is described by the Stefan-Boltzmann law of
radiation:

P = σAeT 4

Where σ = 5.67×10−8 J/s ⋅m2 ⋅K4 is the Stefan-Boltzmann constant, a combination of


fundamental constants of nature;A is the surface area of the object; and T is its temperature in
kelvins.

The Stefan-Boltzmann equation needs only slight refinement to deal with a simple case of an
object’s absorption of radiation from its surroundings. Assuming that an object with a
temperature T1 is surrounded by an environment with uniform temperature T2, the net rate of
heat transfer by radiation is

Pnet = σeA(T1 4 – T2 4),


where e is the emissivity of the object alone. In other words, it does not matter whether the
surroundings are white, gray, or black: The balance of radiation into and out of the object
depends on how well it emits and absorbs radiation. When , T2 > T1 the quantity Pnet is
positive, that is, the net heat transfer is from hot to cold.
Example:
1. What is the rate of heat transfer by radiation of an unclothed person standing in a dark
room whose ambient temperature is 22 oC ? The person has a normal skin temperature
33 oC of and a surface area of 1.50m2. The emissivity of skin is 0.97 in the infrared, the
part of the spectrum where the radiation takes place.

Strategy
We can solve this by using the equation for the rate of radiative heat transfer.
Solution
Insert the temperature values T2 = 295K and T1 = 306K so that,
Pnet = σeA(T1 4 – T2 4)
Pnet =(5.67×10−8 J/s ⋅m2 ⋅K4)(0.97)(1.50m2)[(295K)4 −(306K)4]
Pnet = −98.53 J/s = −98.53W

Conduction Convection Radiation

• Energy transferred by • Occurs in gases and • Energy transferred by


direct contact liquids electromagnetic waves
• Energy flows directly • Movement of large (visible light, microwaves,
from warmer to cooler number of particles in infrared)
objects same direction • All objects radiate energy
• Continues until object • Cycle occurs while • Can transfer energy through
temperatures are temperature empty space
equal differences exist
Figure 1.7.11.7.1: In a fireplace, heat transfer occurs by all three methods: conduction,
convection, and radiation. Radiation is responsible for most of the heat transferred into the
room. Heat transfer also occurs through conduction into the room, but much slower. Heat
transfer by convection also occurs through cold air entering the room around windows and hot
air leaving the room by rising up the chimney.

SUMMARY

Temperature and Thermal Equilibrium


 Temperature is operationally defined as the quantity measured by a thermometer. It is
proportional to the average kinetic energy of atoms and molecules in a system.
 Thermal equilibrium occurs when two bodies are in contact with each other and can
freely exchange energy. Systems are inthermal equilibrium when they have the same
temperature.
 The zeroth law of thermodynamics states that when two systems, A and B, are in
thermal equilibrium with each other, and B is in thermal equilibrium with a third system
C, then A is also in thermal equilibrium with C.
Thermometers and Temperature Scales
 Three types of thermometers are alcohol, liquid crystal, and infrared radiation
(pyrometer).
 The three main temperature scales are Celsius, Fahrenheit, and Kelvin. Temperatures
can be converted from one scale to
 another using temperature conversion equations.
 The three phases of water (ice, liquid water, and water vapor) can coexist at a single
pressure and temperature known as the
 triple point.
Heat Transfer, Specific Heat, and Calorimetry
 Heat and work are the two distinct methods of energy transfer.
 Heat transfer to an object when its temperature changes is often approximated well by
Q =mcΔT ,where m is the
 object’s mass and cis the specific heat of the substance.
Mechanisms of Heat Transfer
 Heat is transferred by three different methods: conduction, convection, and radiation.
 Heat conduction is the transfer of heat between two objects in direct contact with each
other.
 The rate of heat transfer P (energy per unit time) is proportional to the temperature
difference Th −Tc and the contact area
 A and inversely proportional to the distance d between the objects.
 Convection is heat transfer by the macroscopic movement of mass. Convection can be
natural or forced, and generally
 transfers thermal energy faster than conduction. Convection that occurs along with a
phase change can transfer energy from
 cold regions to warm ones.
 Radiation is heat transfer through the emission or absorption of electromagnetic waves.
 The rate of radiative heat transfer is proportional to the emissivity e. For a perfect
blackbody, e = 1 , whereas a perfectly white, clear, or reflective body has e = 0, with real
objects having values of e between 1 and 0.
 The rate of heat transfer depends on the surface area and the fourth power of the
absolute temperature:
P = σeAT 4
Where σ = 5.67×10−8 J/s ⋅m2 ⋅K4 is the Stefan-Boltzmann constant, a combination of
fundamental constants of nature;A is the surface area of the object; and T is its temperature in
kelvins.

Pnet = σeA(T1 4 – T2 4),


where e is the emissivity of the object alone. In other words, it does not matter whether the
surroundings are white, gray, or black: The balance of radiation into and out of the object
depends on how well it emits and absorbs radiation. When ,
T2 > T1 the quantity Pnet is positive, that is, the net heat transfer is from hot to cold.

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