MEC412

CHAPTER 3

Rigid Bodies:
Equivalent Systems
of Forces
Contents
Introduction Moment of a Force About a Given Axis
External and Internal Forces Sample Problem 3.5
Principle of Transmissibility: Equivalent Moment of a Couple
Forces Addition of Couples
Vector Products Couple Vectors
Moment of a Force About a Point Resolution of a Force Into a Force at O
Varignon’s Theorem and a Couple
Rectangular Components of the Sample Problem 3.6
Moment of a Force Reducing a System of Forces to a Force-
Sample Problem 3.1 Couple System
Scalar Products Further Reduction of a System of Forces
Applications of the Scalar Product Sample Problem 3.8
Mixed Triple Products Sample Problem 3.10

3-2
Introduction

• Treatment of a body as a single particle is not always possible. In

general, the size of the body and the specific points of application of the
forces must be considered.

• Current chapter describes the effect of forces exerted on a rigid body and
how to replace a given system of forces with a simpler equivalent system.

• First, we need to learn some new statics concepts, including:

• moment of a force about a point
• moment of a force about an axis
• moment due to a couple

• Any system of forces acting on a rigid body can be replaced by an

equivalent system consisting of one force acting at a given point and one
couple.

3-3
External and Internal Forces
• Forces acting on rigid bodies are
divided into two groups:
- External forces
- Internal forces

• External forces are shown in a free

body diagram.

• Internal forces, such as the force

between each wheel and the axel
it is mount on, are never shown
on a free body diagram.

3-4
Principle of Transmissibility: Equivalent Forces
• Principle of Transmissibility -
Equilibrium or motion are not affected
by transmitting a force along its line of
action.
NOTE: F and F’ are equivalent forces.

• Moving the point of application of

the force F to the rear bumper
does not affect the motion or the
other forces acting on the truck.

3-5
Principle of Transmissibility: Equivalent Forces
• Principle of Transmissibility -
Equilibrium or motion are not affected
by transmitting a force along its line of
action.
NOTE: F and F’ are equivalent forces.

3-6
Vector Products = cross product
• Concept of the moment of a force about a point
requires the understanding of the vector product
or cross product.

• Vector product of two vectors P and Q is defined

as the vector V which satisfies the following
conditions:
1. Line of action of V is perpendicular to plane
containing P and Q.
2. Magnitude of V is V = PQ sin 
3. Direction of V is obtained from the right-hand
rule.

• Vector products:
- are not commutative, Q  P = −(P  Q )

- are distributive, P  (Q1 + Q 2 ) = P  Q1 + P  Q 2

- are not associative, (P  Q ) S  P  (Q  S )

3-7
Vector Products:
• Vector products of Cartesian unit vectors,
       
i i = 0 j  i = −k k  i = j
       
i  j =k j j =0 k  j = −i
       
i k = − j j k = i k k = 0
• Vector products in terms of rectangular
coordinates
( ) (
V = Px i + Py j + Pz k  Qx i + Qy j + Qz k )
=(PQ y z − Pz Qy ) i + ( Pz Qx − Px Qz ) j

+ ( Px Qy − Py Qx ) k
i j k
= Px Py Pz
Qx Qy Qz
3-8
Moment of a Force About a Point
• A force vector is defined by its magnitude and
direction. Its effect on the rigid body also depends
on its point of application.
• The moment of F about O is defined as
MO = r  F
• The moment vector MO is perpendicular to the
plane containing O and the force F.
• Magnitude of MO, M O = rF sin  = ,Fd
measures the tendency of the force to cause rotation of
the body about an axis along MO. The sense of the
moment may be determined by the right-hand rule.
• Any force F’ that has the same magnitude and
direction as F, is equivalent if it also has the same line
of action and therefore, produces the same moment.

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3 - 15
Moment of a Force About a Point
• Two-dimensional structures have length and breadth but
negligible depth and are subjected to forces contained
only in the plane of the structure.

• The plane of the structure contains the point O and the

force F. MO, the moment of the force about O is
perpendicular to the plane.

• If the force tends to rotate the structure anticlockwise, the

sense of the moment vector is out of the plane of the
structure and the magnitude of the moment is positive.

• If the force tends to rotate the structure clockwise, the

sense of the moment vector is into the plane of the
structure and the magnitude of the moment is negative.

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Varignon’s Theorem

• The moment about a give point O of the

resultant of several concurrent forces is equal
to the sum of the moments of the various
moments about the same point O.

(
  
)    
r  F1 + F2 +  = r  F1 + r  F2 + 

• Varignon’s Theorem makes it possible to

replace the direct determination of the
moment of a force F by the moments of two
or more component forces of F.

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Rectangular Components of the Moment of a Force
The moment of F about O,
MO = r  F, r = xi + yj + zk
F = Fx i + Fy j + Fz k
M O = M xi + M y j + M z k

i j k
= x y z
Fx Fy Fz

= ( yFz − zFy ) i + ( zFx − xFz ) j + ( xFy − yFx ) k

The components of M o , Mx, My, and Mz, represent the
moments about the x-, y- and z-axis, respectively.

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Rectangular Components of the Moment of a Force

The moment of F about B,

M B = rA/ B  F
rA/ B = rA − rB

= ( x A − xB ) i + ( y A − y B ) j + ( z A − z B ) k

F = Fx i + Fy j + Fz k

i j k
MB = ( x A − xB ) ( y A − y B ) ( z A − z B )
Fx Fy Fz

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Rectangular Components of the Moment of a Force
For two-dimensional structures,
M O = ( xFy − yFz ) k

MO = MZ

= xFy − yFz

M B =  ( x A − xB ) Fy − ( y A − yB ) Fz  k

MB = MZ

= ( x A − xB ) Fy − ( y A − yB ) Fz

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3 - 21
Sample Problem 3.1
A 500N vertical force is applied to the end of a lever
which is attached to a shaft (not shown) at O.
Determine:
a) the moment about O,
b) the horizontal force at A which creates the same
moment,
c) the smallest force at A which produces the same
moment,
d) the location for a 1.2 kN vertical force to produce
the same moment,
e) whether any of the forces from b, c, and d is
equivalent to the original force.

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Sample Problem 3.1
A 500N vertical force is applied to the end of a lever
which is attached to a shaft (not shown) at O.
Determine:
a) the moment about O,

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Sample Problem 3.1
A 500N vertical force is applied to the end of a lever
which is attached to a shaft (not shown) at O.
Determine:
a) the moment about O,

3 - 24
Sample Problem 3.1
STRATEGY: The calculations asked for all involve
variations on the basic defining equation of a
moment, MO = Fd.
MODELING and ANALYSIS:
a) Moment about O is equal to the product of the
force and the perpendicular distance between the
line of action of the force and O. Since the force
tends to rotate the lever clockwise, the moment
vector is into the plane of the paper which, by our
sign convention, would be negative or
counterclockwise.
M O = Fd
d = ( 0.6m.) cos 60 = 0.3m.
M O = ( 500 N )( 0.3m.) M O = −150 N  m, or
= 150N  m
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Sample Problem 3.1
b) Horizontal force at A that produces the same
moment,
d = ( 0.6 m.) sin 60 = 0.52 m.
M O = Fd
150N  m. = F ( 0.52 m.)
150N  m.
F= F = 288.5N
0.52 m.

Why must the direction of this F be to the right?

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Sample Problem 3.1
F(min) ?
What is the smallest force at A which produces the
same moment? Think about it and discuss with a
neighbor.

c) The smallest force at A to produce the same

moment occurs when the perpendicular distance is
a maximum or when F is perpendicular to OA.
M O = Fd
150 N  m. = F ( 0.6 m.)
150.N  m.
F= F = 250 N
0.6 m.

3 - 27
Sample Problem 3.1
d) To determine the point of application of a 1.2 kN
force to produce the same moment,
M O = Fd
150N  m. = (1200 N ) d
150N  m.
d= = 0.125 m.
1200 N
OB cos60 = 0.125 m. OB = 0.25 m.

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Sample Problem 3.1

e) Although each of the forces in parts b), c), and d)

produces the same moment as the 500 N force, none
are of the same magnitude and sense, or on the same
line of action. None of the forces is equivalent to the
500 N force.

REFLECT and THINK: Various combinations of force and lever arm can
produce equivalent moments, but the system of force and moment produces
a different overall effect in each case.
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Sample Problem 3.4

STRATEGY: The solution requires

resolving the tension in the wire and
the position vector from A to C into
rectangular components. You will
need a unit vector approach to
determine the force components.

MODELING and ANALYSIS:

The moment MA of the force F exerted
The rectangular plate is supported by
by the wire is obtained by evaluating
the brackets at A and B and by a wire
the vector product,
CD. Knowing that the tension in the
wire is 200 N, determine the moment  

about A of the force exerted by the M A = rC A  F
wire at C.

3 - 30
Sample Problem 3.4

The rectangular plate is supported by

the brackets at A and B and by a wire
CD. Knowing that the tension in the
wire is 200 N, determine the moment
about A of the force exerted by the
wire at C.

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Sample Problem 3.4
  
M A = rC A  F

rC A = rC − rA = ( 0.3 m ) i + ( 0.08 m ) j
rC D
F = F  = ( 200 N )
rC D

− ( 0.3 m ) i + ( 0.24 m ) j − ( 0.32 m ) k

= ( 200 N )
0.5 m
= − ( 120 N ) i + ( 96 N ) j − ( 128 N ) k
  
i j k

M A = 0.3 0 0.08
− 120 96 − 128

M A = − ( 7.68 N  m ) i + ( 28.8 N  m ) j + ( 28.8 N  m ) k

3 - 32
   
i j k

M A = 0.3 0 0.08
− 120 96 − 128

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3 - 34
CROSS PRODUCT USING MATRIX OPERATION
M = rXF

3 - 35
CROSS PRODUCT USING MATRIX OPERATION
M = rXF

3 - 36
CROSS PRODUCT USING MATRIX OPERATION
M = rXF

3 - 37
Sample Problem 3.4

REFLECT and THINK:

Two-dimensional problems often are solved easily

using a scalar approach, but the versatility of a
vector analysis is quite apparent in a three-
dimensional problem such as this.

3 - 38
Moment of a Couple
• Two forces F and -F having the same magnitude,
parallel lines of action, and opposite sense are said
to form a couple.

• Moment of the couple,

( )
    
M = rA  F + rB  − F
  
= (rA − rB ) F
 
= rF
M = rF sin  = Fd
• The moment vector of the couple is
independent of the choice of the origin of the
coordinate axes, i.e., it is a free vector that can
be applied at any point with the same effect.

3 - 39
Moment of a Couple

Two couples will have equal moments if

• F1d1 = F2 d 2

• the two couples lie in parallel planes, and

• the two couples have the same sense or

the tendency to cause rotation in the same
direction.

3 - 40
Addition of Couples
• Consider two intersecting planes P1 and
P2 with each containing a couple
M1 = r  F1 in plane P1

M 2 = r  F2 in plane P2
• Resultants of the vectors also form a
couple
(
M = r  R = r  F1 + F2 )
• By Varignon’s theorem
M = r  F1 + r  F2

= M1 + M 2
• Sum of two couples is also a couple that is equal
to the vector sum of the two couples
3 - 41
Couple Vectors

• A couple can be represented by a vector with magnitude

and direction equal to the moment of the couple.

• Couple vectors obey the law of addition of vectors.

• Couple vectors are free vectors, i.e., there is no point of

application – it simply acts on the body.

• Couple vectors may be resolved into component vectors.

3 - 42
Resolution of a Force Into a Force at O and a Couple

• Force vector F can not be simply moved to O without modifying its

action on the body.

• Attaching equal and opposite force vectors at O produces no net

effect on the body.

• The three forces may be replaced by an equivalent force vector and

couple vector, i.e, a force-couple system.

3 - 43
Resolution of a Force Into a Force at O and a Couple

• Moving F from A to a different point O’ requires the

addition of a different couple vector MO’
  
M O' = r   F
• The moments of F about O and O’ are related,
         
M O ' = r 'F = (r + s ) F = r  F + s  F
  
= MO + s  F

• Moving the force-couple system from O to O’ requires the

addition of the moment of the force at O about O’.
3 - 44
Sample Problem 3.6
STRATEGY:

Look for ways to add equal and opposite forces

to the diagram that, along with already known
perpendicular distances, will produce new
couples with moments along the coordinate
axes. These can be combined into a single
equivalent couple.

MODELING:
Determine the components of the • Attach equal and opposite 100N forces in
single couple equivalent to the the ±x direction at A, thereby producing 3
couples shown. couples for which the moment components
are easily computed.

3 - 45
Sample Problem 3.6
ANALYSIS:

You can represent these three couples by

three couple vectors Mx, My, and Mz
directed along the coordinate axes. The
corresponding moments are

M x = − (150 N )( 0.46 m.) = −69 N  m.

M y = + (100 N )( 0.3 m.) = +30 N  m.
M z = + (100 N )( 0.23 in.) = +23 N  m.

M = − ( 69 N  m. ) i + ( 30 N  m. ) j

+ ( 23 N  m. ) k
3 - 46
Sample Problem 3.6
REFLECT and THINK:

You can also obtain the components of

the equivalent single couple M by
computing the sum of the moments of the
four given forces about an arbitrary point.
Selecting point D, the moment is

M = M D = ( 0.46 m. ) j  ( −150 N ) k

+  ( 0.23 m. ) j − ( 0.3 m. ) k   ( −100 N ) i

M = −(69 N  m.)i + (30 N  m.) j

+ ( 23 N  m.)k

3 - 47
Reducing System of Forces to a Force-Couple System

• A system of forces may be replaced by a collection of

force-couple systems acting at a given point O
• The force and couple vectors may be combined into a
resultant force vector and a resultant couple vector,
R= F (
M OR =  r  F )
• The force-couple system at O may be moved to O’
with the addition of the moment of R about O’ ,
M OR ' = M OR + s  R
• Two systems of forces are equivalent if they can be
reduced to the same force-couple system.
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Further Reduction of a System of Forces
• If the resultant force and couple at O are mutually
perpendicular, they can be replaced by a single force acting
along a new line of action.

• The resultant force-couple system for a system of forces

will be mutually perpendicular if:
1) the forces are concurrent,
2) the forces are coplanar, or
3) the forces are parallel.

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Further Reduction of a System of Forces
• System of coplanar forces
 isreduced to a
force-couple system R and M OR that is
mutually perpendicular.

• System can be reduced to a single force

by moving the line of action of R until
its moment about O becomes M OR

• In terms of rectangular coordinates,

xR y − yRx = M OR

3 - 50
Sample Problem 3.8

STRATEGY:
The force part of an equivalent
force-couple system is simply the
sum of the forces involved. The
couple part is the sum of the
moments caused by each force
relative to the point of interest.
For the beam, reduce the system of Once you find the equivalent
forces shown to (a) an equivalent force-couple at one point, you can
force-couple system at A, (b) an transfer it to any other point by a
equivalent force couple system at B, moment calculation.
and (c) a single force or resultant.
Note: Since the support reactions are
not included, the given system will
not maintain the beam in equilibrium.

3 - 51
Sample Problem 3.8
MODELING and ANALYSIS:
a) Compute the resultant force and the
resultant couple at A.
R= F

= ( 150 N ) j − ( 600 N ) j + ( 100 N ) j − ( 250 N ) j

R = − ( 600 N ) j

(
M AR =  r  F )
= ( 1.6 i )  ( −600 j ) + ( 2.8 i )  ( 100 j )

+ ( 4.8 i )  ( −250 j )
M AR = − ( 1880 N  m ) k

3 - 52
Sample Problem 3.8
b) Find an equivalent force-couple system at B
based on the force-couple system at A.
The force is unchanged by the movement of the
force-couple system from A to B.
 
R = −(600 N) j
The couple at B is equal to the moment about B
of the force-couple system found at A.
M BR = M AR + rB A  R

= − ( 1880 N  m ) k + ( −4.8 m ) i  ( −600 N ) j

= − ( 1880 N  m ) k + ( 2880 N  m ) k
M BR = + ( 1000 N  m ) k

3 - 53
Sample Problem 3.8
c) The resultant of the given system of
forces is equal to R, and its point of
application must be such that the
moment of R about A is equal to M RA. This
equality of moments leads to
r  R = M RA
xi  ( −600 N) j = −(1880 N  m)k Solving for x, you get x = 3.13 m.
− x(600 N)k = −(1880 N  m)k Thus, the single force equivalent
to the given system is defined as
R = 600 N , x = 3.13 m

REFLECT and THINK:

This reduction of a given system of forces to a single equivalent force uses the
same principles that you will use later for finding centers of gravity and centers
of mass, which are important parameters in engineering mechanics.
3 - 54
Sample Problem 3.10
STRATEGY:
• Determine the relative position vectors
for the points of application of the
cable forces with respect to A.

• Resolve the forces into rectangular

components.

• Compute the equivalent force,

R= F
Three cables are attached to the • Compute the equivalent couple,
( )
bracket as shown. Replace the
forces with an equivalent force- M AR =  r  F
couple system at A.

3 - 55
Sample Problem 3.10

3 - 56
Sample Problem 3.10
• Resolve the forces into rectangular
components.
FB = ( 700 N ) 

rE B 75 i − 150 j + 50k
= =
rE B 175

= 0.429 i − 0.857 j + 0.289k

MODELING and ANALYSIS: FB = 300 i − 600 j + 200k (N)
• Determine the relative position FC = ( 1000 N ) ( cos 45 i − cos 45 j )
vectors with respect to A.
  
rB A = 0.075 i + 0.050k (m ) = 707 i − 707 j (N)
  
rC A = 0.075 i − 0.050k (m ) FD = ( 1200 N ) ( cos 60 i + cos 30 j )
  
rD A = 0.100 i − 0.100 j (m ) = 600 i + 1039 j (N)
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Sample Problem 3.10
• Compute the equivalent force, • Compute the equivalent couple,
 
R = F R  
 M A =  (r  F )
= (300 + 707 + 600) i   
 i j k
+ (− 600 + 1039) j    
 rB A  F B = 0.075 0 0.050 = 30i − 45k
+ (200 − 707)k 300 − 600 200
      
R = 1607 i + 439 j − 507 k (N) i j k
  
rC A  F c = 0.075 0 − 0.050 = 17.68 j
707 0 − 707
  
i j k
  
rD A  F D = 0.100 − 0.100 0 = 163.9k
600 1039 0

M AR =  (rXF ) = (30 N .m) i + (17.68 N .m) j + (118.9 N .m)k

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Sample Problem 3.10

REFLECT and THINK:

The determinant approach to calculating

moments shows its advantages in a general
three-dimensional problem such as this.

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