CHAPTER 2

MATHEMATICAL MODELLING

INTRODUCTION

• In developing a mathematical model, the fundamental physical laws of science and

engineering is applied. In practice, the complexity of the system requires some
assumptions in the determination model. The equations of the mathematical model may
be solved using mathematical tools.
• The approach to dynamic system modelling can be listed as:

1. Define the systems & components.

2. Formulate the mathematical model based on basic principles.
3. Obtain the differential equation representing the mathematical model.
4. Solve the equations for desired output variables.
5. Examine the solutions and the assumptions.
6. If necessary, reanalyse or redesign the system.

DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS OF PHYSICAL SYSTEMS

• Differential equations are obtained by utilizing the physical laws of the dynamic system
modelling (1 - 3).
• This approach applies equally well to:
o Mechanical.
o Electrical.
o Fluid.
o Thermodynamic systems.
• The physical laws lead to mathematical models that describe the relationship between
the input and output of dynamic system.
1. Kirchhoff’s voltage law
2. Kirchhoff’s current law
3. Newton’s law

𝑑 𝑚 𝑐(𝑡) 𝑑 𝑚−1 𝑐(𝑡) 𝑑 𝑚 𝑟 (𝑡 ) 𝑑 𝑚−1 𝑟(𝑡)

+ 𝑑𝑛−1 ( )
+ ⋯ + 𝑑0 𝑐 𝑡 = 𝑏𝑚 + 𝑏𝑚−1 + ⋯ + 𝑏0 𝑟(𝑡)
𝑑𝑡 𝑛 𝑑𝑡 𝑛−1 𝑑𝑡 𝑚 𝑑𝑡 𝑚−1
Linear, time-invariant differential equation

1
LAPLACE TRANSFORM

• A system represented by a differential equation is difficult to model as a block diagram.

• Thus, Laplace transform will be used to represent the input, output & system as separate
entities.
• Laplace Transform function f(t) to F(s) :
∞
ℒ {𝑓(𝑡)} = 𝐹(𝑠) = ∫ 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑓(𝑡)𝑑𝑡
0

Where:
ℒ = Laplace transform operator
f(t) = function in time domain
F(s) = function on complex frequency domain 𝑠 = 𝜎 + 𝑗𝜔

Laplace Transform Properties

• Linearity
ℒ{𝑎 𝑓(𝑡) + 𝑏 𝑔(𝑡)} = 𝑎 ℒ{𝑓(𝑡)} + 𝑏 ℒ{𝑔(𝑡)}
• Differentiation
𝑑𝑓(𝑡)
ℒ{ } 𝑠𝐹(𝑠) − 𝑓(0)
𝑑𝑡

𝑑 2 𝑓(𝑡) 2
ℒ{ ̇
} 𝑠 𝐹(𝑠) − 𝑠𝑓(0) − 𝑓(0)
𝑑𝑡 2

• Initial value theorem

𝑓(0) = lim 𝑠 𝐹(𝑠)
𝑡→∞
• Final value theorem
lim 𝑓(𝑡) = lim 𝑠 𝐹(𝑠)
𝑡→∞ 𝑠→0

2
Laplace Transform Table

Table 2.1 : Laplace Transform

f(t) F(s)
1 𝜕(𝑡) 1 Impulse function
2 1 Step function
𝑢(𝑡)
s
3 1 Ramp function
𝑡 𝑢(𝑡)
s2
4 n!
𝑡 𝑛 𝑢(𝑡)
s n +1
5 1 Exponential
𝑒 −𝑎𝑡 𝑢(𝑡)
s+a
6  Sine
sin 𝜔𝑡 𝑢(𝑡)
s +2
2

7 s Cosine
cos 𝜔𝑡 𝑢(𝑡)
s +2
2

Laplace Transform theorems

Figure 2.1 : Laplace Transform Theorem

3
Inverse Laplace Transform

The inverse Laplace Transform can be obtained using:

1 𝜎+𝑗𝜔
𝑓(𝑡) = ∫ 𝐹(𝑠)𝑒 +𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑠
2𝜋𝑗 𝜎−𝑗𝜔

Use Laplace transform table to solve the problem!!!

Partial Fraction Expansion

Partial fraction expansion is used to find the inverse Laplace Transform of a complicated
function. We can convert the function to a sum of simpler terms for which we know the inverse
N ( s)
Laplace Transform. If F ( s ) = , where the order of N(s) is less than D(s), then a partial
D( s)
fraction expansion can be made.

Rules of partial fractions

1. The numerator must be of lower degree than the denominator. If it is not, then we
first divide out.
2. Factorize the denominator into its prime factors. These determine the shapes of the
partial fractions.
𝐴
3. A linear factor (𝑠 + 𝑎) gives a partial fraction 𝑠+𝑎 where 𝐴 is a constant to be
determined.
𝐴 𝐵
4. A repeated factor (𝑠 + 𝑎)2 gives (𝑠+𝑎) + (𝑠+𝑎)2

Example 1

𝑠 3 + 2𝑠2 + 6𝑠 + 7
𝐹1 (𝑠) =
𝑠2 + 𝑠 + 5

N(s) must be divided by D(s) successively until the result has a remainder whose numerator is
of order less than its denominator. Taking the inverse Laplace transform, we obtain:

2
𝐹1 (𝑠) = 𝑠 + 1 +
𝑠2 + 𝑠 + 5

𝑑 𝜕𝑡 2
𝑓1 (𝑡) = + 𝜕𝑡 + ℒ −1 [ 2 ]
𝑑𝑡 𝑠 +𝑠 +5

We will consider two cases and show that F(s) can be expanded into partial fraction:

Case 1:
Roots of denominator F(s) are real and distinct.

4
 Case 2:
Roots of denominator F(s) are real and repeated.

Case 3:
Roots of denominator F(s) are complex conjugate.

Case 1 : Roots of denominator F(s) are real and distinct

2
𝐹(𝑠) =
(𝑠 + 1)(𝑠 + 2)

Solution: We write partial fraction expansion as a sum of terms where each factor of the
original denominator forms the denominator of each term, and constants, called residues form
the numerators.
𝐴 𝐵
𝐹(𝑠) = +
𝑠+1 𝑠+2

Multiply equation above by (s+1),

2 𝐴 𝐵
𝐹 (𝑠 ) = (𝑠 + 1) = (𝑠 + 1) + (𝑠 + 1)
(𝑠 + 1)(𝑠 + 2) (𝑠 + 1) (𝑠 + 2)

Letting 𝑠 + 1 = 0 and s = -1, we get A = 2.

2 𝐵
𝐹 (𝑠 ) = =𝐴+ (−1 + 1)
(−1 + 2) (−1 + 2)

2
𝐹 (𝑠 ) = =𝐴+ 0
1

∴𝐴=2

Find B with the similar approach, letting 𝑠 + 2 = 0 and s = -2, we get B = -2.
Thus,
2 𝐴 𝐵
𝐹 (𝑠 ) = (𝑠 + 2) = (𝑠 + 2) + (𝑠 + 2)
(𝑠 + 1)(𝑠 + 2) (𝑠 + 1) (𝑠 + 2)

2 𝐴
𝐹 (𝑠 ) = = (−2 + 2) + 𝐵
(−2 + 1) (−2 + 1)

2
𝐹(𝑠) = = 0+𝐵
−1

∴ 𝐵 = −2

5
Taking inverse Laplace transform, we get

2 2
𝐹(𝑠) = −
𝑠+1 𝑠+2

∴ 𝑓(𝑡) = (2𝑒 −𝑡 − 2𝑒 −2𝑡 ) 𝑢(𝑡)

Case 2 : Roots of denominator F(s) are real and repeated

Add additional term consisting of denominator factor of reduced multiplicity,

2
𝐹1 (𝑠) =
(𝑠 + 1)(𝑠 + 2)2

2 𝐴 𝐵 𝐶
𝐹1 (𝑠) = = + +
(𝑠 + 1)(𝑠 + 2)2 (𝑠 + 1) (𝑠 + 2) 2 (𝑠 + 2)

A = 2 can be obtained as previously described.

2 𝐴 𝐵 𝐶
𝐹1 (𝑠) = (𝑠 + 1) = (𝑠 + 1) + (𝑠 + 1) + (𝑠 + 1)
(𝑠 + 1)(𝑠 + 2)2 (𝑠 + 1) (𝑠 + 2) 2 (𝑠 + 2)

∴𝐴=2

Isolate B by multiplying by (𝑠 + 2)2 ,

2 𝐴 𝐵 𝐶
𝐹1 (𝑠) = (𝑠 + 2)2 = (𝑠 + 2)2 + (𝑠 + 2)2 + (𝑠 + 2)2
(𝑠 + 1)(𝑠 + 2)2 (𝑠 + 1) (𝑠 + 2) 2 (𝑠 + 2)

2 (𝑠 + 2)2 𝐴
𝐹1 (𝑠) = = + 𝐵 + (𝑠 + 2)𝐶
(𝑠 + 1) (𝑠 + 1)
(1.1)

Let s = -2, ∴ B = -2.

To find C, differentiate equation (1.1) with respect to s,

2 (𝑠 + 2)2 𝐴
= + 𝐵 + (𝑠 + 2)𝐶
(𝑠 + 1) (𝑠 + 1)

−2 (𝑠 + 2)𝑠𝐴
2 = +𝐶
(𝑠 + 1) (𝑠 + 1)2

Let s approach -2, C=-2

6
 2 2 2 2
𝐹1 (𝑠) = = − −
(𝑠 + 1)(𝑠 + 2)2 (𝑠 + 1) (𝑠 + 2)2 (𝑠 + 2)

Take inverse Laplace transform,

𝑓1 (𝑡) = (2𝑒 −𝑡 − 2𝑡𝑒 −2𝑡 − 2𝑒 −2𝑡 )

Case 3 : Roots of denominator F(s) are complex conjugate

3
𝐹1 (𝑠) =
𝑠(𝑠2 + 2𝑠 + 5)

The function can be expanded in

3 𝐴 𝐵𝑠 + 𝐶
= +
𝑠(𝑠 2 + 2𝑠 + 5) 𝑠 (𝑠 2 + 2𝑠 + 5)
(1.2)

3
Using the previous way, 𝐴 = 5 can be found. Multiply Eq (1.2) by the lowest common
denominator,
3 6
0 = (𝐵 + ) 𝑠 2 + (𝐶 + ) 𝑠
5 5

Balancing coefficients,
3 6
𝐵=− , 𝐶= −
5 5

Taking inverse Laplace transform, we get

3 3 −𝑡 1
𝑓 (𝑡 ) = − 𝑒 (cos 2𝑡 + sin 2𝑡)
5 5 2

DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS

The differential equations are transformed into algebraic equations, which are easier to solve.
The Laplace transformation for a function of time, f(t) is
∞
𝐹 (𝑠) = ∫ 𝑓 (𝑡)𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = ℒ{𝑓(𝑡)}
0

𝑑𝑦
If 𝑓 (𝑡) = , then ℒ {𝑓(𝑡)}, then
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑦
ℒ{𝑓(𝑡)} = ℒ { } = 𝑠ℒ{𝑦(𝑡)} − 𝑦(0)
𝑑𝑡

7
 𝑑2 𝑦(𝑡) 𝑑𝑦(0)
Similarly, ℒ { } = 𝑠ℒ{𝑦(𝑡)} −
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡

𝑑2 𝑦(𝑡) 𝑑𝑦(0)
Thus, ℒ { } = 𝑠 2 ℒ{𝑦(𝑡)} − 𝑠𝑦(0) −
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡

How to solve differential equation?

1. The differential equations are transformed into algebraic equation in “s”.

𝑑2𝑥
𝑎 2 + 𝑏𝑥 = 𝑟(𝑡)
𝑑𝑡
𝑑2𝑥
ℒ [𝑎 2 ] = 𝑎[𝑠 2 𝑋(𝑠)]
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑥
ℒ [𝑏 ] = 𝑏𝑋(𝑠)
𝑑𝑡
ℒ 𝑟(𝑡)] = 𝑅(𝑠)
[

2. Rearrange the algebraic equations.

𝑎𝑠 2 𝑋(𝑠) + 𝑏𝑋(𝑠) = 𝑅(𝑠)

(𝑎𝑠 2 + 𝑏)𝑋(𝑠) = 𝑅(𝑠)

𝑅(𝑠)
∴ 𝑋 (𝑠 ) =
𝑎𝑠 2 + 𝑏

3. Find the inverse Laplace transform.

𝑅(𝑠)
𝑥 (𝑡) = ℒ −1 [ ]
𝑎𝑠 2 + 𝑏

8
EXAMPLE 2.1

Given the following differential equation, solve for y(t) if all initial conditions are zero. Use
the Laplace transform.
𝑑2𝑦 𝑑𝑦
+ 12 + 32𝑦 = 32 𝑢(𝑡)
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡

Solution:
32
𝑠 2 𝑌 (𝑠) + 12𝑠 𝑌 (𝑠) + 32 𝑌 (𝑠) =
𝑠
32
(𝑠 2 + 12𝑠 + 32)𝑌 (𝑠) =
𝑠
32
𝑌 (𝑠 ) =
𝑠 (𝑠 2
+ 12𝑠 + 32)
32
𝑌 (𝑠 ) =
𝑠(𝑠 + 4)(𝑠 + 8)

Using partial-fraction expansion

32 𝐴 𝐵 𝐶
𝑌 (𝑠 ) = = + +
𝑠(𝑠 + 4)(𝑠 + 8) 𝑠 (𝑠 + 4) (𝑠 + 8)

32
𝐴= | =1
(𝑠 + 4)(𝑠 + 8) 𝑠 →0

32
𝐵= | = −2
𝑠(𝑠 + 8) 𝑠 →−4

32
𝐶= | = −1
𝑠(𝑠 + 4) 𝑠 →−8

1 2 1
𝑌 (𝑠 ) = − +
𝑠 (𝑠 + 4) (𝑠 + 8)

Using inverse Laplace transforms

𝑦(𝑡) = (1 − 2𝑒 −4𝑡 + 𝑒 −8𝑡 )𝑢(𝑡)

9
TRANSFER FUNCTION

Input, r(t) subsystem subsystem subsystem Output, c(t)

Figure 2.2 : Block diagram of a control system

A mathematical function called transfer function is inside each block. So, we can develop the
mathematical model to do the analysis and design.

In general, a physical system that can be represented by a linear, time invariant differential
equation can be modeled as a transfer function. Transfer function can be used to represent
electrical networks, translational mechanical systems, rotational mechanical systems, and
electromechanical systems.

Begin with,

𝑑 𝑛 𝑐(𝑡) 𝑑 𝑛−1 𝑐(𝑡) 𝑑 𝑚 𝑟 (𝑡 ) 𝑑 𝑚−1 𝑟(𝑡)

𝑎𝑛 + 𝑎𝑛−1 + ⋯ + 𝑎0 𝑐(𝑡) = 𝑏𝑚 + 𝑏𝑚−1 + ⋯ + 𝑏0 𝑟(𝑡)
𝑑𝑡 𝑛 𝑑𝑡 𝑛−1 𝑑𝑡 𝑚 𝑑𝑡 𝑚−1

where c(t) : output, r(t) : input

Taking Laplace transform of both sides;

𝑎𝑛 𝑠 𝑛 𝐶 (𝑠) + 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑠 𝑛−1 𝐶 (𝑠) + ⋯ + 𝑎0 𝐶 (𝑠) = 𝑏𝑚 𝑠 𝑚 𝑅(𝑠) + 𝑏𝑚−1 𝑠 𝑚−1 𝑅(𝑠) + ⋯ + 𝑏0 𝑅(𝑠)

Form the ratio of output transform, C(s) over input transform, R(s)
𝐶(𝑠) 𝑏𝑚 𝑠 𝑚 + 𝑏𝑚−1 𝑠 𝑚−1 + ⋯ + 𝑏0
(
=𝐺 𝑠 =)
𝑅(𝑠) 𝑎𝑛 𝑠 𝑛 + 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑠 𝑛−1 + ⋯ + 𝑎0

So, G(s) is the transfer function.

10
Example 2.2

Find the transfer function represented by c(t), to an input, r(t)

𝑑𝑐(𝑡)
+ 2𝑐 (𝑡) = 𝑟(𝑡)
𝑑𝑡

Solution:

Taking the Laplace transform,

𝑠𝐶 (𝑠) + 2𝐶 (𝑠) = 𝑅(𝑠)

The transfer function G(s), is

𝐶(𝑠) 1
𝐺 (𝑠 ) = =
𝑅(𝑠) 𝑠 + 2

Then, find the response, 𝑐(𝑡), to an input, 𝑟(𝑡) = 𝑢(𝑡), a unit step, assuming zero initial
condition.
1
Since 𝑟(𝑡) = 𝑢(𝑡), 𝑅(𝑠) = 𝑠 .
1
𝐶 (𝑠 ) = 𝑅 (𝑠 )𝐺 (𝑠 ) =
𝑠(𝑠 + 2)
Using partial fraction expansion,
1/2 1/2
𝐶 (𝑠 ) = −
𝑠 𝑠+2
Taking inverse Laplace,
1 1
𝑐(𝑡) = − 𝑒 −2𝑡
2 2

ELECTRICAL NETWORK TRANSFER FUNCTIONS

We will be applying transfer function to the mathematical modelling of electric circuit. The
circuit consists of passive linear components (resistor, capacitor, inductor).
Guiding principles: Kirchhoff’s Law

i. analyse on KCL/KVL.
ii. from analysis, write the differential equations.
iii. take Laplace transform & solve the transfer function.

11
 Table 2.2 : Electrical Properties

Component Voltage - current Current - Voltage - Impedance

Voltage charge
1 𝑡 𝑑𝑣(𝑡) 1 1
𝑣 (𝑡 ) = ∫ 𝑖 (𝜏)𝑑𝜏 𝑖 (𝑡 ) = 𝐶 𝑣 (𝑡 ) = 𝑞(𝑡)
𝐶 0 𝑑𝑡 𝐶 𝐶𝑠
1 𝑣 (𝑡 )
𝑣(𝑡) = 𝑅𝑖(𝑡) 𝑖 (𝑡) = 𝑣(𝑡) 𝑑𝑞(𝑡) 𝑅
𝑅 =𝑅
𝑑𝑡
𝑖 (𝑡 ) 𝑣 (𝑡 )
𝑑𝑖(𝑡)
𝑣 (𝑡 ) = 𝐿 1 𝑡 𝑑 2 𝑞(𝑡) 𝐿𝑠
𝑑𝑡 = ∫ 𝑣(𝜏)𝑑𝜏 =𝐿
𝐿 0 𝑑𝑡 2

Simple RC Network

Example 2.3
𝑉𝑐 (𝑠)
Obtain the transfer function, for the following RC network.
𝑉(𝑠)

+
v(t) i(t) C vc(t)
-

Figure 2.3 : RC network

Solution:
Using mesh analysis,

𝑑𝑞
𝑖 (𝑡 ) = , q(t) = 𝐶𝑉𝑐 (𝑡)
𝑑𝑡

1
R(i(t) + ∫ 𝑖 (𝑡)𝑑𝑡 = 𝑉(𝑡)
𝐶

𝑑𝑞 1
𝑅 + 𝑞(𝑡) + 𝑉(𝑡)
𝑑𝑡 𝐶

𝑑𝑉𝑐 1
𝑅𝐶 + (𝐶𝑉𝑐 ) = 𝑉(𝑡)
𝑑𝑡 𝐶

𝑑𝑉𝑐
𝑅𝐶 + 𝑉𝑐 = 𝑉(𝑡)
𝑑𝑡

12
Convert into s domain,
𝑠𝑅𝐶𝑉𝑐 + 𝑉𝑐 = 𝑉(𝑠)

𝑉𝑐 [𝑠𝑅𝐶 + 1] = 𝑉 (𝑠)

𝑉𝑐 (𝑠) 1
∴ =
𝑉(𝑠) 𝑠𝑅𝐶 + 1

Example 2.4
𝑉𝑐 (𝑠)
Obtain the transfer function, for the following RC network.
𝑉(𝑠)

L
R

+
v(t) i(t) C vc(t)
-

Figure 2.4 : RLC network

Solution:
i) Simple Circuits via Mesh Analysis in time domain

Summing the voltages around the loop, assuming zero initial conditions;

𝑑𝑖(𝑡) 1 𝑡
𝐿 + 𝑅𝑖 𝑡 + ∫ 𝑖 (𝜏)𝑑𝜏 − 𝑣(𝑡) = 0
( )
𝑑𝑡 𝐶 0

Changing variables from current to charge, using

𝑑𝑞(𝑡)
𝑖 (𝑡 ) =
𝑑𝑡
𝑑 2 𝑞(𝑡) 𝑑𝑞(𝑡) 1
𝐿 +𝑅 + 𝑞(𝑡) = 𝑣(𝑡)
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡 𝐶

From the voltage-charge relationship for a capacitor,

𝑞(𝑡) = 𝐶𝑣𝑐 (𝑡)

Thus,
𝑑 2 𝑣𝑐 (𝑡) 𝑑𝑣𝑐 (𝑡)
𝐿𝐶 2
+ 𝑅𝐶 + 𝑣𝑐 (𝑡) = 𝑣(𝑡)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

13
Taking Laplace,
(𝑠 2 𝐿𝐶 + 𝑠𝑅𝐶 + 1)𝑉𝑐 (𝑠) = 𝑉(𝑠)

Solving the transfer function, Vc(s)/V(s)

𝑉𝑐 (𝑠) 1/𝐿𝐶
=
𝑉(𝑠) 𝑠 2 + 𝑅 𝑠 + 1
𝐿 𝐿𝐶

Block diagram of series RLC electrical network

Figure 2.5 : Block diagram of RLC network

ii) Simple Circuits via Mesh Analysis in s domain

Laplace transform of the equations in the voltage-current column:

1
For capacitor, 𝑉 (𝑠) = 𝑠𝐶 𝐼 (𝑠)
For resistor, 𝑉(𝑠) = 𝑅𝐼(𝑠)
For inductor, 𝑉 (𝑠) = 𝑠𝐿𝐼(𝑠)

Now, define transfer function, 𝑉(𝑠) = 𝐼 (𝑠)𝑍(𝑠)

Figure 2.6 : RLC network in s-domain

Mesh analysis,
1
𝑠𝐿𝐼(𝑠) + 𝑅𝐼 (𝑠) + 𝐼 ( 𝑠 ) = 𝑉 (𝑠 )
𝑠𝐶
1
𝐼(𝑠) [𝑠𝐿 + 𝑅 + ] = 𝑉(𝑠)
𝑠𝐶
𝐼(𝑠) 1
=
𝑉(𝑠) 𝑠𝐿 + 𝑅 + 1
𝑠𝐶
14
 For capacitor,
1
𝑉𝑐 (𝑠) = 𝐼(𝑠)
𝑠𝐶
∴ 𝐼 (𝑠) = 𝑠𝐶𝑉𝑐 (𝑠)

Thus,
𝑉𝑐 (𝑠) 1
=
𝑉(𝑠) 𝑠𝐶(𝑠𝐿 + 𝑅 + 1 )
𝑠𝐶
𝑉𝑐 (𝑠) 1
=
𝑉(𝑠) 𝐿𝐶(𝑠 2 + 𝑅 𝑠 + 1 )
𝐿 𝐿𝐶

iii) Simple Circuits via Nodal Analysis

Transfer function using current law and summing currents flowing from nodes.
Assume that currents leaving the node are positive, and currents entering the node
are negative.

Using previous example,

𝑉(𝑠) − 𝑉𝑐 𝑉𝑐
− =0
𝑠𝐿 + 𝑅 1
𝑠𝐶
𝑉(𝑠) − 𝑉𝑐 𝑉𝑐
− =0
𝑠𝐿 + 𝑅 1
𝑠𝐶
𝑉 (𝑠) − 𝑉𝑐
− 𝑠𝐶𝑉𝑐 = 0
𝑠𝐿 + 𝑅

𝑉 (𝑠) − 𝑉𝑐 − 𝑠𝐶𝑉𝑐 (𝑠𝐿 + 𝑅) = 0

𝑉 (𝑠) = (1 + 𝑠 2 𝐶𝐿 + 𝑠𝑅𝐶)𝑉𝑐

𝑉𝑐 1
∴ = 2
𝑉(𝑠) 1 + 𝑠 𝐶𝐿 + 𝑠𝑅𝐶
Rearrange,
𝑉𝑐 1
∴ = 2
𝑉(𝑠) 𝑠 𝐶𝐿 + 𝑠𝑅𝐶 + 1
1
𝑉𝑐 𝐿𝐶
=
𝑉(𝑠) 𝑠 2 + 𝑠 𝑅 + 1
𝐿 𝐿𝐶

15
 iv) Simple Circuits via Voltage Division

Using previous example via voltage division,

1
𝑉𝑐 (𝑠) = 𝑠𝐶 𝑉(𝑠)
1
𝑠𝐿 + 𝑅 + 𝑠𝐶
1
𝑉𝑐 𝐿𝐶
=
𝑉(𝑠) 𝑠 2 + 𝑠 𝑅 + 1
𝐿 𝐿𝐶

In summary 4 different methods can be used to obtain the transfer function of simple circuits
1) Differential equation derivation using KVL
2) Using mesh analysis with Laplace transform (without writing differential equation)
3) Nodal analysis
4) Voltage divider/division

16
EXERCISE

Q1 Derive the Laplace transform for the following time functions:

i. u(t) vii. t3 u(t)

ii. t u(t) viii. f(t) = −3
iii. sin ωt u(t) ix. f(t) = 𝑒 −2𝑡
iv. cos ωt u(t) x. f(t) = e−3t
v. e-at sin ωt u(t)
vi. e-at cos ωt u(t)

Q2 Derive the inverse Laplace transform for the following functions:

1 2 1
i. F(s) = − s vi. F(s) = − 𝑠2 + 𝑠+1
1 6
ii. F(s) = s−5 vii. F(s) = (s−3)4
3 10 4
iii. F(s) = s+2 viii. F(s) = 𝑠2+25 + s−3
3
iv. F(s) = − 4s
s+1
v. F(s) = 𝑠2 +4

Q3 Solve the partial fraction expansion for the following functions:

s+7 3s+9
1. 6.
s2 −7s+10 s2 +8s+12
8s−28 3s3 −s2−13s−13
2. 7.
s2 −6s+8 s2 −s−6
10s+37 2s +3s2−54s+50
3
3. 2
s +3s−28 8. s2 +2s−24
2s2 +18s+31 10
4. 9.
s2 +5s+6 s(s+2)(s+3)2
2s2 +6s−35
5. s2 −s−12

Q4 Find the response, y(t) corresponding to the differential equation with r(t) is a unit step.

𝑑2𝑦 𝑑𝑦
2
+4 + 3𝑦 = 2𝑟(𝑡)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

Q5 Find the differential equation corresponding to the transfer function.

2𝑠 + 1
𝐺 (𝑠 ) =
𝑠 2 + 6𝑠 + 2

17
Q6 Find the ramp response for a system whose transfer function is:

𝑠
𝐺 (𝑠 ) =
(𝑠 + 4)(𝑠 + 8)

Q7 Find the transfer function, G(s) = C(s)/R(s) corresponding to the differential equation.

𝑑3𝑐 𝑑2𝑐 𝑑𝑐 𝑑2𝑟 𝑑𝑟

3
+ 3 2
+ 7 + 5𝑐 = 2
+ 4 + 3𝑟
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

Q8 A system is decribed by the following differential equation:

𝑑3𝑦 𝑑2𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑3𝑥 𝑑2𝑥 𝑑𝑥

3
+ 5 2
+ 7 + 𝑦 = 3
+ 6 2
+2 + 8𝑥
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

Find the expression for the transfer function of the system, Y(s) / X(s).
𝐶(𝑠)
Q9 Find the transfer function, 𝐺 (𝑠) = 𝑅(𝑠), corresponding to the differential equation,

𝑑3𝑐 𝑑2𝑐 𝑑𝑐 𝑑2𝑟 𝑑𝑟

+ 3 + 7 + 5𝑐 = + 4 + 3𝑟
𝑑𝑡 3 𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡
Q10 For each of the following transfer functions, write the corresponding differential equation.
𝑋(𝑠) 9 𝑋(𝑠) 7
(a) = 𝑠2 +7𝑠+11 (c) = (𝑠+11)(𝑠+12)
𝐹(𝑠) 𝐹(𝑠)

𝑋(𝑠) 2𝑠+1 𝑋(𝑠) 𝑠+2

(b) = 𝑠2 +6𝑠+2 (d) = 𝑠3 +10𝑠2 +11𝑠+18
𝐹(𝑠) 𝐹(𝑠)
𝑋(𝑠) 𝑠
(e) = (𝑠+4)(𝑠+8)
𝐹(𝑠)

Q11 Write the differential equation for the system shown in Figure 2.7.

R(s) 𝑠5 + 3𝑠4 + 4𝑠3 + 5𝑠 2 + 4 C(s)

𝑠6 + 8𝑠5 + 3𝑠4 + 2𝑠3 + 3𝑠2 + 5

Figure 2.7
Q12 A system is represented by the following differential equation with r(t) as the input, and
x(t) as the output. Assume zero initial condition.

𝑑𝑥
+ 2𝑥(𝑡) = 𝑟(𝑡)
𝑑𝑡

(a) Convert the differential equaition into Laplace domain

18
 (b) Find output x(t) if the input R(s) is given by;
10
𝑅(𝑠) =
𝑠−9

Q13 A system is represented by the following differential equation with r(t) as the input, and
x(t) as the output.

𝑑2𝑥 𝑑𝑥
+ 5 + 6𝑥 = 𝑟(𝑡)
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡

(a) Convert the differential equaition into Laplace domain.

(b) Find the output x(t), if the input R(s) is given by;

4
𝑅(𝑠) =
𝑠

Q14 A system is represented by the following transfer function with r(t) as the input, and x(t)
as the output.

4(𝑠 + 50)
𝐺(𝑠) =
𝑠2 + 30𝑠 + 200

Find the output x(t), if the input R(s) is given by;

1
𝑅(𝑠) =
𝑠

Q15 A system is represented by the following differential equation with r(t) as the input, and
x(t) as the output.
𝑑2𝑦 𝑑𝑦
2
+6 + 8𝑦(𝑡) = 𝑓(𝑡)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

(a) Convert the differential equation into Laplace domain.

(b) Find the output y(t), if the input F(s) is given by;

1
𝐹(𝑠) =
𝑠

19