ECV 4312: THEORY OF STRUCTURES I

COURSE OUTLINE

 Introduction to types of structures, support conditions and loading

 Introduction to static: force polygons, structural forms, degree of freedom, free-body
diagrams, equilibrium of forces and structural idealization
 Analysis of statically determinate beams: shear forces, bending moments, shear force
and bending moment diagrams
 Analysis of statically determinate pin-jointed frame structures: method of joints,
method of sections, graphical analysis and method of tension coefficients.
 Cables, three-pinned arch

Course lecturer: S. I. Fundi

Contacts: cell: (+254) 721 331 375

Email: [email protected]

Reference

 Frank, D., Morgan, W. and Williams, D. T. (1989). Structural Mechanics, 4th edition.
Longman publishers.
 Hulse, R. and Jack, C. (1991). Structural Mechanics. Macmillan.
 John, C., Chilver, L. and Ross, C. T. (1999). Strength of Materials and Structures, 4th
Edition. Arnold publishers.
 Khurmi, R.S. (1999). Theory of Structures 12th Edition.
 Megson, T. H. G. (2005). Structural and Stress Analysis 2nd Edition. Elsevier
publishers.
 Yuan-Yu, H. (1988). Elementary Theory of Structures, 3rd Edt. Prentice hall
international editions.

Course evaluation

Assignment - 10%
Continuous Assessment Test - 20%
Examination - 70%

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1.0 INTRODUCTION
A structure is an element or an assembly of elements designed to carry load or resist load. In
fulfilling such a function, the structure is subjected to a variety of loading which must be
resisted in order to retain its form in service. Structures can be natural or artificial. Example of
natural structures include: caves, trees, human skeleton etc. examples of artificial or manmade
structures include: buildings, bridges, dams, cars, transmission cables etc. a skeletal structure
is one whose members can be represented by lines possessing certain rigidity properties. These
one-dimensional members are also called bar members because their cross-sectional
dimensions are small in comparison to their lengths. The skeletal structures may be determinate
or indeterminate.

The basic function of any structure is to carry loads and transmit forces. These arise in a variety
of ways and depend, generally, upon the purpose for which the structure has been built.
However, no matter how simple or complex a structure may be or whether the structure is
intended to carry loads or merely act as a protective covering, there will be one load which it
will always carry, its own weight.

The structural analysis is a mathematical algorithm process by the response of a structure to

specified loads and actions is determined. This response is measured by determining the
internal forces or stress resultants and displacements or deformations throughout the structure.

Structural systems
The decision as to which type of structural system to use rests with the structural designer
whose choice will depend on the purpose for which the structure is required, the materials to
be used and any aesthetic considerations that may apply. Structures are designed to safely resist
all variety of forces that can be applied to them during their life. Any loading applied to the
structure will induce reactions at the points of supports of the structure. Furthermore, internal
stresses will be induced within the structure which will consequently deform as a result of an
applied loading. Structural theories may be classified from various points of views following
the aspects below:

Statics versus dynamics: ordinary structures are usually designed under static loads. Dead loads
are static loads that cause no dynamic effect on structures. The specialized branch that deals
with the dynamic effects on structures of accelerated moving loads, earthquakes, bomb blasts
is structural dynamics.

Plane versus space: no structure is really planar, i.e. two dimensional. However, structural
analyses for beams, trussed bridges, or rigid frames buildings are usually treated as plane
problems. On the other hand, structures such as towers and framing for domes, the stresses
between members not lying in a plane are interrelated in such a way that analysis cannot be
simplified in terms of component planar structures. Such structures are considered as space
frameworks.

Statically determinate versus statically indeterminate structures: the term statically

determinate structure means that structural analysis can be carried out by statics alone. If this
is not so, the structure is statically indeterminate. A statically indeterminate structure is solved
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by the equations of statics together with the equations furnished by the geometry of the elastic
curve of the structure in linear analysis.

Basic structural elements

All structural systems are composed of a number of basic structural elements: beams, columns,
hangers/cables, arches, trusses, rigid frames, plates or slabs, thin shells etc.

Beams: these are slender members that are loaded perpendicular to their longitudinal axis. As
load is applied, a beam bends and deflects into a shallow curve. If the beam behaves elastically,
the bending stresses on the cross-section (compression at the top and tension at the bottom)
vary linearly from a horizontal axis passing through the centroid of the cross-section. The
bending stresses are directly proportional to the moment, and vary in magnitude along the axis
of the beam.

Columns: these are axially loaded members in compression. The capacity of a compression
member is a function of its slenderness ratio, l/r, where l is the length and r is the called the
radius of gyration. If the slenderness ratio is large, the member is slender and will fail by
buckling. If the slenderness ratio is small, the member will fail by crushing or yielding – their
capacity for load is high.

Cables: cables are usually flexible and carry their loads in tension. They are commonly used
to support bridges and building roofs. When used for these purposes, the cable has an advantage
over the beam and the truss, especially for spans that are greater than 46m. use of cables, on
the other hand, is limited only but their sag, weight and methods of anchorage.

Arches: they achieve their strength in compression, since it has a reverse curvature to that of
the cable. Arches have been used to construct long span structures. To enable an arch to be in
pure compression, it must be shaped so that the resultant of the internal forces on each section
passes through the centroid. Arches are frequently used in bridge structures, dome roofs, and
for openings in masonry walls.

Trusses: structural elements composed of slender bars whose ends are assumed to be connected
by frictionless pin joints. Due to the geometric arrangement of its members, loads that cause
the entire truss to bend are converted into tensile or compressive forces in the members. If a
pin-jointed truss is loaded at the joints only, direct stress develops in all bars. Typically, truss
bars are assembled in triangular pattern. The behaviour of a truss is similar to that of a beam in
which the solid web is replaced by a series of vertical and diagonal bars.

Rigid frames: they are stressed by axial load and moment. Members of a rigid frame, which
typically carry axial load and moment, are beam-column. For a joint to be rigid the angle
between the members framing into a joint must not change when the members are loaded.

Surface structures: a surface structure is made from a material having a very small thickness
compared to its other dimensions. Sometimes this material is very flexible ad can take the form
of a tent or air-inflated structure. In both cases the material acts as a membrane that is subjected
to pure tension.

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Support systems
Structures are either partially or completely restrained so that they cannot move freely in space.
Such restraints are provided by supports that connect the structure to some stationary body,
such as the ground or another structure. The first step in structural analysis is to take the
structure without the supports and calculate the forces, known as reactions, exerted on the
structure by the supports. The reactions are considered part of the external forces other than the
loads on the structure and are to balance the other external forces other than the loads on the
structure and are to balance the other external loads in a state of equilibrium.

The loads applied to a structure are transferred to its foundation by its supports. In practice
supports are normally idealized into a form that is much easier to analyse. Types of supports
that exist include;

Fixed supports: this type of support resists moments and is not flexible. A fixed support
provides a reaction of unknown magnitude and unknown direction and also a fixing moment
(a total of three unknowns). Such a support prevents any linear movement and also prevents
any rotation. It does not allow vertically and/ or horizontal movements.

Figure 1.1: Fixed support

Roller supports: this support only resists vertical movement and provides one reaction only of
unknown magnitude. Such a support permits linear movement in one direction only and also
permits rotation.

Figure 1.2: Roller support

Pinned support: it allows complete rotation and also resists vertical and horizontal movement.
It provides a reaction of unknown magnitude and unknown direction which may be completely
defined by determining the horizontal and vertical components of reaction.

Figure 1.3: Pinned support

The forces in a cantilever beam can be idealised as shown in Figure 1.4 below

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Figure 1.4: Support reactions in a cantilever beam firmly fixed

Structural loads
A load is a force on a part of a structure. In structures, there are the following different types
of loading:

Dead load (or permanent load) – a dead load is always present. Examples include the loads due
to weights of various elements of construction, such as floors, walls, roofs, cladding and
permanent partitions.

Live load (or imposed load) – they are produced by the occupancy of the building. Examples
include people and furniture.

Wind load (an example of lateral loading) – unlike dead and live loads, which are usually
vertical in direction, wind loads act horizontally or at a shallow angle to the horizontal. Wind
loads vary across the country and across the world and their effects vary according to the type
of physical environment and the height of the building. Wind loads can act in any plan direction
and their intensity can vary continually.

Other loads

Lateral (or horizontal) loads other than wind loads include those due to earth pressures (on
retaining walls) or water pressures (on the side walls of water tanks). Other loads may include
those due to earthquakes or subsidence.

Nature of loads
Generally, structures are complex and must be idealized or simplified into a form that can be
analysed. The nature of the load could be one of the three types:

 Point load
 Uniformly distributed load
 Uniformly varying load

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 (a) Point loads

(b) Uniformly distributed loads (UDL)

(c) Uniformly varying loads

Point load (concentrated load) – this is a load that acts at a single point. Point loads are
expressed in units of kN and are represented by a large arrow in the direction that the load or
force acts.

Uniformly distributed load (UDL) – it is a load that is evenly spread along a length or across
an area. UDLs along a beam (or any other element that is linear in nature) are expressed in
units of kN/m. Similarly, the loads supported by a slab will be consistent across the slab and
because a slab has an area rather than linear length, UDLs on a slab are expressed in units of
kN/m2.

Uniformly varying loads – is a load that is distributed along the length of a linear element such
as a beam, but instead of the load being evenly spread it varies in a linear fashion. Example is
a retaining wall.

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2.0 FORCES IN STRUCTURES
FORCE
The definition of force is derived from Newton’s First Law of Motion which states that a body will
remain in its state of rest or in its state of uniform motion in a straight line unless compelled by an
external force to change that state.

𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 ∗ 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 … … … 2.1

For those forces which act on the same plane, they are referred to as coplanar forces, while those whose
lines of action lie in the same line are referred to as collinear forces. Concurrent forces are those that
meet at one point, which they may or may not be collinear.

Parallelogram of forces
The resultant of two concurrent and coplanar forces may be found using the theorem of the
parallelogram of forces which states that “if two forces acting at a point are represented by two adjacent
sides of a parallelogram drawn from that point their resultant is represented in magnitude and direction
by the diagonal of the parallelogram drawn through the point”.

Thus, in Figure 2.1, R is the resultant of F1 and F2.

Figure 2.1: Resultant of two concurrent forces

The value of R and θ can be calculated using the trigonometry of triangles, i.e.;

𝑅 = 𝐹1 + 𝐹2 + 2𝐹1𝐹2𝑐𝑜𝑠 ∝ ⋯ … … 2.2

and

𝐹1𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 = … … … … … … 2.3
𝐹2 + 𝐹1𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼

Resultant force
This is a simple force that has the same effect as a system of forces acting on a body. This can be
resolved graphically or analytically by resolving each force into components, say in x and y directions.
Consider Figure 2.2

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Figure 2.2: Resolution of a force into two components at right angles

𝑅 = 𝐹 + 𝐹 … … … … … … … … … 2.4

Where R12 is the resultant of F1 and F2

Therefore

𝑅= 𝐹𝑥 + 𝐹𝑦 … … … … … … … 2.5

and

𝐹𝑦
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 = … … … … … … … … 2.6
𝐹𝑥

Forces in equilibrium
Where only two planar forces act on a body that is in equilibrium, the forces must be equal, collinear
and opposite in direction. Where three forces act on a body that is in equilibrium, the three forces must
be concurrent. A resultant of forces may be represented as shown in Figure 2.3.

Figure 2.3: Equilibrium of two concurrent forces

For a particle or a body to remain stationary, i.e., in static equilibrium, the resultant force on the particle
or body must be zero. For a body to be in equilibrium, therefore, the sum of the components of all the
forces acting on the body in any two mutually perpendicular directions must be zero.

Equations of equilibrium
A body at rest will obey Newton’s first law of motion if and only the resultant moments are zero. In
general, this requires that the force and moment equations of equilibrium be satisfied along three
independent axes, namely,

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 ∑Fx = 0 (sum of the forces in x-direction = 0)

∑Fy = 0 (sum of the forces in y-direction = 0)

∑Mxy = 0 (sum of the forces in x-y-plane = 0)

Whenever these equations are applied, it is first necessary to draw a free-body diagram of the structure
or its members. If a member is selected, it must be isolated from its supports and surroundings and its
outlined shape drawn.

Concepts of a free body

A free body is one imagined to be totally separate from any of its supports, and is considered to be in a
state of rest under a set of external actions. Free body concept is fundamental in setting up equilibrium
equations. The free body may be rigid or deformable. It may consist of one element or several
interconnected elements, but as a whole, it is imagined to be separated from its surrounding environment
and supports whose presence is acknowledged only by the forces and moments they exert on it.

On a free boy diagram, the internal forces are represented by arrow acting on the joints and not as end
forces on the element itself. That is for tension, the arrow is pointing away from the joint, and for
compression toward the joint (Figure 2.4).

Figure 2.4: Sign convention for truss element forces

Moment of a force
A force may exert a rotational effect on a body so that the body tends to turn about some given point or
axis. Such a force is said to be a moment. The rotational effect of force, F depends on its magnitude
and its distance from the pivot. Therefore, moment can be defined as the product of force and the
perpendicular distance of its line of action from the point.

𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 ∗ 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 … … … … … … … 2.7

Example 2.1
A horizontal beam AB 5 m long is supported at A and B by roller support as shown, determine the
reactions at the supports.

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Solution

free body diagram

For the beam to be in equilibrium

𝐹𝑥 = 𝐻 + 0 = 0 → 𝐻 = 0

𝐹 = 𝑉𝑎 + 𝑉𝑏 − 10 = 0 → 𝑉𝑎 + 𝑉𝑏 = 10

𝑀𝑎 = 10 ∗ 2 − 𝑉𝑏 ∗ 5 = 0 → 𝑉𝑏 = 4𝑘𝑁

𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒, 𝑉𝑎 = 10 − 4 = 6𝑘𝑁

Example 2.2
Calculate the support reactions in the simply supported beam ABCD shown below.

Example 2.3
Beam ABCDE has a pinned support at A and a roller support at D. It carries three concentrated loads
as shown. Determine the reactions.

Load diagram

Solution

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F.B.D

Example 2.4
Beam ABCD has a pinned support at A and a roller support at C. It carries two-point loads of 15 kN
each and a uniformly distributed load of 2 kN/m over the right-hand half as shown. Determine the
reaction.

Load diagram

Solution

F.B.D

To determine HA (∑H = 0)
There are no horizontal loads; thus HA = 0

To determine VC
Taking moments about A (Note, the moment of the UDL is the resultant total UDL (2*3 = 6 kN)
multiplied by the distance from A to the line of action of that resultant (i.e. 4.5 m) (∑MA = 0)

(15 ∗ 2) − (𝑉 ∗ 4) + (2 ∗ 3 ∗ 4.5) + (15 ∗ 6) = 0

𝑉 = 36.75𝑘𝑁

To determine VA (∑V = 0)

(𝑉 − 15) + 𝑉 − (2 ∗ 3) − 15 = 0

𝑉 − 15 + 36.75 − 6 − 15 = 0

𝑉 = −0.75𝑘𝑁(𝑖. 𝑒 𝑑𝑜𝑤𝑛𝑤𝑎𝑟𝑑𝑠)

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Tutorial Examples
Calculate the reactions at the support positions for the beams given in the figures below.

(a) (b)

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