MODULE -1

• Development of biomedical instrumentation,

biometrics,
• Man instrument system components block diagram,
• Physiological systems of the body (brief discussion on
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Heart and cardio vascular system, Anatomy of nervous
system, Physiology of respiratory systems)
• Problems encountered in biomedical measurements.
• Sources of bioelectric potentials – resting and action
potentials - propagation of action potentials
• Bio electric potentials example (ECG, EEG, EMG,
ERG, EOG,EGG etc.)
 Development of biomedical Instrumentation
• The first used biomedical instrument was Electrocardiograph
by the end of nineteenth century
• The progress was slow until the end of World War –II
• Lack of understanding of physical parameters and
communication problem with medical profession
• During 1951-60 –manufactures entered the field of medical
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instrumentation –but development was slow-due high costs
of development
• Hospital staff was uncooperative and reluctant to use
equipments
• With the help of NASA –large number of physiological
parameters need to monitored for Astronauts
• Aerospace medicine programs were expanded
• After that universities, hospitals, colleges stated working on
it
 Man- Instrument System
Measurement in biomedical instrumentation can be divided in to two
1. VIVO
•Measurement is made on or within the human body
•Eg . Device inserted in to the blood stream to measure PH of blood
2. VITRO
•Measurement is performed outside of the body.
•Eg . Measurement of blood PH from blood samples.

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Objectives of Instrumentation system
•Information gathering
•Diagnosis
•Evaluation
•Monitoring
•Control
 Man- Instrument System
Control feedback

Transducer Signal
conditioning
equipment Display

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Transducer
Stimulus

Transducer

subject
Recording , data processing and
transmission of data
1. Subject:
• Subject is the human being on which the
measurement is carried out
2. Stimulus:
• In many measurement, the response to some form of
external stimulus is required.
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• The instrumentation used to generate and present this
stimulus to the subject is a vital part of the man
instrument system.
• The stimulus may be visual (e.g. a flash of light),
auditory (e.g. a tone), or direct electrical stimulation
of some part of nervous system.
3 .Bio-Sensors/Transducers:
• A bio-sensor is a device that uses a living-organism or
biological molecules, especially enzymes or
antibodies to detect the presence of chemicals.
• In man instrument system, each transducer is used to
produce an electric signal that is an analog of the
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phenomena being measured.
• A transducer may measure temperature, pressure or
any other variable found in the body but the output is
always an electric signal.
4. AMP(Signal Conditioner):
• It amplifies, modifies the signal obtained from
transducer into a suitable form that can be easy to
understand and process by the rest of the devices
that follows.
5. Display Monitor:
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• It is used to display the result we obatin form the
process. Its output is some form of visual, audible
or tactile information.
6. Data Processing and Transmission Equipment:
• It performs the required operation on data.
7.Recorder:
• It is used to record the signal for possible later use or
to transmit it from one location to another, whether
across the hall of the hospital or half way around the
world.
8. Control feedback:
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• It is used to give feedback to the system for obtaining
efficient output.
 Biometrics
• Automated méthode for recognizing individuels
based on mesurable behavioral and physiological
characteristics
• CHARACTERISTICS USED
• Fingerprints
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• Voiceprints
• Facial features
• Writing patterns
• Retina recognition
• Hand geometry
 Finger Print Recognition
• There are three levels on which fingerprint
Recognition carryout
• 1. Identify the pattern of fingerprint
• 2.Based on ridge characteristics
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• 3.Based on Shape, size of ridge and pores
• Advantages :-
• It is stable through out the lifetime
• Finger print are unique in nature
• It is easily analyzed and compare
• Inexpensive device
Limitation of Fingerprint Biometrics
• Wet or moist finger, cut finger –affect
authentification process
• Person who working in chemical lab

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 Hand Geometry
• Hand recognition
technology is currently
one of the most deployed
biometrics disciplines
world wide
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• Full hand geometry
systems take an image of
the entire hand
• Two Finger readers only
image two fingers of the
hand
 Retina recognition
• The pattern of blood
vessels that emanate
from the optic nerve
and disperse throughout
the retina depends on
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individuals and never
changes.
• No two retinas are the
same, even in identical
twins.
 Advantages of biometrics
• Effective technique to enhance security
• User friendly
• Does not use any password, PIN or secret code that
are compromised
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• Long lasting performance
• Difficult to fool biometrics system
Disadvantages of Biometrics:-
• Costly
• Some biometrics requires large amount of
computer storage
• Biometric features may change overtime
• Application :-
• It prevents unauthorized access to ATM, cell
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phone, desktop etc
• Airport , bank security
• It is use to maintain the attendance record of
employees
• In automobiles biometrics can replace keys with
keyless entry devices
 Physiological Systems in Human body
• In simple terms "Human Physiology" is the study of the
body and its functions in each of the different systems in any
living body.
• Electrical ,mechanical, hydraulic ,pneumatic, chemical,
thermal etc

Input
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System Output
 Vision Speech

Appearance
Hearing
Behavior
Smell
Expired air
Taste
INPUTS

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Inspired air

Tactile sensation
Body movements

OUTPUTS
Liquid intake Liquid wastes

Solid wastes
Food intake
 Physiological systems of human body

• There are 11systems in the body:

1. The Skeletal System Bones & joints
2. Muscular System Skeletal muscle
3. Nervous System Brain, spinal cord & nerves
4. Endocrine System Hormone-producing cells & glands
5.
6.
7.
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Cardiovascular System Blood, heart & blood vessels
Respiratory System Lungs & airways
Digestive System Organs of the gastrointestinal tract
8. Urinary System Kidneys, bladder and ureters
9. Reproductive System -Male & female reproductive organs
10. The Integumentary System The skin & derived structures
11. Lymphatic & Immune System -Lymphatic vessels & fluid
 Physiology of Cardiovascular system
▪Cardio vascular system can be viewed as closed hydraulic
system with 4 chamber pump.
▪Cardio Vascular system is mainly used for transportation of
oxygen, Carbon dioxide, numerous chemical compounds and
the blood cells.
•Pump-----Heart
•Flexible tubes---Blood vessels
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•In some part of the system diameter of the arteries are changed
to control pressure.
•Pump(heart) is a isolated two stage synchronized chamber
1. The first stage is to collect blood from the system and pump
it in to 2nd stage.
2. The second stage then pump these blood to the system
 Heart & Valves

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Bicuspid/
Left Atrio-ventricular
valve

Right Atrio-ventricular valve

 Heart Valves
▪Heart has 4 valves
1. Tricuspid/Right Atrio-Ventricular valve
• Between Right A and V, Prevents blood flow from right V to A
2. Bicuspid/ left Atrio-Ventricular valve
• Between left A and V, Prevents blood flow from left V to A
3.
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Pulmonary valve
• At right ventricle, It has 3 cusps
4. Aortic Valve
• Between left ventricle and aorta, It has 3 cusps
 Heart Layers

▪Heart wall consists of three layers

1. Pericardium
• Outer most layer, keeps outer surface moist, prevents friction
2. Myocardium
• Middle layer, Main muscle of heart, made up of short cylindrical fibres
3.
•
Endocardium
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Inner layer of heart, Provides smooth lining for blood flow
Cardio Vascular systems

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There are three types of blood vessels
1) Arteries--- Thick walled and Carries oxygenated blood
2) Veins--- Thin walled and, carry De-oxygenated blood to
wards the heart
3) Capillaries---Smallest, Last level of blood vessels, 800000
km of capillaries

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The heart pumps the blood and it beats about 72 times per
mints (normal adults)
 Cardio Vascular Circulation
▪Heart pumps blood through the pulmonary circulation to the lungs and through
the systemic circulation to the other parts of the body.
1) Pulmonary circulation
2) Systemic circulation
▪In pulmonary circulation, venous blood(de-oxygenated) flows from right
ventricle through pulmonary artery to lungs .
▪The arterial( oxygenated) blood flows to left atrium through pulmonary
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RIGHT Deoxygenated Lungs Oxygenated
blood Left Atrium
VENTRICLE blood
Pulmonary
Artery Purification Pulmonary
Veins
• In systemic circulation blood flows from left
auricle to left ventricle and it is pumped to
aorta and its branches

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Oxygenated Left Oxygenated

Left Atrium Body
blood Ventricle blood

Aorta
• Coronary circulation is the circulation of
blood in the blood vessels of the heart muscle
(myocardium)

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 Respiratory system

▪It is the Pneumatic system.

▪A system that work with air pressure.
▪An air pump(diaphragm) which alternatively
create negative and positive pressures in a sealed
chamber(Thoracic cavity).
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▪Thoracic cavity sucked air in to and forced out to
two elastic bags(Lungs).
▪The lungs are connected to the external
environment through a pass way (nasal cavities,
pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi and bronchioles)
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Organ Structure Function
Nasal cavity – lined with capillaries; warm air to 37°C- secrete mucus; and – warms, and filters air entering the
filter air respiratory system
– lined with cilia; filter out the air
Pharynx – path that connects nasal cavity to the
trachea
Epiglottis – a tiny flap of connective tissue – prevents food from entering the trachea
during swallowing- prevents air from
entering the stomach when breathing in

Larynx – made up of cartilage- contains the vocal cords; two highly – to produce sound for communication
elastic folds
Trachea – a hollow tube surrounded by tough, flexible C-shaped – allows air to pass from the pharynx into

Lung
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cartilage rings- lined with cilia
– lined with mucus secreting cells

– composed of the bronchi, bronchioles and alveoli

the lungs- cartilage rings prevent the
trachea from collapsing and provide it
with support
– the main organs of the respiratory
system
Bronchi – branch out of the trachea- hollow tubes surrounded by – to carry the air into the lungs
cartilage rings
– lined with cilia and mucus secreting cells
Bronchioles – branch out of the bronchi- large bronchioles secrete mucous – to decrease in size and carry air to the
and are lined with cilia alveoli
Alveoli – clusters of tiny hollow air sacs; the ends of the smallest – are the sites of gas exchange
bronchioles- surrounded by an extensive network of capillaries
– very small structures with very high surface area
▪At one point , this passage is common with the tube that carries
liquid and solids to stomach.
▪A special valving arrangement interrupts the respiratory
system whenever solid or liquid passes through the common
region.
▪The passage divides to carry air in to each bag.
▪In each bag , it is sub divided many times to carry air in to and
out of each of many tiny air spaces (pulmonary alveoli).

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▪In case of nasal blockage , air input can be taken from mouth.

▪Oxygen is taken from the air and transferred in to blood.

▪Cabondioxide is transferred from blood to air.

 Nervous systems
• The task of controlling various functions of body and coordinating
them in to a integrated living organism(human body) is the function
of Nervous system

• It is the most complex system in the human body

• It is the communication network in the human body.

• It composed of Brain, Sensors, high speed communication links ,

spinal cord.
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• It provides regulation of body functions and sensory perception.

• Functions of Nervous systems

1. Control of the body

2. Integration

3. Communication
Nerve system 2 types
• 1 Central Nerve system
It consist of brain and Spinal cord
• 2 Peripheral Nerve system
All the nerves and group of neurons outside
the brain and spinal cord
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 Muscular System
• The muscular system is the biological system of
humans that produces movement.

• It permits movement of the body, maintains posture,

and circulates blood throughout the body.

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• The muscular system is controlled through the
nervous system.

• Muscles provide strength, balance, Posture,

movement and heat for the body to keep warm.
• More than 50% of body weight is muscle.
• Muscle is made up of proteins and water
There are three distinct types of muscles: skeletal muscles,
cardiac or heart muscles, and smooth muscles.

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• Smooth muscle or "involuntary muscle" consists
of spindle shaped muscle cells found within the
walls of stomach, intestines, bronchi, uterus,
ureters, bladder, and blood vessels.

• Smooth muscle cells contain only one nucleus.

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• Cardiac muscle is also an "involuntary muscle"
but it is striated in structure and appearance.

• Like smooth muscle, cardiac muscle cells contain

only one nucleus.
• Cardiac muscle is found only within the heart.

• Skeletal muscle or "voluntary muscle" is

anchored by tendons to the bone and is used to
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effect skeletal movement such as locomotion.

• Skeletal muscle cells are multinucleated with the

nuclei peripherally located.
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• Each skeletal muscle fiber is a single cylindrical
muscle cell.
• An individual skeletal muscle may be made up of
hundreds, or even thousands, of muscle fibers bundled
together and wrapped in a connective tissue covering.
Each muscle is surrounded by a connective tissue
sheath called the epimysium.

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• Each compartment contains a bundle of muscle fibers.
• Each bundle of muscle fiber is called a fasciculus and
is surrounded by a layer of connective tissue called
the perimysium.
• Within the fasciculus, each individual muscle cell,
called a muscle fiber, is surrounded by connective
tissue called the endomysium
 Bioelectric Potentials
• The systems in the human body generate their on monitoring signals
when they carry out their functions.

• These signals provide useful information about their function.

• Bioelectric potentials are actually ionic voltages produced as a result of

electro chemical activity of certain cell.

• Transducers are used to convert these ionic potentials in to electrical

signals

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• Certain types of cells within the body , such as nerve and muscle cells are
encased in a semi permeable membrane.

• This membrane permits some substances to pass through while others

are kept out.

• Surrounding the cells of the body are the body fluids

• These fluids are conductive solutions containing charged atoms known

as ions
 Resting potentials
• The principle ions are sodium(Na+) Potassium(K+) and
chloride(Cl-)

• The membrane of excitable cells permit entry of

Potassium(K+) and chloride(Cl-) ions but blocks the entry
of sodium(Na+) ions.
• So inside the cell is more negative than outside cell
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• This membrane potentials is called Resting potentials

• This potential is measured from inside the cell with

respect to body fluids.
• So resting potential of a cell is negative.
 Resting potentials/Polarization
• This resting potential ranging from -60mv to -100 mv.
• Cell in the resting state is called polarized cell.

Cell Membrane

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V

Ground
 Depolarization of cell
• When a cell is exited, the membrane change its characteristic.

• The sodium ions are rushed in to the cell.

• At the same time potassium ions try move from inside.

Na+
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Na +

K+
Cell Membrane
Na+
K+
K+
Na+ K+
K+ Na+
K+
Na+ K+ K+
Na+
Na+
Depolarization of cell

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Action potentials

Cell Membrane

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Ground
 Re Polarization

Cell Membrane

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V

Ground
Resting and Action potentials

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 Propagation of Action potentials

• When a cell is exited and generates an action potentials

ionic currents to flow.
• This process excite neighboring cells or adjacent area of the
same cell

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 Bioelectric Potentials examples
• Electroretinogram(ERG)
• A record of the complex pattern of bioelectric
potentials obtained from the retina of the eye
• This is usually a response to a visual stimulus

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Photopic negative
Response- PhNR
• Electro-oculogram (EOG)
• A measure of the variation in the
corneal-retinal potential as affected by the
position and movement of the eye

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• Electrogastrogram(EGG)
• The EMG pattern associated with the
peristaltic movement of gastrointestinal tract

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• Electromyogram (EMG)
• The bioelectrical potential associated with muscle
activity constitute the electromyogram or EMG
• An electromyogram (EMG) measures the electrical
activity of muscles at rest and during contraction.
• It is measured at the surface of the body near the
muscle or from the muscle by penetrating the skin with
needle electrodes.

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Electroencephalogram
• An EEG, or electroencephalogram, is a test that
records the electrical signals of the brain

• During the test, small sensors are attached to the

scalp to pick up the electrical signals produced
when brain cells send messages to each other
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• EEG is most often used to diagnose epilepsy,
which causes abnormalities in EEG readings.

• It is also used to diagnose sleep disorders, depth

of anesthesia, coma, and brain death
• The frequency of EEG affected by the mental activity
of a person. The waveform shows the different stages
of Sleep.

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 EEG
EEG potentials are good indicators of global brain state. They
often display rhythmic patterns at characteristic frequencies

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 Electrocardiogram(ECG)
• An electrocardiogram — abbreviated as EKG
or ECG — is a test that measures the electrical
activity of the heartbeat.
• With each beat, an electrical impulse (or “wave”)
travels through the heart. This wave causes the
muscle to squeeze and pump blood from the heart.
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P wave
• Indicates atrial depolarization, or contraction of the atrium.
• Normal duration is not longer than 0.11 seconds (less than 3 small
squares)
• Amplitude (height) is no more than 3 mm
QRS complex
• Indicates ventricular depolarization, or contraction of the ventricles.
• Normally not longer than .10 seconds in duration
• Amplitude is not less than 5 mm
• R waves are deflected positively and the Q and S waves are negative
T wave
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• Indicates ventricular repolarization
• Not more that 5 mm in amplitude
ST segment
• Indicates early ventricular repolarization
• Normally not depressed more than 0.5 mm
PR interval
• Indicates AV conduction time
• Duration time is 0.12 to 0.20 seconds
Problems Encountered in Measuring a
Living System
• Inaccessibility of variables to measurement:-
• Variability of data:-
• Lack of Knowledge about interrelationships:-
• Interaction among physiological system:-
•
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Effect of transducer on the measurement:-
• Artifacts:-
• Energy limitations:-
• Safety considerations:-
 Problems Encountered in Measuring a
Living System
• Inaccessibility of variables to measurement:-For
example neuro chemical activity of brain ,it is
impossible to place transducer so we need to do the
indirect measurement. using indirect measurement,
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however one must be aware of the limitations
• Variability of data:- majority of physiological
variables are nondeterministic, means varies with
respect to time . so these must be represented by some
statistical or probability distribution
• Lack of Knowledge about
interrelationships:-physiological measurements with
large tolerance are often accepted by the physician
because of lack of this knowledge
• Interaction among physiological system:- large
number of feedback loops involved in the major
physiological systems, a severe degree of interaction
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exists both within a given system and among the
major systems. The result is that stimulation of one
part of a given system generally affects all other parts
of the system in some way and often affects other
systems as well
• Effect of transducer on the measurement:-
• Transducer can be considered as a device converting
one form of energy to another form. Electrical
transducers can be considered as a device meant to
convert a form of energy to equivalent electrical
signals. The physical quantity to be measured can be

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position, displacement, flow, temperature, strain,
velocity etc. and the output is in the form of electrical
parameters like current, capacitance, voltage,
inductance, change in resistance etc
• Artifacts:-Random noise generated within the
measuring instrument, electrical interference (50/60
Hz),cross talk and all other unwanted variations in a
signal are considered artifacts
• Energy limitations:-For example, resistance
measurements require the flow of electric current
through the tissue or blood being measured. Some
transducers generate small amount of heat due to the
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current flow
• Safety considerations:- Methods employed in
measuring variables in a living human subject must in
no way endanger the life or normal functioning of the
subject. Extra caution must be taken in the design of
any measurement system to protect the patient.
 Propagation of action potentials
• When a cell is exited and generates an action potentials ionic
currents to flow. This process excite neighboring cells or
adjacent area of the same cell
• The rate at which an action potential moves down a fiber or
is propagate from cell to cell is called the propagation rate.
• In nerve fiber the propagation rate is also called the nerve
conduction rate, or conduction velocity. Velocity range in
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nerves is from 20 to 140 meters per second. In heart muscle,
the rate is slower, average 0.2 to 0.4 m/sec.
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 Electrode Theory
• To measure bioelectric potentials, a transducer is
required. Electrical signals produced by various
body activities are used in monitoring / diagnosis.
• In order to measure and record potentials ,it is
necessary to provide some interface between the

•
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body and the electronic measuring apparatus.
Bio-potential electrodes carry out this interface
function.
• A transducer consists of two electrodes, which
measure ionic potential difference between two
points.
• The designation of the Bio potential waveform
ends with “Gram”. The name of the instrument bio
potential normally ends with “Graph”.
• Propagation of action potential through different
body tissues produces final waveform recorded by
electrodes
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• Electrical activity is explained by differences in
ion concentrations within the body (sodium- Na+;
chloride- Cl–; potassium- K+).
• A potential difference (voltage) occurs between 2
points with different ionic concentrations
 Properties of Bio electrodes
Bio electrodes should possess the following properties:
• They should be good conductors
• They should have low impedance
• They should not polarize when a current flows through
them
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• They should establish a good contact with the body and
not cause motion
• They should not cause itching, swelling or discomfort
to the patient for example the metal should not be toxic
• They should be mechanically rugged
• They should be chemically inert
• They should be easy clean
Materials used for Electrodes
• The materials used to make Electrodes include:
• Aluminium (Al)
• Copper (Cu)
• Silver (Ag)
• Gold (Au)
• Platinum (Pt)

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• When we compare these metals to Hydrogen electrode, each
metal has some potential as shown in the below figure:
 Bio Potential Electrodes
• Bio-potential electrodes transduce ionic
conduction to electronic conduction so that
bio-potential signals can be obtained
Classification of Electrodes
1. Micro Electrodes--- Bio electric potential near or
within a single cell
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• Metal Type
• Micro pipette
2. Skin surface electrode —Measure
ECG,EEG,EMG
3. Needle electrode ---Penetrate the skin to record
EMG
1. Micro Electrodes: To measure potential across
the cell membrane.
• Smaller in size with respect to the cell dimension
• Avoids causing serious injury
• Doesn’t change the cell’s behavior
• Tip diameter ranging from approximately 0.05 to
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• Formed from Solid-metal needles or a Metal
contained within or on the surface of a glass
needle.
• A glass micropipette having a lumen filled with an
electrolytic solution
Two types
• Metal Type—Tip must be tungsten or stainless
steel
• Micro pipette---It is a glass micro pipet with size
of 1 micron, It is filled with electrolyte

1. Metal Electrodes
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• Fine needle of strong metal
• Stainless Steel
• Platinum-iridium alloy
• Tungsten
• Compound tungsten carbide
• Insulated with an appropriate insulator up to its tip.
• Usually produced by electrolytic etching, using an
electrochemical cell in which the metal needle is
the anode.
• The etched metal needle is then supported in a
larger metallic shaft that is then insulated.

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 Micropipette Electrodes

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• Glass Micropipette with the tip drawn out to the
desired size (usually about 1μm) in diameter.
• The Micropipette is filled with an electrolyte
compatible with the cellular fluids.
• This types of microelectrodes has a dual interface .
• One interface consist of a metal wire in contact with
the electrolyte solution inside the micropipette
• The other is the interface between the electrolyte
inside the micropipette and the fluid inside or outside
the cell
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 Surface electrodes

• These are placed in contact with the skin of the subject

• Early stages immersion electrodes were used.

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• A bucket of saline water is used

• An improvement of immersion electrode is the plate

electrode.

• Another old type electrode is suction type

Immersion Electrodes

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 Suction type

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• Frequently used in precordial (chest) leads
• Can be placed at a particular location
• Consists of a hollow metallic cylindrical electrode that
makes contact with the skin at its base.
• A Lead wire is attached to the metal cylinder
• A rubber suction bulb fits over its other base.
• Electrolyte gel is placed over the contacting
surface.
• The bulb is squeezed and placed on the chest wall
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and then the bulb is released and applies suction
against the skin, holding the electrode assembly in
place.
• Suction & pressure of the contact surface against
the skin creates irritation
• Small contacting area with a large overall size
METAL-PLATE ELECTRODES
• Historically, one of the most frequently used
forms of bio-potential sensing electrodes is the
metal-plate electrode.

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• In its simplest form, it consists of a metallic
conductor in contact with the skin.

• An electrolyte soaked pad or gel is used to

establish and maintain the contact.
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 Floating electrodes
• Conductive paste reduces effect of electrode
slippage and resulting motion artifact

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 Needle electrodes
• Unipolar electrode---Single wire inside a needle

• Bipolar electrode---Two wires inside a needle

Mostly used for contacting with internal body tissues

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• (a) Insulated needle electrode .
• (b) Coaxial needle electrode .
• (c) Bipolar coaxial electrode .
• (d) Fine -wire electrode connected to hypodermic
needle, before being inserted .
• (e) Coiled fine -wire electrode in place
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Implantable electrodes

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ELECTRODE ARRAYS

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 Transducers
Transducer can be classified in to two
• Active Transducer
– Known principles is used to convert variables in
to electrical signal
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• Passive Transducer KTU
– It involves control of an excitation voltage or
modulation of a carrier signal
Principles used in Active Transducers
It can convert electrical signal in to physical variables and also in reverse
direction.

1. Magnetic Induction

2. Piezoelectric effect

3. Thermoelectric effect

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Photoelectric effect

Passive Transducers
•Utilize the principles of controlling a DC excitation or an
AC carrier signal.
•It consists of a passive circuit element which changes it
value as a function of physical variables to be measured.
•It cannot convert electrical signal in to physical variables
Principles used in Passive Transducers
• Using Resistive element
1. Ordinary Potentiometer
a. Linear
b. Rotary
2. Strain gage
a. Un bonded
b. Bonded TRACE KTU
c. Semiconductor strain gage
• Using Inductive element
1. Variable reluctance Transducer
• LVDT
• Using Capacitive element
Transducers for Biomedical field
• Force transducer
• Photoelectric displacement transducer
• Pressure Transducers

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• Flow transducers
• Transducers with digital O/P
 Transducers for Biomedical field
1. Resistive transducers - Muscle force and Stress (Strain
gauge), Spirometer, humidity, Respiration (Thermistor)
2. Inductive Transducers - Flow measurements, muscle
movement (LVDT)
3. Capacitive Transducers - Heart sound measurement, Pulse
pick up
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4. Photoelectric Transducers - Pulse transducers, Blood
pressure, oxygen Analyses
5. Piezoelectric Transducers - Pulse pickup, ultrasonic blood
flowmeter
6. Chemical Transducer - Ag-Ag Cl (Electrodes, PH
electrode
Piezoelectric Transducers
• When compression or tension is applied to the
crystal, charge separation occurs in the crystals.
• This produces electrical voltage resulting in
Piezoelectric Effect.
• Piezoelectric transducers convert displacement or
pressure into an electrical value.
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• Barium Titanium, Lithium Niobate are few
piezoelectric transducer materials.
Applications of Piezoelectric Transducers
• Piezoelectric Transducer acts as a pulse sensor to
measure the pulse rate of a human.
Photoelectric Transducers
• When light or any other radiation of wavelength falls
on the metal or semiconductor surface, it ejects
electrons. This is the Photoelectric Effect.
• Photoemissive, Photoconductive and photovoltaic are
the types of Photoelectric Transducers.
• Among these, Photovoltaic is an active transducer
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which generates an electrical voltage in proportion to
the radiation incident on it.
Applications of Photovoltaic Transducers
• In Photoelectric Plethysmography silicon photovoltaic
cells acts as pulse sensor.
• To measure sodium and potassium ion concentration in
a sample using light absorption techniques.
Thermoelectric Transducers
• These transducers work based on the Seebeck
Effect.
• Seebeck effect states that, when two junctions of
the thermocouple are at two different temperatures,
it generates a potential voltage. The generated
voltage is proportional to the difference in
temperature between two junctions of the
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thermocouple.
Applications of Thermoelectric Transducers
• To measure physiological temperature in remote
sensing circuits and biotelemetry circuits.
• In the doctor’s cold box to store plasma,
antibiotics, etc.
Resistive Transducers
• The strain gauge, photoresistor, photodiode,
phototransistor, and thermistor come under
resistive type passive transducers. They have a
common working principle, which states that the
measured parameter results in a small change in
the resistance of a transducer.
Applications of Resistive Transducers
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• Finger-mounted strain gauge measures small
changes in blood volume flowing via the finger.
• To measure intraarterial and intravenous pressure
in the body.
• LDR or photoresistor measures the pulsatile blood
volume changes.
Capacitive Transducers
• A capacitor has two conducting surfaces. A
dielectric medium acts separating gap between two
surfaces.
• Capacitive transducers measure the change in
displacement due to change in the area of
conducting plates, the thickness of the dielectric
medium and distance between the plates.
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Applications of Capacitive Transducers
• Differential capacitive transducers measure blood
pressure.
Inductive Transducers
• Inductive transducer works based on the
change in reluctance and number of turns in
the coil. A Linear Variable Differential
Transformer (LVDT) is a type of inductive
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transducer that acts as a physiological pressure
sensor.
• Application of Inductive Transducers
• To measure tremor in patients suffering from
Parkinson’s disease.
• Force transducer:- Force summing member –leaf
spring –leaf is bend downward it exert an upward
direction force
Photoelectric displacement transducer:- It
convert the light energy into electrical energy.
photosensitive elements eject the electrons when
the beam of light absorb . It is made of
semiconductor material
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Transducer for displacement , velocity and
acceleration:- Displacement transducers are used
in both direct and indirect measurements of
biomedical variables . Most of
displacement transducers are classified
as resistive, capacitive, inductive, and ultrasonic,
according to their principle of operation
• Pressure Transducers
• Flow transducers:-Flow transducers are used to measure air and
liquid flow velocity. Flow transducers use different measuring
principles. . By means of the flow velocity, analysis units of flow
transducers can calculate the flow level or determine the amount
of flow with a counter
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• Transducers with digital O/P:-There are many different
types of sensors and transducers, both analogue and digital
and input and output available to choose from. The type of
input or output transducer being used, really depends upon
the type of signal or process being “Sensed” or
“Controlled”
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