Design of Machine Members

Analysis of Stress and Strain

Rajiv Gandhi University of Knowledge Technologies,

Basar
Design of Machine Member RGUKT Basar

Axial loading: Normal Stress

• When a mechanical component is subjected to an
external static force, a resisting internal forces are set
up within the component.
• The resultant of the internal forces for an axially loaded
member is normal to a section cut perpendicular to the
member axis.
• The force intensity on that section is defined as the
normal stress.
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• σ = average normal stress at any point on the cross-sectional area

• P = internal resultant normal force , which acts through the
centroid of the cross-sectional area.
• A = cross-sectional area of the bar where σ is determined
• The stresses are called tensile • When the fibres tend to
when the fibres of the shorten due to the external
component tend to elongate force, the stresses are called
due to the external force. compressive stresses.
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Shearing Stress
• Forces P and P’ are applied transversely to
the member AB.
• Corresponding internal forces act in the
plane of section C and are called shearing
forces.
• The resultant of the internal shear force
distribution is defined as the shear of the
section and is equal to the load P.
• The corresponding average shear stress is,
P
 ave 
A
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Single Shear
Double Shear

P F
P F  ave  
 ave   A 2A
A A
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Bearing Stress
• When a body is pressed against another,
the compressive stress developed is
termed bearing stress

• Bolts, rivets, and pins create stresses on

the points of contact or bearing surfaces
of the members they connect.

• The resultant of the force distribution on

the surface is equal and opposite to the
force exerted on the pin.

• Corresponding average force intensity is

called the bearing stress,
P P
b  
A td
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Stress on an Oblique Plane

• Pass a section through the member
forming an angle q with the normal
plane.

• From equilibrium conditions, the

distributed forces (stresses) on the
plane must be equivalent to the
force P.

• Resolve P into components normal

and tangential to the oblique
section,
F  P cosq V  P sin q
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• The average normal and shear stresses on the

oblique plane are

F P cosq P
   cos 2 q
Aq A0 A0
cosq
V P sin q P
   sin q cosq
Aq A0 A0
cosq
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Maximum Stresses
• Normal and shearing stresses on an
oblique plane
P P
 cos 2 q  sin q cosq
A0 A0
• The maximum normal stress occurs
when the reference plane is
perpendicular to the member axis,
P
m    0
A0
• The maximum shear stress occurs for a
plane at + 45o with respect to the axis,
P P
m  sin 45 cos 45   
A0 2 A0
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Bending stress
• Beam subjected to a pure bending

• Pure Bending: Prismatic members

subjected to equal and opposite
couples acting in the same
longitudinal plane
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• Flexural formula
= =

σ = bending stress
c = largest distance of a fibre from neutral axis
M= bending moment in the section
E = Young’s modulus of the section material
ρ = radius of curvature of arc DE (Neutral axis)
I = moment of inertia of the cross section
with respect to a centroidal axis
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Shear Due to Transverse Loading
• At point A, the moment M(x) is increasing as a function
of beam length x, due to the presence of the nonzero
shear force V at that point.

• Since the normal stress due to bending is proportional to

M(x), the stress σ on the left hand face of P is less than
on its right-hand face, as shown in Figure.
• For equilibrium, this stress imbalance must be
counteracted by the shear stress τ
Design of Machine Member RGUKT Basar
• total force acting on the left-hand face

• total force acting on the right-hand face

• shear force on the top face at distance y1 from the neutral axis

• For equilibrium of the element p

Slope of the moment function dM/dx is

equal to the magnitude of the shear
function V at any point.

First moment of area

about neutral axis
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• The shear stress due to transverse loading will be small

compared to the bending stress Mc / I if the beam is long
compared to its depth.

• A commonly used rule of thumb says that the shear stress due
to transverse loading in a beam will be small enough to ignore
if the length-to-depth ratio of the beam is 10 or more.

• Short beams below that ratio should be investigated for

transverse shear stress as well as for bending stress.
Design of Machine Member RGUKT Basar

Torsional stresses
• Shaft AB is subjected at A and B to equal
and opposite torques T and T’

• section perpendicular to the axis of the

shaft passes through arbitrary point C.

• ρ the perpendicular distance from the

shearing force dF to the axis of the shaft.

• sum of the moments of the shearing

forces dF about the axis of the shaft is
equal in magnitude to the torque T,

T    dF     dA
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• Torque applied to shaft produces
shearing stresses on the faces
perpendicular to the axis.

• Conditions of equilibrium require the

existence of equal stresses on the
faces of the two planes containing
the axis of the shaft

• Together, these stresses exert a

counterclockwise couple on the
element that must be balanced by a
corresponding clockwise couple,
created by shear stresses acting on
the top and bottom faces.

• The state of stress shown on element

E is pure shear.
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• Torsional formula

= =

•  = the maximum shear stress in the shaft, J  12  c 4

which occurs at the outer surface
• T = the resultant internal torque acting at
the cross section.
• J = the polar moment of inertia of the
cross-sectional area
• c = the outer radius of the shaft
• G= shear modulus J  12  c24  c14 
• Θ = angle of twist in radian
• l = length of shaft The shearing stress varies
linearly with the radial position
in the section.
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Normal stresses
• Elements with faces parallel and perpendicular
to the shaft axis are subjected to shear stresses
only.
• Normal stresses, shearing stresses or a
combination of both may be found for other
orientations.
• Consider an element at 45o to the shaft axis,
F  2 max A0 cos 45   max A0 2
F  max A0 2
 o     max
45 A A0 2
• Element a is in pure shear.
• Element c is subjected to a tensile stress on two
faces and compressive stress on the other two.
• Note that all stresses for elements a and c have
the same magnitude
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Torsional Failure Modes

• Ductile materials generally fail in
shear. Brittle materials are weaker in
tension than shear.

• When subjected to torsion, a ductile

specimen breaks along a plane of
maximum shear, i.e., a plane
perpendicular to the shaft axis.

• When subjected to torsion, a brittle

specimen breaks along planes
perpendicular to the direction in
which tension is a maximum, i.e.,
along surfaces at 45o to the shaft axis.
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Centric & Eccentric Loading

• A uniform distribution of stress is
only possible if the concentrated
loads on the end sections of two-
force members are applied at the
section centroids. This is referred
to as centric loading.

• If a two-force member is
eccentrically loaded, then the
resultant of the stress distribution
in a section must yield an axial
force and a moment.
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Design of Machine Member RGUKT Basar

Buckling
• Machine members may be subjected to compressive
loadings, and if these members are long and slender
the loading may be large enough to cause the
member to deflect laterally or sidesway.

• Such long slender members subjected to an axial

compressive force are called columns

• The lateral deflection that occurs is called buckling .

• The maximum axial load that a column can support

just before buckling is called the critical load Pcr.
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Euler’s formula:
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Stress at a point

• Stress matrix

• Complementary shear stresses are equal

• The state of stress at a point is given by six stress components
Design of Machine Member RGUKT Basar
• Implication of state of stress at a point in the design of machine
members where all or some of the stresses discussed may act.
• Consider a cantilever beam of circular cross-section subjected to
– a vertical loading P at the free end
– an axial loading F
– a torque T.
• diameter of cross-section = d
• length of the beam = L
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• The maximum stresses developed in the beam are :
• Bending stress: = 32

• Axial stress: 4
=

• Torsional shear stress: 16

=

• It is necessary to consider the most vulnerable (Critical )section and

element.
• Axial and torsional shear stresses are constant through out the length.
• Bending stress is maximum at fixed end.
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• Element B : no bending stress

• Element C: bending and axial stresses on the act in the
opposite direction.
• Therefore, for the safe design of the beam one should
consider the stresses on the element A
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General State of stress at a point
• The most general state of stress at
a point may be represented by six
components,
 x , y , z normal stresses
 xy ,  yz ,  zx shearing stresses
(Note :  xy   yx ,  yz   zy ,  zx   xz )

• Same state of stress is represented

by a different set of components if
axes are rotated
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Plane state of stress

• Plane Stress - state of stress in which
two faces of the cubic element are free
of stress. The state of stress is defined
by
 x ,  y ,  xy and  z   zx   zy  0.

• State of plane stress occurs in a thin

plate subjected to forces acting in the
midplane of the plate.

• State of plane stress also occurs on the

free surface of a structural element or
machine component, i.e., at any point
of the surface not subjected to an
external force
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Transformation Of Plane Stress

• State of plane stress exists at point Q
(with σz= zx =zy = 0), and that it is
defined by the stress components σx, σy,
and xy associated with the element
shown

• Let the stress components σx’, σy’, and x’y’

associated with the element after it has
been rotated through an angle θ about
about z axis
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• Consider the conditions for equilibrium

of a prismatic element with faces
perpendicular to the x, y, and x’ axes.

 Fx  0   xA   x A cosq  cosq   xy A cosq sin q

  y A sin q  sin q   xy A sin q  cosq
 Fy  0   xy A   x A cosq sin q   xy A cosq  cosq
  y A sin q  cosq   xy A sin q sin q

• The equations may be rewritten to yield

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Principal Stresses
• The previous equations are combined to
yield parametric equations for a circle,

 x   ave 2   x2y  R 2
where
2
 x  y  x  y  2
 ave  R      xy
2  2 

• Principal stresses occur on the principal

planes of stress with zero shearing
stresses.
2
 x  y  x  y  2
 max, min       xy
2  2 
2 xy
tan 2q p 
 x  y
Note : defines two angles separated by 90o
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Maximum Shearing Stress

2
 x  y  2
 max  R      xy
 2 
 x  y
tan 2q s  
2 xy

Note : defines two angles separated by 90o and

offset from q p by 45o
 x  y
    ave 
2
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• Problem: 1
• For the state of plane stress shown determine
(a) the principal planes,
(b) the principal stresses,
(c) the maximum shearing stress and the corresponding
normal stress.
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• Solution
(a) Principal Planes

(b) Principal Stresses

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(c) Maximum Shearing Stress

Corresponding normal stress

• tan 2θs is the negative reciprocal of tan θp.

• Planes of maximum shearing stress are at 450 to the principal planes
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• Problem 2
• A 5mm thick steel bar is fastened to a ground plate by two
6 mm diameter pins as shown in figure. If the load P at the
free end of the steel bar is 5 KN, find
• (a) The shear stress in each pin
• (b) The direct bearing stress in each pin.
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• Due to the application of force P the bar will tend to rotate about
point ‘O’ causing shear and bearing stresses in the pins A and B.
• Let the forces at pins A and B be FA and FB and equating moments
about ‘O’,
5x103x0.125 = (FA+FB)x 0.025 (1)
Also, from force balance, FA+P = FB (2)

Solving equations-1 and 2, FA =10 KN and FB = 15 KN.

Design of Machine Member RGUKT Basar
Design of Machine Member RGUKT Basar

• Problem 3
• A 100 mm diameter off-set link is transmitting an axial pull of
30 KN as shown in the figure. Find the stresses at points A and B.
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Design of Machine Member RGUKT Basar

Normal strain
• If an element subjected to
uniaxial tension, normal strain

• The loaded element experiences

no change in any of the initial
right angles.
• Shear strains ϒxy , ϒxz and ϒyz are
therefore zero
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Shear strain ϒxy

Change in the initial right angle

between two line elements originally
parallel to the x and y axes
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Shear strain in xy plane

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State of strain at a point

• Strain matrix

• Complementary shear strains are equal

• The state of strain at a point is given by six strain
components
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Plane state of strain

• If, in a given state of strain, there
exists a coordinate system Oxyz such
that for this system
εz =0, ϒyz = 0, ϒzx = 0
then the state is said to have plane state
of strain parallel to the xy plane.
• The non-vanishing strain components
are
εx , εy and ϒxy
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Transformation of plane strain

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• Principal strains

• Principal axes

• Principal strain axes make angle of θp

and 90+ θp with the x- axis.
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Maximum In-Plane Shear Strain.

equal to the diameter of Mohr’s circle
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Poisson’s Ratio
• For a slender bar subjected to axial loading
x
x   y z  0
E

• The elongation in the x-direction is

accompanied by a contraction in the other
directions. Assuming that the material is
isotropic (no directional dependence),
 y  z  0

• Poisson’s ratio

lateral strain y z
  
axial strain x x
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Generalized statement of Hooke’s law
• In general each strain is dependent on each stress

• For isotropic material (Same property in all direction)

Rest of the elements in K matrix are zero.

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• Generalized Hooke’s law for isotropic material

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• Generalized Hooke’s law for isotropic material

• Since the principal stress and strains axes coincide, one may
write the principal strains in terms of principal stresses as
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Volumetric strain
• Sides of the element are originally dx , dy , dz.
• After application of the stress σx, σy and σz
they become
(1 + εx) dx, (1 + εz) dy, (1 + εz ) dz, Before deformation

• The change in volume of the element

• Neglecting the products of the strains since

the strains are very small

After deformation
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• The change in volume per unit volume is called the

“volumetric strain” or the dilatation e

• Volumetric strain of a deformed body is the sum of the linear

strains in three mutually perpendicular directions.
• By comparison, the shear strains will not change the volume
of the element, rather they will only change its rectangular
shape.
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• Volume change or dilatation

resulting from hydrostatic
pressure
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Relations between E, G and K

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Thermal Strain
• If the temperature of a homogenous rod AB is
raised by ΔT, the rod elongates by an amount δL
which is proportional to both the temperature
change ΔT and the length L of the rod.

Where α is a coefficient of thermal

expansion (per degree C)

• Thermal strain
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Thermal stress
• There is no stress associated with the
thermal strain unless the elongation is
restrained by the supports.
• Treat the additional support as redundant
and apply the principle of superposition.
PL
 T   T L P 
AE
  thermal expansion coef.

  T   P  0   T   P  0
PL P   AE T 
 T L  0 P
AE     E T 
A
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• The copper bar is subjected to a uniform loading along its edges
as shown. If it has a length a = 300 mm, width b = 50 mm, and
thickness t = 20 mm before the load is applied, determine its
new length, width, and thickness after application of the load.
• Take Ecu = 120 GPa, νcu = 0.34.
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• From the generalized Hooke’s law

• The new bar length, width, and thickness are therefore

Design of Machine Member RGUKT Basar

• Problem 2
• At a point in a loaded member, a state of plane strain exists and
the strains are εx= -90x10-6, εy= -30x10-6 and ϒxy=120x10-6. If the
elastic constants E , ν and G are 200 GPa , 0.3 and 84 GPa
respectively, determine the normal stresses σx and σy and the
shear stress τxy at the point.

• This gives

• Substituting values, we get