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52 views79 pagesForecasting Sea Swell & Surf
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Fadli BadriCopyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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/ 79
NP 486A(4)
NAVAL OCEANOGRAPHY AND METEOROLOGY MEMORANDUM No 2/84
FORECASTING
L SEA, SWELL
AND
| SURF
DIRECTOR OF NAVAL OCEANOGRAPHY AND METEOROLOGY
HYDROGRAPHIC DEPARTMENT
MINISTRY OF DEFENCE
QI APRIL 1934 FOREWORD
‘The purpose of this memorandum is to provide meteorologists and oceanographers with
practical methods of forecasting sea, swell, and surf. The memorandum consists of two
parts.
PART 1 contains a description of the basic theoretical background and the practical
method for forecasting sea and swell characteristics and surf conditions,
PART Z describes the wave theory in more detail.
NWS memoranda 135/45 and 1358/38 are cancelled and superseded by this memorandum. CONTENTS
PART 1 Page
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 1
1, TYPES OF SURFACE WAVE 1
2. DEFINITIONS 2
CHAPTER 2 FORECASTING SEA AND SWELL 5
1, INTRODUCTION 5
2 FORECASTING SEA WAVE CHARACTERISTICS. 5
3. FORECASTING SWELL CHARACTERISTICS 2
4 FORECASTING THE EFFECTS OF TIDES AND CURRENTS 1s
CHAPTER 3 SURF FORECASTING 45
1. INTRODUCTION 15
2, THE METHOD 15
3. EXAMPLE OF USE OF THE METHOD. 16
4. PRESENTATION OF THE SURF FORECAST 7
PART 2
CHAPTER | THE GENERATION OF WAVES BY WIND 18
1. SOME CLASSICAL WAVE THEORIES 18
2. PROCESSES OF WAVE GENERATION 20
3. THE SPECTRUM OF DEEP WATER WIND WAVES 22
CHAPTER 2 THE DECAY OF WIND WAVES AS SWELL 28
1, THE CONCEPT OF GROUP VELOCITY 28
2. DISPERSION 29
3. ANGULAR SPREADING 30
4, DISPERSION, ANGULAR SPREADING AND THE SPECTRUM 30
5. OTHER FACTORS AFFECTING WAVE DECAY 31
CHAPTER 3 WAVES IN SHALLOW WATER 32
1, AIRY WAVES IN SHALLOW WATER 32
2. WAVE REFRACTION 32
3. SURF 35
4, THE EFFECTS OF TIDES AND CURRENTS 37
CHAPTER 4 BACKGROUND TO THE FORECASTING NOMOGRAMS 39
ANNEX A BIBLIOGRAPHY AL
ANNEX B SEA, SWELL AND SURF EXAMPLES B-l
ANNEX C THE FORECASTING NOMOGRAMS ct CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
‘TYPE OF SURFACE WAVE
Disturbances of the sea surface originate from atmospheric, seismic and astronomic causes
and comprise a period range from about 10-2 to 105 seconds, The restoring forces are
surface tension and gravity. Surface tension is the predominant force for very short waves
(shorter than 1.7 centimetres), whereas gravity is predominant for longer waves. The
energy of surface waves is concentrated in the ordinary gravity waves (periods 1 to 30
seconds) and in the ordinary tides (periods about 12 and 24 hours).
Most surface waves fall into one of the following categories:
a WIND WAVES
‘These gravity waves are generated by the winds blowing over the ocean surface.
‘They appear to be ‘short-crested’, and waves of many different heights, lengths and
periods can be identified. The wave crests are noticeably more peaked than pure sine
waves and they tend to be skewed in the direction of propagation. Wind waves are
normally described as 'sea'.
b. CAPILLARY WAVES
Close inspection of the surface of relatively quiet water, disturbed by very light
winds, will reveal very small wave disturbances which have a distinctly different
appearance from small wind waves. Periods are characteristically of less than 1/10
of a second, and wavelengths of less than 1.7 centimetres. The important restoring
force in these oscillations is that resulting from surface tension.
¢ SWELL
In the absence of local winds the observed surface disturbances in deep water tend to
be long, regular waves with periods in the range from 5 to 30 seconds. The amplitude
is small in comparison to the wavelength, and the surface configuration in the
direction of wave travel approximates a sine function. Swell represents wind waves
(sea) which have travelled out of the area in which they were generated, or can no
longer be sustained by the winds in the generating area. a TIDES
It has long been recognised that tidal disturbances result from the gravitational
attraction of the sun and moon, and the phenomena are referred to as ‘astronomical
tides’. The tide generating forces can be formulated from astronomical information
regarding the motions of the sun and moon relative to the earth. The water
movements which result, however, behave as long waves and are greatly influenced by
the configuration of the basins and by Coriolis acceleration.
e. STORM TIDES
Persistent winds blowing over the surface of the sea may, in conjunction with high
tides and abnormally low atmospheric pressure, pile up water against a coast giving
rise to abnormally high sea levels. These effects are often referred to as storm tides
or positive surge, and may be treated as long period waves although, strictly
speaking, the disturbances are not periodic. The converse, negative surge or
abnormally low sea levels, is equally important, particularly in the North Sea.
f SEICHES
Any body of water will have natural frequencies at which it is particularly easy to set
up oscillations, The result is complimentary variations in surface level at different
locations. Such oscillations are called seiches. The frequencies of preferred
oscillation are regulated by the depth, horizontal dimensions and configuration of the
basin. Seiches may be impulsively generated by changes in meteorological conditions
or by tide generating forces.
g TSUNAMIS
Waves generated by impulsive disturbances in the sea bed occur occasionally and may
have spectacular results. The Japanese name for them is Tsunami; in the western
world they are sometimes called tidal waves although they have no relation to tides.
At sea these trains of long, low waves usually pass unobserved although the energy
transmitted is significant. At the shore, where shallow water effects come into play,
they build up so that walls of water tens of feet high may sweep inshore and cause
great damage. The periods involved are of the order of 10 to 30 minutes, and the
wavelengths in deep water are of the order of 100 to 300 miles.
2. DEFINITIONS
The simplest type of progressive wave consists of a series of equidistant parallel crests, all
of the same height, which are moving, without change of shape, at a constant speed in a
direction perpendicular to the line of the crests.
The following definitions are made with respect to the various wave parameters: S Surface
a ELEVATION (1) - the instantaneous vertical distance of the surface at a point
from a level representing the surface in the absence of wave disturbances.
b. WAVE HEIGHT (HH) - the vertical distance between
‘crest’ and the adjacent
‘trough’.
c+ AMPLITUDE (a) - one-half of the wave height.
4, WAVELENGTH (L) - the horizontal distance between consecutive crests (or
troughs) in the direction of wave travel. Related to this is the wave number (k).
k=2e/L
€. WAVE PERIOD (T) - the time interval between the occurrence of successive
crests (or troughs) at a fixed position. The inverse, 1/T, is called the frequency, and
is a measure of the number of crests (or troughs) which occur at a fixed position in
unit time. Related to this is the angular frequency (0).
o=2n/T
{, PHASE SPEED (c) - the apparent rate at which a crest advance!
{ : —
c= L/T=ofk We ' =
g: WAVE STEEPNESS - the ratio H/L. (Note - this should not be confused with
the wave steepness index H/T2,) Wide oven Sat canes 244,
h AVERAGE WAVE HEIGHT (Hay) - the average height of all wave heights
present.
oN
2 i, SIGNIFICANT WAVE HEIGHT (Hgig or Hy/3) - the average height of the
highest third of the waves. Tais has been found to be the value most commonly
reported by observers at sea, and is the height normally given in a forecast of sea
wave height.
j. ONE-TENTH HIGHEST WAVE HEIGHT (H/19) - the average height of the
highest tenth of the waves.
k. MAXIMUM WAVE HEIGHT (Hyax) - the height of the highest wave. This
depends on the length of time being considered and is a variable.
1. The statistical relationships between the various heights are as follows:
Hay = 0.625 Hy/3
Hyio = 13 Haya
Hmax = 16 Hy/3 (Highest likely over a 10 minute period)
Emax = 20 H1/3 (Highest likely over a3 hour period)
Hmax = 2:25 1/3 (Highest likely over a 12 hour period)
Himax = 235 11/3 (ilighest likely over a 24 hour period)
m, The following definitions are used to describe some of the wave periods present
Significant Wave Period (1/3) - the mean period of the highest one third of
the waves.
Period of Maximum Energy (Ty) - the period associated with the ‘peak’ in the
spectrum.
Maximum Period (Tyax) ~ the longest period present.
a, The statistical relationships between these periods are as followst
Ty = La Ty3
Tmax 1.6 T1/3
deeper Aon HR
df wave CHAPTER 2
FORECASTING SEA AND SWELL
1. INTRODUCTION
‘There are many different methods available for the use of forecasters, but unfortunately
many of them involve the use of a computer to solve the equations. This memorandum
presents a simple, graphical method primarily for the use of the forecaster who does not
hhave access to computing facilities, and who needs a quick, practical method.
2, FORECASTING SEA WAVE CHARACTERISTICS
For the determination of the wave characteristics at a point, wind velocity, duration and
the dimensions of the fetch area are required. These quantities are often described
collectively as the wind field. In most situations this wind field will be determined from
the main hour synoptic charts.
a, TYPICAL FETCHES
Jn all cases the first step in producing a wave forecast is to determine the fetch,
which is defined as an area of the sea surface over which a wind with an effectively
constant direction and steady speed is blowing, or has been blowing. In general the
fetch boundaries are determined by coast-lines, meteorological fronts, isobaric
curvature or the fanning out of isobars. In Figure 2 the fetch at point B is the
distance AB,
— poll au Ya a ae
_
FIG. 2
ie, the fetch at point B is limited by the coast-line. Similarly at point D the fetch is
the distance CD. If, in this case, the distance AB were greater than 500 miles and
the wind had been blowing offshore at a constant velocity for only a few hours, then
the sea at point B would be duration rather than fetch limited. FIG. 3
Jn Figure 3 the fetch at point B is the distance AB, ie the fetch at point B is limited
by the front, where there is an abrupt change in wind direction, The criterion in this
case is a change in direction in excess of 30°, (Note - in this case the front is
assumed to be stationary.)
FIG. 4
In Figure 4 the fetch at point B is limited by the curvature of the isobars upwind of
point B, The fetch is now the distance upwind from B to the point where the wind
direction becomes more than 30° different from that at B; in this case the fetch at
point B is the distance AB, 1
-
/ In Figure 5 the fetch at point Bis the distance AB, ie the fetch at point B is limited
by the fanning out of the isobars upwind of point B, therefore giving decreasing wind
speeds upwind of B. The criterion in this case is a reduction in wind speed in excess of
20%.
’. VARIABLE WINDS
If, over a duration not exceeding 6 hours, the wind speed changes or is forecast to
change by 10 knots or less, without a major change in wind direction, the best results
are obtained by subtracting one quarter of the difference between the two wind
speeds from the higher speed and using the result as the mean wind over the period.
If, however, a duration in excess of 6 hours is being considered, or the change in wind
speed is in excess of 10 knots the following procedure is recommended:
Fa Using C-2 find the significant wave height appropriate to the first
wind speed and its duration.
ie From C~2 find the time it would take for the second wind speed to
raise waves of this height. If this figure is greater than 36 hours then the waves
raised by the first wind should be treated as swell, and the waves raised by the
second wind as sea waves superimposed on the swell.
it, If the equivalent duration is less than 36 hours, add the equivalent
duration to the actual duration of the second wind and enter C-2 with the
second wind speed and the combined duration.
EXAMPLE
‘A 30kt wind blows for 3 hours and then increases to 40kt for the next 6 hours.
From C-2 a 30kt wind blowing for 3 hours will raise waves with a significant
height of 7.6ft, To raise waves of this height a 40kt wind would have to blow
for about 13 hours, Therefore the waves raised at the end of the 9 hour period
will be those which would be raised by a 40kt wind blowing for 74 hours - ie
from C-2 waves with a significant height of nearly 21ft. If, for the next 9
hours, the wind were to drop to 25kt without any change in direction the 21ft
waves would start to decay as swell, and wind waves generated by the 25kt wind
would be superimposed on the swell waves.
When the wind direction changes considerably over an area in a period of a few hours
two things are happening. In the first place the new wind starts to build up new waves, which propagate through the others; secondly, if the wind after changing
direction still has a component in the direction of the already existing waves, this
component can help to build up these waves still further, For practical purposes if
the wind direction changes by less than 30° then the wave characteristics are
calculated as if the wind direction were constant. If the wind direction changes by
more than 30° the initial waves should be treated as swell and the new wind direction
will generate sea waves moving through the swell, but travelling in a different
direction from the swell waves.
NOTE ON WAVE HEIGHT ADDITION
Occasionally a combined sea and swell height may be required, eg in sonar range
prediction calculations. For all practical purposes the combined height K of two
waves, which separately are of heights hy and hg, can be derived from the relation:
—
w=/ nf +n}
4. MOVING FETCHES
So far the fetch areas have been described as if they were stationary, but this is
frequently not the case. Semi-permanent pressure systems have stationary fetch
areas, and some storms may move in such a manner that the fetch is practically
stationary, but there are many moving fetch areas.
There are, as a simplification, three possibilities for moving fetch areas. They can
move with the wind system, against the wind system, or perpendicular to the wind
system. The problem is what part of a moving fetch area can be considered as fetch
for a duration time, say, of 6 hours.
is Tue fetch moves normal to the direction of the winds in the wind field,
as shown in Figure 6, At t = 0 the fetch area is ABCD, while at t = 6 hours the
area has moved to EFGH, The best approximation is an area with a 6 hour
D H c G
1
H
|
|
| =
{| MOVEMENT
z ¥ E P
FIG. 6 duration, EBCH. In a forecast involving this type of fetch it is best to use only
the fetch area which appears on two consecutive synoptic charts. The
remaining fetch does contain waves, but they are lower than those in the
overlap area.
iis The fetch moves in the same direction as the direction of the winds in
the wind field. This situation is quite typical as shown by the cold front in
Figure 7. Since the waves are moving forward through the fetch area, the area
FIG. 7
to be used as fetch here is area AD. As the front passes, the wave height
quickly increases to the height maintained by the wind field, provided that the
duration of the wind behind the front is long enough.
iii, ‘The fetch moves in the opposite direction to the direction of the wind
field. Figure & shows this sort of movement. The area CB occurs on both
charts and thus is a good choice as a fetch. Since the waves move towards A
the region AC will have higher waves than area BD. Experimentally AB has
been found to be the best choice in this case.
Ve\ \
FIG. 8 It should be acted that in the case of many extra-tropical depressions the group
velocity of the significant waves generated in the area of the depression is similar to,
or more often less than, the speed of movement of the depression itself. As a result
very few waves proceed ahead of an extra-tropical depression to give a ‘swell warning’
in advance of the approaching depression. Any that do move out ahead of a fast-
moving depression will be very long and very low, usually too low to be detected in
deep water although they may be detected when they run into shallow water. In many
cases an extra-tropical depression will leave waves behind to decay as swell over a
period of several days.
In the case of slow-moving tropical storms the group velocity of the significant waves
generated within the storm area is frequently greater than the speed of advance of
the storm, thus giving the characteristic tropical storm generated swell moving out
ahead of the advancing storm.
e. CALCULATION OF SEA WAVE CHARACTERISTICS
ie WAVE HEIGHT, Enter C-2 with the surface wind speed, fetch, and
duration, and extract the significant wave height, taking the value first arrived
at when moving horizontally across the diagram from the wind speed. For
‘example a 30kt wind blowing over 100 miles for 6 hours is seen to be ‘duration
limited’ and will raise waves with a significant height of 11 feet. From C-4
entering with a significant wave height of 11 feet, the average wave height will
be 6.8 feet, the one-tenth highest wave height will be 14.3 feet, the highest
wave likely to be experienced over a 10 minute period will be 17.6 feet, and the
highest wave likely to be experienced over a 6 hour period will be 24.2 feet.
ii, WAVE PERIOD. Enter C-3 with the surface wind speed, fetch, and
duration and extract the significant wave period, taking the value first arrived
at when moving horizontally across the diagram from the wind speed. For
example a 30kt wind blowing over 100 miles for 6 hours is seen to be ‘duration
limited’ and will produce waves with a significant period of 8-4 seconds. From
C-4 entering with a significant wave period of 8.4 seconds, the maximum wave
period will be 13.4 seconds, and the period of maximum energy will be 96
seconds. iii, WAVE LENGTH, WAVE PHASE SPEED AND GROUP VELOCITY.
‘These can be obtained from the table below, or by using the approximate
formulae
L=st2, ¢=3T and cg=1.sT
Wave Period Wave Length Phase Speed Group Velocity
(sec) cy (kt) (uct)
3 46.1 ge 45
35, 62.7 10.6 53
4 819 Lead je
45 103.7 13.6 6.8
3 128.0 15.2 16
5.5 155.8 16.7 8.3
6 185.4 18.2 o1
6.5 216.3 19.7 9.8
7 250.9 a2 10.6
15 288.0 22.7 1g
8 327.7 24.2, 12.1
85. 369.9 25.8 12.9
9 414.7 27.3 13.6
462.1 28.8 44
10 512.0 30.3 15.2
10.5 564.5 31.8 15.9
u 619.5 33.3 16.7
15 e771 34.8 14
12 737.3 36.4 18.2 f, PRESENTATION OF SEA WAVE FORECASTS
In most situations it is adequate to give’a forecast of ‘sea state’ in the descriptive
terms or sea state numbers of the Beaufort Seale, using significant wave height as the
height parameter. See the table below for the Beaufort Scale.
Sea State Wave Sig Wave Ht Sig Wave Ht
Number Description (metres) (feet approx)
oO Calm oO 0
1 Rippled. 0.1 oF less 1/3 or less
2 Smooth over 0.1 = 0.5 over 173 - 12/3
3 Slight over 0.5 - 1.25 over 12/3-4
4 Moderate over 25-25 over 4-8
5 Rouga over 2.5 - 4.0 over 8-13
6 Very rough over 4.0 ~ 6.0 over 13 - 20
7 High over 6.0 - 9.0 over 20-30
8 Very high over 9.0 14.0 over 30-45
9 Phenomenal over 14.0 over 45
In cases where a more detailed forecast of sea state is required it should be possible
to produce a very full description using the method described above.
FORECASTING SWELL CHARACTERISTICS
a ESTIMATES OF DECAY DISTANCE
The first step in producing a forecast of swell conditions is to identify areas where
waves are being generated which will travel as swell towards the point for which the
forecast is required, This will often entail looking back over charts for several days
as swell waves will travel for thousands of miles at group velocities of up to about 25
knots, Waves follow great circle paths as they move outward from a generating area,
so decay distances should be measured along great circles between the forecast point
and the leeward edge of the generating area.
b. CALCULATION OF SWELL CHARACTERISTICS
Before a forecast of swell conditions can be made, the characteristics of the sea
waves leaving the leeward edge of the generating area must be known. These can be
calculated using the method described in the previous section.
Enter C-6 with the decay distance and the significant wave period of the sea waves
leaving the leeward edge of the generating area, and extract the swell period and the ratio of swell wave height to the significant sea wave height, For example, consider a
sea with significant waves of height 11 feet and period 8.4 seconds decaying as swell
over a distance of 750 miles; C-6 shows that the period of the swell will be 10
seconds and the swell height 4.3 feet (0.39 x 11) at the end of those 750 miles. From
C-T the time taken for the swell to travel over the 750 miles will be about 55 hours.
However these will not be the first swell waves to arrive at the forecast point. In a
sea with a significant wave period of 8.4 seconds there will be some waves with a
period of 13.4 seconds (see C-5) which will travel with a group velocity of about 20kt,
and so will only take about 374 hours to travel the 750 miles. Although these swell
waves will probably be very low indeed (not more than a few inches in height) they
will be the first to arrive at the forecast point. Between 37+ and 55 hours after the
sea waves begin to leave the leeward edge of the generating area the height of the
swell at the forecast point 750 miles distant will slowly build up from a height of a
few inches to a height of 4.3 feet, The swell height will remain at approximately this
height for the same time period for which sea waves with a significant wave height of
11 feet leave the leeward edge of the generating area (assuming that the generating
area is not moving). If the wind direction in the generating area then changes (ie
waves are no longer being generated which will travel to the forecast point) the swell
at the forecast point will generally reduce in height and period until it becomes
insignificant. In the example cited above this would probably take a further 4 or 5
days.
c PRESENTATION OF SWELL FORECASTS
It is normal to forecast swell parameters in terms of wave length, height and
direction from which the swell waves are coming.
Swell wave length is described as follows:
Short up to 300ft ie with a period less than 7.6 seconds
Average 300 600ft _ie period of 7.6 to 10.8 seconds
Long over 600% ie period greater than 10.8 seconds
Swell height is described as follows:
Very low 1 metre or less 31/3 feet or less
Low over 1-2 metres over 31/3 - 62/3 feet
Moderate over 2-4 metres over 62/3 - 13 feet
Heavy over 4 metres. over 13 feet
Swell direction should normally be given to the nearest two points.
For examplet
Swell - average, moderate, WSW'ly.
13 FORECASTING THE EFFECTS OF TIDES AND CURRENTS
a. INFORMATION REQUIRED
In order to forecast the effects of tidal streams or currents on wave height it is
necessary to kno\
ie ‘The still water significant wave period and height.
‘The still water wave phase speed (c = 3T).
ii, ‘The direction in which the waves are travelling.
ive ‘The direction and speed of the tidal stream or current.
b, FORECASTING PROCEDURE
The procedure for forecasting the effects is as follows:
ie Enter C-8 with the still water wave height and period to obtain the
wave steepness. For example a wave of height 10 feet and period 8 seconds has
a steepness of 0.031.
iis Calculate the component of the current velocity in the direction of
the waves expressed as a ratio of that component to the still water wave phase
speed, using a negative value if the current has a component in the opposite
direction to the direction of wave travel.
ii, Enter C-9 with the ratio as calculated above. Move vertically upwards
from the ratio until either the curve or the horizontal steepness line (as
calculated from C-8) is reached. From whichever is reached first go
horizontally to the vertical scale and read off the ratio of wave height to still
water wave height. (Note - if the steepness horizontal is reached first the
waves will be breaking.)
c: -EXAMPLE
Waves of significant height 8 feet and significant periods 6 seconds run into a
contrary current running at 3 knots.
From C-8 the still water wave steepness is 0.043, The still water wave phase speed is
approximately 18kt, and so the ratio of current speed to still water phase speed is
0.17,
From C-9 entering with a ratio of -0.17, the wave steepness horizontal for 0.043 is
reached before the curve so the ratio of wave height to still water wave height is
1.33; so the height of the waves in the stream will be 10.6 feet (8 x 1.33). These
waves will also be breaking, as the steepness horizontal is reached before the curve. CHAPTER 3
SURF FORECASTING
1. INTRODUCTION
This section gives a method for forecasting surf characteristics which takes into account
the slope of the beach and refraction, and is of particular use if detailed information about
conditions on a beach is required. To make use of this method it is necessary to know the
following
a, The characteristics of the waves in deep water.
b, The mean slope of the beach.
c: The angle which the deep water wave crests make with the bottom contours.
THE METHOD
a, Enter C-10 with deep water wave period and height and obtain the deep water
steepness index.
b. Enter C-11 with the deep water steepness index and the beach slope to obtain
the breaker height index.
c- Enter C-12 with the deep water wave height and the breaker height index and
obtain the uncorrected breaker height. (Note this will be the actual breaker height if
the deep water wave crests approach the beach's bottom contours at an angle of less
than 10°.)
4, Enter C-13 with the deep water steepness index and the beach slope to obtain
the breaker type. (Note if the breaker type falls between two of the types on the
diagram onshore winds and flood tides will tend to give the right hand option on the
diagram, whereas ebb tides and offshore winds will tend to give the left hand option.)
e. Enter C-id with the deep water steepness index to obtain the breaker depth
index.
{. Enter C-15 with the deep water wave height and the breaker depth index to
obtain the depth in which the waves will break.
g- Enter C-16 with the breaking depth and the beach slope to obtain the width of
the surf zone (in yards). hb. Enter C-17 with the breaking depth and the wave period to obtain the ratio of
the breaking depth to the deep water wave length. (Note this is only necessary if the
deep water wave crests approach the bottom contours at an angle of 10° or more.)
i, Enter C-18 with the ratio obtained from C17 and the angle which the deep
water wave crests make with the bottom contours to obtain the angle which the
breakers make with the beach and the refraction coefficient.
J+ Enter C-19 with the uncorrected breaker height (from C-12) and the refraction
coefficient to obtain the corrected breaker height.
k. Enter C-20 or C-21 (whichever is appropriate) with the breaking depth plus the
breaker height (corrected if there is refraction) and obtain the wave speed at point of
breaking, “speed ow breaking”
lL Enter C-20 or C-21 (whichever is appropriate) with the breaker height
(corrected if there is refraction) and obtain the wave speed at the point where the
undisturbed water depth is zero. Saaed Ov BeAGA”
m, Enter C-22 or C-23 (whichever is appropriate) with the wave period and the
mean wave speed (mean of the two speeds obtained above) and obtain the mean
breaker wave length.
a. Enter C-24 with the mean breaker wave length and the width of the surf zone
{from C-16) to obtain the number of lines of surf.
EXAMPLE OF USE OF THE METHOD
Given:
Deep water wave height 10 feet
Deep water wave period 12 seconds
Beach slope 1:20
Angle between waves and contours 30°
Steph
From C-10 - deep water steepness index 0.07
Stepz
From C-11 - breaker height index 1a7
Steps
From C-12 - uncorrected breaker height 14.7 feet 4.
Step d
From C-13 - breaker type
From C-14 - breaker depth index
step 6
From C-15 - depth of breaker
1
From C-16~ width of surf zone
E
&
&
Revi A nadie WG ep p
water wave length
Step 9
From C-18 ~ angle breakers make with beach
vethicilen?Wodtticleat
step 10
FeomiG-ty = earnected Weal Heignt
Step 11
E
From C-21 ~ wave speed at breaking point
Step 12
From C-20 - wave speed at beach
Step 13
From C-23 - mean breaker wave length
Step 14
From C-24 - number of lines of surf
PRESENTATION OF THE SURF FORECAST.
Plunging
ha
14 feet
90 yards
0.0195
10°
0.935
13.7 feet
17.9ict
12.6kt
305 feet
It is suggested that the forecast is presented in the following format:
a Beach for which forecast is valid
b. Period of validity of forecast
c. Significant breaker height
d. Type of breakers
e. Width of surf zone (yards)
f. Number of lines of surf
g- Mean breaker wave speed (if required) Ts
CHAPTER 1
THE GENERATION OF WAVES BY WIND
SOME CLASSICAL WAVE THEORIES
a. THE AIRY THEORY OF GRAVITY WAVES
A plane wave is one where the form of disturbance is independent of the horizontal
co-ordinate normal to the direction of propagation. By permanent form is meant that
following the wave at phase speed the fields of motion, pressure distribution and
surface elevation remain constant, The surface disturbance is a simple harmonic and
is of constant amplitude. Theoretically this type of wave train can only exist if the
amplitude is negligible relative to the depth of water and relative to the wavelength.
‘The surface is assumed to have the sinusoidal form:
7 = acoslkx- ot)
where x and t denote the horizontal co-ordinate and the time,
‘The wave number k and the frequency o are related by:
o2 = gk tanh kh
where h denotes the depth of water of uniform depth.
‘The phase speed c is given by:
c = g=/ g tanh kh
Where the depth of water is greater than half a wavelength (h/L?0.5, kh> ), tanh kh
is not sensibly different from unity so:
cf = gh/tn
on, since T = L/e
© =gT/2n and
Lo = (g/2n)T®
these are the conditions for ‘deep water waves'. The wave speed depends on the
wavelength or period, and these are uniquely related. Taking L in feet, T in seconds,
and ¢ in knots this can be written:
L = 5.1272
© =3.03T
Individual water particles move in closed circular orbits with radii decreasing
exponentially with distance below the surface. The pressure anomaly is in phase with
the surface elevation at all depths and the amplitude of pressure fluctuations
decreases exponentially with depth. Neither particle velocity nor pressure anomaly
are dependent on the total depth of the water. This is sometimes expressed by the statement that in depths greater than half a wavelength the waves do not ‘feel
bottom.
>. WAVES OF FINITE AMPLITUDE
One solution for waves of this type is the trochoidal wave form, first put forward by
Gerstner. The shape of the wave profile is a trochoid ~ the curve traced out by a
point, a distance H/2 from the centre of a circle of radius 1/k, which is rolled along
the underside of a horizontal line at a distance I/k above the reference surface. See
Figure 9 below.
FIG. 9
This curve differs from a sine curve in that the crest is steeper, and the trough
flatter, although for waves of small steepness the difference is negligible. However,
according to Gerstner's theory, with increasing steepness the trochoid changes into a
eycloid with very sharp crests - ie no account is taken of wave breaking. Particle
motion in these waves is in closed circular orbits and the deep water phase speed is
again given by c2 = gL/2w. There is no net transport of water with the waves.
‘The Airy theory has as one of the conditions which must be satisfied the requirement
that the waves should be of negligible steepness, The Stokes theory abandons this
condition and the resulting wave profile is one which, with increasing amplitude,
differs more and more from the simple harmonic type. The equation for the wave
profile is:
1 = acos(kx - ot) + #ka2 cos 2 (kx - ot) + Bead cos 3 (kx ~ ot) + esses
The wave profile as expressed in the equation above corresponds to the equation of a
trochoid, With increasing amplitude there is a gradual transition of the wave profile
from the harmonic type to the trochoidal form, and a further increase of the wave 2
height will change the profile again. If the trochoidal form were exact instead of
being approximate, the extreme form would have cusps at the crests, as in the case
of Gerstner waves. But Stokes and Mitchell showed that the ratio between the height
and length of the steepest wave form was theoretically 0.142, and its phase speed was
1.2 times greater than for waves with infinitely small heights. In Stokes waves the
motion is irrotational. Particle trajectories are not closed figures and there is a net
transport of water in the direction of wave travel. The phase speed for Stokes waves
in relatively deep water is given by:
<2 = gh/2m (1 + 7232) where the wave steepness is written 3.
However, for practical purposes the correction to be applied for wave steepness is
generally very small, $0 the relationship c2 = gL/2 can be used.
PROCESSES OF WAVE GENERATION
a INTRODUCTION
‘The growth of wind waves has been associated in recent years with a number of
different mechanisms. These can be described separately, though they are likely to
be active simultaneously. One of these mechanisms, first considered by Phillips,
involves a resonance between surface waves and the random part of the spectrum of
air-pressure fluctuations, Another mechanism, first formulated by Miles, involves
the interaction between waves and the induced air-pressure perturbations. A third
process involves the ability of the wind to transfer energy relatively faster to the
shorter wave components which then can transmit it to longer waves.
b, | RESONANT INTERACTIONS
Like a pebble dropped into a pond, random fluctuations of the air pressure can cause
deformations of the sea surface. The amplitude of these pressure fluctuations is very
small, but under certain circumstances, they can act for much longer than the pebble.
‘They are caused by turbulent eddies which are carried along by the wind at some
advection velocity, and their horizontal advection can cause a preferential, resonant
generation of some surface waves.
‘The resonance theory predicts a linear increase of the surface wave spectrum with
time or fetch. The high wave-number components, with their slow phase speed, are
excited preferentially in directions that make a relatively large angle with the wind.
‘The same waves also develop more rapidly and within a shorter distance than the
longer ones. When a wind starts to blow over water the development of a directional
wave-number spectrum with two peaks can be expected. At the beginning most of the energy will be in relatively short waves that move at some angle to the left or
Fight of the wind direction, As time goes on the shorter waves reach saturation as a
result of wave breaking and cease to grow, while the longer waves in the direction of
the wind continue to develop slowly. As a result, the angle between the propagation
of the waves that are highest locally and the local wind direction becomes smaller
with increasing time or fetch, until finally, maximum energy is concentrated in
relatively long waves that travel directly downwind,
INDUCED INTERACTIONS
Random pressure fluctuations generate wave-like perturbations on a flat water
surface. The resulting deformation of the surface, in turn, perturbs the mean air flow
above. This induces a new kind of pressure fluctuation which is not random, but is
coupled to the waves. If this induced pressure is asymmetric, with greater pressure
behind the crest where the water sinks than in front where it rises, then energy and
momentum are being transferred from the mean wind to the waves. This sheltering
hypothesis of Jeffreys cannot, however, explain the growth of relatively long waves
which commonly travel faster than the wind immediately above the interface.
Miles, however, showed that these waves could be amplified also, provided the wind
velocity increased with height sufficiently to make it faster than the phase speed at a
relatively short distance above the interface. Nevertheless this process cannot
explain the existence of wave components that propagate with a speed which
approaches or exceeds the wind velocity at a few metres height.
4. WAVE INTERACTIONS
It appears that there is interaction between waves of different lengths moving in the
same direction which transfers energy locally from the short to the long waves. The
breaking of small waves near the crest of the long ones can be seen to produce small
white-caps there. When the short waves break, all the energy and momentum which
they have accumulated during their previous life history is transferred impulsively to
the underlying current; that is, to the horizontal component of the long wave orbital
velocity. The passage of a long relatively steep wave through a short sea tends,
therefore, to clean up the short waves, feeding thelr energy and momentum to the
long wave.
c SUMMARY
‘The process of handing energy and momentum down the scale from higher to lower
wave frequencies may act in several stages. The ultimate recipient of this flux
through the frequency or wave-number spectrum are the wave components with the highest orbital velocity, which are usually the waves close to the spectral peak, On
the high frequency side of the spectral peak the energy density is presumably limited
by wave breaking. It is more difficult to understand the growth of waves on the low
frequency side of the peak and the resulting progressive 'red shift! of the spectrum.
The orbital velocity of these waves is intially low, which makes the wave interaction
mechanism inefficient. If their phase velocity is less than the wind velocity they
could be excited slowly by advected air pressure fluctuations. As an alternative their
initial growth could be due to interaction with slightly shorter waves of higher
amplitude. After an initial period of growth their amplitude becomes large enough
for the growth to continue at the expense of breaking short waves.
THE SPECTRUM OF DEEP WATER WIND WAVES
a. INTRODUCTION AND DEFINITIONS
Sea contains waves with a latge range of wave periods and directions of propagation.
‘These waves may reinforce to produce a high wave at one point, then, since the wave
lengths and periods are so very different, they get out of phase rapidly and may
produce a low wave at another point, The sea surface is thus extremely irregular
because the spectrum covers a wide range of periods, lengths and heights.
In the analysis of wave records the following parameters are used, which are partially
illustrated by Figure 10.
Ne - the number of crests in the record. A crest is defined as a point where
the water level is momentarily stationary, falling to either side. Some
crests may be below mean water level, In Figure 10 crests are marked by
vertical dashes.
- the number of times the record crosses the mean water level in an
upwards direction during the record, marked by circles in Figure 10.
22 Te ~ the crest period = duration of record + Ng-
Tz = the zero-crossing period = duration of record + Nj.
A ~ height of the highest crest measured from mean water level.
B ~ height of the second highest crest measured from mean water level.
c ~ depth of the lowest trough (from mean water level). Taken as tve.
D ~ depth of second lowest trough (from mean water level]. Taken as +ve.
Wyo = AeG
Hz - B+D,
Ba ~ the difference in level between the nth crest in the record and its
preceding trough,
ty the time interval between the zero-crossings in an upwards direction on
cither side of the nt® crest,
Hy), - the average of the No/3 highest values of ly
Tyjq___~ the average of the values of ty for the crests used to evaluate Hy/5.
Hay = the average of all values of hn»
Hijyg ~ the average of the No/10 highest values of hy.
Hmax - the greatest height from crest to preceding trough in the record.
». THE FULLY DEVELOPED SEA
Given unlimited time (duration) and unlimited distance (fetch) over which the wind is
constant in both speed and direction, sea waves should reach a maximum stage of
development dependent purely on the wind speed. This state is known as a fully
arisen, or fully developed, sea. If development is curtailed by lack of time the sea is
said to be ‘duration limited’; if by lack of distance then it is said to be ‘fetch limited’.
For example, with an offshore wind the waves 10 miles offshore will be fetch limited,
provided that the wind has been blowing for at least a couple of hours. Conversely,
at a point 500 miles offshore with the same offshore wind blowing the waves will
almost certainly be duration limited, provided that the wind has been blowing for less
than 24 hours,
This concept is difficult to justify theoretically; however, for practical purposes, it
is commonly used as beyond a certain fetch or duration further development is
negligible. c PROPERTIES OF THE ENERGY SPECTRUM
For a simple sinusoidal wave the energy contained is proportional to the square of the
wave height. If it were possible to separate the waves within a generating area into
their infinitesimal sinusoidal components, addition of the squares of their individual
heights would give the total energy contained in the sea surface, The simplest way of
Going this is to examine the relative amounts of energy contained within different
period ranges in the sea surface. Withii
a generating area where there is a fully
developed sea, the relationship between the energy per unit frequency and the
frequency is shown in Figure 11. This is called an energy spectrum. This particular
Yas
FIG.
plot indicates that the energy contained within a band of relatively low frequency
waves is quite high, that contained within a band of even lower frequencies decreases
very rapidly, and that contained at the higher frequencies decreases much less
rapidly. A very broad band of frequencies is present, but there is more energy within
certain frequency bands than others,
If the wind speed is increased and the fully developed sca which results is examined,
not only is more total energy available (higher waves), but longer waves (waves of a
longer period or a lower frequency) are also present. In addition the period of
maximum energy shifts to longer period (lower frequency) waves. This is shown in
Figure 12. 30kt
Bar
FIG.12
A comparison of the fully developed energy spectra for different wind speeds shows
that at higher wind speeds little or no energy is added at the high frequency end of
the spectrum, but the addition is at the low frequency end, ie in the longer waves.
This is consistent with the theory that the growth of the higher frequency wave
components is limited by wave breaking.
As a wind starts to blow most of the energy is put into short period waves. The
Jonger the wind blows (increasing duration) the greater the energy input into the
Jonger period waves. Figure 13 shows the energy spectra for a 30kt wind blowing for
3 hours, 6 hours, 9 hours and 12 hours. FIG.13
With increasing duration the period of maximum energy shifts to the longer period
waves, and again there is virtually no addition of energy at the high frequency end of
the spectrum.
The effect of fetch variation is similar, as shown in Figure 14. If a wind of a given
speed blows for a long period but over a small area, the waves present are relatively
short. As this area is lengthened the waves become longer and higher.
200mm wen
Eye 100mg. 04,
5mm, 4. WAVE GENERATION IN SHALLOW WATER
‘The only difference between wave generation in deep water and wave generation in
shallow water is that at the low frequency end of the spectrum the longer period
waves may be affected by the sea bed. Interaction with the sea bed will cause energy
loss through frictional effects, and thus tend to act as a low frequency ‘cut-off" on
the spectrum. Waves are affected by depth when the depth of the water is less than
half the wavelength of the waves. For example, waves with a period of 10 seconds
have a wavelength of approximately 500 feet, and so will be affected by the sea bed
in water which is less than 250 feet deep. CHAPTER 2
THE DECAY OF WIND WAVES AS SWELL
1. THE CONCEPT OF GROUP VELOCITY
The total energy of waves is half potential energy (due to water being raised above, or
depressed below the mean level) and half kinetic energy (due to the water being in motion).
‘The potential energy of the waves moves forward with the wave profile at the phase speed,
while the kinetic energy remains behind. The potential and kinetic energy being each equal
to half the total energy of the waves, this means that only half their energy travels with
the waves; or that the wave energy advances at only half the phase speed. The rate of
advance of the wave energy is known as the ‘group velocity’, which, in deep water, is half
the phase speed of the waves.
This concept can be interpreted in a quantitative manner. Suppose that in a very long
trough containing water originally at rest, a plunger at one end is suddenly set into
harmonic motion and starts generating waves by periodically imparting an energy E/2 to
the water. After a time interval of n periods there are n waves present. Let m be the
position of a particular wave in this group such that m = 1 refers to the wave which has just
been generated by the plunger, m = (n + 1)/2 to the centre wave, and m =n to the wave
furthest advanced, Let the waves travel with constant velocity C, and neglect friction.
After the first complete stroke one wave will be present and its energy is $E. One period
later this wave has advanced one wave length but has left one-half of its energy or tE
behind, It now occupies a previously undisturbed area to which it has brought energy 4E. In
the meantime, a second wave has been generated, occupying the position next to the
plunger where 4 was left behind by the first wave. The energy of this second wave equals
1E + 3E= TE, Repeated applications of this reasoning lead to the results tabulated below.
Series Wave number, m Total
Numa ber $$$". energy of
a 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 ‘Group
1 2E 1/2E
2 3/4 ME we
3/8 4/8 /8E we
4 15/16 11/16 5/16/16 ala
5 31/32 26/32 16/32 6/32 1/32E 5/2
6 63/64 57/64 42/64 22/64 1/64 1/04 oe. ‘The series number n gives the total number of waves present and equals the time periods
since the first wave entered the area of calm; the wave number m gives the position of the
wave measured from the plunger and equals the distance from the plunger expressed in
wavelengths. In any series, n, the deviation of the energy from the value E/2 is
symmetrical about the centre wave. Relative to the centre wave all waves nearer the
plunger show an excess of energy and all waves beyond the centre wave show a deficit. For
any two waves equidistant from the centre wave the excess equals the deficiency. In every
series, n, the energy first decreases slowly with increasing distance from the plunger, but
in the vicinity of the centre wave it decreases rapidly. Thus, there develops an ‘energy
front! which advances with the speed of the central part of the wave system, that is, with
half the phase speed.
‘The statement that the group velocity is half the phase speed is only valid for waves in
deep water. In shallow water the group velocity changes as a function of water depth as
well as phase speed, and is given by the formula:
Cg=nC where Cg = group velocity
C= phase speed
a =2fis 2a
Tah 2 Eh
‘Thus, in deep water the group velocity is half the phase speed, and in shallow water the
group velocity approaches the phase speed.
2. DISPERSION
Within a sea there is a wide range of periods, hence a wide range of group velocities. The
spreading out of wave energy which results from these differences in group velocities is
known as dispersion, Thus as sea travels out of the area within which it was generated (ie
becomes swell) the total energy will be spread out along the direction of wave tr
el,
reducing the average wave energy per unit area of sea surface and so reducing the
significant wave height.
For example, consider waves leaving a generating area with a range of periods from 4 to 16
seconds at a time t, At a time t + 24 hours the 16 second waves will have travelled a
distance of approximately 576 miles, whereas the 4 second waves will have travelled only
about 144 miles.
Dispersion explains why swell waves are more regular in appearance than sea waves, as, at
a point distant from a generating area, the swell waves present over a short period of time
will fall within a narrow frequency band; thus they will all have similar wavelengths.
: 29 ANGULAR SPREADING
Some of the waves travel out of a storm area at angles to the dominant direction of the
generating wind, As swell advances the total wave energy spreads in breadth as a result of
this angular spreading, This is particularly significant in the first few hundred miles of
swell travel from the generating area, and partially accounts for more rapid attenuation of
energy in the first few hundred miles.
In practice most of the wave energy is concentrated within 30° either side of the
predominant direction of the generating wind.
DISPERSION, ANGULAR SPREADING AND THE SPECTRUM
‘The effects of dispersion and angular spreading on the spectrum can be clearly illustrated.
Figure 15 shows the spectrum of sea waves leaving a generating area. At a point remote
Bae
rae f
FIG.15
from the generating area, at some time after waves started to leave the generating area,
waves of a frequency less than £1 (ie of longer period and therefore higher group velocity)
have already passed through the point. At the end of a given time interval waves of a
frequency higher than {2 (ie shorter period and therefore lower group velocity) will not
have reached the point. This is the effect of dispersion. Some of the total energy between
frequencies f1 and {2 will be lost through angular spreading, and this is shown by the shaded
area on Figure 15. So the swell characteristics at any point depend primarily on the
distance of that point from the generating area, the characteristics of the waves leaving the generating area, the amount of angular spreading and a time factor. In general terms
the first swell to arrive at a fixed point will be very long and very low, gradually reducing
in length and increasing in height with the passage of time to a maximum height, and
sometime thereafter eventually reducing both in wavelength and height. The time period
for which the swell will remain roughly constant in height and length will be determined by
the duration, size and movement of the wind field which is generating the waves.
OTHER FACTORS AFFECTING WAVE DECAY
Some wave energy may be lost through molecular viscosity, though this only affects the
high frequency end of the spectrum, with wave periods less than about 1.5 seconds. There
may be some scattering of wave energy by turbulence though this is thought to be very
small, The other mechanism by which energy may be lost, apart from the effects of
shallow water, is that of wave breaking. This has most effect on the higher frequency
components, more especially in the first few hundveds miles of travel as swell. As a result
the dominant wavelength and period appear to shift towards larger values as the waves
travel out from a generating area, The actual periods present probably increase very little,
but, as a result of energy loss among the higher frequency components, the ‘modal’ period
shifts to longer period waves. CHAPTER 3
WAVES IN SHALLOW WATER
1. AIRY WAVES IN SHALLOW WATER
For an Airy wave in deep water the phase speed c is given by:
c= BE tanh kh
Where the depth of water is less than 1/20 of a wavelength (b/L<1/20, and kh¢ = /10), tanh
kh is not significantly different from kh, and the wave speed equation reduces to:
2 = gh
ct=g
The medium is non-dispersive, that is, wave speed is independent of period. The
relationship between wavelength and period becomes:
b= t/a
Since the number of waves passing a point in unit time must be invariant along the
direction of progress (ie period remains constant), it follows that there must be a decrease
in wavelength as the waves move into shallow water such that L/Lo = ¢/¢g, where Lo and
Co refer to wavelength and phase speed in deep water. In a shallow water wave the
particle trajectories are very flat ellipses. The energy per unit surface area propagated
with a water wave is proportional to the square of amplitude. In order to have continuity
of energy flow, it can be seen qualitatively that, as the group velocity decreases in shoaling
water, the amplitude must increase, until in many cases the wave breaks.
In intermediate water depths between h/L = 1/2 and h/L = 1/20 wave speed and wavelength
gradually decrease, until water depth rather than wave period becomes the controlling
factor.
2. WAVE REFRACTION
If waves are long-crested and are moving obliquely towards a straight shoreline whose
depth contours are also straight and parallel to the shore, those portions of the wave front
which effectively feel bottom first are retarded first. Therefore, the wave becomes
subject to a progressive curving or refraction which, in its overall effect, tends to align the
wave front to the depth contours, This is analogous to simple light rays of a particular
wave length when travelling from one medium to a medium of different density. ‘The light is bent or refracted. Figure 16 illustrates the effect of refraction of a simple
wave. The orthogonals (wave rays) represent the direction that the wave fronts are
FIG. 16
travelling. Orthogonals become curved in the process of refraction and in general may
tend to diverge or converge. Figure 17 shows divergence at the head of a submarine valley, and Figure 18 shows convergence at the head of a submarine ridge.
FIG.18
Is ts qoosraly sasumed that the ware encray contalned between oithogonals remains
canta tn ava ISGuLySarees] ‘nd¥ saggeaes Nee tedeie'uotdaperian of orgy
laterally along the front, no reflection of energy tom the rising bottom, and none lost by
etter geocanen: tb soreesenn the SlsGnies Seidea aeubidaaalsin Uaep water ‘codby
the distance between orthoyonale somewhere ia shallow water (where the corresponding
hights of waves are He and Hy) since the anergy of the wave is proportional to the square
of the wave height, it follows that
a BE gd ty WE Gye, et
Hs = Hg bales | CgalCen
o
In other words energy convergence leads to higher waves and divergence to lower waves
than would occur if the orthogonals were parallel.
However, when actual ocean waves are refracted, they cannot be treated as if they were
just one or two simple sine waves. The use of just the significant height and period of the
waves in deep water to calculate the effects of refraction can lead to totally unrealistic
results, As the individual waves in the sum of many simple sine waves are tefracted the
effect of refraction is often to focus a great amount of wave energy associated with a
certain period band in the actual spectrum at one point and to steer it away from another
point along the coast. When this occurs, one part of the period band in the complete
spectrum will show up at one point on the coast and produce a wave with one significant
period, and at another point along the coast there will be a completely different significant
period due to the effect of focusing for that particular spectral period. Thus at two points
along the coast, separated by only a few miles, completely different significant heights and
periods would be observed for exactly the same wave characteristics out in deep water, Visual observations at any one point along the coast would or could be misleading if
any attempt were to be made to draw conclusions about the deep water wave
characteristics from the wave characteristics in shallow water at that point.
3. SURF
a, THE THEORY OF SOLITARY WAVES
Neither the Airy theory nor the Stokes theory can adequately deal with the surf
problem. For treatment of large waves in very shallow water it is necessary to
invoke the theory of solitary waves. The profile of a solitary wave is shown in Figure
19. This theory takes account of the influence of the wave disturbance on the
UNDISTURBED
LEVEL
Sma BED
FIG.19
effective depth of the water for wave propagation. Wave speed is given by:
2 = gh+H)
Horizontal particle velocity decreases with increasing depth below the surface. As
the wave moves into shallow water a point will be reached where particle velocity at
the crest exceeds the wave speed and the wave must break.
Solitary wave theory provides only for horizontal particle motion in the direction of
wave travel and no return flow under the trough. Surf, therefore, involves shoreward
transport of water.
b, LONGSHORE CURRENTS AND RIP CURRENTS
As surf involves shoreward transport of water a necessary result is longshore
currents, These carty water along the beach and at discrete locations are unloaded by
concentrated seaward flow in rip currents. The location of these rip currents depends
critically on the shore-line and underwater topography. Figure 20 shows a beach with
alongshore current and a rip current. Syl | PA \
yo oye = 4
c. WAVE STABILITY
In waves of little steepness particle speeds are very small compared to wave speed.
In the Stokes solution, as the waves become steeper the maximum particle speed at
the crest approaches the wave speed. If the particle speed becomes greater than the
wave speed the wave becomes unstable and will break.
If the shape of a wave at its crest is approximated by two straight lines meeting at an
angle @ it can be shown that the maximum value of @ for stable waves is 120°,
Another approach to the problem of breaking waves assigns a maximum value to the
steepness (H/L) of approximately 0.14. This criterion appears to fit observations in
deep water reasonably well, but the value in shallow water appears to be in the order
of 0.08.
4. TYPES OF BREAKER
Breakers may be of three different types depending on the steepness of the waves in
deep water, the slope of the beach, and, to a lesser extent on the state of the tide
and the wind direction.
The three types are:
i Spilling - gradual breaking over a distance, with the white water at the
crest expanding down the face of the breaker. This type is normally associated
with short wave periods, gradual beach slopes, onshore winds and flood tides. 4
sie Plunging - the wave crest advances faster than the base of the wave
causing the wave crest to curl over and break, with almost instantaneous
appearance of white water over the complete wave face. This type is normally
associated with long period waves, steep beach slopes, offshore winds and ebb
tides.
ii, Surging - the wave peaks up and surges up on the beach with little or
no white water. This type is associated with very steep beach slopes.
e. BREAKER HEIGHT
‘The height of breakers is dependent on the wave height in deep water, the wave
steepness in deep water, the slope of the beach, and the angle at which the waves
approach the beach, together with the effects of any convergence or divergence.
From a theoretical point of view, the energy of solitary waves is proportional not to
the square; but to the third power, of their height. This gives the relation:
Hp = 1
i -
© 33 Viet)
where Hp is the breaker height
Hg is the deep water wave height
Lo is the deep water wave length
However this formula makes no allowance for the beach slope or the effects of
refraction. For a wave of given deep water steepness (Ho/Lo) a beach with a slope of
1+ 10 will produce @ breaker approximately 1.3 times as high as a beach with a slope
of 1: 50.
{BREAKING DEPTH
As a mean, surf
ves start breaking at a ratio of wave height to depth of 111.28.
However the initial deep water steepness is the major factor determining this ratio,
with waves of very low steepness breaking at ratios of up to 1:1.7.
THE EFFECTS OF TIDES AND CURRENTS
In deep water the effects of currents and tidal streams on waves is usually neglected,
largely because it is only in the vicinity of land that the speeds of such currents and
streams become in any way comparable with the wave speeds. When waves generated in
still water move into water which is moving they undergo changes which may be of considerable importance, even when the speed of the stream is comparatively small.
Waves moving into a stream running in the same direction increase in length and speed and
decrease in height. Waves moving into a contrary stream decrease in length and speed and
increase in height, thus they become steeper, These changes to the wave characteristics
occur as a result of alterations to the area of water contain.ng the wave energy, ie they
occur to maintain the continuity of energy flow.
‘These effects explain the well-known tidal races which are formed where strong tidal
streams run against the waves, and the changes in wave characteristics which occur when
the tidal stream changes. CHAPTER 4
BACKGROUND TO THE FORECASTING NOMOGRAMS
WAVE HEIGHT (C-2)
The graph showing fully arisen significant wave height against surface wind speed is
illustrated below.
60 1 T T 7
50 +
40. | FULLY ARISEN (Saturated) SIGNIFICANT WAVE HEIGHT
Haroun (+)
8
=
20 4
a 1 1 1 4
3 x 30 a 3 %
SURFACE WIND SPZED (kt)
‘The formula used to calculate the growth of wave height as a function of fetch wast
H, x3 + 3x2 + 65x.
y3/zHeat where y= 22 + 3x? + 65x _
x3 + 12x? + 260x + 80
and x= fetch in nautical miles WAVE PERIOD (C-3)
‘The graph showing fully arisen significant wave period against surface wind speed is
illustrated below.
14 T T T T T
ek 4
10 F 1
abe 4
8
Bet 4
E
g
=
Bab FULLY ARISEN (Saturated) SIGNIFICANT WAVE PERIOD 4
. 1
° as L L L L
10 20 30 40 50 60
SURFACE WIND SPEED (kt)
The formula used to calculate the growth of wave period as a function of fetch was
ty = yiTsat where x and y are as quoted on page 39, The duration equivalent for a given fetch at a given surface wind speed is given by the
following formula:
= Fetch (miles)
Tet}, giseconds) ohare
Duration (hours)
Tig = significant wave period generated by given surface wind speed
over the given fetch.
RANGE OF WAVE HEIGHTS (C~4)
‘The relationships used are those quoted on page 4.
RANGE OF WAVE PERIODS (C-5)
The relationships used are those quoted on page 4
SWELL (C-6 and G-7)
Swell height as a function of sea wave height and decay time is given by the formula:
Ho(t) = Hw[L.75-0.75logj9 {t+ 10)] where
t
H(t) = height of swell after t hours of decay
Hw
decay time in hours
sea wave height before decay
‘Swell period as a function of sea wave period and decay time is given by the formula:
Ps(t) = Pw[0.78 + 0.22log1o (t + 10] where
t = decay time in hours
Ps(t) = period of swell after t hours of decay
Pw = sea wave period before decay
The relationship between decay distance and decay time is given by:
Dit) = tx L.5{H(PW + Ps(t))] where
D(t) = distance swell waves have travelled after a time t.
WAVE STEEPNESS (
Wave steepness is given by the formula:
s H where
Solar
S = wave steepness
H = wave height in feet
4
wave period in seconds CHANGE OF WAVE HEIGHT IN A STREAM (C-9)
This diagram is based on the observation that, in shallower waters, waves break when
reaching a steepness of 0.08, and on the following equations:
c 405 (1+ /1+40/C,) and
aH? = Coc + 20) where
C= wave speed in the stream
Cy wave speed in still water
U = component of current velocity in direction of wave travel
HH = height of waves in stream
Ho = still water wave height
SURF GRAPHS (C-10 to C-24)
‘These graphs are based on ‘Forecasting Ocean Waves and Surf! published by the
Oceanographic Services Section Operations Department of the US Fleet Weather Facility,
with the exception of graphs C-20 and C-21 which are based on the formula for the speed
of a solitary wave quoted on page 36. Brotschneider CL
Darbyshire J
Darbyshire J
Darbyshive J
Darbyshire J
Darbyshire J
Derbyshire J
Darbyshire M
Darbyshire M
Darbyshire M
Darbyshire M & Draper L
Ewing JA
Longuet-Higgins MS
Miles JW
Phillips O M
Pierson W J, Neumana G &
Sverdrup HU & Munk WH
Tucker MJ
1965
1955
1956
1961
1958
1960
1962
1963
1971
1962
19357
1969
1955
1947
1963
ANNEX A
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Generation of Waves by Wind - State of the Art.
NESCO Tech, Report SN-134-6
An investigation of storm waves in the North
Atantioc Ocean. Proc Roy Soc. A, 230
An investigation into the generation of waves when
the fetch of the wind is less than 100 miles.
Quart J R Met Soc 82
Attenuation of swell in the North Atlantic Ocean.
Quart J R Met Soc 83
The Spectra of Coastal Waves. Dtsch hydrogr Z. 12
A further investigation of wind generated waves.
Disch hydrogr Z. 12
Prediction of wave characteristics over the North
Atlantic. Journal Inst Nav 14
Waves in the Irish Sea. Doc & Harb Authority 34
Waves in the North Sea. Doc & Harb Authority 41
Sea Waves in Coastal Waters of the British Isles.
Dtsch hydroge Z. 15
Forecasting Wind-Generated Sea Waves.
Engineering 195
A Numerical Wave Prediction Method for the North
Atlantic Ocean, Dtsch hydrogr Z. 24
The directional spectrum of ocean waves, and
Processes of wave generation. Proc Roy Soc A, 265
(On the generation of surface waves by shear flows.
J Fluid Mech 3
‘The Dynamics of the Upper Ocean, CUP
Observing and Forecasting Ocean Waves by means of
James R WWave Spectra and Statistics. US Hydrogr
Off
Publ No 603
Wind, sea and swell. Theory of relations for
forecasting. US Hydrogr Off Publ No 601
Long Waves in the Sea. Sei Progress 51 Ursell F
Various
1956
1963
Wave generation by wind. Surveys in Mechanics,
cuP
Ocean Wave Spectra. Proceedings of a Conference.
Prentice-Hall 3.
SEA, SWELL AND SURF EXAMPLES 1
SEA
a. A wind of 40kt blows over a distance of 200nm for 18 hours. What will be the
wave characteristics at the leeward edge of the generating area after 18 hours?
b. A wind of 35kt blows over a distance of S0nm for 3 hours. What will be the
wave characteristics at the leeward edge of the generating area after 3 hours?
cA wind of 20kt blows over a distance of 100nm for 15 hours. What will be the
wave characteristics at the leeward edge of the generating area after 9 hours?
SWELL
a, Waves of significant height 18 feet and significant period 10 seconds decay over
a distance of 1200nm. What will be the wave characteristics after decaying over that
distance? How long will the waves take to travel the 1200nm?
b. Waves of significant height 7 feet and significant period 8 seconds decay over a
distance of 500nm. What will be the wave characteristics after decay over that
distance? How long will the fastest waves present in the sea take to travel across the
decay area?
c+ Waves of significant height 24 feet and significant period 12 seconds decay over
a distance of 1600nm. What will be the wave characteristics after decaying over that
distance? How long will the waves take to travel the 1600nm?
EFFECTS OF CURRENTS
a. Waves of height 8 feet and period 6 seconds run into a contrary current of 3kt.
What height will the waves be in the current?
b. Waves of height 12 feet and period 8 seconds run into a following current of
2it. What height will the waves be in the current?
c: Waves of height 6 feet and period 4 seconds run into a contrary current of
2.5kt. What height will the waves be in the current?
SURF
a, Waves of height 10 feet and period 8 seconds run up a beach with a slope of
1: 30 at an angle of 40° to the depth contours. What will be the surf characteristics?
b. Waves of height 14 feet and period 10 seconds run up a beach with a slope of
11 10 at an angle of 20° to the depth contours. What will be the surf characteristics?
cc. Waves of height 6 feet and period 8 seconds run up a beach with a slope of
1320 at an angle of 10° to the depth contours. What will be the surf characteristics. SEA, SWELL AND SURF EXAMPLES 2
Using the attached charts calculate the following:
L
2
6
‘The significant wave height and significant wave period at 52°N 15°W at 1212002
March and 1218002 March.
The direction, significant height and period of swell waves at 48°N 15°W at 1218002
March.
‘The significant wave height and period, and swell direction, height and period at
50°N 10°W at 121500Z March,
‘The significant wave height and period at 55°N 10°W at 121800Z March.
The forecast significant wave height and period, and swell direction, height and
period at 45°N 10°W at 1312002 March.
‘The forecast surf conditions at a beach at 48°N 04.8°W which faces West with a slope
of 1: 30 between 0600Z and 1800Z on 13th March. 1
SEA
Sig wave height
Sig wave period
SWELL
Height
Period
Travel time
Fastest waves
CURRENTS
Steepness
Height
SURF
Steepness index
Breaker Ht index
Uncorrected ht
Breaker type
Depth index
Breaking depth
Width of zone
Ratio
Breaker angle
Coefficient
Breaker height
Speed on breaking
Speed on beach
Mean speed
Wave length
Lines of surf
SEA, SWELL AND SURF EXAMPLES 1
ANSWERS
>
10.87
11 sec 7.9 see
5.6 3
12 sec 9.3 sec
73 hes
26 hes
>.
0.044 0.038
10.5) 10.8"
a be
0.155 0.142,
La 1.35
11.0 19.0)
Plunging/SP Plunging
17 118
17 16.5)
110 yds 55 yds
0.038 0.034
18° 9°
0.97
18.4
20.1kt
14.5kt
17.3kt
290"
1
5.5
6.6 sec
c
6.6"
14.5 sec
80 hrs
9.6kt
115k
153°
1 ‘SEA, SWELL AND SURF EXAMPLES 2
ANSWERS
tion 1
a. At 1200Z 35kt for 2 hours - 7' 6.4"
b. At 1800Z 35kt for 8 hours - 16' 9.8"
juestion 2
Sea - 25kt for 12 hours - 9' 7.9"
Cold front through at 1400Z - decay distance about 50am
Swell - WSW'ly ~ 8.1" 8.2
Question 3
Sea ~ 30kt for 4 hours ~ 9.2! 7.5"
Warm front through at 11002
Swell ~ 22.5kt for 6 hours, decay distance 40am
~ SW'ly ~ 5.5! 6.7"
SQusstion 4
Occlusion through at 14002
Sea - 40kt for 4 hours - 17' 9.8"
Question 5
Cold front through at 1302002 approx
Sea ~ 18kt for 24 hours, decay distance 105nm
- WSWily 48° 7.5"
yestion 6
Warm front through at 1217002,
Cold front through at approx 1301002
Sea at 0600Z ——~ 25kt for 5 hours - refraction 40°
Seaat 1800Z ~ 23kt for 17 hours - refraction 40°
‘Swell at 06002 —_- from WSW (sea 25kt for 9 hours, decay distance 602m)
‘Swell at 1800Z__- from WSW (sea 25kt for 13 hours, decay distance 200nm)
Swell refraction about 20°
Surf at 06002 Surf at 18002
‘Swell Sea
Deep water height 7 8
Deep water period 7.8" ut
Steepness index 0.12 O14
Height Index 113
Uncorrected height 8! 9.2)
Breaker Type Plunging/SP Plunging
Depth Index 118 119
Breaking Depth ar" 35 Width of Zone
Ratio
Angle
Coefficient
Breaker height
Breaking speed
Beach speed
Mean speed
Wave length
Lines of Surf
Surf at 06002
Sea
80 yas
038
18°
89,
73"
13.3kt
g.2kt
1L2kt
125°
2
Swell
85 yds
028
Be
97
8.51
Ldkt
9.8kt
LL 9kt
155
1-
Suef at 18002
Sea
90 yds
03
16°
+885
8.1"
14.2kt
9.6Kt
11.9kt
152"
1-2
‘Swell
70 yas
02a,
Be
7
7.3!
13.3kt
9.3kt
1L3kt
160"
1-2 ANNEG C
THE FORECASTING NOMOGRAMS KTS 60
SIGNIFICANT WAVE HEIGHT as a function of SURFACE WIND SPEED FETCH and DURATION
(a8) cagas @rTH soverEns
Lit TT SIGNIFICANT WAVE
PERIOD as a function of SURFACE WIND SPEED, FETCH and DURATION
(3%) Gaaas GNIM govauns
LI
|
1
1400
FETCH (nm)
500 100
90
80
10
60
40
20
10
THE RANGE OF WAVE HEIGHTS
E
|—~"
5
|—# |
ws
vs
——
a
5 10 = 20 25 30 3 40
SIGNIFICANT WAVE HEIGHT (ft) WAVE PERIOD (sec)
THE RANGE OF WAVE PERIODS
26
24
20
@
xu
SS
6 8 10
SIGNIFICANT WAVE PERTOD (sec)
12
1h
16
(208) Goruad SAV SWELL PERIOD and RATIO OF SWELL HEIGHT TO SEA WAVE HEIGHT as functions of DECAY DISTANCE and SEA WAVE PERIOD
T + — ——
——
2
g
=
z
3
8
0.4 O—_ 0.5 vd ont a
30760 25 300 150 500 TH 7000 300 O00
DECAY DISTANCE (nm) 1m
13
8
1
1
1
6
©
°
a
o
§
uw
»
SWELL TRAVEL TIME as a function of DECAY DISTANCE and SEA WAVE PERIOD
T ] T 7 T 7 T f J" 7 T + 7
Wohr = 50hr = 60hr 7Ohr 60hr 400hr = 120hr
e
=
a
8
8
50705 206 30506 750 7000, 7500 2000 2500
DECAY DISTANCE (nm) 2h
22
20
18
16
12
10
WAVE STEEPNESS as a function of WAVE PERIOD and HEIGHT
anne
HTT LS 7
02 +015
.01
(3003) aHOTSH GAYA
+005
LZ
WAVE PERIOD (sec) 2.0
08
RATIO OF WAVE HEIGHT IN A CURRENT TO STILL WATER WAVE HEIGHT as a function of
WAVE STEEPNESS and RATIO OF CURRENT SPEED TO STILL WATER WAVE SPEED*
-
0.2
T T T T T T
—— py L L 41
5 0.7 =0.05 ° 30.05 40.1
RATIO OF CURRENT SPEED TO STILL WATER WAVE SPEED
(-ve if current direction contrary to direction of wave travel)
40.15
3062
AHOISH GAVA EGLYM TITIES 0% GHOTSH GAVE do OTLYE oz rue aroe
To obtain DEEP WATER STEEPNESS INDEX
] L
mM
|_|
ph
10°°«411~«12
(302) aHOTaH EAVR NAIVE asc 2.6
204
2.2
To obtain BREAKER HEIGHT INDEX
7
Beach
Slope
1310
1:50
or flatter
01
+04 +06 wt
DESP WATER STEEPNESS INDEX
2
YEQNI WHOISH UaNVEUE To obtain BREAKER HEIGHT (uncorrected)
SSS
SES
—
—
1.4
7.6 1.8
BREAKER HEIGHT INDEX
2.0
28
(7993) GHOTEH HAVA USUYA auEC To obtain BREAKER TYPE
1210
1320
‘SURGING
1240:
PLUNGING
1350)
‘SPILLING
1260
4870
20
2 +O, +06 at
DEEP WATER STEEPNESS INDEX
gaots HOES To
obtain BREAKER DEPTH
INDEX
»[\
3.0
2.8
2.6
24
-
1.0
20t
7-02
204
+06 a)
DEEP WATER STSEPNESS INDEX
2
aus
YGGNI HEaxC To obtain DEPTH OF BREAKING
18
16
1g
2at
20"
168
i
|
UHH
14 1,6 168 2,0 2.2 24 2.6 2.8 3.0 5.2 3.4 3.6
BREAK@R DEPTH INDEX
iW aBEC
3005) aHOTSH EAVM 2a;
¢ 1-9
40
36
32
24
20
16
12
To
obtain WIDTH OF SURF ZONE
Beach 9
Slope 55
100
200
WIDTH OF SURF 70N@ (yards)
300 400
oua
(3903) waged ONTEY. 32
To obtain RATIO OF BREAKING DEPTH TO DEEP WATER WAVE LENGTH
28)
2a
20]
Xe
{
es
6 @
WAVE PERTOD (sec)
recy
(9963) BUauC Om To obtain REFRACTION COEFFICIENT and BREAKER ANGLE
70
| ——J /
fj .65\—| | \ a SY /
4+— | °
| .10}- 4 60
60 +
4— 15 —\r
ee
80 T
50] ee |
KA
85 ——|"j50 °
15 20' 10°
40 4 —
90 —J~
iy
10°
30) i
a
95
rh]
20
° rh] Co
1 SI a
2005 201 02.03 05 07 ri j 5
RATIO OF DEPTH OF BREAKING TO DS3P WATER WAVE LENCTH
SUNOLMOD HLESC HLIN SEXV BAW WALA GESC STONY 61-9
To obtain CORRECTED BREAKER HEIGHT
2 17
18" _| 20"
22
Js
. To
. P| J
7 ee .
~ ee
14
-——_| —~401 t-——_|
12
