HUTCHINGS HIGH SCHOOL AND JUNIOR

COLLEGE

PHYSICS PROJECT

NAME : ADITYA VARTE

CLASS : XIth SCIENCE

ROLL NO. : 21
YEAR OF STUDY :2022-2023
INDEX

● ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
● CERTIFICATE
● INTRODUCTION
● HEAT
● TEMPERATURE
● THERMAL EXPANSION
● THERMAL EXPANSION IN SOLIDS ,LIQUIDS AND GASSES
● ANOMALOUS EXPANSION OF WATER
● SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY
● CALORIMETRY
● CHANGE OF STATE
● LATENT HEAT

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I express my sincere gratitude to Mrs.Rita Katawati

 And also express my sincere thanks to my physics teacher Mrs arti pallake
mam who gave me this great opportunity to do this project about heat .
I also thanks my parents for their endless support ever.Overall i thank to god
almighty
 CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that Aditya Varte of std 11th (science) has successfully
completed his project work for academic session 2022-2023,under guidance of
the subject teacher in the given period of time .

Subject Teacher Chief Examiner Principal/Headmaster

INTRODUCTION
Heat is the transfer of kinetic energy from one medium or object to
another, or from an energy source to a medium or object. Such energy
transfer can occur in three ways: radiation, conduction, and convection.

Most of us use the word ‘heat’ to mean something that feels warm, but science
defines heat as the flow of energy from a warm object to a cooler object.

Actually, heat energy is all around us – in volcanoes, in icebergs and in your

body. All matter contains heat energy.

Heat energy is the result of the movement of tiny particles called atoms,
molecules or ions in solids, liquids and gasses. Heat energy can be transferred
from one object to another. The transfer or flow due to the difference in
temperature between the two objects is called heat.

For example, an ice cube has heat energy and so does a glass of lemonade. If
you put the ice in the lemonade, the lemonade (which is warmer) will transfer
some of its heat energy to the ice. In other words, it will heat up the ice.
Eventually, the ice will melt and the lemonade and water from the ice will be
the same temperature. This is known as reaching a state of thermal
equilibrium.

All matter is made of tiny particles called atoms, molecules and ions. These
tiny particles are always in motion – either bumping into each other or
vibrating back and forth. It is the motion of particles that creates a form of
energy called heat (or thermal) energy that is present in all matter.
 HEAT

Heat is the transfer of kinetic energy from one medium or object to another, or
from an energy source to a medium or object. Such energy transfer can occur
in three ways: radiation, conduction, and convection.

The standard unit of heat in the International System of Units (SI) is the calorie
(cal), which is the amount of energy transfer required to raise the temperature
of one gram of pure liquid water by one degree Celsius, provided the water
temperature is higher than the freezing point and lower than the boiling point.
Sometimes the kilocalorie (kcal) is specified as a unit of heat; 1 kcal = 1000 cal.
(This is the so-called diet calorie.) Less often, the British thermal unit (Btu) is
used. This is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of one
pound of pure liquid water by one degree Fahrenheit.

An example of heat by radiation is the effect of infrared (IR) energy as it strikes

a surface. IR is an electromagnetic field capable of transfering energy from a
source, such as a fireplace, to a destination, such as the surfaces within a
room. Radiation does not require an intervening medium; it can occur through
a vacuum. It is responsible for the warming of the Earth by the sun.

Heat by conduction takes place when two material media or objects are in
direct contact, and the temperature of one is higher than the temperature of
the other. The temperatures tend to equalize; thus the heat conduction
consists of a transfer of kinetic energy from the warmer medium to the cooler
one. An example is the immersion of a chilled human body in a hot bath.
Heat by convection occurs when the motion of a liquid or gas carries energy
from a warmer region to a cooler region. A good example of convection is the
tendency of warm air to rise and cool air to fall, equalizing the air temperature
inside a room containing a hot stove. Heat convection (along with conduction)
is believed to take place inside the Earth, transfering kinetic energy from the
inner core through the outer core and mantle to the crust. In this situation, the
outer core and the mantle behave like liquids over long periods of time.

TEMPERATURE

Temperature, measure of hotness or coldness expressed in terms of any of several

arbitrary scales and indicating the direction in which heat energy will
spontaneously flow—i.e., from a hotter body (one at a higher temperature) to a
colder body (one at a lower temperature). Temperature is not the equivalent of the
energy of a thermodynamic system; e.g., a burning match is at a much higher
temperature than an iceberg, but the total heat energy contained in an iceberg is
much greater than the energy contained in a match. Temperature, similar to
pressure or density, is called an intensive property—one that is independent of the
quantity of matter being considered—as distinguished from extensive properties,
such as mass or volume.

Temperature Scales

Three temperature scales are in general use today. The Fahrenheit (°F)
temperature scale is used in the United States and a few other English-
speaking countries. The Celsius (°C) temperature scale is standard in virtually
all countries that have adopted the metric system of measurement, and it is
widely used in the sciences. The Kelvin (K) scale, an absolute temperature scale
(obtained by shifting the Celsius scale by −273.15° so that absolute zero
coincides with 0 K), is recognized as the international standard for scientific
temperature measurement.
 THERMAL EXPANSION

Thermal expansion is the tendency of matter to change its shape,

area, volume, and density in response to a change in , usually not
including phase transitions.

Temperature is a monotonic function of the average molecular kinetic

energy of a substance. When a substance is heated, molecules begin
to vibrate and move more, usually creating more distance between
themselves. Substances which contract with increasing temperature
are unusual, and only occur within limited temperature ranges (see
examples below). The relative expansion (also called strain) divided by
the change in temperature is called the material's coefficient of linear
thermal expansion and generally varies with temperature. As energy in
particles increases, they start moving faster and faster weakening the
intermolecular forces between them, therefore expanding the
substance.
Expansion joint in a road bridge used to avoid damage from thermal
expansion.

THERMAL EXPANSION OF SOLIDS,LIQUIDS AND GASSES

THERMAL EXPANSION OF SOLIDS:

In physics, Thermal expansion can be defined as the change in the length,

width, height, or volume of any material on changing the temperature. Thermal
expansion is very evident in solids as atoms are densely packed. Thermal
expansion of solids has loads of applications in day to day life.

It is a well-known phenomenon now that substances expand on heating and

contract on cooling. If you heat a body, it alters its dimensions. Depending on
the shape of the body.
 1. The expansion can occur in length in which case it is called Linear

Expansion.
2. If we take a square tile and heat it, the expansion will be on two fronts,

length and breadth, here it is called Area Expansion.

3. If we take a cube and heat it, all its sides expand and now the body

experiences an increase in the overall volume due to this and it is called

Volume Expansion.

Thermal expansion can result in linear expansion or area expansion or

volumetric expansion. The corresponding formula is given below along with
relevant terms. Thus, the formula used to represent the thermal expansion in a
body is

Linear Expansion:

where,

l is the initial length of the solid

Δl is the change in length.
αl length expansion coefficient
ΔT is the temperature difference
Area Expansion:

AREA EXPANSION
where,

A is the initial area of the solid

ΔA is the change in the area.
αA Area expansion coefficient
ΔT is the temperature difference
Volumetric Expansion:

VOLUMETRIC EXPANSION

where,

V is the initial volume of the solid

ΔV is the change in volume.
αV volume expansion coefficient
ΔT is the temperature difference
Here, the alpha represents the coefficient of linear expansion and it is a
characteristic of the substance the body is made of. For example, for the same
temperature rise, copper expands almost five times more than glass. Generally,
metals expand more and have higher values of alpha compared to gases and
liquids
 ANOMALOUS EXPANSION OF WATER

The anomalous expansion of water is an abnormal property of water whereby

it expands instead of contracting when the temperature goes from 4oC to
0oC and it becomes less dense. The density becomes less and less as it
freezes because molecules of water normally form open crystal structures when
in solid form.

SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY

The specific heat capacity is defined as the quantity of heat (J) absorbed per
unit mass (kg) of the material when its temperature increases 1 K (or 1
°C), and its units are J/(kg K) or J/(kg °C).

Uses of specific heat in our daily life are given below:

 1. Utensils for making tea or coffee, or cooking vegetables or rice, are made
of low-specific heat materials. They have a polished bottom. As a result,
they heat up faster. For example, copper, aluminum, and so on.
2. High specific heat materials can be used as insulators. Wood, for
example, has high specific heat. During the summer, wooden houses will
keep the inside cooler. Builders can select appropriate building materials
based on location and altitude. This enables the construction of warmer
or cooler houses.
3. Utensil handles at home are made of materials with high specific heat.
They provide thermal insulation. Specific heat also influences insulating
capability and conductivity.

CALORIMETRY

Calorimetry is used to measure amounts of heat transferred to or from a

substance. To do so, the heat is exchanged with a calibrated object
(calorimeter). The temperature change measured by the calorimeter is used to
derive the amount of heat transferred by the process under study.

The principle of calorimetry indicates the law of conservation energy, i.e.

the total heat lost by the hot body is equal to the total heat gained by the
cold body. Heat Lost = Heat Gained. The heat transfer in a system is
calculated using the formula, q = m c Δ t.

CHANGE OF STATE

What are Changes of State?

A change of state is a physical change in a matter. They are reversible changes
and do not involve any changes in the chemical makeup of the matter.
Common changes of the state include melting, freezing, sublimation,
deposition, condensation, and vaporization. These changes are shown in the
figure given below.

Why do Phase Changes Occur?

When temperature or pressure change of a system occurs, phase changes
occur. When the temperature or pressure increases, the interaction between
the molecules increases. Similarly, when the temperature decreases, it is easier
for molecules and atoms to settle into a more rigid structure.

Changes Between Liquids and Solids

How would you make ice cubes in a tray? First, you would fill the tray with
water from a tap. Then you would place the tray in the freezer compartment of
a refrigerator. The freezer is very cold. What happens next?

Freezing
Heat transfer occurs between the warmer tray and the colder air in the freezer.
The warm water loses heat to the cold air in the freezer. This heat transfer
occurs until no energy is available for the particles to slide past each other.
This forces them to remain in fixed positions, locked in place by the force of
attraction between them. This way liquid water is changed into solid ice. The
process of liquid water changing to solid ice is termed as freezing. The
temperature at which it occurs is known as the freezing point.

Melting
If you took out the ice cubes from the freezer and placed them in a warm room,
the ice would absorb energy from the warmer air around them. This absorbed
energy would facilitate them to overcome the force of attraction holding them
together, enabling them to slip out of the fixed position that they held as ice.
The process in which a solids change to a liquid is called melting. The melting
point is the temperature at which a solids change to a liquid.
Changes Between Liquids and Gases
If you fill a pot with cold tap water and heat it on a hot stovetop, the water
heats up. Heat energy travels from the stovetop to the pot, and the water
absorbs the energy from the pot. What happens to the water next?

Vaporization
If the water is hot enough, it starts to boil. Bubbles of water vapor are formed
in the boiling water. This happens as particles of liquid water gain enough
energy to completely overcome the force of attraction between them and change
to the gaseous state. The bubbles rise through the water and escape from the
pot as steam. The process in which a liquid boils and changes to a gas is called
vaporization. The temperature at which a liquid boils is its boiling point.

Condensation
When you take a hot shower in a closed bathroom, the mirror is likely to fog
up. You may wonder why does this happen? Some hot water from the shower
evaporates and when it comes in contact with cooler surfaces such as the
mirror, it cools and loses energy. The cooler water particles no longer have the
energy to overcome the forces of attraction between them. They come together
and form droplets of liquid water. This process in which a gas changes to liquid
is known as condensation.

Changes Between Solids and Gases

Solids that change to gas pass through the liquid state first. However,
sometimes solids change directly to gases and skip the liquid state. The reverse
can also occur. Sometimes gases change directly to solids.

Sublimation
The process in which solids directly change to gases is known as sublimation.
This occurs when solids absorb enough energy to completely overcome the
forces of attraction between them. Dry ice is an example of solids that undergo
sublimation.

FIVE CHANGES IS STATE

● Melting
● Freezing
● Evaporation
● Condensation
● Sublimation

The process by which a substance changes from the solid phase to the liquid
phase is known as melting.

The process by which a substance changes from the liquid phase to the solid
phase is known as freezing.

The process by which a substance changes from the liquid phase to the
gaseous phase is known as evaporation. The process by which a substance
changes from the gaseous phase to the liquid phase is known as condensation.
The transition of the solid phase to the gaseous phase without passing the
intermediate liquid phase is known as sublimation.
 LATENT HEAT

Latent heat is defined as the heat or energy that is absorbed or released

during a phase change of a substance. It could either be from a gas to a
liquid or liquid to solid and vice versa. Latent heat is related to a heat property
called enthalpy.

BIBLIOGRAPHY
1 https://www.sciencelearn.org.nz/
2 https://www.britannica.com/
3 https://en.wikipedia.org/
4 https://byjus.com/