Project of Fluid mechanics I

2016
Submitted to Dr.prof./Ahmed Bahaa

Research & Experiment in Fluid Lab

------------------------------------------------------
Submitted by :

- Abdulhadi Nasr Alyassin 3711

I
 index

1- Calibration of Pressure Gauge Using Dead Weight Tester .

2- Determination of the Centre of Pressure of a Plane Surface Immersed
In Water Using Hydrostatic Pressure Apparatus.
3- Calibration of Orifice Meter.
4- Calibration of Venturi-Meter.
5- Calibration Of Triangular Weir.
6-Secondary Losses in Bends and Fittings.
Object of Experiment:

To find experimentally the coefficient of velocity, the coefficient of discharge and the
coefficient of contraction for a small orifice for the flow under constant head tank.

Equipment setup:

Experiment procedure:
1. Connect the apparatus to the bench ensuring that the overflow pipe hose drains
into the sump tank. Level the apparatus by adjusting the feet, ensuring that the
path of the jet coincides with the row of measuring needles. Place a sheet of
paper on the backboard, raise the needles to clear the path of the water jet.

2. Raise the overflow pipe, open the flow control valve, admit water into the head
tank. Adjust the valve until the water is just spilling into the overflow. Record the
head h on the scale. Assess the position of the Vena-Contracta visually and note
the distance from the orifice.
3. Adjust each of the needles in turn to determine the jet path, marking the
position of the tops of the needles on the sheet of paper on the backboard.

4. Measure the flow rate Q using the volumetric tank and stopwatch.

5. Repeat for different water levels h.

6. Calculate Cd, Cv and Cc at different tank heads

7. Plot Cd, Cv, and Cc against tank heads then find a specified values for each
one of them from the graph.

𝐶𝑑
𝑪𝒄 =
𝐶𝑉
𝑉
• 𝑸𝒂𝒄𝑻 =
𝑇
• 𝑸𝑻𝒉 = 𝐴√2𝑔ℎ
• *where A is the area of orifice .
𝑄𝑎𝑐𝑇
• 𝑪𝒅 =
𝑄𝑇ℎ

Summary of Theory:
• X=V*T
1
• Y=2 𝑔𝑡 2
𝑥
• Vact=
√2𝑦∕𝑔

• Vth= √2𝑔ℎ
𝑣𝑎𝑐 𝑇 𝑥 𝑥
• Cv= 𝑣𝑇ℎ
= =
√4𝑦ℎ 2√𝑦ℎ
Results and Calculations:

NO. Head (h) (m) Height (Y) (m) Distance (X) (m) CV

1 0.404 0.040 0.268 1.054

2 0.372 0.044 0.268 1.047

3 0.344 0.048 0.268 1.042

4 0.351 0.051 0.268 1.001

5 0.288 0.061 0.268 1.010

Volume (m3) Time (QACT) (QTH) Cd Cc

0. 30 3.33*10-5 7.95*10-5 0.4188 0.3973

0. 25 4*10-5 7.63*10-5 0.5242 0.5006

0 26 3.84*10-5 7.34*10-5 0.5231 0.5020

0. 27 3.70*10-5 7.41*10-5 0.4993 0.4988

0 26 3.84*10-5 6.72*10-5 0.5714 0.5657

Comment :

There is an error in the first value of the time as the flow rate is going down
so the time must be increased
CV 3 = (0.268) / 2*(0.344*0.048).5 = 1.0428

QACT 3 = 0.001 / 26 = 3.846*10-5 m3/s

QTH3 = (2.8285*10-5) * (2*9.8*0.344).5 = 7.344*10-5 m3/s

As (2.8285*10-5) is the area of the orifice

Cd 3 = (3.84*10-5) / ( 7.34*10-5) = 0.5231

Cc 3 = 0.5231 / 1.042 = 0.50207

0.6

0.5

0.4

Cd
0.3
average

0.2

0.1

0
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4 0.45

Average Cd =0.50736
 1.06

1.05

1.04

Cv 1.03

1.02
Average

1.01

0.99
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4 0.45

Average Cv = 1.0308

Comment :

The value of the Cv must be lower than 1 as it is the actual value divided by the
theoretical value.
 0.6

0.5

0.4
Cc

0.3
Average

0.2

0.1

0
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4 0.45

Average CC = 0.49288

Comment :

The actual results is lower than the theoretical one as the

theoretical equation depend on the ideal flow

Conclusion :
Velocity coefficient is the ratio between actual and
theoretical velocities due to friction loss so it should be less
than 1.
The contraction coefficient is the ratio between velocity and
discharge coefficients which is the ratio of the minimum cross-
sectional area of a jet liquid discharging from an orifice to the area
of the orifice
 1-Calibration of Pressure Gauge Using Dead
Weight Tester

Objective of the Experiment:

Calibration of a pressure gage using dead weight tester

Procedure:

1- Fill the interior of the apparatus with oil, and free it from air bubbles.
2- Fit the tested gauge in position.
3- Level the apparatus in a horizontal position.

4- Table the reading of the tested gauge before putting the piston in place.
This is the zero reading of the gauge.
5- Close the valve of the tested gauge and put the piston in place. Put a
load on the piston and use the handle to reach the equilibrium position,
Stake reading of gauge at equilibrium position.
6- Repeat, with increasing the load, use handle to retain equilibrium
position.
7- Continue till you reach the maximum reading on the gauge then reduce
the load gradually and take readings in the unloading process.
8- Plot a curve between the actual pressure and the indicated pressure.

The actual pressure = (Load) / (Area of piston)

Indicated pressure = reading on the gauge.

Actual pressure (bar) Indicated Pressure (bar)

zero zero zero zero

1 1.2 1.2 1.2

2 2.3 2.2 2.25

3 3.3 3.4 3.35

4 4.2 4.3 4.25

5 5.2 5.2 5.2

Kgf/ cm2 = 0.98 bar at g = 9.8m/s2

Assume g = 10 then 1Kgf / cm2 = 1 bar

 8

4
Actual pressure
3

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
-1

indicated pressure

Comment :
There is difference between the actual pressure and the indicated
pressure due to the permanent deformation of the curved tube of the
pressure gauge tester

Conclusion : The objective to determine the accuracy

in Bourdon gauge readings andcalibration
requirements is achieved
 --Calibration Of Triangular Weir

Objective of Experiment:
Calibration of the triangular weir (Vee notch).

Equipment Setup:
Hydraulics Bench, Basic weir Apparatus (Vee notch), Height gauge,
Stopwatch.
Procedure:

1. Set up the equipment as shown in the diagram.

2. Set Vernier Height Gauge to a datum reading.

3. Position the gauge about half way between the notch plate and stilling
baffle.

4. Adjust the feed water and the flow control valve.

Readings to be taken:

1. Take readings of volume and time to find the actual flow rate.

2. Take H reading from the height gauge.

Plots:

1. Weir calibration curve.

2. Let H be the x-axis and Cd the y-axis.

=================================
5
8 𝜃
Qth=
15
√2𝑔 tan 2 𝐻 2

Cd = Coefficient of discharge
𝜃
= Half the enclosed angle of the vee
2

𝜃 = 90°
H = Head above bottom of notch
𝑉2−V1
Qact= 𝑇
Qact
Cd=
Qth

Results and Calculations:

No. V1 V2 T H QAct QTh Cd

(m3) (m3) (S) (m) (m3/s) (m3/s)
1 0 0.005 3 0.367 10 *10-4 0.1926 5.19*10-3

2 0 0.004 8.5 0.269 3.52 *10- 0.0886 3.97*10-3

4

3 0 0.004 24.3 0.181 1.23 *10- 0.0329 3.73*10-3

4

4 0 0.001 24 0.071 0.41 *10- 0.0031 13.2*10-3

4

QAct 3 = ( 0.004 – 0.001 ) / ( 24.3 ) = 1.23 *10-4(m3/s

QTh 3 = ( 8 / 15 ) * ( 2 * 9.8 ) .5 * ( tan 45 ) * ( 0.181 ) 2.5 =

0.0329 (m3/s)

Cd3=(1.23 *10-4 ) / (0.0329 ) = 3.73*10-3

 14

12

10

8
Cd * 10 ^ 3

Average 6

0
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4

Comment :

The actual results is lower than the theoretical one as the

theoretical equation depend on the ideal flow

Conclusion : - In order to calibrate the triangular weir It is

necessary to plot discharge coefficient against pressure
difference for measuring the rate of flow of a fluid through
the pipe
 4--Calibration of Venturi-Meter
Objective of Experiment:
To investigate the validity of Bernoulli's Theorem as applied to the
flow of water in a tapering circular duct and calculate the discharge
coefficient of a venture-meter.

Equipment Setup:
Hydraulics Bench, Bernoulli's Theorem Demonstration Apparatus,
Stopwatch.
 Procedure:

Take the reading of the manometers at section 1&5 to calculate the

discharge coefficient for five different flow rates

Results and Calculations:

No V1 V2 T H1 H5 QAct QTh Cd
(m3) (m3) (S) (m) (m) (m3/s) (m3/s)
1 0 0.004 13.68 0.275 0.015 1.46*10- 1.79*10- 0.81
4 4

2 0 0.003 16.9 0.277 0.045 1.18*10- 1.69*10- 0.69

4 4

3 0 0.004 20.51 0.275 0.130 1.46*10- 1.34*10- 1.09

4 4

4 0 0.003 24.63 0.265 0.210 0.81*10- 0.82*10- 0.98

4 4

5 0 0.004 47.97 0.260 0.230 0.62*10- 0.61*10- 1.01

4 4

QAct 5 = ( 0.004 – 0.001 ) / ( 47.97 ) = 0.62 *10-4(m3/s)

QTh 5 = ( 4.91*10-4 ) * (0.785 * 10-4 ) * {2*9.8*(0.26 - 0.23)} .5

/ { ( 4.91*10-4 )2 - (0.785 * 10-4 )2 } .5 = 0.61 * 10-

4(m3/s)

Cd 5 = ( 0.62 *10-4 ) / (0.61 * 10-4 ) = 1.01

Comment :
The value of the Cd must be lower than 1 as it is the actual value divided

by the theoretical value .

 1.2

0.8

Cd

0.6

0.4

0.2

0
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3

Average Cd = 0.916

Comment :

The actual results is lower than the theoretical one as the

theoretical equation depend on the ideal flow

Conclusion :
In order to calibrate the venture meter It is necessary to plot
discharge coefficient against pressure difference for
measuring the rate of flow of a fluid
 5-Determination of the Centre of Pressure of a Plane Surface
Immersed In Water Using Hydrostatic Pressure Apparatus
Objective of Experiment:

To determine the position of the center of pressure of a plane surface immersed in

water and to compare the experimental position with the theoretical position.

Procedure:

1. Level the tank using the adjustable feet and spirit level.

2. Move the counterbalance mass until the balance arm is horizontal.

3. Close the drain cock and admit water until the level reaches the bottom
edge of the quadrant.

4. Place a mass on the balance pan then add water slowly into the tank until
the balance arm is horizontal.
 Reading Number Mass On Balance , M (kg) Water Level , h water (m )

1 0.25 0.108

2 0.2 0.097

3 0.15 0.081

4 0.1 0.068

5 0.05 0.045

Determination of the position of the center of pressure YC experimentally:

F = WLhG A
Where,

WL = Specific weight of liquid.

Hg = Vertical distance from the liquid surface to the centroid of the submerged
area.
A = Area of the submerged surface (A = b x d).
Taking moments about the pivot:

Mg * L = F * YC)A
Where :

Yc)A = Actual vertical distance from the pivot to point C (center of pressure).
L = Perpendicular distance between the pivot and the point of action of the
weights.
Calculations Table

No Mg (N) L (M) WL(N/m3) hg A F YC)A(m)

(m) ( m2 ) (N)
1 2.45 0.275 9800 0.058 0.0075 4.263 0.158

2 1.96 0.275 9800 0.0485 0.00727 3.458 0.155

3 1.47 0.275 9800 0.0405 0.00607 2.411 0.167

4 0.98 0.275 9800 0.034 0.0051 1.699 0.159

5 0.49 0.275 9800 0.0225 0.003375 0.744 0.181

hg)5 = (4.5*10-2) / 2 = 0.0225 (m )

A = Submerged Area (A = b * d)
b : width (7.5 cm)
d : height of the submerged surface
A5 = 4.5*10-2 * 7.5*10-2 = 0.003375( m2 )

F5 = 9800 * 0.0225 * 0.003375 = 0.744( N )

YC)A 5 = (0.49 * 0.275) / 0.744 = 0.181 ( m )

 Determination of the position of the center of pressure YC theoretically:

)YC)Th = YG + CG

YG = hG+ h0

CG = IGG / (A * hG)

IGG = (b * d3) / 12

A=b*d

Where :

YG = Vertical distance from the pivot to point G (centroid).

IGG = Second moment of area about horizontal axis passing through point G and parallel to the
liquid surface.

Calculations Table :

hG ( m ) Ho ( m ) YG ( M ) A ( m2 ) I GG (*10-6) CG (m) YC)Th(m)

0.0580 0.092 0.1500 0.00750 6.25 0.01436 0.1643

0.0485 0.103 0.1515 0.00727 5.70 0.01616 0.1677

0.0405 0.119 0.1595 0.00607 3.32 0.01350 0.1730

0.0340 0.132 0.1660 0.00510 1.96 0.01130 0.1773

0.0225 0.155 0.1775 0.003375 0.57 0.00751 0.1850

YG5 = 0.0225 + 0.155 = 0.1775 (m)

IGG 5 = (0.075 * (0.045)3 ) / 12 = 0.57 * 10-6(m)

CG 5 = (0.57*10-6) / (0.003375) * (.0225) = 0.00751(m)

YC)Th 5 = 0.1775 + 0.00751 = 0.18501 (m)

 0.2

0.18

0.16

0.14

0.12

0.1
YC)A
0.08

0.06

0.04

0.02

0
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25
-0.02

YC)Th

Comment :

- There is an error in the values of YC)Ac as it must go increase as the center

of the pressure is going down .

- The values of the Yc)Th is going increasing regularly as the center of force
is going down
 6--Secondary Losses in Bends and Fittings
Objectives of the Experiment:

The objectives of the experiment are to demonstrate the secondary losses

associated with flow through bends and fittings.

Experimental Procedures:

1. Close the regulation valve and start the centrifugal pump.

2. Open the valve partially.

3. Wait for steady flow (Peizometers readings = constant).

4. Read the differential readings of the Peizometers connected to the

mitre, the elbow, the short bend, the enlargement and the contraction.
5. Read the initial volume in the collection tank V1

6. Observe the time ( t ) to increase the collected volume to V2

7. Increase the valve opening

8. Repeat the experiment two times.

9. After recording all the required readings, close the valve gradually
 Observations:

No 1 2
dh V1 V2 T dh V1 V2 T
(m) (m3) (m3) (s) (m) (m3) (m3) (s)
Mitre 0.065 0 0.004 12.7 0.032 0.001 0.004 21

Elbow 0.051 0 0.004 12.7 0.023 0.001 0.004 21

Short bend 0.030 0. 0.004 12.7 0.014 0.001 0.004 21

Enlargement - 0. 0.004 12.7 - 0.001 0.004 21

0.013 0.006
Contraction 0.035 0 0.004 12.7 0.019 0.001 0.004 21

Long bend 0.016 0. 0.004 12.7 0.009 0.001 0.004 21

 k 1 2 Average

Mitre 2 2.8 2.4

Elbow 1.63 2.01 1.82
Short bend 0.95 1.22 1.095
Enlargement 1.44 0.911 1.18
Contraction 1.09 1.62 1.36
Long bend 0.51 0.788 0.65

Comment :

∆ h of the enlargement is –ve as the cross sectional area go

increasing

So the velocity goes down so from perrnolli equation the

pressure is going up .

Conclusion : loss coefficient is determined while

applying Bernoulli’s equation and adding loss term
while reading only volume flow rates and differences
in pressures