Chapter -5

Data communication and Computer Network

For data communication of information and messages we use telephone and postal communication
systems. Data and information from one computer system can be transmitted to other systems across
geographical areas. The methods include electrical signals carried along a medium(conductor, optical
signals along an optical fibers and electromagnetic wave)
Data communication is the exchange of data between two or more devices using a transmission
medium, such as a wire or wireless connection. It allows devices to transmit and receive information and
enables the communication between them.
Data communication can be used for various purposes, such as transferring files, sending
messages, or sharing resources. It is an essential aspect of modern computing and plays a significant role
in connecting devices and networks.

Components of data communication system

A Communication system has following components:

1. Message: It is the information or data to be communicated. It can consist of text, numbers, pictures,
sound or video or any combination of these.
2. Sender: It is the device/computer that generates and sends that message.
3. Receiver: It is the device or computer that receives the message. The location of receiver computer is
generally different from the sender computer. The distance between sender and receiver depends upon
the types of network used in between.
4. Medium: It is the channel or physical path through which the message is carried from sender to the
receiver. The medium can be wired like twisted pair wire, coaxial cable, fiber-optic cable or wireless like
laser, radio waves, and microwaves.
5. Protocol: It is a set of rules that govern the communication between the devices. Both sender and
receiver follow same protocols to communicate with each other.

Computer network:
A computer network is a group of computer system and other computing hardware devices that
are linked together through communicating channel in order to communicate and share information
between them.
Computer network refers to interconnection of computing devices that can exchange data and
share resources with each other. These networked devices use a system of rules, called communications
protocols, to transmit information over physical or wireless technologies.
Each computer can be called as node, so networking in another term is interconnection of two or more
nodes through transmission medium.
Computers can be connected via transmission medium like copper wires, optical fiber, communication
satellite, radio links (Microware) etc.

Importance of Networking
As N/W provides a platform for communication users and information, uses/ importance as follows:
1. Resource Sharing(hardware and software sharing)
2. Information Sharing
3. As a communication medium
4. Centralize administration and support
5. Back-up and Support
6. Cheap and quick communication.
Disadvantages.
1. Expensive-(Setup resources and additional hardware)
2. Security of data
3. Needs special technical knowledge
4. Venerable to computer Virus and Malware.

Types of computer network:

On the basis of geographical area:

Local Area Network(LAN)

Metropolitan Area Network(MAN)
Wide Area network(WAN)

Local Area Network(LAN):

Local area network is a computer network that connects two or more computers
within a small geographical area like within an office, company, school, or any
other organization. So, it exists within a specific area, e.g. home network, office
network, school network, etc.
A local area network may be a wired or wireless network or a combination
of both. The devices in a LAN are generally connected using an Ethernet cable,
which offers an interface to connect multiple devices like router, switches, and computers.
o Local Area Network is a group of computers connected to each other in a small area such as
building, office.
o LAN is used for connecting two or more personal computers through a communication medium
such as twisted pair, coaxial cable, etc.
o It is less costly as it is built with inexpensive hardware such as hubs, network adapters, and
Ethernet cables.
o The data is transferred at an extremely faster rate in Local Area Network.
o Local Area Network provides higher security.

Metropolitan Area Network(MAN)

MAN is a high-speed network that spreads over a large geographical area such as
a metro city or town. It is set up by connecting the local area networks using
routers and local telephone exchange lines. It can be operated by a private
company, or it may be a service provided by a company such as a local telephone
company.
The area covered by MAN is larger than the LAN but smaller than a
WAN. Its network ranges from 5 to 50 km. Furthermore, it also provides uplinks for connecting LANs to
WANs and the internet. An organization can use a MAN to connect all of its LANs located at its
different offices across the city.
o A metropolitan area network is a network that covers a larger geographic area by interconnecting a
different LAN to form a larger network.
o Government agencies use MAN to connect to the citizens and private industries.
o In MAN, various LANs are connected to each other through a telephone exchange line.
o The most widely used protocols in MAN are RS-232, Frame Relay, ATM, ISDN, OC-3, ADSL, etc.
o It has a higher range than Local Area Network(LAN).

Wide Area network(WAN)

WAN extends over a large geographical area. It is not confined within an
office, school, city, or town and is mainly set up by telephone lines, fiber
optic, or satellite links. It is mostly used by big organizations like banks
and multinational companies to communicate with their branches and
customers across the world.
 The computers are connected to the wide area network through public networks, such as
telephone systems, leased lines or satellites. The users of a WAN do not own the network as it is a large
setup connecting the remote computer systems. However, they are required to subscribe to a service
provided by a telecommunication provider to use this network.
o A Wide Area Network is a network that extends over a large geographical area such as states or
countries.
o A Wide Area Network is quite bigger network than the LAN.
o A Wide Area Network is not limited to a single location, but it spans over a large geographical
area through a telephone line, fibre optic cable or satellite links.
o The internet is one of the biggest WAN in the world.
o A Wide Area Network is widely used in the field of Business, government, and education.

On the basis of Architecture / Model

Computer Network Architecture is defined as the physical and logical design of the software,
hardware, protocols, and media of the transmission of data. Simply we can say that how computers are
organized and how tasks are allocated to the computer.
- Centralized network
- Client/server network
- Peer-to-peer network

Centralized network
Centralized computing is a type of computing architecture where all or most of the
processing/computing is performed on a central server.
Centralized computing enables the deployment of all of a central server's computing resources,
administration and management. The central server, in turn, is responsible for delivering application
logic, processing and providing computing resources (both basic and complex) to the attached client
machines
Centralized computing is similar to a client/server architecture where one or more client PCs are
directly connected to a central server. Typically, each client PC is a thin client with no or very limited
computing capacity. They generally have a visual display, basic input devices and a thin CPU with
networking capabilities.
Client PCs are connected over the network to a central server that processes their computations.
The central server is deployed with the primary application, massive computing resources, storage and
other high-end computing-intensive features. All the client nodes are entirely dependent on the central
server for any application access, computing, storage, Internet access and security. Moreover, the
administrator in a centralized computing infrastructure manages all the client nodes from the central
server interface.

Client/server network
A client/server network model is a model in which the main computers called server is connected
to provide the network services to the other computers such as clients to perform a user based tasks.
Client/Server network is a network model designed for the end users called clients, to access the
resources such as songs, video, etc. from a central computer known as Server.
o The central controller is known as a server while all other computers in the network are
called clients.
o A server performs all the major operations such as security and network management.
o A server is responsible for managing all the resources such as files, directories, printer, etc.
o All the clients communicate with each other through a server. For example, if client1 wants to
send some data to client 2, then it first sends the request to the server for the permission. The
server sends the response to the client 1 to initiate its communication with the client 2.

Advantages Of Client/Server network:

o A Client/Server network contains the centralized system. Therefore we can back up the data
easily.
 o A Client/Server network has a dedicated server that improves the overall performance of the
whole system.
o Security is better in Client/Server network as a single server administers the shared resources.
o It also increases the speed of the sharing resources.

Disadvantages Of Client/Server network:

o Client/Server network is expensive as it requires the server with large memory.
o A server has a Network Operating System(NOS) to provide the resources to the clients, but the
cost of NOS is very high.
o It requires a dedicated network administrator to manage all the resources.

Peer-to-peer network
Peer to peer network model is a model in which each computer connected in the network acts as
both client and server with the equal function to operate.
Peer-To-Peer network is a network in which all the computers are linked together with equal privilege
and responsibilities for processing the data.
o Peer-To-Peer network is useful for small environments, usually up to 10 computers.
o Peer-To-Peer network has no dedicated server.
o Special permissions are assigned to each computer for sharing the resources, but this can lead to a
problem if the computer with the resource is down.

Advantages Of Peer-To-Peer Network:

o It is less costly as it does not contain any dedicated server.
o If one computer stops working but, other computers will not stop working.
o It is easy to set up and maintain as each computer manages itself.

Disadvantages Of Peer-To-Peer Network:

o Lack of administrative control, so data is store in different location without proper backup.
o It has a security issue as the device is managed itself.

Network topology:
Topology is derived from two Greek words topo and logy, where topo means 'place' and logy means
'study'. In computer networks, a topology is used to explain how a network is physically connected
and the logical flow of information in the network. A topology mainly describes how devices are
connected and interact with each other using communication links.
Network topology is the arrangement or connection pattern of computers and other
networking devices in the network. It is also refers as the physical cabling structure of LAN.

Types of Network Topology are:

Bus Topology
The topology where the computers and other devices are connected with a single
cable(backbone) to transmit the data in the linear format with two open ends is known as Bus topology.
Bus topology uses a single cable which connects all the included nodes. The main cable acts as a spine for
the entire network. One of the computers in the network acts as the computer server. When it has two
endpoints, it is known as a linear bus topology.
Advantages:
1. Simple to use and install.
2. If a node fails, it will not affect other nodes.
3. Less cabling is required.
4. Cost-efficient to implement.
Disadvantages:
1. Efficiency is less when nodes are more(strength of signal decreases).
2. If the bus fails, the network will fail.
3. A limited number of nodes can connect to the bus due to limited bus length.
4. Security issues and risks are more as messages are broadcasted to all nodes.
 5. Congestion and traffic on the bus as it is the only source of communication.
6. Cables are always of a limited length.

Ring Topology
The topology where the number of computers and other devices are
connected to its adjacent in the circular shape with no open ends in known as
ring topology. In a ring network, every device has exactly two neighboring
devices for communication purpose. It is called a ring topology as its
formation is like a ring. In this topology, every computer is connected to
another computer. Here, the last node is combined with a first one.
This topology uses token to pass the information from one computer
to another. In this topology, all the messages travel through a ring in the same
direction.

Advantages:
 Easy to install and reconfigure.
 Adding or deleting a device in-ring topology needs you to move only two connections.
 Offers equal access to all the computers of the networks
 Faster error checking and acknowledgment.

Disadvantages:
 Unidirectional traffic.
 Break in a single ring can risk the breaking of the entire network
 Modern days high-speed LANs made this topology less popular.
 In the ring, topology signals are circulating at all times, which develops unwanted power
consumption.
 It is very difficult to troubleshoot the ring network.
 Adding or removing the computers can disturb the network activity.

Star Topology
The topology where the number of computer and other devices are connected with the centrally
located device (hub or switch) in a star shape is known as star topology.
In the star topology, all the computers connect with the help of a hub. This cable is called a
central node, and all other nodes are connected using this central node. It is most popular on LAN
networks as they are inexpensive and easy to install.

Advantages:
 Easy to troubleshoot, set up, and modify.
 Only those nodes are affected, that has failed. Other nodes still work.
 Fast performance with few nodes and very low network traffic.
 In Star topology, addition, deletion, and moving of the devices are easy.

Disadvantages:
 If the hub or concentrator fails, attached nodes are disabled.
 Cost of installation of star topology is costly.
 Heavy network traffic can sometimes slow the bus considerably.
 Performance depends on the hub’s capacity
 A damaged cable or lack of proper termination may bring the network down.

Mesh Topology
The mesh topology has a unique network design in which each computer on
the network connects to every other. It is develops a P2P (point-to-point)
connection between all the devices of the network. It offers a high level of
redundancy, so even if one network cable fails, still data has an alternative
path to reach its destination.
Types of Mesh Topology:
 Partial Mesh Topology: In this type of topology, most of the devices are connected almost
similarly as full topology. The only difference is that few devices are connected with just two or
three devices.
 Full Mesh Topology: In this topology, every nodes or device are directly connected with each
other.

Advantages:
 The network can be expanded without disrupting current users.
 Need extra capable compared with other LAN topologies.
 Dedicated links help you to eliminate the traffic problem.
 A mesh topology is robust.
 It has multiple links, so if any single route is blocked, then other routes should be used for data
communication.
 It helps you to avoid the chances of network failure by connecting all the systems to a central
node.

Disadvantages:
 Installation is complex because every node is connected to every node.
 It is expensive due to the use of more cables. No proper utilization of systems.
 Complicated implementation.
 It requires more space for dedicated links.
 Because of the amount of cabling and the number of input-outputs, it is expensive to implement.
 It requires a large space to run the cables.

Tree Topology
Tree topologies have a root node, and all other nodes are connected which form a hierarchy. So it
is also known as hierarchical topology. This topology integrates various star topologies together in a
single bus, so it is known as a Star Bus topology. Tree topology is a very common network which is
similar to a bus and star topology.
Advantages:
 Failure of one node never affects the rest of the network.
 Node expansion is fast and easy.
 Detection of error is an easy process
 It is easy to manage and maintain

Disadvantages:
 It is heavily cabled topology
 If more nodes are added, then its maintenance is difficult
 If the hub or concentrator fails, attached nodes are also disabled.

Hybrid Topology
Hybrid topology combines two or more topologies. You can see in the above architecture in such
a manner that the resulting network does not exhibit one of the standard topologies.
For example, as you can see in the above image that in an office in one department, Star and P2P
topology is used. A hybrid topology is always produced when two different basic network
topologies are connected.
Advantages:
Here, are advantages/pros using Hybrid topology:
 Offers the easiest method for error detecting and troubleshooting
 Highly effective and flexible networking topology
 It is scalable so you can increase your network size
Disadvantages:
 The design of hybrid topology is complex
 It is one of the costliest processes
Transmission modes
o The way or the method in which data is transmitted from one device to another device for
communication is known as transmission mode.
o The transmission mode is also known as the communication mode.
o Each communication channel has a direction
associated with it, and transmission media provide
the direction. Therefore, the transmission mode is
also known as a directional mode.
o The transmission mode is defined in the physical
layer.

The Transmission mode is divided into three categories:

Simplex mode:
o The mode of transmission where the data is transmitted in only one direction during
communication is known as simplex mode.
o It is also known as unidirectional mode.
o A device can only send the data but cannot receive it or it can receive the data but cannot send the
data.
o The radio station is a simplex channel as it transmits the signal to the listeners but never allows
them to transmit back.
o Keyboard and Monitor are the examples of the simplex mode as a keyboard can only accept the
data from the user and monitor can only be used to display the data on the screen.
o The main advantage of the simplex mode is that the full capacity of the communication channel
can be utilized during transmission.

Half-Duplex mode :
o The mode of transmission where the data is transmitted between two devices in both the
direction but alternately during communication is known as half-duplex mode.
o In a Half-duplex channel, direction can be reversed, i.e., the station can transmit and receive the
data as well.
o Messages flow in both the directions, but not at the same time.
o The entire bandwidth of the communication channel is utilized in one direction at a time.
o In half-duplex mode, it is possible to perform the error detection, and if any error occurs, then the
receiver requests the sender to retransmit the data.
o A Walkie-talkie is an example of the Half-duplex mode. In Walkie-talkie, one party speaks, and
another party listens. After a pause, the other speaks and first party listens. Speaking
simultaneously will create the distorted sound which cannot be understood.

Full-duplex mode:
o The mode of transmission where the data is transmitted between two devices in both the
direction simultaneously during communication is known as full-duplex mode.
o In Full duplex mode, the communication is bi-directional, i.e., the data flow in both the
directions.
o Both the stations can send and receive the message simultaneously.
o Full-duplex mode has two simplex channels. One channel has traffic moving in one direction, and
another channel has traffic flowing in the opposite direction.
o The Full-duplex mode is the fastest mode of communication between devices.
o The most common example of the full-duplex mode is a telephone network. When two people are
communicating with each other by a telephone line, both can talk and listen at the same time.
 Data Transmission Media
o Transmission media is a communication channel or the path through which the data or signal is
transmitted between the devices to make a communication. Data is transmitted through the
electromagnetic signals.
o In network communications, a transmission medium is a physical connection or an interface
between the transmitter and the receiver.
o The main functionality of the transmission media is to carry the information in the form of bits
through LAN(Local Area Network).
o The electrical signals can be sent through the copper wire, fibre optics, atmosphere, water, and
vacuum.
o The characteristics and quality of data transmission are determined by the characteristics of
medium and signal.
o Transmission media is of two types are wired media and wireless media. In wired media, medium
characteristics are more important whereas, in wireless media, signal characteristics are more
important.
o Different transmission media have different properties such as bandwidth, delay, cost and ease of
installation and maintenance.
o The transmission media is available in the lowest layer of the OSI reference model, i.e., Physical
layer

The data is sent from one computer to another over a transmission medium, grouped as
Guided transmission media/ Wired media
Unguided transmission medium/ Wireless media

1. Guided media
The medium that uses physical path or link to carry the data/signal from one device to another
for communication is known as guided media. It is also known as wired media or bounded media. It
has high security as well as less noise interference.
o Physical Transmission Path
o Copper wire & Optical fiber are most commonly used
o Copper wire transmit as electric signal while optical one transmit as light signal.
o Copper wire offer low resistance to current signal, fascinating longer distance transmission
o Eg: Twisted pair cable, Co-axial cable, optical fiber etc.

2. Unguided media
The path or the channel which does not use fix physical path such as cable but uses air or vaccum
to transmit the data/signal between the devices for communication is known as Unguided media. It is
also known as wireless or unbounded media. it is less secured because the signal is open for all the
connection and it has high noise interference. It also provide the facility for mobility of devices.

o Data signals are not bounded by a fixed channel to follow.

o The data signals are transmitted by air.
o Eg: Radio, microwave, and satellite transmissions

Wire Pair/Twisted Pair

Twisted pair is a physical media made up of a pair of cables twisted with each other. A twisted pair cable
is cheap as compared to other transmission media. Installation of the twisted pair cable is easy, and it is a
lightweight cable. The frequency range for twisted pair cable is from 0 to 3.5KHz.
They are usually made up of copper and the pair of wires is twisted together
Twisting of wires reduces electromagnetic interference from external
sources

Twisted pair is of two kinds—

Shielded Twisted Pair (STP),
Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP).
Data transmission speed is normally 9600 bits per second in a
distance of 100 meter.

Unshielded Twisted Pair:

An unshielded twisted pair is widely used in telecommunication. Following are the categories of the
unshielded twisted pair cable:
o Category 1: Category 1 is used for telephone lines that have low-speed data.
o Category 2: It can support upto 4Mbps.
o Category 3: It can support upto 16Mbps.
o Category 4: It can support upto 20Mbps. Therefore, it can be used for long-distance
communication.
o Category 5: It can support upto 200Mbps.
Advantages Of Unshielded Twisted Pair:
o It is cheap.
o Installation of the unshielded twisted pair is easy.
o It can be used for high-speed LAN.
Disadvantage:
o This cable can only be used for shorter distances because of attenuation.

Shielded Twisted Pair

A shielded twisted pair is a cable that contains the mesh surrounding the wire that allows the higher
transmission rate.
Characteristics Of Shielded Twisted Pair:
o The cost of the shielded twisted pair cable is not very high and not very low.
o An installation of STP is easy.
o It has higher capacity as compared to unshielded twisted pair cable.
o It has a higher attenuation.
o It is shielded that provides the higher data transmission rate.
Disadvantages
o It is more expensive as compared to UTP and coaxial cable.
o It has a higher attenuation rate.

Coaxial Cable:
Coaxial cable is a type of cable that has an inner conductor surrounded by an insulating layer,
surrounded by conductive shielding (outer conductor), and a protective outer jacket.
o Coaxial cable is very commonly used transmission media, for example, TV wire is usually a
coaxial cable.
o The name of the cable is coaxial as it contains two conductors parallel to each other.
o It has a higher frequency as compared to Twisted pair cable.
o The inner conductor of the coaxial cable is made up of copper, and the outer conductor is made
up of copper mesh. The middle core is made up of non-conductive cover that separates the inner
conductor from the outer conductor.
o The middle core is responsible for the data
transferring whereas the copper mesh prevents from
the EMI(Electromagnetic interference).
Coaxial cable is of two types:
1. Thinnet transmission: A much thinner and more flexible type of coaxial cable, ThinNet is
used on Ethernet 10Base2 networks and can span distances of up to 185 meters. This was
usually the media of choice for connecting computers on a LAN. In ThinNet networks,
computers connect to the network via a BNC-T connector attached to the network card.

2. Thicknet transmission: It is defined as the process of transmitting multiple signals

simultaneously. This type of coaxial cabling is used with Ethernet 10Base5 networks and is
able to span distances of up to 500 meters. Originally used to directly connect
computers, it eventually became popular in backbone implementations between LANs.

Advantages Of Coaxial cable:

o The data can be transmitted at high speed.
o It has better shielding as compared to twisted pair cable.
o It provides higher bandwidth.

Disadvantages Of Coaxial cable:

o It is more expensive as compared to twisted pair cable.
o If any fault occurs in the cable causes the failure in the entire network.

Fibre Optic
o Fibre optic cable is a cable that uses electrical signals for communication.
o Fibre optic is a cable that holds the optical fibres coated in plastic that are used to send the data by
pulses of light.
o The plastic coating protects the optical fibres from heat, cold, electromagnetic interference from
other types of wiring.
o Fibre optics provide faster data transmission than copper wires.
Diagrammatic representation of fibre optic cable:

Unguided media:

a) Radio Waves
The radio waves are the low-frequency electromagnetic wave ranging from ‘3 kHz to
1GHz’.Radio waves are electromagnetic waves and are omnidirectional. When an antenna transports
radio waves they are propagated in all directions in free space which means the sending and receiving
antennas do not have to be aligned that is any receiving antenna can receive that transmitted wave.
Applications of Radio waves
 These waves are omnidirectional so they are useful for multicasting in which one sender but
many receivers.
 Examples of radio waves are television, AM and FM radio, cordless phones, and paging.
Advantages and disadvantages
 Radio waves are easy to generate and penetrate buildings also can travel long distances.
 Radio waves cover a large area and can penetrate the buildings. By this, an AM radio can receive
signals inside a building.
  This can also be disadvantageous because we
cannot isolate a communication just inside or
outside a building. Cause of this, governments
strictly legislate the use of radio transmitters.

b) Micro Waves
The microwave is the electromagnetic waves with frequency ranging from ‘1 to 300 GHz’. The
microwaves are unidirectional in nature and due to which it propagates in line-of-sight mode. Micro
Waves includes a line of sight transmission that is the sending and receiving antennas that need to be
properly aligned with each other. The distance is directly proportional to the height of the antenna which
is covered by the signal. In mobile phone communication and television distribution, these are majorly
used.
Applications of Micro Waves
Due to the unidirectional properties of Micro Waves, they are very useful when unicast (one-to-one)
communication is needed between the sender and the receiver. Cellular phones, satellite networks, and
wireless LANs are using Micro Waves.
Microwave Transmission
Two types of Microwave Transmission are as follows,
i. Terrestrial Microwave
ii. Satellite Microwave
(i) Terrestrial Microwave
The frequency of Electromagnetic waves between 300 MHz and
300 GHz are called microwaves. These waves are unidirectional.
Whenever through an antenna microwave are transmitting, they can be narrowly focused. That is the
sending and receiving antennas need to be aligned.
Characteristics of microwaves
 It is inexpensive for short distance expensive as it requires a higher tower for a longer distance.
 Due to environmental conditions and antenna size attenuation (loss of signal) occurs.
 There is a capacity in very high-frequency microwaves that they cannot penetrate walls. This
characteristic can be a disadvantage of microwaves if the receiver is inside the buildings.
Advantages
 Microwave transmission is cheaper than using cables.
 It does not require any land for the installation of cables that is free from land acquisition.
 Microwave transmission provides easy communication.
Disadvantages
 Bandwidth is limited in microwave transmission.
 A signal can be moved out of phase and any environmental change such as rain, wind can distort
the signal so these signals are susceptible to weather conditions.
 Cause of eavesdropping insecure communication occurs in which any user can catch the signal in
the air by using its antenna.

(ii) Satellite Microwave

A satellite is an entity that revolves around the earth at a certain height. Satellite communication
offers more flexibility than fiber optic and cable systems. We can transmit signals from any point on the
globe by using satellite transmission.

How does a Satellite work?

The satellite receives the signal that is transmitted from the earth station, and it amplifies these
signals. It is retransmitted the amplified signal to another earth station.
Satellite transmission is much like the line-of-sight transmission in which one of the stations is a satellite
orbiting the earth. The principle is the same as the terrestrial microwave. Signals still travel in straight
lines in satellite transmission.
Features of Satellite Microwave
 It provides transmission capability to and from any location on earth.
 Deployment of Satellite microwaves for orbiting satellites is difficult.

Advantages of Satellite Microwave

 High-quality communication available to undeveloped parts of the world without requiring a huge
investment in the ground-based infrastructure.
 It is used in a variety of applications such as radio/TV signal broadcasting, weather forecasting,
radio/TV signal broadcasting, mobile communication and mobile, and wireless communication
applications.
 The coverage area of a terrestrial microwave is less than the terrestrial microwave.

Disadvantages of Satellite Microwave

 The manufacturing cost is very high of satellite and very expensive to launch a satellite.
 Transmission can go down in bad weather.

c) Infrared Waves
The frequency of Infrared waves is about 300 GHz to 400 THz, which can be used for short-range
communication. Infrared waves of high frequencies cannot penetrate walls. This characteristic of Infrared
waves prevents interference between one system and another. This means a short-range communication
system in a room cannot be affected by another system in the adjacent room.
If we are using the infrared remote control, we do not interfere with the use of the remote by our
neighbors. However, by this characteristic, infrared signals become useless for long-range
communication. Also, we cannot use infrared waves outside a building because the sun's rays contain
infrared waves that can interfere with communication.

Characteristics of infrared waves

 This type of wide bandwidth can be used to transmit digital data with a very high data rate.
 The Infrared Data Association (IrDA) has established standards for using these signals for
communication between devices such as keyboards, mouse, PCs, and printers and it is also
responsible for sponsoring the use of infrared waves.
 This type of communication provides better security with minimum interference.

Switching :
Switching is the mechanism in network that helps in
deciding the best route from source to destination for data
transmission that contains multiple paths in the large network.
During the data transmission in the huge network with
multiple links that connects large number of nodes, so switching
provides a facility to move the data from one node to other by
selecting the best path one to reach to the destination.
A Switch is used to transfer the data only to the device that has been addressed. It verifies the destination
address to route the packet appropriately.

Circuit Switching
o Circuit switching is a switching technique that establishes a dedicated path between sender and
receiver.
o In the Circuit Switching Technique, once the connection is established then the dedicated path
will remain to exist until the connection is terminated.
o Circuit switching in a network operates in a similar way as the telephone works.
o A complete end-to-end path must exist before the communication takes place.
o In case of circuit switching technique, when any user wants to send the data, voice, video, a
request signal is sent to the receiver then the receiver sends back the acknowledgment to ensure
 the availability of the dedicated path. After receiving the acknowledgment, dedicated path
transfers the data.
o Circuit switching is used in public telephone network. It is used for voice transmission.
o Fixed data can be transferred at a time in circuit switching technology.

Communication through circuit switching has 3 phases:

o Connection establishment
o Data transfer
o Connection termination

Advantages Of Circuit Switching:

o In the case of Circuit Switching technique, the communication
channel is dedicated.
o It has fixed bandwidth.

Disadvantages Of Circuit Switching:

o Once the dedicated path is established, the only delay occurs in the speed of data transmission.
o It takes a long time to establish a connection approx 10 seconds during which no data can be
transmitted.
o It is more expensive than other switching techniques as a dedicated path is required for each
connection.
o It is inefficient to use because once the path is established and no data is transferred, then the
capacity of the path is wasted.
o In this case, the connection is dedicated therefore no other data can be transferred even if the
channel is free.

Message Switching
o Message Switching is a switching technique in which a message is transferred as a complete unit
and routed through intermediate nodes at which it is stored and forwarded.
o In Message Switching technique, there is no establishment of a dedicated path between the sender
and receiver.
o The destination address is appended to the message. Message Switching provides a dynamic
routing as the message is routed through the intermediate nodes based on the information
available in the message.
o Message switches are programmed in such a way so that they can provide the most efficient
routes.
o Each and every node stores the entire message and then forward it to the next node. This type of
network is known as store and forward network.
o Message switching treats each message as an
independent entity.

Advantages Of Message Switching

o Data channels are shared among the communicating
devices that improve the efficiency of using available
bandwidth.
o Traffic congestion can be reduced because the message is temporarily stored in the nodes.
o Message priority can be used to manage the network.
o The size of the message which is sent over the network can be varied. Therefore, it supports the
data of unlimited size.

Disadvantages Of Message Switching

o The message switches must be equipped with sufficient storage to enable them to store the
messages until the message is forwarded.
o The Long delay can occur due to the storing and forwarding facility provided by the message
switching technique.
Packet Switching
o The packet switching is a switching technique in which the message is sent in one go, but it is
divided into smaller pieces, and they are sent individually.
o The message splits into smaller pieces known as packets and packets are given a unique number
to identify their order at the receiving end.
o Every packet contains some information in its headers such as source address, destination address
and sequence number.
o Packets will travel across the network, taking the shortest path as possible.
o All the packets are reassembled at the receiving end in correct order.
o If any packet is missing or corrupted, then the message will be sent to resend the message.
o If the correct order of the packets is reached, then the
acknowledgment message will be sent.

Approaches Of Packet Switching:

There are two approaches to Packet Switching:

Datagram Packet switching:

o It is a packet switching technology in which packet is known as a datagram, is considered as an
independent entity. Each packet contains the information about the destination and switch uses
this information to forward the packet to the correct destination.
o The packets are reassembled at the receiving end in correct order.
o In Datagram Packet Switching technique, the path is not fixed.
o Intermediate nodes take the routing decisions to forward the packets.
o Datagram Packet Switching is also known as connectionless switching.
Virtual Circuit Switching
o Virtual Circuit Switching is also known as connection-oriented switching.
o In the case of Virtual circuit switching, a preplanned route is established before the messages are
sent.
o Call request and call accept packets are used to establish the connection between sender and
receiver.
o In this case, the path is fixed for the duration of a logical connection.

Let's understand the concept of virtual circuit switching

through a diagram:

o In the above diagram, A and B are the sender and receiver

respectively. 1 and 2 are the nodes.
o Call request and call accept packets are used to establish a
connection between the sender and receiver.
o When a route is established, data will be transferred.
o After transmission of data, an acknowledgment signal is
sent by the receiver that the message has been received.
o If the user wants to terminate the connection, a clear signal
is sent for the termination.

Differences between Datagram approach and Virtual Circuit approach

Datagram approach Virtual Circuit approach

Node takes routing decisions to Node does not take any routing decision.
forward the packets.
Congestion cannot occur as all the Congestion can occur when the node is
packets travel in different busy, and it does not allow other packets to
directions. pass through.
It is more flexible as all the packets It is not very flexible.
are treated as an independent
entity.

Advantages Of Packet Switching:

o Cost-effective: In packet switching technique, switching devices do not require massive
secondary storage to store the packets, so cost is minimized to some extent. Therefore, we can say
that the packet switching technique is a cost-effective technique.
o Reliable: If any node is busy, then the packets can be rerouted. This ensures that the Packet
Switching technique provides reliable communication.
o Efficient: Packet Switching is an efficient technique. It does not require any established path
prior to the transmission, and many users can use the same communication channel
simultaneously, hence makes use of available bandwidth very efficiently.

Disadvantages Of Packet Switching:

o Packet Switching technique cannot be implemented in those applications that require low delay
and high-quality services.
o The protocols used in a packet switching technique are very complex and requires high
implementation cost.
o If the network is overloaded or corrupted, then it requires retransmission of lost packets. It can
also lead to the loss of critical information if errors are nor recovered.

The commonly used coaxial cable is 10 base 2 that transmits over a distance of 185 m, and 10 base 5 that
transmits over a distance of 500 m.

Knowledge Based:
Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP)
UTP comes in several categories that are based on the number of twists in the wires, the diameter of the
wires and the material used in the wires.
Category 3 is the wiring used primarily for telephone connections.
Category 5e and Category 6 are currently the most common Ethernet cables used.
Categories of UTP
CAT 1 CAT 2 CAT 3 CAT 4 CAT 5

16 Mhz 20 Mhz 100 Mhz 150 Mhz 250 Mhz

Bandwidth Bandwidth Bandwidth Bandwidth Bandwidth

11.5 dB 7.5 dB 24.0 dB 24.0 dB 19.8 dB

 Attenuation Attenuation Attenuation Attenuation Attenuation

100 ohms 100 ohms 100 ohms 100 ohms 100 ohms
Impedance Impedance Impedance Impedance Impedance

Transmit
Voice Data High-speed Data Transmit High-
High-Speed
applications Transmission Transmission Speed Data
Data

Used in Fast Used in

10BaseT (10 Ethernet (100 Gigabit
& 10baseT Used in 10baseT
Mbps) Ethernet & Mbps), Gigabit Ethernet (1000
(10Mbps) (10Mbps)
Fast Ethernet Ethernet (1000 Mbps) & 10
Ethernet Ethernet
(100 Mbps) Mbps) & 155 Gig Ethernet
Mbps ATM (10000 Mbps)
Fiber Optics/Optical Fiber
Optical fibers use light to send information through the optical medium.
It uses the principal of total internal reflection.
Modulated light transmissions are used to transmit the signal.
It consist of
1. Core: optical fiber conductor (glass) that transmits light
2. Cladding: an optical material that surrounds the core to prevent any light from escaping the
core3)
3. Jacket:outer covering made of plastic to protect the fiber fromdamage.

Data Transmission And Data Networking

Data transmission: Transmitting digital or analog data over a communication medium to one or more
devices.
At physical level; it involves the hardware that handle individual bits and encode bits in signals. And
transmit via medium
Data Transmission Network tropology:
point-to-point, point-to-multipoint, or multipoint-to-multipoint(Mesh)
If a large number of computers need to interact with each other, point to point communication will require
direct link between all the computers.
o More expensive
o Not practical
Also, Data doesn’t transmit data all the time, which will result in the communication medium will be
ideal. (Waste of resources)
Computer Network; it provide convenient interface that handles sending of multiple bytes of data across
the network instead of handling data transmission at physical level.
POINT TO POINT COMMUNICATION MULTIPOINT COMMUNICATION

Point to point communication means the channel is Multipoint Communication means the channel is
shared between two devices. shared among multiple devices or nodes

In this communication, There is dedicated link In this communication, link is provided all times
between two nodes. for share the connection among nodes.

In this communication, the entire capacity is In this communication, the entire capacity is
reserved between these connected two devices. depend on the quick sharing.

In point-to-point connections, the smallest distance In Multi-point connections, the smallest distance
is most important to reach the receiver. is not important to reach the receiver.
 Point-to-point communication provides security and Multi-point communication does not provides
privacy because communication channel is not security and privacy because communication
shared. channel is shared.

In this communication, there is one transmitter and In this communication, there is one transmitter
one receiver. and many receivers.

Switching
Switching is the process of transmitting data packets from the source to the destination through a number
of intermediate network nodes.
Each node controls or Route/Switches data packets to the next node towards the destination
It allows different users, fair access to the shared communication medium

When data comes on a node it is called ingress, and when data goes out of a node it is called egress.
Switching methods are connection oriented switching and connectionless switching.
Switching Techniques
1. Circuit Switching
 Connection Oriented N/W switching technique
 Dedicated route is established between the source and the destination
 Full Channel bandwidth is available for communication during the communication session.
 Commonly used in telephone communication

Advantages Disadvantages

Circuit switching establishes a dedicated

It is suitable for long continuous transmission,
connection between the end parties. This
since a continuous transmission route is
dedicated connection cannot be used for
established, that remains throughout the
transmitting any other data, even if the data
conversation.
load is very low.

The dedicated path ensures a steady data rate

underutilization of system resources
of communication.

No intermediate delays are found once the As it’s the dedicated channel, Cannot be
circuit is established. used for other connections

suitable for real time communication of both Time required to establish connection may
voice and data transmission be high.
2. Message Switching
Message switching is a connectionless network switching technique where the entire message is routed
from the source node to the destination node, one hop at a time
It uses the ‘store and forward’ mechanism at each intermediate node during switching
Message switching treats each message as an individual unit. Before sending the message, the sender
node adds the destination address to the message.
Then delivered to the next intermediate switching node
intermediate node stores the message checks for transmission errors, inspects the destination address and
then delivers it to the next node.
If intermediate switching node is busy, it delay the switching until resource is available.‘store and
forward’

Advantage Disadvantage
 In order to store many messages of unlimited sizes,
Sharing of communication channels ensures
each intermediate switching node requires large
better bandwidth utilization
storage capacity

reduces network congestion due to store and Store and forward method introduces delay at each
forward method. switching node

Broadcasting messages requires much less Unsuitable for real time applications,because of
bandwidth than circuit switching. delay, store and forward mechanism

Messages of unlimited sizes can be sent

No needto deal with out of order packets or

lost packets as in packet switching
3. Packet Switching
Connectionless Network Switching Technique
the message is divided and grouped into a number of units called packets
Packets individually routed from the source to the destination.
There is no need to establish a dedicated circuit for communication.

Process
Each packet has two parts: a header and a payload.
The header contains the addressing information of the packet.
Used by the intermediate routers to direct it towards its destination.
The payload carries the actual data.
Based on header information, Packet is transmitted as soon as it is available in a node
packets of a message are not routed via the same path, they are transmitted as per the path available.
When packets of a message arrive to destination they are not in order
Destination retrieve the original message by reordering the received packets
A packet is transmitted as soon as it is available in a node, based upon its header information
Packets A,B,C and D follow different routes from sender to receiver.

Advantage Disadvantage

Delay in delivery of packets is less, since packets are sent unsuitable for applications that cannot afford delays in
as soon as they are available communication like high quality voice calls

Don’t require massive storage, since they don’t have to

store the entire messages before forwarding them to the high installation costs
next node.

Data delivery can continue even if some parts of the Network problems may introduce errors in packets, delay
network faces link failure. Packets can be routed via other in delivery of packets or loss of packets. If not properly
paths. handled, this may lead to loss of critical information

Requires high skilled manpower, complex protocols for

use of the same channel by multiple users.
delivery.

better bandwidth usage