‘This book, together with its companion volume
Engineering Drawing with Worked Examples 2, bas
become over the years one of the most widely used
textbooks in its field
‘The book presents concise explanations of the subjects
general principles, and uses worked examples freely to
expand the text. Each example shows the method of
obtaining the solution and includes additional explanatory
notes. For some topics, where it would have been dificult
to understand a solution given on a single drawing, the
solution has been drawn in step-by-step form. All the
figures used conform tothe recommendations of BS 308:
1972
Engineering Drawing with Worked Examples 1 and 2
together provide a background course for technician
students, but will be equally useful for any engineering
drawing course. i
(M.A. Parker is currently Technical Education Officer at |
the British Standards Institution, London, and was |
formerly Senior Lecturer in charge of Engineering i
Drawing at Hong Kong Polytechnic. |
ANd 29 aR VN
‘The late F. Pickup was formerly Chief Examiner for |
‘A-level Technical Drawing atthe University of London |
|
SBN O-248?-03L1-x i
itenfia 6459 7 |] | |
a
4
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Engineering Drawing
with Worked Examples 1
Third edition
M. A. Parker
‘TEng. (CED, MIMGTech.E
F, Pickup
CEng, MIProd E
Sana
Stanley Thornes (Publishers) LtdFat MA Paro ona Pp 1960, 970, 1078
Srahalitratens SW Poke i
‘Regt of WA. Pater and F Poko be erie as authors of his work
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Ets pubedin 1960 by Hutchinson Eaton
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27 Gan Rows
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‘United engdom
02 08 OF 05 06 / 18 17 16 15 14 19 12 11 10
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7
CONTENTS
Preface
Lines and Leteing
Geometrical Constructions
Principles of Tangeacy
Loci
[Ellipse—Porabola— Hypebola—Cyelis:
Orthorrapic Projection
Fiat angie Tard ate
Dimensioning
Sections! Views
Fall SeciontSeton Liner Half Sections
aca! Sectons—RevoledSections—
FRemoved Sections Part Scion
Ofte Sstions Aligned Sections
Conventions
‘Sommety Repetitive Infrmaton-—
Common Featres
Serew Threads
Screw Fasteners -
Fexagon at, Bly and Serent—Sts—
Machine Serer Hexagon Socket Serews ond
Ser Serene” Slowed Grab Sows
Locking Devices
Keys and Cottered Joints
‘True Lengths
Isometric Projection
Oblique Projection
“Technical Sketching
Machine Drawings
Tables
8
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7%
101
10
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10
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190
m2PREFACE
‘The changes introduced in the 1972 revision of BS 308, Engineering
Drawing Practice, have made a new edition of this book necessary. The
‘general plan of the book, however, remains unchanged. The text has
teen Kept toa minimum suicient to outine the seneral principles of
the subject, and worked examples have been freely used t0 enlarge on
it, Each example shows the method of obtaining the solution, together
‘with addtional explanatory notes. For some topes where a solution
‘on one drawing would have been dificult to understand the solution
thas been drawn in step-by-step form. ‘The number of sich solutions
Jas been increased in this edition, and additional problems have also
been provided
‘The drawings have been completely redrawn and conform to the
recommendations of BS 308: 1972, To mark the equal status given to
st and Third Angle projection in this tandsré, equal use has been
made of the two systems. Chapters on conventions abd technical
sketching have been add, and other topics have een covered in more
clockwise about O. The end B ofthe rad AB is constrained to move
always along PQ. Plot the locus of R for one revolution of OA
HOA 6 30cm, AB is 105 cm and AR is 70 em. Sele Imm to | em
23 The crank OA revolves anticlockwise about O, and B moves to and
fro along the horizontal line through . Plt the locus of P if OA
is 30 mm, ABs 98 mm and AP is 20 mm.
24 The rod AB moves so that A is alvays on OY and B is always on
(OX. Plot the locus of P for the maximum movements of A and Bit
‘AB is 130 mm and AP is 58 mm,
25 The figure shows diagrammatically a par of folding doors. Plot the
locus ofP forthe fll movement of A from D to C. ABand BC are
‘eh 180 em and AP is 60 em. Scale I mm to 1 em,
26 In the mechaniam shown in the gure, OA revolves anti-clockwise
about O while AB sides through the pivoted Block C. Draw the
Tocus of Bor one revolution of OA. OA fs mm and ABs 143mm.
27 In the given mechanism the cranks AO and BQ revel in opposite
directions at the sime speed, and are joined by the rads AC and
LCP. Plt the lous of P For one revolution ofthe czas, if AO and
1 are 25 mm, AC i125 mm and CP i620 mm
28 The crank OA of the mechanism shown rotates clockwise about ©.
‘The end B of the lik AB moves along the line PQ and FD swings
about F, Obiain the locus of for one revolution of OA. OA is 40
inm, AB is 150'mm, BC i 65 mm, CD 130 mm, DE end DF are
7S,
»aa
19 tthe gure the crank AB rotates clockwise about A and the crank
Ep rotates anticlockwise about C. The cranks ae joined by the fink
BDF, Plo toa sale of | mm to {cm theloci of points Eand F for
bre revolution of AB. AB and DC are 45 em, BD is 120 em and
DBE and DF are 30 em,
40 The crank OA in the figure rotates clockwise at constant speed and
diving one revolution E moves fram C to D and back to C at
‘Gonstane sped If the inital position ofthe mechanism is as shown
Sn the figure, draw the locus of B during one revolution of OA.
(OA is 25 mm and AB and BC are 75 mm.
31 The rod OA rotates anticlockwise at constant speed about 0,
throush 180", During this movement the point P moves from Po
Prand back to Pat constant speed, Draw th loeus of P during the
complete movement of OA.
432 The crank in the figure rotates clockwise abut O. The link AB is
attached fo 8 od CB which swings about C. Consteuct the Tocus of
PifOA is 45cm, AB is 180 cm, CB is 75 em and BP is 9¢ em. Sele
Vim to tom,
33 A modified form of Wat’ straight line motion is shown in Figure
$A"the rods AB and CD ate 115 mm long and swing about A.
and D respectively. The link BC is 76 mm long with Pits mid point.
Plet the complete locus of P.
42
5
ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTION
FIGURE I on page 45 shows point A in space ad plane fine
is drawn fom the point tothe pane meting iat Ay then A” pO-
Section ofa the plane. The line Ais a projector. Ihe projector is
ormal to the plane, A’ isan orthographe projection of Aortho-
‘raphe’ meaning to daw at right ales
2 line may be projet orthographialy by projecting is ends as
sown in Fgute 2. The projectors willbe parallel and nocal tothe
pine shoul be noted that the projection wl show he te length
‘tthe line only fhe ie i parle to he plane
Sold const of points kes by lines. Therefore, using systems of
parle projets fom thee boundaries, they may Be projected ortho-
rapiclly ono any nomber of planes Ths siete i Figure 3.
[As befor, th projectors ate normal to the lanes
"a pacize, orthographic potion wes wo main panes, called the
pinta plans of projection, One i horizontal tbe ter veri and
Views on them are principal views. ‘They intersect producing Tour
(guadrants oranges as show ia Figre 4. The objec to be dean i
imagined to be placed in one of these quadrants and orthographic
views of it are projected on to the planes. The object may have any
Crietton tothe planes, but normal is pstioned so hat is main
foes are pall to them. This eosures that views ofthe faces are tue
fizand shape In practic only the Fist and Third Ales ae wed ince
‘ews in the Second and Fourth Quadrant may overlp
Fire Angle orthographic projection
Figure 5 shows an object positioned in space in the First Quads
Views of te objet have been drawa on the planes using systems of
parallel projectors normal tthe planes. The view onthe vertical plane
Bealled the elevation, tat on the horizontal plane the plan. To obtain
the views a they would appear on a shet of paper, the horizontal plane
is opened out, or ubatted, abou the intersection ofthe planes. The line
of intersection is called the XY line, ground line o folding line Relative
to the elevation ie represents the horizontal plane. Relative to the plan
it represents the versal plane. It will be seen feom Figure $ thatthe
projectors cross the ground line at right angles and are parallel. Since
4°the ground line represents the planes, the views in Figuee 5 sats the
‘oncitons fr orthographic projection piven above,
End views Fat Anle projection
es found in practice that an elevation and plan ofan object are not
always sufient to describe it completly. If thisisthe casa third view,
called an end view, end elevation or sde elevation s dawn onan aul-
‘ary vertical plane, This plane, as shown in Figure isa right angles
to both the horizontal and vertical panes. t may be placed in ether of
the two postions shown, depending on which fee ofthe objects the
‘more important I nether face is more important than the ober, he
nd ie tobe drawn that Which shows the minimum of hiddea ines.
Ta some cases ir may be necessary to draw both ea views
‘When the auiliry vertical plane i opened outwith the horizontal
plane, the vist appear inthe postions given in Figure 6 1 wil be een
{hat eights in the to clevtion ae eal and depts inthe plan view
‘ual corresponding widths in the cod view. These points should be
borne ia mind when orthographic views ate being drawn, since they
make ie posible to projet the third view from any wo piven views.
‘Some objets have inclined or oblique fies. An ineined face makes
an ange wth oe principal plane and is perpendicular tothe other; a8
‘oblique face iat sn angle to both principal planes. To desebe com
letly objets of these types the three views already discussed are
‘sully insuficien, and i is necessary to project additional vews on
ausiary planes. This aspect of ontbopraphie projection is dealt wth ia
Book 2
Projection symbols
Sine, as BS 3081972 states, wo systems of pojcetion, Fist Angle and
‘Third Angle are approved international its necessary to indicate on
the drawing which sytem has been used. This is doe bya symbol con-
‘ining ofan elation and end view of «fastum of cone. The Fist,
‘Ange symbol is shown in Figure 6 and the Thied Angle symbol in
Figure 8 If the symbols are not used then BS 208:1972 recommends
that “the discon in which the views are taken should be clearly
indated, Failure to indicate the projection sytem may result in costly
terrae bring made by a person, wsed to onosystem, misresding a draw
ng made in he othe.
Third Angle orthographic projection
‘An objet postioned in the Third Quadrant between the principal
planes is shown in Figure 7. Since the planes now come between the
Dbserer andthe obec they are imagined to be ansparent, and the
objet viewed through them. An elevation and plan have Been peo-
jected on to the verdcal and horizontal planes respectively, sing
(o the plans as for First Angle projection,
“4
ios "pes omens eserin obo
ee mom ues
4sWhen the planes are abated the views appear asin Figure 7, with the
plan now above the elevation. Figure 7 shows the projectors to be
Partie end a ight anges f0 the XY line, so the views are agai in
‘orthographic projection.
Tn Figure & an suxiary plane has been added and an end view pro-
“jected on tot. Rabatting the plans gives the views positioned as shown
‘The plan and end view ave placed atthe sides of the front elevation
Tear to the faces which they represent In Fist Ange projection the
plan and end iow ae placed a the sides ofthe fron clevation remote
From th faces which they deseribe. In Titd Angle asin Fist, eights
nthe elevation and end view are equal, and depts in the plan view
‘sual corresponding widths Inthe end view.
tnunilry views drawn in Third Angle projection use the sae prin-
ciples as thove drawn in First Ange projection. Auiiry planes, ike
{he principal planes of projection, are considered to be transparent
283081972 states that Fitstand Third Angle projections ‘areregaeded
‘as bring of equal status However, Thitd Angle projection bas the
‘Tivantage that, when long objects are being drasn, end views appear
nearest to the faces hich they represent. Occasionally this is used to
produce a combination of First and Third Angle proetions in which
{he pan s drawn inthe Fist Angle postion and the end views he
‘Third Avge postion. Sachmined-projection drawings mist always cary
rote under the views suoh "Wie indiretion of arrow A’, indieating
hhow they were obtained
General
‘Always leave enough space between the views on a drawing to accom
tnodate dimensions and notes without crowding. Plan the spacing before
begining.
"The minimam numbe'of views should be used consistent with ds
ceibing the object completely. A view which shows only a diameter or
Chickoes is unnecessary f this information can be given a8 a note oF a
‘dimension on encther view. A view without « note or dimensions is
probably unnecessary
Hidden detail should only be wed where it is essential for a complete
sisription ofthe obec, But should not be wsed for dimensioning,
Tiguce 9 shows the correct representation of hidden detail io various
Build up all the views together. Completing the views separately
wastes time since measurements can often be made ob £Wo OF MOTE
mimeo, or rst om near son ay
“Taree worked example in each sytem of projection follow on pages
529 $5 and further problens wll be found on page 5
48
ear
°r oxruooRarnte PROJECTION ontnoorarate Prortction
26 Draw anew fon elevation ofthe clamp, obtaining it by viewing
PROJECTION PROBLEMS
onrHogRAPHIC PROJECTION PRORLEMS {he given end view in the direction of row A. Frou his view
‘eae full size throughout. Show all hidden dct unless oterwise project in Third Ange projetion an end view positioned om the
sass he Ftst or Third Angle projection as required by the question. Fehand sie, and pan
13- Taese fer toa hexagonal prism 24 mm across fats and 8 mm Furter simple problems in orthographic projection wil be found tte
ARSE Using First Anse projection dra the given view and pro ‘begining ofthe Machine Drawings in Chapter 17
‘pattem t to ote views i the psitons init
446 “These refer to 9 exagonal pyramid 30 mm across comes ad
‘tn high, In each question dra the given vew snd prot,
From wo further ews inthe positions showa, Use Fust Angle
projection.
1-40 Draw the given view ad fom it proectwo other views in Fite
‘Angle proestion a shown, Do ot show hidden dealin ques-
tions 9 and 10
11-13 Using Fest Angle projection, project two more views fem the
fivea vie inthe postions shown,
1M: Draw the given views ofthe wall bracket in Fist Angle projec:
tion an project plan from the righthand on.
15 Draw the given end view ofthe det nd project fom itn Fest
‘Angle projection @ new front elevation ia the direction of the
arrow, and a plan
16 Peo from he given font elevation a plan and new end view
in the direction of the arrow. Use Fest Angle projection
17-20 Using Third Ange projection, draw the given vew ofthe sting
pisce and from it project two further views in the postions
Indiated, Do not show hidden detail in questions 19 and 20
25 Draw the given view in each case and projet fom it two other
vows ar sown, Use Third Angle projection, i
24 Copy the given views ofthe camshaft btring and proj fom
the letehand view a plan, Use Thin Angle pigeon.
25 Two elevations ofa bearing base are given. Do not deaw these
views but draw new front elevation obtained by viewing the
‘ven end elevation inthe direction of arrow A, From tis view
project an ead elation positioned onthe righthand sie, and
plan. Use Thild Angle projection.
56Slee o| “77 “|B
iP |! alP ln
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=oFd
.— ASE6
DIMENSIONING
THE study of dimensioning falls into evo parts. Fest, what may be
called the technique of dimensioning, that is, the coret drawing,
lettering ad positioning ofthe dimensions on a drawing. This may be
‘quickly grasped by leaaing the various rules and comentions which
overt and by studying finshed drawings in this bok and elsewhere
Secondly, dimensioning involves the section of dimensions to ensure
the correct functioning ofthe pir, and to enable che Workman to make
it without having to calculate aay sizes, This side of dimensioning is
‘only understood aftr considerable experience both in the making of
drawings, and in the workshop processes by which the article is made.
“Ther ar, howeve, some bss principles for he eleson of dimenrions
which ate set out below
Dimensionngtelaique
Dimensions shoud te placed ouside the outine of the view wherever
posible, Tis is achieved by drawing projection or extension lines from
points or ines on the view and placing dimension ine between them.
Dimension and projection lines re thi, continuous Hines as noted in
Chapter I. There shoul preferably bea small gap betwera the ovtize
land the start ofthe projection line, and projection lines should con-
tinue a short distance beyond the dimension lin. The dimension lise
hasarrowbeads about 3mm long at ach end, and these must us touch
the projection or other iting ine. The dimension ine whichis nearest
the outline shook! be about 10 ma fom i if possible, and sueceding
dimensions shouldbe well spaced forclaity. Dimensions must neet
be cramped. To avoid dimension and proection lines crossing, the
smallest dimension sald be plot nearest the eulne, These points
are shown in Figure on page 66
‘Cent lines oftheir extensions and outlines or thee extensions, must
note used as dimension ines, They may, however, be used as projection
lines as shown in Figure 2 Dinension lines should be placed onthe
vw mich shows the feaures to which they refer most cel.
Dimension figures ee placed normal tothe dimension ine and near
its ene. They must not be exosed or separate by another line of he
rowing, Te gues must be positioned so that they can be ead from
6sil
Uo
|
i
i
the bottom aright hand sde ofthe drawing citer above the dimension
line orn «gup in i. Figure 3illusteates these points, Figo 4 shows
how sttal features or natow spaces are dimensioned. The dimension
i placed centrally or above the extension of one ofthe arrowheads.
"The decimal marker should be bold and placed oa the base line of the
figures Dimensions less than unity should be preceded by 8 2ro,
“The dimension lin for an angle isa icuae are having its eure on
the point ofthe angle, Thi is seated in Figure 5. The dimension
figures, ike those for lineae dimensions, are placed so that ty can be
read ffom the Bottom of right-hand side of the drawing. Angular
dimensions are given in depres, degrees snd minutes, or degrees,
‘minutes and seconds, depending onthe accuracy requied. If the angle
Ses than one degree it shouldbe preceded by
Complete circles mast always be dimensioned by their diameters,
sing one ofthe methods shown ia Figure 6. The dimension is preceded
by the symbol g, meaning diameter. Cices must be shown With to
ete ines.
Figur 7 sows several ways in which diameters may be dimensioned
“The dimension should be placed on the view which ensires the maxiurn
laity asa (Here the diameter dimeasions ae laced onthe long
tudinal view rather than on the view having & number of concentric
ticles, AC(O) the diameter dimensions are related tothe features by
Jeaders, thus avoiding a large numberof projection ies appearing on
the view. The methods at () and (@) ae useful where space is rested.
Radi are dimensioned using a dimension line which passes through,
otis ine wit, the are centr. The dimension lie cares one arron~
‘ead only and this touches the are. The abbreviation precedes the
Aimeasion. Figure illustrates these points
“Methods of dimensioning chamfer are shown in Figure 9. To ait
any misitrpretation of the dimensions of 45" chanfers one ofthese
rethods shou be used, and nota lender and note
‘Notes are frequently used on drawings tgetber with leader which
shows where de note apples. Leaders are thin, comtinvous ines which
tay terminate in an arrowhead o dt, a showin Figure 10. Leaders
‘vith arrowbeads must touch ne those with dot should have the dot
‘vith the ottine Leaders mut not teh an outline am aot angle,
‘either should they be parallel to adjacent dimeasion or projtion
lines or confusion may occur. Long leaders should be avoided ether
by placing the note or dimension clove to the view, or by repeating i
‘Recommended ways of dimeasoning te common machiing Opets-
tions of countrsnking, coumerborng and spetfcing ate shown on
page 72, Noes such as Countersink to sit MB Csk HA screw’ are ime
[rece and should be avoided. I should be noted tat since spotacng
iam operation whch only cleans up a surface, a depth dimension is
voces.
o‘The dimensioning of sorew threads and Keyways is covered in
Chapters 9 and 12 respectively
“The foregoing notes ate based on BS 208: Part2: 1972, Dimensoning
and tolerancing of se. They ae intended to cover only those points
Ivhich oowurfrequenly, and for amore detied teatment students
Should consult the Standard
The selection of dimensons—see dimensions
Engineering details are made up of simple geometrical shapes suchas
cylinder, prisms, cones, spheres ad So oa. These shapes may be
‘Posie’ of negative’ Fo example, a czcular paisa postive clinde
hil cirular ole is a acgatve cylinder. When dimensioning detail
frst break it down into its simple shapes and dimension them to show
their ses. These ae the size dimensions. Thea postion the simple
shapes relative to each other by location dimensions.
‘Examples ofthe size dimensioning ofthe more common geometric
‘shapes are given in Figure 14. The elder an prs nee wo ave oly
their length and ross-setin tated. Note, however, ha ora neste
cinder i the form ofa bind drilled hol, the length isthe depth ofthe
‘rola portion, not the depth f the point, since this cannot be easily
‘measured. The complete cone, a ray in engineering, requires the ver=
tial height and tase diameter Fora rustam of cone one ofthe eter
methods is used. Spherical diameters or radi should be preceded by
oe
Location dimensions
When Inston dimensions ae sleted the following pats should be
‘borne in mind. They ae illustrated in Figure 15. Cylinders, cones and
other symmetrical shapes are located by their coat lines and ct by
‘heir surfaces. Non-symmetricl shapes are lected by ther comers oF
feces. Te location dieasios should eppear on the view which shows
the typical shape” of the feature, For example, holes shouldbe located
fon the view which shows thetn abil, Hols equally spaced on
cice (@ “itch er’) should be so described in the not giving thee
umber and size, or with a separate dimension for the pitch ciel
diameter. I they are not equally spaced they should be located either
by angles or ondinates, depending onthe accuracy required.
‘Castings and forgings are generally only partially machined. For
1h parts loation dimensions must he taken from the machised sur
sof fom cent lines. Unmachined susfaces must not be used
‘Wher its neesnry to indicate that acurfaceistobemachined, without
etinng either the surface texture, grade or proces to be used, a symbol
‘ofthe fom shown in Figure 15 shouldbe ted. The symbol sbould be
sppled normal to the lin representing the surface, or to a lender of|
6
ocexcoson line. Such symbols ae caled machining marks, For 3 detail
Stich isto be machined al over, 2 general nie all ote?’ may be
te.
‘With parts which are machined all ver, or which are not machined
aval suitable dat faces of lines must be selected to ensure the
Comet fatoning of the part, ot aid manafcture. The pin shown in
Figure 15, for example, has its datum face under the bead! t give the
‘machinist the dimensions he requires iret.
‘Similarly, the Positions ofthe holes nthe dried plate in the same
figure ned io be related to the ees AB and BCforfntional reason,
fo they are located from these eda.
‘Redundant dimensions
‘A drawing must carry only those dimensions nosded to make the part
fad no dimension mst appear more than once on view. or on fer.
feat views, neither mus informatio be given in wo dierent ways, The
acon fr this is that dieasions on drains ae sometimes altered
when the dsin is medied, and ithey appear in moe than ove pace
fone of them may te mise The same dimension wil then occur wth
two direst values and cause confusion. Examples of redundant
dimensions are shown in Figure 6.
In Figure 163) the overall dimension of the component is given
twice, one irecly and again a the sum of two intermediate dimen
sions. One intemmedate dimension should be omite, as shown ia
Figure 1b). The one tobe omited isthe lest important, decked by
considering the function of the part. Equally, the overall dimension
ould be omitted if it was les important than any of the intermediate
Aimensions. Occasionally the dimension re ole) maybe used,
‘when the overall ength ie gven ar an aay dinesion The sunny
‘imension sented by being enclosed in rackets, The overal length
ofa partis sometimes needed to decide how mach materi to order,
oro ext tock into approximate lengths. An auxiliary dimension i not
‘se inthe machiaing or inspection ofa par.
Dimensions of features which ae obviouly the same shoul not be
repeated. Thi is illustrated in Figures 16) and (4). The comer radii
8d ckoass 0° the four webs shoul Se ven once oni. Similaty
‘et end blend radi on casting or forging shouldbe given onse, and
itis convenient to do this by means of general note,
To ensure that no redundant dimensions have been given and to
check the completeness ofthe dimensioaing, the draughtsman should
‘mentally go trough the manufacture ofthe parte as awa, a the
same tne marking each dimension as he wisi. Any omitted den
sons wll be apparent a the check proceeds. At the end any womarked
‘imension willbe eupefuous,
”
wlDIMENSIONING PROBLEMS
‘ake deta dravings of the components shown on page 77, using
the scale at the bottom of the page. Fully dimension the drawings
{Rlcming the fasretions below. Views on the solutions need not be
thove shen Sections aod conventions may be used as seems convenient.
Solution are to be drawn inthe same projection sytem as hat wed for
the given views.
1 (@) Locate each bole fom the righthand and top edges of the
eta
(@) Resraw assuiag hole A tobe the datum and dimension accord
ingly.
2 (a) Dimension the plate fom the edges XY and YZ.
(@) Redraw making hole A the datum fo the other two hols and
fidges PQ snd YZ. he datum edge or the group of holes.
2 Dimension the bracket assuming it to be machined where indicated
“The four holes ae ls
4 The back machined fice ofthe Mange is the datum surface forthe
shaft support. Dimension it assuming t to be machined where
indicated.
5 The details machined allover. The postion ofthe tapered portion
relive to the underside of the bead is important. Dimension
sovordingly
n1
SECTIONAL VIEWS
‘OBJECTS with litle interior detail can be represented satisfactorily
In enthographic projetion by exterior views, the interior construction
thing shown by hidden detail ines: When the iatvior detail is more
Complisted, ain Figure on page 9, then the hidden deal ines may
be confusing and dif to interpret corzety. In such eases the
Graughisman imagine the objet to be cut by a pane a in Figure 2,
fd asumes the pat ofthe objet Between hs eye andthe plane to be
femoved. This exposes the laterior detail which can then be shown by
fillings instead of hidden deta ines. The esting view is setinal
tiew ora section, Sinly«setonal view incudes ll visible ins be
hind te ection plane, while sexion shows only what sppears onthe
cultng plane, A seston, as opposed to a sectional vie, is rarely wed,
fad frequently the two terms ae used inisriminately
Fal scion
“The view shown in Figure 2 i called a fll sectional view beeause he
cating plane passes completly through the object. It should be noted
that all visible edges behind the plane must be shown or the view wll
be incomplete, as ilutrated fo Figure 3. Such a view is meaningless
Hidden deal ines, however, are nt shown ona sectional ew unless
they are newded fo deseribe the objet completely. The postion of =
cattng plane is shown on a view whete it appears asa line, and the
‘ietion in which the plane is viewed is given by arrows at each end
Ltrs on the arrows and a te such as ‘Section AA’ below the
‘ecional view elite te view to the cttng plane. The cutting plane
line is «Yong thin ehain ine with thik long dash at each end. The
arcows are placed wath this 9 ing the core ofthis thick
{kash Note tht the other view or views onthe drawing show the com-
ete obj, unless they also are sectional views. This is beeause the
‘bjt is oy imagined tobe cat by the seton plane. These points are
‘stated in Figure 2
“The postion ofthe cating plane i elected by the draughtsman to
show the interior of the object fo the best advantage. When its postion
is ebvius, for example when coincides with the cence ine of gym
Incl bject it a the tile of he sectional ew are often omitted
7"
»Section lines
‘A sectional view is distinguished from an ouside view by section ines
‘r hatching drawn on the eut surfaces produced bythe section plane.
‘Thin lines Inctined at 45, ae wed for hatching, They are equally
faced ty eye the sping being not les than about 4 mn. Te larger
the are to be hated the wider the pacing may be up to @ maximum
fof about 10:mon. For very large area the hatching tay be limited toa
Sone folowing the contour ofthe batched area as shown in Figure 7.
‘Ifthe meaning ofthe drawing i Gear without hatching sectional view,
itrmay be ome, This has been dove in Figures 9 and 12 and at other
‘places in this book.
Tris important tothe appearance ofthe Snised drawing tht hateh-
ing is caeflly drawn, The spacing must be consistent, not 100 close,
‘ad the lines must touch the oulites ofthe section and be thin, These
points are llusrated in Figure 4.
“When single componente sctione, asin Figure 5, the slope and
spacing ofthe hatching mut be the same throughout the view. On an
‘sembly deawing the slope ofthe hatching must berevered on adseent
farts For cach component the slope and spacing of te hatching must
fe the same on all wows on the drawing I more than two pars are in
Contact the ange ofthe hatching maybe changed to some angle other
than 43, othe spacing may be varied avoid the impression that is
‘rosing outline, Many elementary mistakes in hatching sectional views
‘wll be avoided i iis remembered tht hatching can never cross ax
utie.
‘Cass somtimes occ when the oulias of axes of a setional view
slope at 4" re hatching also drawn a 45 a misleading impression
fs pen. It should therefore be drawa at some other easly obtained
fagle, such a6 30° of 60", or dawn horizontally or vertically, as in
Figure 6.
‘When sheet metal pars, gaskets and other thin deals appear on
sectional views, the areas fvolved may be too narrow for hatching
Instead of draving the material thickness ot of sal, the setion may
be blacked fas shown in Figure 8. If ¢x0 of more thin details are
joined on sectional assembly drawing spaces should be It between
them o the drawing Wil be dificult ead. This has ben done on he
bull girder in Flare 8.
"it was eustomary inthe putt indicate diferent materials on e+
tional view by diferent types of hatching, suchas broken lines and
Alienate broken and full ines. Nowadays, withthe lange number of
Istria in common us, this peactce has been eniely discontinued
And the hatching deserbed above is used exclusively
80Ao
aeea
Hel eral objets ay be shown to advantage by half sections, that
Sram raen neo an he oer ante ve. TH
ito oben wh a Cnn saving of ruphine
So es ey ar ne vgs at he denon of
Spe ad Se ene wb wing den Gel es
cso hy ar moe oes ed fra ei
ce sean. eed on sem dongs on en
Fe elf ne uneoned af hie Exaile
aoe ae pen ig.
he “halves of @ half section should be separated by a centre fine and
ae This tne Oe nly mesic be eet
rae aed tei theo viblebeat hecente
Sieve
Jor broken sections
aseaty part o vew in sion ial that is needed fo how he
(tena dis fan objec and sometimes a whole vw cant be
imal prase ft mould one enteral fentues which mist be
Soe ack cases local or bokerout seton ssf
“Toe cating panei imagined to pass prt way through the objet
atte pe in ont ofthe abe shen seed tobe broken a,
{Eoving am renalarbouodary. Noe that cis boundary i thin Hine
Tete 1 he adjing sre i soi excopt forte te holes inthe
5s tee shown ty alc section troup he bead Inthe
ue Kal compete tal ecton would fave removed hal ofthe
‘pa, producing s view which might have Ben miseadig. The key-
Nop pmaered ints ety by topping the al ection witha break
TEE Gltersuampe of oa stone ze inde Figure I.
Rerolred sections
‘Thee sections are drawn dietly on sn outside view and ate used to
Tow the lua erosseton of an ar, ib or similar feture, The cue
{ing plane is sured to pass chrough the pare at right angle to the
‘rani te evade plane of the pape. Pale of r=
“coton thi ing, and that any outlines onthe main view which are
covered by te section are not shown Revolved sections aecften placed
inthe pp betwen the parts ofan interaptd view, but this practice is
hot istrate a BS 90851972,
Removed sections
‘Thaw are similar to revolved setions but instead of being drawn onthe
Chie ew they are removed to another put of the drawing. Their
86
utes ate the norma ike. They ae sed pl of exc
‘Sons te ick face ovens he seon Wing cts,
“tne nt oui enya sometimes dvr
thane rmainderof he dong ante te a
proketonrpting tn: postion on he ding. ud vane
Ee osonaly grouped tog on tpt northern,
is Eun hte potion of he ctng pane ted tat
‘ection ble ort to he aig pane Removed stows we
Aosta 12 Tey se eum of ve eon ws int
from seal cen, nt fers ead the Sng pla are
cite
Part or srapsetons
Wis noesaryocesionaly to show part of an object in scton to dee
vibe asl detail the cousrution, bu the views may be unsuitable
forthe use ofa brokenout section In such acatea part or serap action
may be used. This is similar oa broken-out section but is drawa away
from the outside view. The scrap section has an iregular boundary,
‘hich shi, and frequently bickground features are omited. Examples
ae shown in Figute 13. Sorap sections, ike removed sections, ee ote
Arawnin ay conveaient postion on the drawing, and shoud reer,
cary att
pest setions
(On fl section the euting plane need not pas straight through an
object, but may be ase as eguired to include features which ae not
inva stsght line. The i illurtented in Figure 14. The postion of the
cating plane must be shown ina view whet it appears sine, and
the resulking view should eaey a tile. Where the plane changes dee
tion thick dashes are usd and these dashes touch to form a ht ane
[Note that a the places here the plane changes diwction on the see-
tional view, no lines appear. There are two reason fr ths Fis, the
ting of the detail bythe plane imaginary, and secondly such ines
Would be erosod by the hatching, This would violate the rule that
hatching can never eos outlines
Aligned seins
such as those shown in Figure 15. The cating plane generally coincides
witha principal cette line and one or more radial centre ines. The
‘ection f drain with the features on the radial centre lines aligned with
the principe centre lin. By this means, awkward projections ate
‘voided andthe festares are shown at ther tre distances from the
entre of the part As with offset sections, wheee the cutting plane
‘hangesdreton iis dawn a thick ine, and these thick ines touch
‘Other examples of aligned sections are shown in Figre 16
a‘Alignment is lo sed on outside views to avo tedious projeetions
rob Mame, i the section of the bell eank lever in Figure 15 were
ae rear en ouside view, t ould sl be aligned to make te drawing
Features rom whick hatching is omited
‘honevcr hatching woukd teu in misleading fst, it should be
‘rtd. For example, consider th casting shown in Figure 16 at (0)
(Gp and (9, Sovtion AA pases longitudinally through a triangular we
iam puro isto strengthen the component, I the section lines ae
Ura on the web asa (2), the impression of party conical sape
{Gren Tusimpreaon is iteores 0 the hatching somite and ()
{fe comet representation, Note that the web is bounded by an outline
‘hae trams into the base and irl boss. Ic sa common error for
soe to omit hese outlines orto use idden detail nes. I the web
eso scat teansversely by the eating plane as at), i must alvays
tarry the hatching
Tarther examples ofthe omission of hatching ae given on sections
‘oC and DD in Figure 16. Here tess and spokes ae not hatched and
fo avoid tedious projection they are aligned en to the plane of the
section. Gear teth retreated ina similar Way
Deis not sectioned
Trniition tothe examples given above ofthe omission of hatching,
‘Boas mackine details are not sectioned on axtembly drawings when
{hoy ae cut longitudinally by the section plane, These details include
vs, bot, stews ss, ives solid shafts and small solid inca
arts key cuter slit and taper pins and balls and rollers inBesrng
hoo parts are not sectioned because they have a internal features,
and ao Because they ar more easly recognized by thee outside Views
RATED etecton, Flgue 1 shows two small asemblis to which thi
‘nile has bee applied. Howes, if these deta are ct rane
Peultng in a cecalar sectional vi, they are hatched inthe normal
vay
8
SECTIONAL VIEWS
— Yd ers ee
a oc oT secTONE abstSECTIONAL VIEW PROBLEMS
‘Draw the following problems fl ie usin First or Third Angle pro
jetons as ryuied by the question. Do ot show any hidden edges.
1 Using Third Ange projection draw the given plan view of the
‘bearing end replace the given font elevation by a sectional front
‘oration on AA. Add a sectional end view on BB.
2 Draw the given end view of the flanged coupling and replace the
ven outside elevation by a balf secon AA. Use Fist Angle
projection,
4 Draw in Third Ange projection 2 half tional view replacing the
{en lefhand outside view. The lower half ofthis view iso be in
Exton. On the outsie hl ofthe view show a loa section around
the MS tapping. Add an end view onthe left ofthe half sectional
44 Copy the given half view ofthe assembly adding a revolved section
fon one of the spokes. Replce the rgh-hand view by section on
‘AA. Use First Angle projection.
'5 Using Thied Angle projection draw the sven pln view ofthe com
pent and projest rom i sectional font elevation on AA. Ad
1 eetonal end vew ox BB.
{6 Draw the given lfvhand view ofthe cover and projet from it in
First Ange projection a setional view on AA.
Further problems involving sectional views willbe found in he Machine
Drawings at the end of the book.
31ron ae8
CONVENTIONS
PRODUCING the drawing fora very simple component may take
the Seughtsman several hows, whist be drawing of lege and com”
Med easing may oovupy him fe many weeks. The cost ofthe draw-
eprecented bythe tie the draughtsman spends ot isp ofthe
‘ei oat ofthe component, and any means of keeping it own should
teased. One way of doing this is by using conventions and conventional
‘representations on the drawing.
Tn one sense the whole drawing sa convention, snc we are repre-
seating te surfaces ofthe physical object by Tins on a sheet of paper
‘By convention, diferent types of tine have diferent meanings. Within
{his mun convention are ters, uch a the use of setona views 10
‘how the interior features oF the objet, and the conventional represen
tation of sre threads, the accurate projection of which would take an
inordinate aout of ine.
“The pinay object ofthe ue of conventions isto save the draught=
mans ine, but some convention also save space onthe drawing. This
may fea tha view ean be rant larger scale, hus improving the
‘Eadabiity of te drawing, On the ober han, space saved my mean hat
{aml sizeof raving sheet can be used. The smaller the drawing
Sheet, te cheaper is storage, transmission and reproduction. Various
Conventions to achieve both thes objects are recommended ia BS 308:
Part L197, and those which oewir most frequen) are discussed
below: Fora full eatment the student should consult the Standard
Symmetry
‘Many cruieering components are symmetial about centre line oF
‘ltrated in Figure 1() om page 7. To show that a hal ew hasbeen
tran, two shor, hick, parallel lines are drawn across he symmetry
‘lemarcation line at each end, These symmetry symbol ae at right
gles to the symmetry demarcation live. To emphasize further that a
‘af zw is shown, the outlines of the part extend sigity beyond the
fie of ymmery This is to prevent any possibility of half prt being
manufactured.
For parts which ar symmetrical about two axes a right angles, a
quarter view may be used. An example i shown in Figure 1
Sometimet components which ae basically svt! have ssytse
seta Teatues. The above conveston may sil be weed in such case,
‘provided that the half view which shows the asymmetrical features is
Aran, and thatthe asymmetrical features aze eatied by snot,
Figure 1) isan eumple
Tt may be sufcent to show an adequate segment ofa circular pat,
asillstrated ia Figure (@). Hower al ues ofthis convention should
be considered carefully to avid any ambiguities or lows of understand
ing ofthe draving. A drawing which isnot ler wll waste time sod
‘may result inthe production of srap.
Enlarged port views
‘On occasion, components carry features which in the general sale of
the drawing, ae foo smal tbe dimensioned clearly. Such features may
Ie enclosed in thin rl from which leader i drawn to an eared
FR es Th parte the ed ote denser, Fe 2
‘ustrates this convention,
Repeive ofrmation
(on some drawings ideal parts or fetus appear many ines.
Repate illsatins of them may be aided hydrangea
Indiesting the postions ofthe others y thi centre ines, shown a
Figure 3)
he repeated pate require ina reguarptern, nly the >
ter necessary o establish the pattern need e showing thle cente
lines The ret of the information should be gen in noe. Th
ilrtratedin Figur (5, wich shows riveted ut joi
Figite 6) shows component which has twelve idea! bos
Adjacent to vo pis of thee lesa singe fesures. The Role 09
eh ie ofthe single features shold be shown a fal.
Conventional reprsotaion of common feotres
Figure shows th conventions for those common features which eur
most often, and are selected fom BS 308: Part 1:1972, The conven
Long pats of constant cron-sestion may be shown by interupted
views A pete from te contre ofthe parts imagined tobe removed and
the ends of the view ate brought together, Three break ines foe die
feat crosrastons are used ar shown, Tew break lines are thn
Sometimes a revolved section i rani the gap in the view.
“The circumferential surface ofthe heads of ajurting screws soften
roughened by knusing to provide a beter Singer sip. Two 8085
‘Mtght and diamond knrling, ae in we and the conventional repsentation use this ines. The spacing ofthe ines should be quite wide
{SNou them closing up on reduod sve pins Straight Knuring is
‘Shen used on the heads of hexagon socket cap screws
"A aqare co ona tha, provided to give w spane grip orto mount
aa han whel, i represented by thin diagonals drawn on te at fae
‘Araiitar convention is used for Ball apd roler bearing, the Balls,
feller and cages being omite.
“Te halce ons cylindrical compression sping should not be pro-
Jeted ut drawn as straight lines. The pitch of the coils eed pot be
‘Bact and only two or thee col should be shown at each end of the
fpeiag The remaining cols ae shown by thin, chun lies, These are
Rcties called dito lines The end coils are closed and ground
‘are with the axis to provide a iat surface at each end ofthe pring,
satis shown on the conventional representation. For dngramsand
‘SGhematic drawings the representation maybe simple to a ingle ine
as shown.
“Teeth on the circular vow of «gear may be omited and shown com-
seaonally by thik cle representing the tps ofthe eth and thi,
‘han ice representing the pth eile. No eres shown through the
oats, Ona seeional view of gear, tching is omitted fom the eth,
tea though the euting plane passes through them, The pitch line is
shown by ath, chin ne,
ora sack, on or two teeth are drawn teach end andthe emir
shown bya thick ine representing te tps and a thin line representing
the roots, The pitch lin snot shown The dimensions indicate how te
testh ae located the blank.
‘convenions
a
nl é VBE
FLON, + +
7] EDsiete) SOWEDOML REPRESENTACEN OF CM PETE
100
9
SCREW THREADS
[A SCREW thread isa elcl groove whichis cut, rolled or sometimes
‘ast ona elder or in a elindrcal hole, These are parle threads,
‘that onthe cyiner, or screw, beng exteoay aod tha in the ole, ot
rut, being internal, Tapered threads are formed on a cone or it
‘conical hole. The form of the groove varies with dierent threads,
{irae ue, so threads are shown convendonally on engineering
{Tavings The conventions, taken rom BS 308: Part 1:1972, are shown
in Figure 2
‘On th longitudinal view of en exteral thread, the major diameter is
sown by pai of tik ines, andthe minor diameter by pair of thin
Soe, The ead ofthe ful trea, that, the point at which the root of
the tread ceases tobe uly formed i dravn a thick fine, Beyond
the fu head isthe trend run-out, consisting of incompletely formed
thes produced by the leadin chamfer on the dc, The run-out i
{epesete by tha lines at 30" to the major dameter. On the ecu
WEv tne major diameter apeare as a complete thick crle and the
Inior diameter asa tinct with «ep.
Foran internal thee in section the minor diameter driling i drawn
in thik lines, the ine representing the end ofthe fall thread. The
aor dameter an thread eaneot are shown by thin Hines, The hatch
ing eros the major diameter and terminates on the minor dimes,
an interoal tad ie shgwn in hidden deal all ines are hin short
Ashes, The cela view shows th minor diameter sa compet thick
‘se andthe major diameter sath ile wih #2.
‘Ona sctional tread assembly the screw is shown asan outside view
so is threads cover the threads in the tapping. Below the screw the
ineral threads appedt as seid inthe petous paragraph, and the
on
x 1
os“te hatching doesnot cross the threads on the
ching ross them.
went tthe he and thin hes redrawn comet
resort
imensoning of 150 sere treats
ii, ara shown conventionally on engineering drawings they
Sine (hreigoted completely by dimensions or anole. The most
toned thread i the ISO metic thread, the design forms of|
emma syn on page 107 and this i designated as inthe following
examples
M1616 ternal tread
Méx075 6 external thread
-M-Thread system sytbo for ISO merc, 150 standing for
Tnterational Organization for Standardization.
16 and 6~ Nominal diameter in millimetres
1-5 and 075- Pitch in milmetes
Grand 6 Thread tlerance class symbol
“The only diference between the designations of intemal and external
threads pin the foleranoe clas symbol
Tmany country which use the ISO met thread it isthe convention
to omit the pitch from the desanation. If no pitch is shown a thread
ftom the corse pitch series implied. Thus, a coarse thread M6x I =
(GH maybe shown a8 M6~ GH, Fite pitch threads are used mainly ia
fecal applications such a for thinsalled. components and fine-
ftjusment machine tools
"The internal and external thread tolerances provide thre clases of
fs medium, clove and fee, The medium ft (He) is suitable for most,
[evel eognesrng purposes. The close fi (SH/Sh) i sed when close
Ezuracy of tea form and pitch is noded, but requires high quality
auipmen to produce the threads and particularly thorough inspection.
‘The efit (7H) i for usin applications requiring quik and easy
assembly, eve if the threads are dirty or slightly damage.
igure} shows examples of srew thread dimensioning The thread
tena is indiated by the minimum length ofthe fll thread, ad, if
fecssary, by the maximum length ofthe thread, inctoing the eun-out.
For bind tappings tne length of the migor diameter ling il alo
te required. I the tread is e-handed te abbreviation LH should be
‘ied No indication ofthe hands needed if he thread is right-handed.
rth tard pipe threads
BS 21 covers pie threads where pressuresiht joints are made onthe
threads and BS 2779 the theade forthe mechanical assembly of the
omponcts of pipe fitings, cocks and vals etc. In both cases the
hneads ae of Whitworth form sod hey are lustrated on pagel, The
106
ino were ery eso
rams nee neo faces ee
orwniworth thread, designed by Se eseph Whitworth overacentsry 20,
inthe Sst British thread to be standardize,
nth oy me presure-tight bythe mating of the threads, tape
error iteads are usd with ithe tape or parallel interaal threads
ten ale enteral headsare at suitable as joing threads. Bish
site eg per ppe threads are desinated by the letter Rforanexteal
a fraternal tread, flowed bythe nominal sizeof the
{ivead. For example,
vernal taper Rab
Exteral taper RE
“the nomial sizeof the thea isthe fternal diameter inches ofthe
rpc om which the external thread is ct.
jis Standard parle interal threads to BS21 are designated by
tte ters Ry together wth the nominal size ofthe three, For example,
Rd
Fostering pie threads to BS 2779 are designated by the eter G. For
ar internal thread this followed bythe nominal sizeof the thread
{hur GH. For an external thread two tolerance eases are provided,
‘Rand B.A being the closer tolerance. The designation for an exer
‘josnd may include the tolrance cas, for example, GHA. Where no
he eefeence is given clase B i to be assumed, For manufactering
‘onomy cass B shoul he used whenever posible
“The cress ofthe threads may be truncated, exept on internal threads
auch maybe assembled wth external threads to BS 21. The designa-
Tonbould then be for example, G} trun or GBB tune.
°h table of dinesions for British Standard parallel pipe threads,
erated from BS 277, i given on page 724
over sanonistion reads
Seror threads have three applications. To fasten parts together; to
‘Sj the postions of parts; and to transit power. The 180 metric
‘hed, being of ve for, suitable forthe fs two applications For
wr ranminsion purposes the square, Acme and bates threads are
‘oe and thie forms are isteatd om page 108.
Siar teead
‘Shc the fanks of ve threads are inclined to the axis, bursting forces
Ereet up inthe nut. The ans of «squat tread are normal to the
tis and 0 these flores are not preset. This makes the square thread
theoreti idest for transmiting power. However, the rghtangled
fans nay cause machining dificlies when the thread ict i a lhe.
‘The sya thread is sed on the operating spindles of valves, on jack,
toot he ros sie of lathe, and simile machine tol applications.
Its ae been standardized
108
deme tread
‘This adaptation of the square thread is sed where the mut has tobe
isengnge! from th sxew, as wi te spit nut on alate lead sre.
It is machined more easly than the square thread But the incined
‘ak give rise os bursting ores the mut as do vee threads
Bates vod
‘A-mosders form ofthis thread is shown in which the font face aginst
Inhih the load is applied i inclined at 7 to the vertical. This face i
{lomstimes vertical The tread i wed to transmit power in one dire.
tion only, indicted bythe arrow Lin the diagram, as inthe screw of a
‘oe or pres and the bresch Blocks of large gu.10
SCREW FASTENERS
ive commons fom frou and elt eas is hexagonal with 2
THE compte head dst each en fh OV
lane? pe heagoal ors wed because takes uP ss
a re oe, tna sae bang the same danse
Fa neath of urn rns slr poston fF
seat Menon ate quarter um, A tana
2 mn weep acighih fa or, ut the as woul! Be male
a enn or sanne sp round the comer
He prions of 0 me reson ergo lt,
ee ae othe kang Smensons, exacted om ts
an cpap 22, Whelan: between nus an bl
an agcetare ae sol hse incasions shoud be wed 9
ea eine dearace is gen nal ter aes r=
{ht om aed on te aor amet of the head, AT
at sent sec.
Sr arting thre views of 4 Rexagon nut using these
a patio oe et ot np 1 an 12, The 3 can
eat erage as ci copionl called he hater
a tema dmet arte diane aro fats Inthe