Module 2
Analysis of Reinforced
Concrete Section
Prepared by Koon Foo Siong
Working Stress Method vs Limit State Method
What is Working Stress Method?
The method basically assumes that the structural material behaves as a linear elastic manner and that
adequate safety can be ensured by suitably restricting the stresses in the material induced by the expected
“working loads” on the structure. In working stress design, it can assumes that the structure has failed
when it reached the elastic limit. In limit states design, it can assumes that the structure to have failed
when it reaches the lower yield point.
In working stress design, the design strength is calculated such that the stress in the material is restrained
to its yield point, under which the material follows Hooke's law, and hence the term "elastic" is used.
This approach yields to an uneconomical design of simple beam, or other structural elements where the
design governing criteria is stress (static). However, in case of the shift of governing criteria to other
factors such as fatigue stress, both methods will give similar design results. However, working stress
design substantially reduces calculation
Working Stress Method vs Limit State Method
Working Stress Method (WSD) Limit State Method (LSM)
The stress in a component is derived from the working load and compared The stresses are derived from the design load and are compared with the
with the permissible stress. design strength.
This method can also be referred to as the deterministic method as a result of
This method can also be referred to as non-deterministic because the method
the method assumes that the actual load, permissible stress and safety factors
is based on a probabilistic approach that relies on real data or experience.
are identified.
The work stress method is based on elastic theory which assumes that The limit state method is based on the actual stress-strain curves of steel and
concrete and steel are elastic and the stress-strain curve for both is linear. concrete, The stress-strain curve for concrete is non-linear.
The capabilities of the material are not underestimated as much as they are in
Physical capabilities are largely underestimated, Safety factors are used in the
the working stress method. Partial protection factors are used in the limit state
work stress method.
method.
The ultimate load-carrying capacity cannot be precisely predicted. Ultimate stresses of the material themselves are used as allowable stresses.
Within the work stress method, the material follows Hooke’s rule because the
In the limit state method, stress is allowed to exceed the yield limit.
stress is not allowed to exceed the yield limit.
In working stress method, a section which is plane before bending remains In LSM, a section normal to the axis of the structural element remains on the
plane after bending. plane after bending.
In the limit state method, the design load is obtained by multiplying the load’s
In the work stress method, no safety factor is used for the load.
partial safety factors to the work load.
The working stress method is less economical as it gives thicker parts. The limit state method is more economical because it gives thin sections.
The characteristic value limits derived from the probabilistic approach are
Average or data values are used in the work stress method.
used in the limit state method.
Limit State Method
What is Limit State Method?
➢ The limit state method is a balanced combination of the working stress method and the ultimate load
design method.
➢ Where the working stress method provides adequate performance at the working load but no
observation gives to the conditions at the time of the collapse of the structure.
➢ On the other hand, the ultimate load or load factor method of design is used in construction but the
ultimate load method takes to excessive deflection cracking. So it is not preferable.
➢ But the limit state method is given the exact value of safety. so that method is more preferable in
construction.
➢ This method is used to confirm that the structure should be able to withstand all the load that’s
acting on the structure.
➢ This method gives an idea about the serviceability requirement of limiting deflection and cracking.
➢ The limit state method is to define the maximum load-carrying capacity and the safety requirements
of the structure.
Limit State Method
Concrete (Mosley et al., 1999)
Concrete is a very variable material, having a wide range of strengths and stress-strain curves. As the
load is applied, the ratio between stresses and strains is approximately linear at first and the concrete
behaves almost as an elastic material with virtually full recovery of displacement if the load is
removed. Eventually, the curve is no longer linear and the concrete behaves more and more as a plastic
material. If the load were removed during the plastic range the recovery would no longer be completed
and a permanent deformation would remain. The ultimate strain for most structural concretes tends to
be at a constant value of approximately 0.0035 (up to cube strength fcu = 60 MPa, the ultimate strain
tend to reduce).
Stress
0.0035
Strain
Limit State Method
Concrete (Mosley et al., 1999)
BS 8110 MS EN 1992-1: 2010
0.85fck / γc
0.0020 0.0035
The ultimate design stress is given by 0.67fcu / γm The ultimate design stress is given by 0.85fck / γc
= 0.45 fcu , γm = 1.5 = 0.567 fck , γc = 1.5
Limit State Method
Reinforcing Steel (Mosley et al., 1999)
The specified strength used in design is based on the yield stress for mild steel, whereas for high-
yielded steel the strength is based on a specified proof stress. A 0.2% proof stress is defined in Figure
by the broken line drawn parallel to the linear part of the stress-strain curve.
Stress
0.002
Strain
Limit State Method
Reinforcing Steel (Mosley et al., 1999)
BS 8110 MS EN 1992-1: 2010
The design yield strain is given by ɛy = (fy / γm) / Es The design yield strain is given by ɛy = (fyk / γs) / Es
ɛy = (460 / 1.05) / 200000 = 0.00219 ɛy = (500 / 1.15) / 200000 = 0.00217
*Designer is expected to refer Table C1 in EC2 for
ductility factor k of the reinforcing steel
Distribution of Strains and Stresses Across a Section
General (Mosley et al., 1999)
The theory of bending for reinforced concrete assumes that the concrete will crack in the regions of
tensile strains and that, after cracking, all the tension is carried by the reinforcement. It also assumes that
plane sections of a structural member remain plane after straining, so that across the section there must
be a linear distribution of strains.
ɛcc
d’
As’ ɛsc s = 0.9x
x
neutral
d axis
As ɛst triangular rectangular parabolic equivalent rectangular BS 8110
ɛcc
d’
As’ ɛsc s = 0.8x
x
neutral
d axis
As ɛst triangular rectangular parabolic equivalent rectangular MS EN 1992-1: 2010
Section Strain Stress Blocks
Distribution of Strains and Stresses Across a Section
General (Mosley et al., 1999)
BS 8110 MS EN 1992-1: 2010
𝑑−𝑥 𝑥−𝑑′ 𝑑−𝑥 𝑥−𝑑′
ɛst = ɛcc ( ) & ɛsc = ɛcc ( ) ɛst = ɛcu2 ( ) & ɛsc = ɛcu2 ( )
𝑥 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥
x = d / (1+(ɛst / ɛcc)) x = d / (1+(ɛst / ɛcu2))
x = d / [1+(0.00219 / 0.0035)] x = d / [1+(0.00217 / 0.0035)]
x = 0.615d x = 0.617d
At the ultimate limit state, it is important that member At the ultimate limit state, it is important that member
sections in flexure should be ductile and that failure should sections in flexure should be ductile and that failure should
occur with gradual yielding of the tension steel and not by occur with gradual yielding of the tension steel and not by
concrete sudden failure. Maximum moment is allow to concrete sudden failure. The moment redistribution factor
redistribute (not more than 10%) after yielding of shall refer to Table C1 in MS EN 1992-1: 2010.
reinforcement and the formation of plastic hinges.
The code limits the depth of neutral axis so that:
The code limits the depth of neutral axis so that:
x ≤ 0.45d for Concrete Class ≤ C50/60
x ≤ (βb – 0.4)d, βb ≥ 0.9,
x ≤ 0.5d
Bending and the Equivalent Rectangular Stress Block
Singly Reinforced Rectangular Section in Bending (Mosley et al., 1999)
BS 8110 MS EN 1992-1: 2010
0.0035 0.45 fcu 0.0035 0.567 fck
Fcc s/2 Fcc s/2
x s = 0.9x x s = 0.8x
neutral neutral
d axis d axis
z z
As ɛst Fst As ɛst Fst
Strain Stress Blocks Strain Stress Blocks
b b
At equilibrium, M = Fcc x z = Fst x z At equilibrium, M = Fcc x z = Fst x z
Fcc = 0.45fcu x bs & z = d – s / 2 → s = 2(d – z) Fcc = 0.567fck x bs & z = d – s / 2 → s = 2(d – z)
M = 0.9fcu b (d – z) z & K = M / bd² fcu M = 1.134fck b (d – z) z & K = M / bd² fck
z = d [0.5 + 0.25 − 𝐾/0.9 ] z = d [0.5 + 0.25 − 𝐾/1.134 ]
where 0.775d (when x = d/2) ≤ z ≤ 0.95d where 0.82d (when x = d/2) ≤ z ≤ 0.954d
Also, Fst = 0.95 fy As Also, Fst = 0.87 fyk As
Hence, As = M / 0.95 fy z Hence, As = M / 0.87 fyk z
For doubly reinforced, using z = 0.775d For doubly reinforced, using z = 0.82d
M = 0.9fcu b (d – 0.775d) 0.775d → M = 0.156 fcu bd² M = 1.134fck b (d – 0.82d) 0.82d → M = 0.167 fck bd²
Thus, if K > 0.156, compression reinforcement required Thus, if K > 0.167, compression reinforcement required
Bending and the Equivalent Rectangular Stress Block
Compression Reinforced Rectangular Section in Bending (Mosley et al., 1999)
BS 8110 xbal = 0.5d MS EN 1992-1: 2010 xbal = 0.45d
0.0035 0.45 fcu 0.0035 0.567 fck
d’ ɛsc Fsc d’ ɛsc Fsc
As’ s = 0.9x As’ x = d/2 s = 0.8x
x = d/2 = 0.45d Fcc = 0.36d Fcc
neutral neutral
d axis d axis
z z
As ɛst Fst As ɛst Fst
Strain Stress Blocks Strain Stress Blocks
b b
At equilibrium, Fst = Fcc + Fsc ; limiting z = 0.775d At equilibrium, Fst = Fcc + Fsc ; limiting z = 0.82d
0.95 fy As = 0.201fcu bd + 0.95 fy As’ 0.87 fy As = 0.204fck bd + 0.87 fyk As’
M = Fcc z + Fsc (d – d’) = 0.156 fcu bd² + 0.95 fy As’ (d – d’) M = Fcc z + Fsc (d – d’) = 0.167 fck bd² + 0.87 fyk As’ (d – d’)
As’ = [M – 0.156 fcu bd²) / (0.95 fy (d – d’)], and As’ = [M – 0.167 fck bd²) / (0.87 fyk (d – d’)], and
As = [(0.156 fcu bd² ) / (0.95 fy z)] + As’ As = [(0.167 fck bd² ) / (0.87 fyk z)] + As’
Using K’ = 0.156 & K = M / bd² fcu Using K’ = 0.167 & K = M / bd² fck
As’ = [(K – K’)fcu bd²) / (0.95 fy (d – d’)], and As’ = [(K – K’)fck bd²) / (0.87 fyk (d – d’)], and
As = [(K’ fcu bd² ) / (0.95 fy z)] + As’ As = [(K’ fck bd² ) / (0.87 fyk z)] + As’
Formulation of Reinforced Concrete Design Chart
Basic Equation for P-M-M Interaction Curve
Design charts are very useful for fast determining the percentage of reinforcement for singly and doubly
reinforced concrete beams having known cross-sectional dimensions, characteristic strengths of the
concrete and steel, and the ultimate design moment.
In practical, the applied axial force may be tensile or compressive. For a tensile load the same basic
principles of equilibrium, compatibility of strains, and stress-strain relationship would apply. During the
equilibrium at cross-section, when the sign convention of axial load reverse, the area of concrete in
compression has not been reduced to allow for the concrete displaced by the compression steel. This
could be taken into account by reducing the stress fsc in the compression steel by an amount of equal to
0.45fcu.
Formulation of Reinforced Concrete Design Chart
Basic Equation for P-M-M Interaction Curve
Case 1: s = 0.8x < h
BS 8110 MS EN 1992-1: 2010
0.0035 0.45 fcu 0.0035 0.567 fck
As’ d’ Fsc As’ d’ Fsc
ɛsc s/2 s/2
x s = 0.9x
Fcc d x s = 0.8x Fcc
h d h
neutral neutral
axis axis
As ɛs Fs As ɛs Fs
b Strain Stress Blocks b Strain Stress Blocks
Case 2: s = h : 0.8x > h
BS 8110 MS EN 1992-1: 2010
0.0035 0.45 fcu 0.0035 0.567 fck
As’ d’ As’ d’
ɛsc Fsc ɛsc Fsc
x x
h d Fcc h d Fcc
s=h s=h
As ɛs Fs As ɛs Fs
b Strain Stress Blocks b Strain Stress Blocks
Formulation of Reinforced Concrete Design Chart
Basic Equation for P-M-M Interaction Curve
BS 8110 MS EN 1992-1: 2010
N = Fcc + Fsc + Fs → N = 0.45fcu bs + fsc As’ + fs As N = Fcc + Fsc + Fs → N = 0.567fck bs + fsc As’ + fs As
For full sectional design, take moment about the mid- For full sectional design, take moment about the mid-depth
depth of section of section
ℎ 𝑠 ℎ ℎ ℎ 𝑠 ℎ ℎ
M = Fcc (2 - 2) + Fsc (2 - d’) + Fs (d - 2) M = Fcc (2 - 2) + Fsc (2 - d’) + Fs (d - 2)
ℎ 𝑠 ℎ ℎ ℎ 𝑠 ℎ ℎ
M = 0.45fcu bs (2 - 2) + fsc As’ (2 - d’) + fs As (d - 2) M = 0.567fck bs (2 - 2) + fsc As’ (2 - d’) + fs As (d - 2)
If the case such that: s = h : 0.9x > h, then the section is If the case such that: s = h : 0.8x > h, then the section is
ℎ 𝑠 ℎ 𝑠
subjected to compressive stress only. M = Fcc (2 - 2) subjected to compressive stress only. M = Fcc (2 - 2)
Fst = 0.95 fy As
Formulation of Reinforced Concrete Design Chart
Mode of Failure
i. Pure axial compression (point A). This is the largest axial
compression load that the column can support.
ii. Compression with minor bending (point B). This is the case of a
large axial load acting at a small eccentricity. The stress distribution
becomes inclined but the section is still under compression. Failure
occurs by crushing of the concrete.
iii. Compression control (point C). Here exist both compression zone and
tension zone of concrete. Steel is subjected to tension. Failure occurs by
crushing of the concrete on the compression side, whereas the stress in
steel fs is less than the yield stress fy.
iv. Balanced condition (point D). A balanced condition is reached when
the compression strain in the concrete reaches limited and the tensile
reinforcement reaches yielding simultaneously. Failure of concrete
occurs at the same time as the steel yields.
v. Tension control (point E). This is the case of a small axial load with
large eccentricity, that is, a large moment. At failure, the strain in the
tension steel is greater than the yield strain.
vi. Pure flexure (point F). The section, in this case, is subjected to a
bending moment M, whereas the axial load is P = 0. Failure occurs as
in a beam subjected to bending moment only.
vii. Pure axial tension (point G). This is the largest axial tension load that
the column can support.
Formulation of Reinforced Concrete Design Chart
Mode of Failure – Under Reinforced Section
Reinforced concrete beam sections in which the steel reaches yield strain at loads lower than the load at
which the concrete reaches failure strain are called under-reinforced sections. Every singly reinforced
beam should be designed as under-reinforced sections because this section gives enough warning before
failure. Yielding of steel in under-reinforced beam section does not mean the structure has failed, as when
steel yields, excessive deflection and cracking in beam will occur before failure which gives enough time
to occupants to escape before the section fails. The failure in under-reinforced beam section is due to the
concrete reaching its ultimate failure strain of 0.0035 before the steel reaches its failure strain which is
much higher 0.002.
ɛc = 0.0035
actual
xactual x
neutral axis
d neutral axis
As ɛs > 0.002
b
Formulation of Reinforced Concrete Design Chart
Mode of Failure – Over Reinforced Section
Reinforced concrete beam sections in which the failure strain in concrete is reached earlier than the yield
strain of steel is reached, are called over-reinforced beam sections. If over-reinforced beam is designed and
loaded to full capacity then the steel in tension zone will not yield much before the concrete reaches its
ultimate strain of 0.0035. This due to little yielding of steel the deflection and cracking of beam does not
occur and does not give enough warning prior to failure. Failures in over-reinforced sections are all of a
sudden. This type of design is not recommended in practice of beam design.
ɛc = 0.0035
x
neutral axis
d xactual actual
neutral axis
As ɛs < 0.002
b
Formulation of Reinforced Concrete Design Chart
Mode of Failure – Balanced Section
A balanced-reinforced section is one in which both the compressive and tensile zones reach yielding at the
same imposed load on the section, and the concrete will crush and the tensile steel will yield at the same
time. This design criterion is however as risky as over-reinforced concrete, because failure is sudden as the
concrete crushes at the same time of the tensile steel yields, which gives a very little warning of distress in
tension failure.
Steel-reinforced concrete moment-carrying elements should normally be designed to be under-reinforced
so that users of the structure will receive warning of impending collapse.
ɛc = 0.0035
x
neutral axis
d
As
ɛs = 0.002
b
Thank You
