Research Methodology

Master of Architecture

Lecture 6:
Research Question/ Objectives and Hypothesis

- Sanjaya Uprety (PhD)

Associate Professor
Tribhuvan University Course Coordinator
Institute of Engineering -Barsha Shrestha
Department of Architecture Lecturer
Motives in Research

Motives in Research
• Exploration: Radiation hazards of wireless technology
• Description: Impact on work quality and technical manpower in contracting organization
• Explanation: Technology Innovation success factor
Types of Research Projects
• Descriptive: describes using constituent variables
• Relational: describes/explains by co-relating variables
• Causal: explains by revealing cause and effect variables
Objective/application
• Prediction/Prognosis
• Generalization/Particularization/Removing ignorance
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Selecting the Format of Research

Objectives, Research Questions and Hypotheses

Form of statement depends on

• Type of study & personal preference

Descriptive studies > objectives or questions

Experimental studies > effectively served by hypotheses but may use objectives and questions

Survey and exploratory studies > questions

Applied/ professional disciplines >hypothesis

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Problem & Research

Problem owners
Problem solution
(managers)

Observed reality Context

Empirical reality Steps in the research

Research answer
Research Question
RQ-O-H

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The Problem in Real Life

This would be typically to broad to address in a single research study

So need to narrow it down to a more specific aspect

Identify the E.g. of problem: Many people in Kathmandu suffer from cardio-
general problem vascular health problems. How can we improve their health?
area of your
interest Develop the research question

Often stated in the context of some theory advanced to address the

problem

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 Research Question

Often stated in the context of some theory advanced to address

the problem

Develop the
research E.g. the theory might be that air pollution is the main reason for
cardiovascular health problems and that internal combustion
question engine vehicles (ICEVs) are the main cause of KTM’s air pollution

E.g. of research question: Will a pollution tax on fossil fuels used

by ICEVs improve the health of Kathmanduites?

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Research Objectives

Objectives are written in measurable terms that can be easily

used to determine the achievement of those objectives.

E.g. of Objectives: The objectives of this study is to assess

(1)the relationship of air

(2)the contribution of (3) the level of taxation on
pollution to cardiovascular
ICEVs emissions to air fossil fuel to offset the
health problems in
pollution and cost of treatments.
Kathmandu,

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Hypothesis

A hypothesis is different from a general theory and should be specific. “A

hypothesis could say that if the theory behind it is correct, such and such will
happen in a particular situation.”
Hypothesis is usually used to see whether a theory is correct or not.

A hypothesis must be testable and it must also be possible to falsify (reject) it.

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 Hypothesis

Hypothesis is written as a proposition and describes in operational terms what you

think will happen in a study.

E.g. of hypothesis: A pollution tax on fossil fuels will significantly reduce the number
of asthma attacks experienced by chronic asthma patients (within 1 year of imposing
the tax)

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Research Methodology
Master of Architecture

Lecture 7:
Literature Review: Library and Internet Search
- Sanjaya Uprety (PhD)
Associate Professor
Tribhuvan University Course Coordinator
Institute of Engineering -Barsha Shrestha
Department of Architecture Tutor
 The Literature Review
• Literature is a body of information existing in a wide variety of stored formats that has
a conceptual relevance for a particular topic of enquiry
• Literature review is a survey of various sources for information on the specific topic of
enquiry
• It is essential at the start of any research process, and
• Is continuously carried out throughout the research process

• Literature Review is a way to…

• Discover what other research in the area of your interest area/problem has
uncovered
• A critical review helps researcher to develop a thorough understanding and
insight into previous research works that relates to the present study

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The Literature Review

LR functions are;
• It establishes a point of departure for future research
• It avoids needless duplication of costly research effort
• It reveals areas of needed research

Why to review literature?

• ..scientific research must be based on past knowledge
• ..past knowledge should not be ignored because they provide foundation to the
present knowledge
• ..there has to be continuity in research

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 The Literature Review
What are the key sources?
What research has been done in the subject?
What others have written about the topic/the main questions/problems that are addressed to date ?
What theories have been advanced/What are key theories?
The approach taken by other researchers?
Areas of agreement/issues and disagreement/debates?
Whether there are gaps that can fill through the proposed research?
What are the epistemological and ontological grounds for the discipline?

The purpose of literature review is thus…..

• ..what research studies have been conducted in ones chosen field of studies and
• ..what remains to be done
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The Literature Review

Most Important EARLY step

Identifies the related research by showing gaps in theory, praxis in research

results or methods,

Provides a conceptual and theoretical context of the research

State of the arts in the scientific literature

• There is so little there! Is the research explorative?

• It is all there! Is the research ‘reinventing the wheel’?

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 Literature Expanded
Techniques
Methods
Methodologies Literature

Research Result
Researcher
Topic of Audience
Enquiry
Facts
Ideas

Literature

An Overall Diagrammatic of A Research Project

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 The Literature Review

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 The Literature Review

Chronological review/Genetic route tracing

the development of the idea/phenomenon under study

Review of theories having conceptual relevance to the research

Four Areas of
Literature (fundamental principles, propositions, latest updates-review through
interpretation)
Review
Review of research findings
(Other researchers findings, conceptual relevance, comparison etc)

Review of methods (other researcher have used)

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Use of Literature Review

Introduction (need identification )

Problem Statement (basic review of the situation giving rise to the study) >> THEORY

Statement of Purpose (Objectives, Research Question or Hypotheses)

[Further review of literature to establish a critical theoretical/literature base]

Methodology (The research design and process described step by step in detail)

References

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Use of Literature Review

Using Literature review to identify the Research Question

• Analyzing, critiquing and suggesting improvements to an extant work
• Comparison of two related but different realities or representations in literature
• Using existing theories to examine related themes
• Testing existing theories in literature
• Expanding/elaborating on existing theories

Using Literature review to focus the topic of enquiry

Using Literature review to understand the makeup of a research question

Using Literature review to understand an idea’s genetic routes

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©Sanjaya Uprety (PhD) |Tutor: Barsha Shrestha
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General Tactics of Literature Review

Organizing literature in terms of facts and ideas

• Idea as an inference or hypothesis or an interpretation

• Fact as a ‘clear and distinct relation held to be so tacit agreement.’

Organizing Literature as Primary and Secondary sources

• Primary sources are the topic that other sources comment upon. Key or
Basic sources

Methodology Literature could be classed as theory and

application

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 Composing a Bibliography Relevant to Topic

• Look in the encyclopedias under possible topic headings to obtain background

information and facts
• Go to the card and computer catalogue and check it for the available materials
• Check journal indexes for pertinent articles
• Check the catalogue of the research centers (CEDA, CENAS, IOE, TU)
• Locating Books and Other Material
• Card catalogue
• Computerized catalogue

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 Useful Resources
• Encyclopedias
• Encyclopedia britannica
• Encyclopedia of the social sciences
• International encyclopedia of the social sciences
• Encyclopedia of Education
• McGraw-Hill Encyclopedia of Science and Technology
• Business Encyclopedia and Legal Advisor

• Locating Books and Other Material

• Card catalogue
• Computerized catalogue

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 Annual Bibliographies
• International Bibliographies of Social Science Consists of a four part series of
which TU central library has the followings;
• International bibliography of political science
• International bibliography of social and cultural anthropology
• International bibliography of Economics
• International bibliography of Sociology

• Subject Literature Guide

• Card catalogue
• Computerized catalogue

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 Specific Tactics of Literature Review
• Knowing where the resources are
• Internet, Library, Archives, Organizations and agencies, popular media

• Having an Organizing and Retrieving System

• Note taking usually on computers, note books, cards, bibliographic notes,
• Notes to ideas, imaginative grouping of notes, order and coherence of facts and ideas
• Order makes retrieval manageable

• Bringing Motivation and Imagination to the task

• Forming base Concepts as the notes from literature are organized
• Imagining the report or drafts of possible inferences could provide motivation

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 The Literature Review
• Credible and Scientific literature
• ‘Virinchinarayan’ by Jit Bahadur Manandhar!
• Research Journals/ Peer review/ Blind review
• Research reports – Books may be more useful for ‘slow disciplines’ or ‘mature
areas’.
• Similar researches, similar methods, problematic findings, constructs/models
• Directly relevant or of Indirect relevance
• Exhaustive search >> evaluated selection

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 The Internet
• Internet collections are extensive!
• Internet Search Engines
• Specialized Search Engines
• Full text services
• Library Databases
• Specific web sites
• Take all leads
• Do not dismiss any without evaluating!

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 The Library
• Library collections are extensive!
• From leaflets to almanacs
• Dictionary, Bibliographic sources, Books, Books in print, List of periodicals,
Journals, Abstracts, Proceedings, Technical reports, Handbooks, Codes of
practice, etc.
• Take all leads
• Do not dismiss any without evaluating!

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 Some Basic Principles
• Principle of exhaustiveness
• Relevant literature : avoid padding!
• Quote, Paraphrasing and citing - precision, clarity and relevance- blend
with your ideas!
• Organize into sections- state the sectionings for guidance and end in
concise summary.
• Write in third person past tense – present tense only for universal truths
• Summarize

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 The Actual Review
• Classify, sort out, read, draw major points
• Use own experience and ideas to tie them up into a readable practical logical
sequence
• For establishing background, need, importance and usefulness of research
• To show the circumstances creating the problem >> research studies and
their findings, methods, tools etc.
• To establish the theoretical base of the study

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Research Methodology
Master of Architecture

Lecture 8:
Referencing

- Sanjaya Uprety (PhD)

Associate Professor
Tribhuvan University Course Coordinator
Institute of Engineering -Barsha Shrestha
Department of Architecture Tutor
 What is Referencing?
• Standardized method of acknowledging sources of information
• Quotes, facts and figures, ideas, theories
• Published/unpublished works
• Unique identification
• Allow possibility of verification, follow-up, read further
• Avoid plagiarism
• Harvard Referencing

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 Referencing
• Take down bibliographical details, page number(s)
• Bib. Detail of book
• Author/editor, year of publication, title, edition, volume number, place of publication,
publisher
• Bib. Detail of Journal Article
• Author of article, year of publication, title of article, journal/serial title, volume number, issue
number, page numbers on which the article appears
• Bib. Detail of electronic information
• Author/editor, year of publication, article title, journal title, type of medium, (CD-ROM, Online
etc.), pages-length, available statements, access date

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 Referencing
• Insert the citation at the appropriate place within the text of the document (see
examples below).
• Provide a reference list at the end of the document (see examples below).
How to cite references within the text of an assignment
• When citing references within the text of an assignment use only the name of the
author, followed by the year of publication.
• Larsen (1971) was the first to propound the theory.
• OR
• The theory was first propounded in 1970 (Larsen 1971).
• When directly quoting from another source, ensure that quotation marks are used and
the relevant page number(s) are given.
• Larsen (1971, p. 245) noted that "many of the facts in this case are incorrect".
• OR
• "Many of the facts in this case are incorrect" (Larsen 1971, pp. 245-6).

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 Citations in text
• Works with no author: When a work has no author (including legal materials) or the
author is anonymous, cite in-text the first few words of the reference list entry (usually
the title) and the year. Use italics for the title as follows:
• This was apparently not the case in seventeenth-century England (On Travelling to
London 1683).
• OR
• On travelling to London(1683) reveals that this was not true.

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 Citations in text
• Multiple authors: When a work by two or three authors is cited in parentheses, the
textual reference should be as:
• (Larsen & Green 1987)
(Larsen, Green & Withers 1987)
• When the authors' names are incorporated in the text, the ampersand is replaced by
'and':
• Larsen and Green (1987) were unable....
Larsen, Green and Withers (1987) agreed....
• For a work that has more than three authors, only the surname of the first listed author
is used, followed by the expression 'et al.' (or 'and others'). For example, a work by
Larsen, Green, Withers and Gonzales becomes:
• Larsen et al. (1987) have found....
....is the best example (Larsen et al. 1987).

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 Citations in text
• Citing a Web site: To cite a Web page within the text of an assignment, give the address of
the site (e.g. http://www.apa.org). To cite a document from a Web site you must follow the
author/date format. In both cases an entry will still be required in the reference list.
• How to create a Reference List
• A list of references contains details only of those works cited in the text. If relevant sources
that are not cited in the text are included, the list is called a bibliography.
• The Reference List is arranged alphabetically by author. Where an item has no author it is
cited by its title, and ordered in the reference list or bibliography in sequence by the first
significant word of the title.

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 References and Bibliography
• Examples of different types of References
• Articles/chapters in book:
• Bibliographic details are arranged in the sequence:
• author of chapter, year of publication, chapter title, title of book, editor(s) of book,
publisher, place of publication, article or chapter pages
• Article or chapter in a book
• Blaxter, M. 1976, 'Social class and health inequalities', in Equalities and Inequalities in Health,
eds C. Carter & J. Peel, Academic Press, London, pp.120-135.
• Article or chapter in a book (no author)
• 'Solving the Y2K problem' 1997, in Technology Today and Tomorrow, ed. D. Bowd, Van
Nostrand Reinhold, New York, p. 27.
• Article in an encyclopaedia
• Stafford-Clark, D. 1987, 'Mental disorders and their treatment', in The New Encyclopedia
Britannica, 5th edn., vol. 23, Chicago, Encyclopaedia Britannica, pp. 956-975.

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 References and Bibliography
• Book
• Bibliographic details are arranged in the sequence:
• author/ editor(s), year of publication, title of book, edition of book, publisher, place of
publication
• Book with a single author
• Adam-Smith, P. 1978, The ANZACS, Thomas Nelson, Melbourne.
• Book with 2 authors
• Butler, J. D. & Walbert, D.F. (eds) 1986, Abortion, Medicine and the Law, Facts on File
Publications, New York.
• Book with 3 or more authors
• Leeder, S. R., Dobson, A. J., Gibberd, R. W. & Patel, N. K. 1996, The Australian Film Industry,
Dominion Press, Adelaide.
• Book with no author (note edition)
• The Australian Concise Oxford Dictionary 1992, 2nd edn, Oxford University Press,
Melbourne.

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 References and Bibliography
• Government and Parliamentary Publications
• Act of Parliament
• Copyright Act 1968 (Cwlth), ss. 1-3.
• Australian Bureau of Statistics bulletin
• Australian Bureau of Statistics, 1985, Domestic travel and tourism survey, Australia, 1983, Cat. no.
9216.0, ABS, Canberra.
• Government report
• Office of the Status of Women 1981, Fair Exposure, AGPS, Canberra.
• Journal Article
• Bibliographic details are arranged in the sequence:
• author of journal article, year of publication, article title, title of journal, volume of journal, issue
number of journal, article pages
• Journal article
• Dewhirst, C. 1986, 'Hot air over the Himalayas', World Geographic, vol. 1, no. 4, pp. 44-45.
• Journal article (no author)
• 'Anorexia nervosa' 1969, British Medical Journal, 1, 529-530.
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 References and Bibliography
• Newspaper article
• Legge, K. 1987, 'Labor to cost the "Keating Factor"', Times on Sunday, 1 Feb., p. 2.
• More than one item by the same author published in the same year
• Dewhirst, C. 1986a, 'Hot air over the Himalayas', World Geographic, vol. 1, no. 4, pp. 44-45.
• Dewhirst, C. 1986b, 'Cold water around the Antarctic', World Geographic, vol. 1, no. 5, pp.
32-39.
• ERIC Document (microfiche)
• Davis, R.K. & Lombardi, T.P. 1996, 'The quality of life of rural high school special education
graduates: A follow-up study', in Rural Goals 2000: Building Programs that Work
[Microfiche].
• Available: ERIC Document: ED394765.
• Personal Conversation
• Doe, J., Lecturer at Curtin University of Technology 2000, Conversation with the author, 14
Apr.

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 References and Bibliography
• Videorecording
• Apartheid did not Die (video recording) 1998, London, Carlton International, Written and produced
by John Pilger.
• Examples of types of electronic references:
• Journal Article
• Bibliographic details are arranged in the sequence:
• author of journal article, year of publication, article title, title of journal, type of medium (use
"Electronic" if you are unsure if it is online or networked CD-ROM), volume of journal, issue number
of journal, article pages or indication of length, "available" statement: supplier/database
name/identifier or number if available/item or accession number, access date
• Journal article abstract from Electronic Database
• Ryles, R. 1996, [Abstract of 'The impact of braille reading skills on employment, income, education
and reading habits', Journal of Visual Impairment and Blindness, vol. 90, no. 3, pp. 219-226],
[Electronic], Available: Silver Platter File: CINAHL/1996036756
[1997, June 7].

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 References and Bibliography
• Videorecording
• Apartheid did not Die (video recording) 1998, London, Carlton International, Written and produced
by John Pilger.
• Examples of types of electronic references:
• Journal Article
• Bibliographic details are arranged in the sequence:
• author of journal article, year of publication, article title, title of journal, type of medium (use
"Electronic" if you are unsure if it is online or networked CD-ROM), volume of journal, issue number
of journal, article pages or indication of length, "available" statement: supplier/database
name/identifier or number if available/item or accession number, access date
• Journal article abstract from Electronic Database
• Ryles, R. 1996, [Abstract of 'The impact of braille reading skills on employment, income, education
and reading habits', Journal of Visual Impairment and Blindness, vol. 90, no. 3, pp. 219-226],
[Electronic], Available: Silver Platter File: CINAHL/1996036756
[1997, June 7].

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 References and Bibliography
• Full text journal article from CD-ROM (BPO)
• La Rosa, S.M. 1992, 'Marketing slays the downsizing dragon', Information Today, [CD-ROM],
vol. 9, no. 3, pp. 58-59, Available: UMI/Business Periodicals Ondisc/92-20889 [1999, Jan. 15].
• Full text journal article from Electronic Database
• Sale, P. & Carey, D.M. 1995, 'The sociometric status of students with disabilities in a full
inclusion school', Exceptional Children [Electronic], vol. 62, no. 1, pp. 6-22, Available:
Information Access/Expanded Academic ASAP/A17435391 [1998, June 12].
• Full text journal article from an Electronic Journal
• Skargren, E. I. & Öberg, B. 1998, 'Predictive factors for 1-year outcome of low-back and neck
pain in patients treated in primary care: comparison between the treatment strategies
chiropractic and physiotherapy', Pain [Electronic], vol. 77, no. 2, 201(7pp.), Available:
Elsevier/ScienceDirect/S0304- 3959(98)00101-8 [1999, Feb. 8].

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 References and Bibliography
• Article from Curtin Electronic Reserve
• Avgerou, C, Siemer, J. & Bjørn-Anderson, N. 1999, 'The academic field of information
systems in Europe', European Journal of Information Systems [Electronic], vol. 8, pp. 136-
153, Available: Curtin University Library and Information Service E-Reserve/dc60005019
[2001, Jan. 22].
• Discussion List
• Berkowitz, P. 1995, April 3, 'Sussy's gravestone', Mark Twain Forum [Online], Apr. 3,
Available E-mail: [email protected] [1995, Apr. 3].
• World Wide Web
• World Wide Web page
• Beckleheimer, J. 1994, How do you cite URL's in a bibliography? [Online], Available:
http://www.nrlssc.navy.mil/meta/ bibliography.html [1995, Dec. 13].

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 References and Bibliography
• World Wide Web page (no author)
• Educating America for the 21st century: Developing a strategic plan for educational
leadership for Columbia University, 1993-2000 (Initial workshop draft) 1994 [Online],
Available: http://www.ilt.columbia.edu/CONF/ EdPlan.html [2001, May 16].

• World Wide Web page (no publication date)

• Prizker, T.J. n.d., An early fragment from central Nepal, [Online], Available:
http://www.ingress.com/~astanart/pritker/ pritzker.html [2000, Dec. 12].

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 Thank you!

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Research Methodology
Master of Architecture

Lecture 9:
Architectural Research
- Sanjaya Uprety (PhD)
Associate Professor
Tribhuvan University Course Coordinator
Institute of Engineering -Barsha Shrestha
Department of Architecture Tutor
Research Strategies
 Various Research Strategies
• Interpretive-Historical Research
• Archival Studies
• Qualitative Research
• Grounded Theory, Ethnography, Interpretivism and Phenomenology
• Co-relational Research
• Survey Research
• Experimental and Quasi-experimental Research
• Causal Relation
• Simulation and Modeling Research
• Case Studies
 Types of Architectural Research
Divided by contents and methods
1
• Process of design and construction
Interpretive/Histo
rical Research
7 2
• Mixed of two or more Case Study Qualitative • Building habitability
Research Research

• Follows systematic 6 3
• Human safety and Security
framework Logical Correlational
Argumentation Research

• Structural, Materials, 5 4
equipment and climate Simulation Experimental • Conservation of Research
Research Research
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The Strategy Screen
Topic of Inquiry

1.Interpretive-historical research
2.Qualitative research
3 Co-relational Research
4.Experimental Research
5.Simulation research
6 Logical Argumentation
7. Case Study (mixed method

The researcher
Area of Study

Source: After Groat & Wang

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Choice of Strategy
 Pluralistic view of strategies

 Overlapping suitability of strategies

 Avoiding gross misfit of strategy to

(i) research questions
(ii) control over events and environment, when needed
and,
(iii) focus on the contemporary, when needed.
The Strategy: Questions
Requires Control Focus on
Strategy Form of research over behavioral Contemporary
Question events? events?
POSITIVISTS- Experiment How, Why Yes Yes
(Model/Simulation)
POST-POSITIVIST- Survey Who, What, Where, No Yes
How many, How Much
(Co-relational)
PRAGMATIC-Case Study (mixed method How, Why No Yes
MIXED
CONSTRUCTIVIST How, Why No No
-Interpretive-Historical
Qualitative – How, Why, What No Yes
INTERPRETIVE/CONSTURCTIVIST
(Grounded Theory, Ethnographical,
Interpretive, Phenomenological)
PHISLOSOPHY-LOGICAL ARGUEMTNATION WH QUESTIONS No Yes
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 Historical Research-1; the concept and purpose

Concept
• The systematic collection of data to explain something occurred sometimes in the past.
• No manipulation or control of variables - differ with experimental research.
• Focuses primarily on the Past.

Purpose
• Awareness of past
• Learn from past failures and successes.
• To test hypothesis
• To assist in prediction

1. Scholz, R. W., Tietje, O. 2002. Embedded case study methods: Integrating quantitative and qualitative knowledge. Thousand Oaks, CA, USA: Sage Publications.
2. 2. Weatherford, R. 2011. “Anime for Architects.” D. Arch. thesis, University of Hawaii at Manoa, School of Architecture.

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 Historical Research: Research Types

Life History Autobiography Case Study Types of

Oral history
Narrative Historical Research

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 Historical Research: Research Stages

Research Stages

Identify a researchable Collection of Writing of the

phenomenon Data Report

Developing Check and

Hypotheses Verify

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 Historical Research: Characteristics and Tactices
Characteristics
1. History research brings into view something from past
2. Interpretation
3. Narrative
4. The cultural turn
5. Multiple point of view
6. The spatial turn

Tactics:
1. On-site familiarity
2. Use of documents
3. Visual comparison
4. Material evidence
5. Comparison with conditions elsewhere
6. Local informants and lore
7. Reenactment/testimonial
8. Identification of remaining questions.
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The Research Pyramid

Research Paradigm
Principles

Research Methodology
Strategies

Tactics Research Methods

Research techniques
The term: ‘Interpretive-historical’

 Study of social-physical phenomena within complex

contexts
• Seeking to explain those phenomena in narrative form, holistic
fashion
• Instances where the phenomena is a past condition, relative to
the researcher
• Hence titled
• Very similar to qualitative research, except that the latter
deals with contemporary socio-physical phenomena
• Involves (1) searching for evidence, (2) collecting and
organizing that evidence (3) evaluating it and (4)
constructing a credible holistic narrative
Organization of Interpretive Research

DATA/EVIDENCE IDENTIFICATION/ EVALUATION NARRATION

Manuscripts ORGANIZATION
Autobiographies Description Description
Newspapers Identifying sources
Analysis Emplotment
Unpublished records
Fact Gathering
Documents Assessment Story
Buildings Filing/organizing data
Arts Evaluation/
Crafts Note taking verification
Festivals…
Observation Triangulation

SEARCH
EVALUATION

NARRATION
The‘Interpretive-historical’Process

 Sources of Data/Evidence
• Manuscripts, Autobiographies, newspapers, unpublished records, documents,
correspondence, diaries, personal materials, photographs, buildings,
artwork, crafts, etc.
 Identification/Organization
• Identifying sources, Fact gathering, Filing/organizing data, Note taking,
observation
 Evaluation
• Description, analysis, assessment, evaluation of truth/verification,
triangulation
 Narration
• Description, emplotment, story
The‘Interpretive-historical’Process

 Interpretation is active through out the process of

Evidence collection, Organization, Evaluation and
Narration
• Processes go parallel, evidence collection may be active even
while the story is being narrated
• The four stages are not ‘discreet’ phases
Strategy: Narrative and Analysis in
‘Interpretive-historical’Research
 Narrating history: validity through true sequence of
flow and the interconnectedness of contents
 Describing events as they occurred in the actual flow of
time
 Narrative – necessarily involves two situations
separated by time, an incident with a beginning and an
end, narrated ‘objectively’ – distance in time and
observation using ‘eyes of people in the past’
Paradigmatic Basis for I-HR (Narration and
Analysis)
 The idea of History as a series of narrative constructions
 Literary metaphors in narratives
• History as a species of the genus Story
• Emplotment – not just collection of discreet narratives
• An account with a beginning, a development and a conclusion
 The role of imagination and comprehension
 Analysis and verification – part of the continuum of empirical
space and time. Textual authentication, validity of factual
inferences and weighing of alternative interpretations
• Accuracy and believability
Epistemological Basis for I-HR (Interpretation)

 Causal explanation of history: Hempel’s idea of a‘Covering law’

for social phenomena/ as in the natural: wide general laws as yet
not discovered? > history based predictions? History repeats
itself? Eg. > Earthquake/flood etc?
• Karl Popper; small scale cause-effect relations not ‘prophecy’
 History as the movement of Absolute Spirit
• Hegel’s history as an ongoing evolution of a communal consciousness-
historical periods in architecture
• Modernism – rooted on Technology and not Space or Society
• Le corbusier – Building as a machine to live
• Sigfreid Giedion- Space, Time and Architecture
Epistemological Basis for I-HR (Interpretation)

 Structuralism – human systems of meaning, aesthetics(?), language etc. self-

contained, self regulating and self-transformative – all cultures will develop
according to such organic/organizing structures
• Meaning as relation between entities
• Building as container of human activities, modifier of climate, cultural symbol and
consumer of resources like materials, energy etc.
• Language with the advent of computers: mouse, memory, surf!
 Post-structuralism – reality and human nature as a byproduct of discourse and
practices
• not linked as universal systems but as a text with differing topical foci in
society and time > history as a unique time as was
• History as a complex reality described through parsed discourses
Methods & Techniques: Data Identification,
Organization and Evaluation/Analysis in I-HR
 Identification
• Primary/Secondary; published/unpublished; books/periodicals;
official/qolloquial; catalogues/encyclopedia; etc.
 Organization
• In Researcher’s mind: Accuracy; Love of order; Logic;
Imagination; honesty
• Compilation: by topic, by time, by internal logical order
• Note-taking: relatedness of events
• Composing, verification, scope, scale.
 Evaluation/Analysis
• Authenticity, Attribution, Clarification, Difference between now
and then, Fact versus Idea, Bias, Self-criticism, Alternative
interpretations, Empathy, Oversimplification
• Triangulation
Methods & Techniques: Data Identification,
Organization and Evaluation/Analysis in I-HR
 Types of Evidence:
• Deterministic – able to place the object in time and place
firmly eg dates, inscription, photographs, artifacts, etc
• Contextual – no east gate of Kailashkut bhavan,
• Inferential – Sri kalaha abhimani, wrote book on sabda vidhya
• Recollective evidence (interpretation of the interviewee:
memories)- validity/credibility in question > needs to be
corroborated
Strengths and Weaknesses of I-HR

 Strengths: Only strategy for past events; can inform

other strategies using narratives
 Weaknesses
• Greatest limitation is that the object of enquiry cannot be
empirically available.
• Dependence on emplotment and literary construction
• History veering on to story?
• Historical imagination and accuracy
• Fitting into ‘one historical world’ is not easy in practice
 Historical Research: Strength and Weaknesses

Strengths Weakness
1. study evidence from the past 1. possibility of biasness.
2. wider range of evidence than most other 2. Only give a fractional view of the past
methods 3. Requires a different method and
3. provides an alternative and richer source interpretation because of its elusive
of information on topics subject matter
4. Permits the investigation of topics 4. Absence of technical terminology
5. Historians cannot agree on generalizations
6. Derived from the surviving records
7. Depends on valuable materials which are
difficult to preserve

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 References

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 Thank you!

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Research Methodology
Master of Architecture

Lecture 10:
Qualitative Research in
Architectural Research
- Sanjaya Uprety (PhD)
Associate Professor
Course Coordinator
Tribhuvan University
-Barsha Shrestha
Institute of Engineering Tutor
Department of Architecture
Research through design: Types based on project and context
• Describe and analyze existing
design with a known context
• Generates knowledge and 1 • Comparative study of design
understanding by looking at the… functions, forms, structures &
Effects of varying both design Design Research
the way they are made
solutions and their contexts

4 2
Study by Typological
Design Research

• Making a design in a relatively well • Looks for types, for the same
known context of potential users, 3 architectural form, structure,
investors, available techniques, material technique
Design Study
 Political, ecological and spatial • Functions or context in a
restrictions different context

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 Types of Architectural Research
Divided by contents and methods
1
• Process of design and construction
Interpretive/Histo
rical Research
7 2
• Mixed of two or more Case Study Qualitative • Building habitability
Research Research

• Follows systematic 6 3
• Human safety and Security
framework Logical Correlational
Argumentation Research

• Structural, Materials, 5 4
equipment and climate Simulation Experimental • Conservation of Research
Research Research
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The Strategy Screen
Topic of Inquiry

1.Interpretive-historical research
2.Qualitative research
3 Co-relational Research
4.Experimental Research
5.Simulation research
6 Logical Argumentation
7. Case Study (mixed method

The researcher
Area of Study

Source: After Groat & Wang

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 Qualitative Research

 Qualitative research is multi-method in focus, involving an

interpretive, naturalistic approach to its subject matter.

 This means that qualitative researchers study things in

their natural settings, attempting to make sense of, or
interpret, phenomena in terms of the meanings people
bring to them.

 Qualitative research involves the studied use and

collection of a variety of empirical materials.
-(Denzin and Yvonne Lincoln)

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 Qualitative Research: Characteristics and Tactics
Characteristics Tactics:
1. Interviews & Open-Ended Response Formats.
2. Observations.
3. Artifacts and Sites.
4. Archival Documents.
5. Inquiry Source Design Information Design
Outcome (Variables)

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 Qualitative Research; Attributes-1
• Qualitative research has
• Emphasis on natural settings
• Objects of enquiry in their natural settings
• A focus on interpretation and meaning
• The important role of the researcher and his/her subjective constructions, researcher as
the main measurement device.
• A focus on how the respondents make sense of their own circumstances
• Looking at the object through other eyes & minds
• The use of multiple Tactics
• Bricolage

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 Qualitative Research; Attributes-2
• Other Aspects of Qualitative research strategy
• Holistic
• Goal is to gain a systematic, encompassing, integrated overview

• Prolonged contact
• Study through intense and prolonged field or life situation – fieldwork

• Open ended
• Eschews the notion of a knowable, objective reality

• Analysis through words

• Narrative devices

• Contemporary focus
• Data collection involving people
• (Historical-Interpretive strategy used documents or artifacts.)

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 Qualitative Research; Attributes-3

• All Qualitative research are Field/In Situ/ Naturalistic Research

• Field research considered either a broad approach to qualitative research or a method

of gathering qualitative data

• Essential idea is that the researcher goes "into the field" to observe the phenomenon
in its natural state or in situ.

• Researcher typically takes extensive field notes which are subsequently coded and
analyzed in a variety of ways.

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 Qualitative Research-Attributes-4
• The researcher as an explorer and not an expert. An explorer in a specific context rather
than a specific reality.
• Use of the eye of someone else – subjective perception/meanings made by others – effort to
understand their perspective.
• The researcher is a subjective insider rather an objective outsider.
• Use of inductive cycle/unstructured data.

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 Ethnology
Anthropological
Life history
Qualitative Community
study
Phenomenology

Research Ethno-
graphy Post-structuralism
Strategies Field study
Participant
Observation
Investigative Journalism
Strategies
Nonparticipant Literary criticism
Interview
Observation Strategies
strategies
Archival
Strategies Content Analysis

Everyday Life Experiencing

Enquiring
Based on Jonker and Pennink Examining
[Miles and Huberman(1994)]

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 Qualitative Research

• Three Qualitative “approaches” or strategies

• Grounded Theory or Substantive Theory
• Ethnography
• Phenomenology
• Interpretivism
• Hermeneutics

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Research Methodology
Master of Architecture

Lecture 11:
AR Qualitative Research-
Grounded Theory
- Sanjaya Uprety (PhD)
Associate Professor
Course Coordinator
Tribhuvan University
-Barsha Shrestha
Institute of Engineering Tutor
Department of Architecture
 Qualitative Research

• Grounded Theory
• Developed by Glaser and Strauss in 1960s
• The purpose of grounded theory is to develop theory about phenomena of interest > unlike
abstract theorizing the theory is grounded or rooted in observation
• No pre-set notions, lets theory emerge from data
• Complex iterative process
• Raising of generative questions to guide research
• Questions not intended to be either static or confining

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 Qualitative Research

• Studies people’s experiences with a process or phenomenon

• It looks at continuous patterns of behaviours
• Data collection and analysis is merged together to develop/modify research question
then theory
• Theory is grounded in the data-grounded theory
• Not focused on testing theory

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 Qualitative Research

Not theories about a process of (how one) becomes/becoming a regular

smoker while in high school or college ??
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 Qualitative Research
Not theories about a process of (how one) becomes/becoming a regular smoker
while in high school or college ??

Data collection (Interview, FGD)/Triangulation Required

Open ended question (Core phenomena is what was the process?)

What influences the process to occur (Causal condition)

What actions taken in response to the process (strategies)

What were the outcome of strategies (consequences)

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 Grounded Theory

• Data collection, analysis (called coding) and theory development (called memoing) together

• As data begins to be gathered, core theoretical concept(s) are identified.

• Tentative linkages are developed between the theoretical core concepts and the data.

• The early phase of research tends to be open and can take long.

• Later on the researcher is more engaged in verification and summary and the effort tends to

evolve toward one core category that is central.

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 Grounded Theory

Key analytic strategies:

• Coding is a process for both categorizing qualitative data and for describing the
implications and details of these categories. Initially one does open coding,
considering the data in minute detail while developing some initial
categories. Later, one moves to more selective coding where one systematically
codes with respect to a core concept.

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 Grounded Theory (Axial Coding)

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 Grounded Theory (Axial Coding)

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 Grounded Theory (Axial Coding)

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 Grounded Theory

Memoing is a process for recording the thoughts and ideas of the researcher as
they evolve throughout the study. You might think of memoing as extensive
marginal notes and comments. Again, early in the process these memos tend to
be very open while later on they tend to increasingly focus in on the core
concept.

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 Grounded Theory

• Integrative diagrams and sessions are used to pull all of the detail
together, to help make sense of the data with respect to the emerging
theory.

• The diagrams can be any form of graphic that is useful at that point in
theory development. They might be concept maps or directed graphs
or even simple cartoons that can act as summarizing devices.

• This integrative work is best done in group sessions where different

members of the research team are able to interact and share ideas to
increase insight.

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 Grounded Theory

• Eventually one approaches conceptually dense theory as new observation leads to

new linkages > revisions in the theory > more data collection. The core concept is
identified and fleshed out in detail.

• When does this process end? The process described above could continue
indefinitely and there is no demarcated point for ending a study. Essentially, the
project ends when the researcher decides to quit.

• What do you have when you're finished? -a well-considered explanation for a

phenomenon of interest -- the grounded theory- a narrative with much of the
contextually relevant detail collected.

©Sanjaya Uprety (PhD) |Tutor: Barsha Shrestha

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Research Methodology
Master of Architecture

Lecture 12:
AR Qualitative Research-
Ethnography
- Sanjaya Uprety (PhD)
Associate Professor
Course Coordinator
Tribhuvan University
-Barsha Shrestha
Institute of Engineering Tutor
Department of Architecture
 Ethnography

• Initially from field of anthropology, now used in study of sociology, organization studies,
education, culture
• Emphasis in study of an entire culture, holistic, and in situ/field.
• Focus on finding meanings and functions of human action
• Not aiming at an explanatory theory that can be applied to many settings (like in Grounded
Theory) but a richer and fuller description of a particular setting
• Immersion of the researcher in particular context and bring out how the ones living in the
context interpret their situation
• Originally, culture was notionally tied to ethnicity and geographic location > now broadened to
include virtually any group or organization, cf. study the "culture" of business or defined group/
Rotary club
• Mode of data collection is PARTICIPANT OBSERVATION

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 Ethnography
• Ethnography
• Is a description of Social groups or situations. Behavior and Shared beliefs of the
group.
• Explains a cultural belief and behavior pattern from within
• A reliance on unstructured data and a focus on a case. Seeks human meanings as
central interpretations

• Can be used to study any well defined environment such as A Classroom, A football
team, A Company, A Club etc. and study it from within and possibly with
empathy/sympathy towards the studied group, its members and its faiths and beliefs,
rules of organization and being together etc.
• Full cooperation of the group being studied is essential
• Phenomenology as a theory is dominant in Ethnographic research

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 Data Collection Techniques
• Participant Observation
• Most common technique for qualitative data collection, one of the most demanding
• Requires the researcher become a participant in the culture or context being observed.
• How to enter the context, the role of the researcher as a participant, the collection and
storage of field notes, and the analysis of field data.
• Participant observation often requires months or years of intensive work because the
researcher needs to become accepted as a natural part of the culture in order to assure
that the observations are of the natural phenomenon.

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 Data Collection Techniques
Participant Observation
• Researcher becomes immersed in the culture as an active participant and records
extensive field notes.
• No preset limiting of what will be observed
• No real ending point in an ethnographic study.

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 Ethnography

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 How do you do this Ethnography?

• Study the approaches, preparedness, concerns and attitude of the four tutors as
individual teachers, as a part of the academic department and as part of the
administrative organization. How they did as tutors?

• Study the students and how they are doing, the new system and their learning progress
and feeling about the new methods, their concerns about scores. Select cases.

• Study the actual flow of comments and discussions and compare merits/demerits to the
class room and seminar presentations, etc

• Read the reference book

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Research Methodology
Master of Architecture

Lecture 13:
AR Qualitative Research-
Phenomenology
- Sanjaya Uprety (PhD)
Associate Professor
Course Coordinator
Tribhuvan University
-Barsha Shrestha
Institute of Engineering Tutor
Department of Architecture
 Phenomenology
• philosophical perspective as well as an approach to qualitative methodology

• Used in social research disciplines including psychology, sociology, development, urban

planning and social work

• Emphasizes a focus on people's subjective experiences and interpretations of the world

• The phenomenologist wants to understand how the world appears to others.

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 Ontological Position

• Experience of the researched – those who live a phenomena

• PHENOMENOLOGY
• Seeks to understanding the world of lived experience from the
point of view of those who live it

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 Epistemology

• Interpretivism

• Going beyond the empirical realities of observations and interpreting and

making sense of the data

• Objective interpretation of a subjective human experience

• Takes similar course to ‘emplotment’ and literary view in interpretive-historical

research

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 Epistemology

• Husserl’s transcendental phenomenology

•Text analysis only
•Think about thinking
•Interpretation
•Personal biases are not made explicit (journaling/bracketing)

• Heidegger’s hermeneutic phenomenology

•Brings in the meaning to the texts
•hermeneutic circle
•Interpretation
•Personal biases are made explicit

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 Qualitative Research

• Hermeneutics: Understanding through Interpretation

• Difference between Understanding and Knowing!
• Material and message
• Material and meaning
• Perspective of the viewer/receiver/analyst
• The role of Body of knowledge outside of the data (body of used knowledge)
• Being Conscious of pre-conceptions
• The part’s role in defining the whole/ whole’s role in elucidating the part
• Openness of interpretation > revision expecting stance

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 Literature and Content Analysis

What was intended and what is understood

Literature of all times?
values of the writer (poet, etc.) in the work
values of the receiver in the analysis/interpretation

;8s lsgf/f ufp‘5 O{Zj/ r/fx?sf] tfgfdf,

af]Nb5 O{Zj/ dflg;x?sf] kL8f, b'Mvsf] ufgfdf,
bz{g lsGt' sxL lb‘b}g rd{rIF'fn]] sfgfdf
s'g dlGb/df hfFg]< ofqL , s'g gjb]z lj/fgfdf ,

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 Qualitative Research

Action Research
• Research in active cooperation of the researched group
• Facts and meanings being researched and ideas put to test in parallel
• to gain a greater degree of cooperation and
• to delve deeper into the theme

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 The Process of Qualitative Research
• The key steps and the Interactive relationship between

• Data collection

• Data reduction/coding

• Data display

• Conclusion drawing/verifying

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 Data Collection Technique
• Participant Observation
• Interactive Interviews
• In-depth Unstructured Interviewing
• Key informants interviews
• Case histories

• Focus Groups
• Guided discussions in small groups
• questions reconstructed to suit groups

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 Data Collection Techniques

• Direct Observation
• Distinguished from participant observation
• First, a direct observer is not ‘a participant’ but an unobtrusive external but direct
observer so as not to bias the observations.
• Second, it has a more detached perspective > watches rather than takes part >
Technology such as videotape, one-way mirrors can be a useful
• Third, it is more focused than participant observation as it samples certain situations
or people rather than the entire context.
• Finally, it does not take as long as participant observation.

©Sanjaya Uprety (PhD) |Tutor: Barsha Shrestha

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 Data Collection Techniques

• Unstructured Interviewing

• Unstructured interviewing involves direct interaction between the researcher

and a respondent or group: cf. structured interviews

• Some initial guiding questions or core concepts to ask about but no formal
structured instrument or protocol > interviewer free to move the conversation in
any direction of interest that may come up > so particularly useful for exploring
a topic broadly

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 Data Collection Techniques

Unstructured Interviewing

Because each interview tends to be unique with no predetermined set

of questions asked of all respondents, it is usually more difficult to
analyze unstructured interview data, especially when synthesizing
across respondents.

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 Data Collection Techniques

In-Depth Interviews/FGDs
• In-Depth Interviews include both individual interviews (e.g.,
one-on-one) as well as "group" interviews (including focus
groups) > may be recorded as audio, video clips or written
notes

• Differs from direct observation primarily in the nature of the

interaction > questioner and interviewee situation created to
probe the ideas of the interviewees about the phenomenon
of interest.

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 Data Reduction/ Coding

• Qualitative research data: long interview transcripts, notes, sketches or photographs

• Reduction/coding
• Is reducing them in volume and into manageable “chunks”
• Chunks of themes, notes in margin, highlighted and graphic linkage
• Make and follow a scheme of codes that could be framed from out of one’s
research objectives/questions

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 Data Display

Qualitative data is displayed as

• Charts, Graphs or Tables - they should display the data and be directed by the
analytical process
• Maps and Diagrams
• Check-list matrix
• Quite a few data displays may go as appendix

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 Drawing Conclusions
Identifying patterns and providing explanations: Tactics for generating meanings
Noting patterns, themes
Descriptive
Seeing plausibility
Clustering
Making Metaphors
Counting
Making contrasts/comparisons
Analytical
Partitioning variables
Noting relation between variables
Subsuming particulars into the
general
Building a logical chain of evidence
Explanatory
Making conceptual/theoretical
coherence
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 Verifying: Testing or Confirming Findings
Data quality Checking for representativeness
Checking for researcher effects
Triangulation
Weighting the evidence
Looking at Unpatterns Checking the meaning of outliers
Using extreme cases
Following up surprises
Looking for negative evidence
Testing explanations Making if-then tests
Ruling out spurious relations
Replicating a finding
Checking out rival explanations
Testing with feedback Getting feedback from informants

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 Strengths and Weaknesses

Strengths Weaknesses

Capacity to take in rich and holistic Challenge of dealing with vast quantities
qualities of real life circumstances of data

Flexibility in design and procedures Few guidelines or steps-by-step

allowing adjustments in process procedures established

Sensitivity to meanings and processes of The credibility of qualitative data can be

artifacts and people’s activities seen as suspect with the post-positivist
paradigm

©Sanjaya Uprety (PhD) |Tutor: Barsha Shrestha

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 References

 McQueen, R. & Knussen, C. 2002, Research Methods for Social Science, Prentice Hall.
Chapter 6

 Jonker, J. & Pennik, B. 2002, The Essence of Research Methodology, Springer.

Chapter 5

 Groat, L. & Wang, D. 2002, Architectural Research Methods, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York.
Chapter 8

 Trochim, W.M.K. 2006 http://www.socialresearchmethods.net/kb, [2010, June 29]

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 Thank you!

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Research Methodology
Master of Architecture

Lecture 14:
Co-relational Research
- Sanjaya Uprety (PhD)
Associate Professor
Tribhuvan University Course Coordinator
Institute of Engineering -Barsha Shrestha
Department of Architecture Lecturer
 Types of Architectural Research
Divided by contents and methods
1
• Process of design and construction
Interpretive/Histo
rical Research
7 2
• Mixed of two or more Case Study Qualitative • Building habitability
Research Research

• Follows systematic 6 3
• Human safety and Security
framework Logical Correlational
Argumentation Research

• Structural, Materials, 5 4
equipment and climate Simulation Experimental • Conservation of Research
Research Research
©Sanjaya Uprety (PhD) |Barsha Shrestha
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The Strategy Screen
Topic of Inquiry

1.Interpretive-historical research
2.Qualitative research
3 Co-relational Research
4.Experimental Research
5.Simulation research
6 Logical Argumentation
7. Case Study (mixed method

The researcher
Area of Study

Source: After Groat & Wang

©Sanjaya Uprety (PhD) |Barsha Shrestha
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The Strategy: Questions
Requires Control Focus on
Strategy Form of research over behavioral Contemporary
Question events? events?
POSITIVISTS- Experiment How, Why Yes Yes
(Model/Simulation)
POST-POSITIVIST- Survey Who, What, Where, No Yes
How many, How Much
(Co-relational)
PRAGMATIC-Case Study How, Why No Yes
MIXED
CONSTRUCTIVIST How, Why No No
-Interpretive-Historical
Qualitative – How, Why, What No Yes
INTERPRETIVE/CONSTURCTIVIST
(GT, E, I, P)
PHISLOSOPHY-LOGICAL ARGUEMTNATION WH QUESTIONS No Yes

©Sanjaya Uprety (PhD) |Barsha Shrestha

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 Correlational Research: Characteristics and Tactics

Characteristics
• It investigates the possibility of relationships between variables
• Describes the degree to which two or more quantitative variables are related

Tactics:
3
1 2
Use of statistics to clarify
Focus on naturally Measurement of
patterns of relationships
occurring patterns. specific variables
among variables.

Demographical Interval and ratio

Ordinal Scale
study scales

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 Co-relational Research-Key Characteristics - 1
It Focus on naturally occurring patterns

A survey asking people to respond in a five point scale

Community attachment, pedestrianism, social
interaction and community identity
Real world Housing and
Neighborhood Specific physical features like community space,
variables – design open space, cultural space, sports field
characteristics of
Living in Single family houses or Apartments
physical
features, of Plaza users and availability of sitting space
people, of by linear space
activities or of
Plaza and its design Number of users in good weather and total
meanings criteria study space available
Survey/observation of 18 plazas in NY

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 Co-relational research-Introduction

Relationship

Nature and predictive power of relationship between variables

• Higher level of plaza utilization and combined presence of the bunch of variables
including sittable space, proximity to street life, sun, water/fountains, trees and
availability of food from vendors etc.

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 Co-relational Research- Key Characteristics - 1
Measurement of specific variables
Feature that distinguishes this method from qualitative research, which looks
more at holistic qualities

Measurable attributes and attitudes/opinions or variables that be co-related

to specify particulars/relations. Physical properties
Measurement
and Measurement can proceed only after we define our variable or variables to be
quantification studied.

A variable is any measured characteristic or attribute that differs for different

subjects. Because it can take varying values, it is named a variable.

For example,
if the height of 30 trees were measured, then height would be a variable.
©Sanjaya Uprety (PhD) |Barsha Shrestha
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 Co-relational Research- Key Characteristics -1; Variables
QUANTITATIVE VARIABLE (interval, or ratio scale)
A continuous variable is one for which, within the limits the variable ranges, any value is possible. For
example, a person's height is a continuous variable ("height" exists anywhere along the range of values
possible)-Can be expressed in fractions or decimals

A discrete variable is one that cannot take on all values within the limits of the variable. For example,
responses to a five-point rating scale can only take on the values 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5. The variable cannot
have the value 1.7. Can be expressed in Whole No

QUALITATIVE VARIABLE (nominal and ordinal scale)

Qualitative variables are generally measured on a nominal scale. If subjects were asked to name their
favorite actress, then the variable would be qualitative.

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 Key Characteristics – 1: Types of Variables
DEPENDENT VARIABLES
• A variable is called dependent variable if its values depend upon the other variable (s)
• Researcher’s purpose is to study, analyze and predict the variability in the dependent variable
INDEPENDENT VARIABLES
• A variable is called independent variable if it is not influenced by any other variable under
study
• It influences the dependent variable
• Any change in the independent variable (+ve or –ve) in the dependent variable leads to
canges (increase or decrease) in the dependent variable
• Used as the basis of prediction (effect on the dependent variable)

Fertilizer
Agricultural Output Advertising Volume of sales
Irrigation

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 Key Characteristics – 1: Confounding variables
Confounding variable (3rd variable)
• Confounding variables (a.k.a. confounders or confounding factors) are a type of extraneous variable that are related to
a study’s independent and dependent variables. A variable must meet two conditions to be a confounder:
• It must be correlated with the independent variable. This may be a causal relationship, but it does not have to be.
• It must be causally related to the dependent variable.

collect data on sunburns and ice cream consumption

Correlation; higher ice cream consumption is associated with a

higher probability of sunburn

Does that mean ice cream consumption causes sunburn?

Here, the confounding variable is temperature: hot
temperatures cause people to both eat more ice cream and
spend more time outdoors under the sun, resulting in more
sunburns.
Source: https://www.scribbr.com/methodology/correlational-research/
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 Types of Variables: Extraneous Variables
•Extraneous Variables
•In an experiment, an extraneous variable is any variable that you’re not investigating that can potentially affect the
outcomes of your research study.
•If left uncontrolled, extraneous variables can lead to inaccurate conclusions about the relationship
between independent and dependent variables.

Source: https://www.scribbr.com/methodology/correlational-research/

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 Key Characteristics – 1: Types of Variables

Source:
https://www.scribbr.com/methodology/correlational-research/

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 Confounding and extraneous variables
•Confounding Variables
•A confounding variable is a type of extraneous variable that is associated with both the
independent and dependent variables.
•An extraneous variable is anything that could influence the dependent variable.

• A confounding variable influences the dependent variable, and also correlates

with or causally affects the independent variable.

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 Confounding and extraneous variables
•Confounding Variables
•A confounding variable is a type of extraneous variable that is associated with both the
independent and dependent variables.
•An extraneous variable is anything that could influence the dependent variable.

• A confounding variable influences the dependent variable, and also correlates

with or causally affects the independent variable.

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 Co-relational Research-Measurement Scale

Measurement is the process of systematically assigning numbers for the purpose

of indicating differences among them in the degree to which they possess the
characteristic being measured.
The result of a measurement is a number – by definition

Measurement and quantification

• SCALE: is a method of measurement

• SCALE: is a continuum from the highest to the lowest point.
• All scales do not have a zero point.

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 Co-relational Research-Levels of Measurement
Levels of measurement precision

• Nominal/Categorical
• Ordinal scales/ordering but the interval of difference not equal
• Interval scale
• Ratio scale, zero point

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 Levels of Measurement: Nominal/ Categorical Measurement

A nominal scale, as the name implies, is Do you live in this neighborhood? YES/NO
simply some placing of data into
categories, without any order or How do you go to work? Walk/Bicycle/Microbus/Car
structure. What is your religious preference Hindu/Buddhist/Muslim

(There is no order, there is no distance between YES and NO or between walking and car! Thus nominal
scale is not a quantitative but a qualitative measure.)

The numbers in nominal measurement are assigned as labels and have no specific numerical value or
meaning. No form of mathematical computation (+,- x etc.) may be performed on Nominal measures.

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 Levels of Measurement: Summary

Nominal Scale (classification)

• To identify and classify highlights the difference by classifying objects.

Ordinal Scale (to indicate order)

• Provides some additional information by rank ordering the categories.

Interval Scale (To indicate equal interval)

• Provides information on magnitude of the differences in the variable.

Ratio Scale (to indicate ratio)

• Indicate magnitude and proportions of the differences.

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 Levels of Measurement: Ordinal Measurement- (2nd Level of precision)

The simplest ordinal scale is a ranking.

A scale is ordinal when objects can be assigned order on some characteristic but they cannot be
assigned values that represent degree of difference on that characteristic.

An ordinal scale only lets you interpret gross order and not the relative positional distances.

When a market researcher asks you to rank 5 types of beer from most flavorful to least
flavorful, he/she is asking you to create an ordinal scale of preference.
There is no objective distance between any two points on your subjective scale.

No form of mathematical computations may done with numbers representing ordinal

measures. All that can be done with such measures is to represent "greater than" or "less than"
comparisons.

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 Levels of Measurement :Ordinal Measurement (2nd level of precision)

Example:
Rank the following job in terms of their social status.

Jobs Rank of social status

Manager -------

Professor --------

Doctor --------

Engineer --------

Note: We can say doctors have relatively higher status than manager, but we cannot,
however, conclude that doctors have 3 times higher status than the managers.

©Sanjaya Uprety (PhD) |Barsha Shrestha

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 Levels of Measurement: Interval Measurement (3rd Level of precision)

An interval scale has equidistant points between each of the scale elements. The standard
survey rating scale is an interval scale.

When you are asked to rate your satisfaction with a piece of software on a 7 point scale, from
Dissatisfied to Satisfied, you are using an interval scale.

This means that we can interpret differences in the distance along the scale. We contrast this
to an ordinal scale where we can only talk about differences in order, not differences in the
degree of order.
This scale assumes that the data have equal intervals. This is like ordinal scale but with
constant intervals.

Several kinds of statistical analysis may be performed on measures off this scale. Common
statistics used in such measurements are Mean, standard deviation, t-test and f-test (tests of
significance)

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 Levels of Measurement: Ratio Measurement (4th level of precision)

A ratio scale is the top level of measurement. It is an interval scale with zero at the bottom end. Any
attribute that measures 20 in this scale is understood as
…..twice the quantity of 10 (interval measure of one). The numbers associated with the ratio scale are
true numbers with a true zero.
The simplest example of a ratio scale is the measurement of length.

The common interval scale which is not also a ratio scale is temperature scale. The Centigrade scale has a
zero point but it is an arbitrary one (as you can have minus temperature readings). The Farenheit scale has
its equivalent point at -32 degree.

So, even though temperature looks as if it would be a ratio scale it is an interval scale. Clearly, we cannot
talk about no temperature - and this would be needed if it were a ratio scale.

©Sanjaya Uprety (PhD) |Barsha Shrestha

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 Levels of Measurement: Attitude Scale: Likert Scale

A rating scale measuring the strength of agreement with a clear statement.

Often administered in the form of a questionnaire used to gauge attitudes
or reactions.

1 Strongly Disagree

For example: 2 Disagree

Question: "I found the software easy to use..." 3 Undecided
4 Agree
5 Strongly Agree

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 Levels of Measurement: Attitude Scale: Thrustone Scale (equal-appearing)

A way of measuring people's attitudes along a single dimension by asking them to indicate
that they agree or disagree with each of a large set of statements (e.g. 100) that are about
that attitude.
Each item is assigned a scale value.

Example: I believe in religion, and I go to the temple (Scale value 2)

I believe in religion, but I seldom go to the temple (Scale value 5.3)

I think the temple is a hindrance to religion for it still depends upon

superstition and myth (Scale value 9.4)

This implies ‘the lower the scale value, the more positive the attitude towards the temple’.
©Sanjaya Uprety (PhD) |Barsha Shrestha
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 Co-relational Research-Recapping

Concerns with the magnitude and the direction of the relationships

Concerns with discovering or

Simply implies to concomitance; it is not synonymous with
establishing the inter- causation
relationships between variables
May suggests the causation in the same sense that the variables
of a phenomenon under study … involved are part of the cause and effect system (but nature and
…without the researcher controlling or direction of system is not defined)
manipulating any of them
The two variables are not necessarily the cause and effect of each
other; the relationship between X & Y is often the consequence of
third factor

Correlation Types
• There are several common measures of relationship between variables; o three are important
• Pearson's product moment coefficient of correlation
• Partial correlation
• Multiple correlation (or regression)

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 Co-relational Research-Common measures of relationship

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 Co-relational Research-Common measures of relationship

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 Co-relational Research-Measure of Relationship
Intends to answer three questions about two variables or two
variable or tow sets of data
Pearson's product moment
1. Is there a relationship between two variables (or sets of
coefficient of correlation, data)?, If the answer is yes two more questions arise;
one of the best known measures of association
(Perfect correlations are rarely found) 2. What is the direction of the relationships? And
3 What is the magnitude of this relationship?

Correlation analysis
• Researchers are more interested in finding magnitude of relations (between variables) than the their
direction
• The correlation coefficient (also known as Pearson’s “r“)- a single number is used to describe the
strength and direction of the relationship between two quantitative variables (linear relationship)
• Pearson’s “r“ value ranging from -1.0 to +1.0 and express this relationship in quantitative form

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 Co-relational Research-Key Characteristics - 1
When the variables fluctuate in the same direction i.e. e.g. academic achievement and intelligence (+.90 –
when one increases so does the other, or decreases and so a high positive correlation); Meaning there is 90 in
does the other, a positive correlation is said to have existed 100 chance that intelligence is related with academic
achievement

A negative correlation or relationship is found when an It is a statistical value ranging from -1 denotes
increase in one variable is accompanied by a decrease in perfect negative correlation
other variable e.g. increased coffee consumption with decreased
tiredness
There is no relationship between the variables e.g. weight and intelligence in humans

©Sanjaya Uprety (PhD) |Barsha Shrestha

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 Key Correlation and causation
Correlation does not imply causation
• Just because a correlation between two things is found; it doesn’t conclude one of them causes the other
for a few reasons
1. Directionality problem
• If two variables are correlated, it could be because one of them is a cause and the other is an effect. ( But
cannot be inferred which is which).
• Researchers don’t conclude causality from correlational studies.

Example positive correlation between the wall thickness and the temperature change inside the room is
found

Thin walls are more likely to have high conduction of temperature

But one cannot be certain that whether having different thickness causes changes in temperature,
or whether varying temperature causes the different heat conductions rate

Therefore, you can only conclude that there is a relationship between these two variables.

©Sanjaya Uprety (PhD) |Barsha Shrestha

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 Key Correlation and causation

A confounding variable is a third variable that influences other variables to

make them seem causally related even though they are not.
2
Third
Instead, there are separate causal links between the confounder and each
variable variable.
problem
limited or no researcher control over extraneous variables.

Even if statistically control for some potential confounders, there may still
be other hidden variables that disguise the relationship between study
variables.

©Sanjaya Uprety (PhD) |Barsha Shrestha

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 Key Correlation and causation

strong positive correlation between working hours and work-related stress:

people with lower working hours report lower levels of work-related stress.
However, this doesn’t prove that lower working hours causes a reduction in
stress.
There are many other variables that may influence both variables, such as
average income, working conditions, and job insecurity.

Example These variables might be statistically controlled, but one can’t say for certain
that lower working hours reduce stress because other variables may
complicate the relationship.

Although a correlational study can’t demonstrate causation on its own, it can

help you develop a causal hypothesis that’s tested in controlled experiments.

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 Key Correlation and causation-Summary

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 Correlational Research: When to use ?
1. To correlation between the number of children people have and which political party they vote for
investigate It is not necessary having more children causes people to vote differently
non-causal
relationships it’s more likely that both are influenced by other variables such as age, ideology and SE status

But a strong correlation could be useful for making predictions about voting patterns

2. To explore Think that there causal relationship between two variables exists
causal
but impractical, unethical, or costly to do experimental research (manipulation of
relationships independent variable)
between
variables But it can provide initial indications for theories about causal relationships

EXAMPLE OF EXPLOATION

• investigate whether greenhouse gas emissions cause global warming.

• It is not practically possible to do an experiment that controls global emissions over time, but
• through observation and analysis you can show a strong correlation that supports the theory.
Source: https://www.scribbr.com/methodology/correlational-research/
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 Correlational Research: When to use
3. To test new measurement tools
To test its reliability or validity of a new instrument for measuring variable

To assess whether a tool consistently or accurately captures the concept it aims to measure.

Example

• You develop a new scale to measure loneliness in young children based on anecdotal
evidence during lockdowns
• To validate this scale, you need to test whether it’s actually measuring loneliness
• You collect data on loneliness using three different measures, including the new scale, and
test the degrees of correlations between the different measurements
• Finding high correlations means that your scale is valid

Source: https://www.scribbr.com/methodology/correlational-research/

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 Correlational Research: Implementation

Implementation in Design

Deduction
Starts with generalization, moves towards
observation Induction
Induction
Works from a particular situation to a general
one
Hypothetically-Deductively
Works back and forth in an iterative process

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 Chi square test

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 Chi square test

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 Chi square test
Calculated chi square value (X2)
=23.57
Compare this with tabular
value
For tabular value calculate the
degree of freedom

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 Chi square test

Level of significance is 5% =21.03

Degrees of freedom= 12

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 Chi square test
Tabular value is smaller than the
calculated value

Whenever calculated value is

greater than tabulated value or
critical value, null hypothesis is
rejected

And the alternate hypothesis is

accepted

Ha =significant relation between

the marital status and education

This is how we can say whether

the two variables are related or
not

©Sanjaya Uprety (PhD) |Barsha Shrestha

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 Thank you!

©Sanjaya Uprety (PhD) |Barsha Shrestha

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Research Methodology
Master of Architecture

Lecture 15:
AR Experimental Research
- Sanjaya Uprety (PhD)
Associate Professor
Tribhuvan University Course Coordinator
Institute of Engineering -Barsha Shrestha
Department of Architecture Tutor
 Types of Architectural Research
Divided by contents and methods
1
• Process of design and construction
Interpretive/Histo
rical Research
7 2
• Mixed of two or more Case Study Qualitative • Building habitability
Research Research

• Follows systematic 6 3
• Human safety and Security
framework Logical Correlational
Argumentation Research

• Structural, Materials, 5 4
equipment and climate Simulation Experimental • Conservation of Research
Research Research
©Sanjaya Uprety (PhD) |Tutor: Barsha Shrestha
Department of Architecture, IOE
2
 Experimental Research: Tactics

Tactics

Treatment
Study simulation

Setting Outcome
Measures –
Design decision

©Sanjaya Uprety (PhD) |Tutor: Barsha Shrestha

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 Experimental Research-Definition
Manipulating the independent or explanatory variable and then

Observing whether hypothesized dependent variable is affected

by intervention
What is experimentation?
There should be at least one independent variable and one
dependent variable
In a causal relationship

For identification of necessary and sufficient conditions for

occurrence of an event
Experiments: settings for
observation of an artificially
produced phenomena or Experiments use conscious and deliberate control of environment/
interaction context

©Sanjaya Uprety (PhD) |Tutor: Barsha Shrestha

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Goals and Objectives

Goal of an Experiment is to discover the effects of presumed causes

Discovering causal connections

Testing hypotheses or propositions

Experiments are
methods of
Ways of demonstrating proof of a All phenomena taken as a network of
phenomenon cause-and-effect relations

©Sanjaya Uprety (PhD) |Tutor: Barsha Shrestha

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Causation
Cause – variable that starts off a phenomenon -contextually dependent

Effect-the difference between what would have happened (without the cause variable) and what did happen
(with the cause variable)

Experiments may be repeated to make a series of observations to establish a causal relationship

Law of causation is a Every phenomenon has a cause and

special form of the
Law of Uniformity of same cause always gives rise to the
Nature same effect.

The cause is an invariable Cause has a temporal precedence

antecedent and effect an invariable over effect.
consequent of cause.

©Sanjaya Uprety (PhD) |Tutor: Barsha Shrestha

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6
To summarize

Experimental research tests causal relationships in a controlled environment >

aims to determine or predict what may occur

Is manipulation of independent variable, holding all other variables except

dependent variable constant to observe effect of manipulation of independent
variable on dependent variable
Depending upon field of enquiry, nature of manipulation, control and
observations may differ and controls may be total, selective or statistical.

©Sanjaya Uprety (PhD) |Tutor: Barsha Shrestha

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Experimental Design

Two fundamental considerations of experimental design are:

That the independent variable is the only factor that varies systematically in the
experiment; in other words, that the experiment is appropriately controlled -
that the confounding variables are eliminated; and

That the dependent variable truly reflects the phenomenon under study and
that the variable can be measured accurately (i.e., that various types of
experimental error, such as measurement error can be eliminated).

©Sanjaya Uprety (PhD) |Tutor: Barsha Shrestha

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Experimental Design

The design of experiments attempts to balance the requirements and limitations

of the field of science in which one works so that the experiment provides the best
measure and conclusion.
Physics and Chemistry
The requirement of objective control and
measurement of experiments is met Biology and Medicine
differently by different sciences:
Social studies

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9
Experimental Design

Experiments are done In Laboratory or field for Natural Sciences

In Field for Social Sciences
Most rigorous from internal validity considerations
Experiments assess change propositions or hypothesis

If x then y type of Acid + Base = Salt + Water

proposition
HCl + NaOH= NaCl+H2O (Neutralization reaction)

Important to ‘control’ other If plants get sun-light, their leaves turn green!
‘variables’ and the
‘environment’ or context The rate at which grass grows is not dependent on the amount of light it
receives.

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Experiment in Laboratories: Control and Manipulation

‘control’ of Variables in the experiment, independent variable (IV) that is manipulated and dependent
variable (DV), changes are observed in it
other
‘variables’ or
the
Multiple independent variables: separate Plant Growth and air, water,
‘environment’ experiment for each variable nutrient, light & type of soil

Experiments must Wearing of mhp turbines due to head and sediment load, shape
have a hypothesis or of particles, material and design of blades
theory
Iron impregnated activated carbon are very effective
adsorbent of arsenic in water, texture of Lupsi-seeds suggest
its potential for making activated carbon for arsenic filter

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 Clarify Research Question

Define Research Question (s)

Refine Research Question(s)

Management
Exploration Exploration Decision

Select a research
Research
strategy/ Research
Proposal
methodology here Reporting

Experimental Research Design

• State theory, select relevant variables
• Specify the manipulation levels (IV)
Conduct Research
• Control the experimental environment
Take Repeated Measures: Data
• Choose the experimental design
Analysis and Interpretation of Data
• Set up, pilot test and revise

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 Quantitative Research Design

Quantitative Research Design Types (Campbell and Stanley, 1963 & Crowl, 1993

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 Ex Post Facto Research (causal comparative RD)
Purpose

Two types of ex post facto researches

• Co-relational study and
• the criterion group study

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 Ex Post Facto Research (causal comparative RD)

•Co-relational study •Criteria group study

When a strong relationship is found between IV The treatment is given to one

and D, three possible interpretations are open to
the researcher
group and not others
• 1. that the variable X has caused O • 1. X causes O1
• 2. that the variable O has caused the X • 2. X can not be manipulated as the event
• 3. that some third unidentified, and has already happened
therefore unmeasured, variable has caused X • 3. O2 is not given treatment
and O • Dashed lines represent the non-equivalence

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 True Experimental Design (E,Q-E & N-E)

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 True Experimental Design (E,Q-E & N-E)
*pretest-posttest treatment versus comparison group randomized experimental
design

Randomized experiment is true experiment is

true experiment
Non-randomized is Qausi-experiment

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Experimental Designs-Symbols and Design

True Experiment-Randomized Quasi- Experiment-Non-Randomized

(Equivalent) Trial (Non Equivalent )Trial

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 Example of True Experiment (Randomized)

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 True Randomized Experiment
In the same example; the researcher believes that gender has the effects on the results

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 True Randomized Experiment-Blocks

In the same example; the

researcher believes that gender
has the effects on the results

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 True Randomized Experiment-Blocks

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 Experimental Research: Implementation in Design

Cited from Achten, 2009

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 Experimental Research: Implementation in Design
Examples of Simulation as a Design Driver-1

(Cited from Achten, 2009)

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 Experimental Research: Implementation in Design
Examples of Simulation as a Design Driver-2

Cited from Achten, 2009

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 Experimental Research: Implementation in Design
Examples of Simulation as a Design Driver-3

Cited from Achten, 2009

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 Experimental Research: Implementation in Design

Examples of
Simulation as a
Design Driver-4

Cited from
Achten, 2009

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 Experimental Research: Strength and Weaknesses

Strengths
1. Establishing causality (cause and effect relationship or parametric)
2. Generalizing results to other settings and phenomena
3. Control on overall experimental design aspects

Weakness
1. Overgeneralization to different ethnic, gender population
2. Ethical problems Dehumanization.

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 Thank you!

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Research Methodology
Master of Architecture

Lecture 17
AR Simulation Research
- Sanjaya Uprety (PhD)
Associate Professor
Tribhuvan University Course Coordinator
Institute of Engineering -Barsha Shrestha
Department of Architecture Tutor
Research through design: Types based on project and context
• Describe and analyze existing
design with a known context
• Generates knowledge and 1 • Comparative study of design
understanding by looking at the… functions, forms, structures &
Effects of varying both design Design Research
the way they are made
solutions and their contexts

4 2
Study by Typological
Design Research

• Making a design in a relatively well • Looks for types, for the same
known context of potential users, 3 architectural form, structure,
investors, available techniques, material technique
Design Study
 Political, ecological and spatial • Functions or context in a
restrictions different context

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 Types of Architectural Research
Divided by contents and methods
1
• Process of design and construction
Interpretive/Histo
rical Research
7 2
• Mixed of two or more Case Study Qualitative • Building habitability
Research Research

• Follows systematic 6 3
• Human safety and Security
framework Logical Correlational
Argumentation Research

• Structural, Materials, 5 4
equipment and climate Simulation Experimental • Conservation of Research
Research Research
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 Simulation Research: Concepts and Tactics

Concept
1. Imitation of a real-world process or system
2. a model be developed
3. this model represents the key characteristics, behaviors and functions
4. whereas the simulation represents the operation of the system

Tactics A model generated in Ecotect Simulation Tool

Measurable Base case &

Literature variables Model Scenario
review identification validation Analysis

Problem Conceptual & Model Outcome

definition mathematical simulation measures
Modeling

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 Simulation Research: Usefulness
Yield information Simulation of natural occurrences such as
about dangerous earthquakes/hurricanes : shaking table, wind tunnel
Experience of conditions without (physical modeling)
‘virtual reality’ – placing people in
architects use harm’s way
‘CAVE’ (computer
assisted virtual Questions of scale and Mathematical and computer modeling of
complexity natural/artificial phenomena on micro or macro scales
environment) or
advanced
animations or GIS and urban modeling – water in Urban core of
Kathmandu
models to study
design Energy Modeling computer modeling of natural/artificial phenomena on
micro or macro scales
Energy Modelling for Residential units (passive energy)

Energy Modellling for Active Energy (Active Modelling)

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 Simulation Research: Usefulness

Studying subjective dimensions of Full-size mock-ups and citizen participation in

human behavior in built environment design

Simulation and Materials testing Destructive testing for structural strength, fire
rating, elements in repeated use

Simulation without compromising on Toilet grab bars research

ethics

Simulation Research is useful both In Developing Theory

In Testing theory

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 Strategies of Simulation Research:
Simulation versus Representation

 Simulation uses controlled replication of real world contexts or phenomena for

purpose of studying dynamic interactions within its setting.
• Assumes accurate representation of elements and their interactions > virtual sameness

 Simulation is a dynamic modeling while representation is only a fixed image

with measurable qualities
• Photographs, drawings, scale-models in architecture are only representations
• But representations that can generate data (so, dynamic) for applying back to real life
situations could be simulations (cf. citizen participated design process using mock-up model)
 Strategies of Simulation Research:
Simulation versus Representation

 Computer programs have blurred the distinction between

representation and simulation as it can incorporate, for example,
………over time and space dynamism in terms of say shadows, light,
ventilation, in architectural exercises > yields measurable and useful
data for design
 Types of Simulation Models

 Model is a static representation whereas Simulated Model is a replication that aims to abstract
natural laws and/or socio-cultural factors that are involved in the interactions of the real world.

 Models may be
• Iconic eg physical models of imagined or real things or process
• Analogous or based on analogy of structure or property (eg Huygens developed his wave
theory of light modeled on sound as a wave phenomenon: substantive or abstract analogy)
• Operational or people’s interaction within physical setting (socio-physical models)
• Symbolic or Mathematical/Numerical eg equations, computer programs
 Types of Simulation Models

 Iconic, analogue, operational or Numerical >Computer model

 Computer Modeling
• Now used to simulate all of the above models and it may be likely that
computer modeling becomes a cross-cutting tactic
• Two dimensional images with ‘depth’, layers, dynamic characters (temporal or
spatial or behavioral) as additional dimensions
Computer as a Tactical Tool
 Computer works on the principle of simulation
 Computer has an ability to virtually replicate schemas, objects,
properties, interactions and contexts using rule based operations
 Graphic, Mathematical, Spatial, ‘Three-dimensional’ models, Virtual
reality models
 Eg in architecture:
• Whereas CAD is essentially a sophisticated pencil, others like SEED, CAVE, GIS,
Intelligent Card (IC) and Intelligent Buildings, VRML etc
 Relationship with other research
Methods

 Simulation Research and Logical argument

• Framework of logic is conceptual, it can explain dynamic interactions but not demonstrate
them.
• Logical arguments tend to universality but simulation is applied to a particular case
• The two come very close in computer modeling as computers use formal mathematical
system and logic
 Simulation Research and Experimental research
• Iconic models are like operationalized experimental simulation
• Simulation need not isolate cause-effect relations from the context
 Relationship with other research
Methods

 Simulation research and co-relational research

• Co-variation of multiple variables in nature and simulation appear related but
simulation, unlike co-relational research, manipulates independent variables
 Simulation research and Qualitative research
• Simulation research may demand use of qualitative research tactics in
preparatory stage, particularly in operational or socio-physical simulation
Tactical Concerns
 Accuracy of Replication
 Completeness of input data
 ‘Programmed Spontaneity’
 Cost and Workability
 Simulation Research: Implementation in Design
Set out detailed procedure

Create reference model and selected design alternatives

Simulate/ analyze
QA checks on results Create new models

Design team meeting

• Check assumptions
• Discuss results
• Define new/ refined objectives
Yes
Revise reference model?
No Yes
Analyze additional design alternatives
No
Report
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 Calibration/Verification of Parameters

Experiment Numerical

5.0

1.0 4.0

Height (cm)
Acceleration (*g)

3.0
0.5
2.0 Left edge
0.0
1.0 Right edge
-0.5 N umerical
0.0
-1.0 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
0 5 10 15 20 D e formation (cm)
Time (secs.)

Measured acceleration Obtained displacements

Average displacement =3.5cm Average displacement =3.4cm

Both are in good agreement

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Department of Architecture, IOE
 Simulation Research: Strength and Weaknesses

Strengths Weakness
1. Simulation research is able to capture 1. The project of replicating a slice of the real
complexity without reducing to a limited world is necessarily limiting (never ‘complete’)
number of discrete variables.
2. Particular limitations include lack of spontaneity
2. This research strategy provides a variety of in role-playing, or the challenges associated
ways of understanding future behavior with coding aspects of human behavior into
computer equivalents
3. Because all research strategies involve the
‘real world’ in some way, simulation tends to 3. Simulation research can become very
be useful to a variety of other strategies expensive very fast.

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 Thank you!

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Research Methodology
Master of Architecture

Lecture 18:
AR-Logical Argumentation
- Sanjaya Uprety (PhD)
Associate Professor
Tribhuvan University Course Coordinator
Institute of Engineering -Barsha Shrestha
Department of Architecture Tutor
 Logical Argumentation: Characteristics and Tactics

Characteristics Tactics
1. Attempts to place a well documented thing within 1. Studies to generate various factors
a systematic framework that explains the thing. 2. Factors being proposed as the First Principles
2. ‘Works’ are recognized as ‘Research’ by logical in a logical framework
argumentation. 3. Critical assessment of the principle
3. Frequently implicit; often the frameworks are not 4. Thus, development of a systematic
explicitly called logical argumentation. framework

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 Logical Argumentation :

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 Logical Argumentation :

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 Logical Argumentation: Characteristics and Tactics

The Spectrum of Logical Argumentation Fig: From The six “S” categories of Stewart Brand’s theory
Hillier and Hansen, The Social Logic of Space for the rate at which building layers change

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 Thank you!

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Research Methodology
Master of Architecture

Lecture 19 :
AR Case Studies-1
- Sanjaya Uprety (PhD)
Associate Professor
Tribhuvan University Course Coordinator
Institute of Engineering -Barsha Shrestha
Department of Architecture Tutor
 Types of Architectural Research
Divided by contents and methods
1
• Process of design and construction
Interpretive/Histo
rical Research
7 2
• Mixed of two or more Case Study Qualitative • Building habitability
Research Research

• Follows systematic 6 3
• Human safety and Security
framework Logical Correlational
Argumentation Research

• Structural, Materials, 5 4
equipment and climate Simulation Experimental • Conservation of Research
Research Research
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 Case Study Research: Characteristics & Tactics

Characteristics
1. Mixed method of research (Contain one or more other research approaches)
2. A focus on either single or multiple cases, studied in their real‐life contexts
3. The capacity to explain causal links (why/how ‐ questions)
4. The importance of theory development in the research design phase
5. Reliance on multiple sources of evidence
6. Power to generalize to theory

Select single
or multiple Make a Note the
cases proposition relations

Holistic single case or Collect and link Reach for general

comparison/contrast with multiple set of
between multiple cases data source observation

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 Case Studies:

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 Case Study Research: Characteristics

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 Case Study Research: Implementation in Design

1. To know the environment and micro climate

2. To explain user behavior and requirements
3. To study about utility and space enhancement
4. To analyze form and function
5. To study about planning and circulation and
other architectural features (structure, building
service, etc.) Comparison

Strengths Weakness
1. Focus on the context 1. Potential for over complication
2. Capacity to explain causal links 2. Challenge of integrating many data source
3. Richness of multiple data sources 3. Fewer established rules and procedures
4. Ability to generalize to theory than other research designs
5. Compelling and convincing when done well 4. Difficult to do well

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 Case Study Research: The inquiry types
Strategy Form of research Requires Control Focus on
Question over behavioral Contemporary
events? events?
Experiment How, Why Yes Yes
Survey Who, What, Where, No Yes
How many, How
Much
Archival Who, What, Where, No Yes/No
Analysis How many, How
Much
History How, Why No No
Case Study How, Why No Yes
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The Strategy Screen

Topic of Inquiry

1. Interpretive Historical Research

2. Qualitative Research
3. Correlational Research
4. Experimental Research The researcher
5. Simulation Research
6. Case study/ mixed methods

The area of Study

Groat & Wang

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 What is a Case Study Research?

A case study is a detailed study of a specific subject, such as a

person, group, place, event, organization, or phenomenon.

Case studies are commonly used in social (Architectural, planning),

educational, clinical, and business research.
Case study
research A case study research design usually involves qualitative methods,
but quantitative methods are sometimes also used‐making it mixed
method research.

Case studies are good for describing, comparing, contrasting,

evaluating and understanding different dimension of a research
problem

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 Case study research: definition
A Case study is an Investigates a contemporary
empirical inquiry that phenomenon within its real life context,
especially when the boundaries between Types of subjects in Case Study
phenomenon and context are not clearly
evident (Yin, 2003)
Person
Contrastingly, an Limiting variables
experiment deliberately Group
divorces a phenomena
from the context Controlled context in Laboratory Location
Organization/Company
Historical studies also deal with entangled phenomena and context Event

Surveys ‐ limited ability to investigate context

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 Case study research: definition

(Creswell, 2013, p. 97).

“The case study method “explores a real‐life, contemporary
bounded system (a case) or multiple bounded systems (cases)
over time, through detailed, indepth data collection involving
multiple sources of information… and reports a case
description and case themes”

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 Research Questions and Case Studies-Examples
Research question Case study
What are the health effects of inferior thermal effect on Case study on inhabitant’s health situation in
HH in post disaster reconstruction? reconstructed house

How do affected HH decide to move to reconstructed Case studies of affected HH decision process
houses in resettlement areas?
How do implementing agency ensure active participation Case study of a reconstruction project that has ensured
of affected HH with multi‐stakes in the reconstruction active participation of affected HH with multi‐stakes
process?
What are the main determinants of successful Case study of a successful resettlement
resettlement?
How does political decision making affect the success of Case study of political decision making process in the
resettlement policy? resettlement policy implementation
What is the relationship between livelihood opportunity Case studies on livelihoods types provided in a successful
and housing satisfaction in post disaster post disaster relocation/resettlement
relocation/resettlement?

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 Type of Case Studies

1 It could comprise all three in one also

Exploratory Case
Study
7 2
Instrumental Descriptive Exploratory
Case Study Case Study

6 3
Intrinsic Case Explanatory Descriptive
Study Case Study

5 4
Explanatory
Single Case Multiple (Collective)
Study Case Study

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 Case study research: Types
1. Exploratory Case Study
• Answers how ? What ?
• Explores the situation where researcher has no clear understanding of the phenomenon
• investigates distinct phenomena characterized by a lack of detailed preliminary research, especially
formulated hypotheses that can be tested, and/or by a specific research environment
• Used when there is no single set of outcomes.
• These are sometimes used as a prelude to further, more in‐depth research.
• This allows researchers to gather more information before developing their research questions
and hypotheses.

Examples,
exploratory case study of online instructors: Factors associated with instructor engagement

here is a less literature on the energy efficiency in post disaster housing reconstruction and researcher wants
explore in depth

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 Case study research: Types
2. Descriptive Case Study 1. causes of the
problem,
• Answers who? What ? Where? questions
• A descriptive case study is one that is focused and detailed, 2. the forces behind the
in which propositions and questions about a phenomenon solution,
are carefully scrutinized and articulated at the outset. Concise but
• Describes the phenomenon in its context (complete 3. the outcomes of
thorough implementation
description)
account of
• These involve starting with a descriptive theory.
the facts of 4. lessons learned
• The subjects are then observed and the information
gathered is compared to the pre‐existing theory. the situation
5. connections to
Examples, theories, concepts,
• journalistic description of the Watergate scandal by two policies, and
reporters (Yin, 1984)
• Adopt flood resiliency measures, including land use 6. tools relevant to the
regulation, settlement relocation and construction situation.

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 Case study research: Types

3. Explanatory Case Study

• Answers How? why? questions
• Used to explain presumed causal links (or relationships in real life situations) that are too complex for surveys
or experimentation (Yin, 2014).
• To explain how events have happened by comprising data based on cause and effect relationships
• These are often used to do causal investigations.
• In other words, researchers are interested in looking at factors that may have actually caused certain things to
occur

Examples
• Effect of ethics on architect’s practice and attitude
• Architectural determinism in design
• Livelihood opportunities and relocation decision by disaster affected households
• “An investigation into the reasons of the foreign reserve reduction and trade deficit in 2077‐78 in Nepal

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 Case study research: Types

4. Multiple/Collective Case Study

• How are cases alike?
• How are cases different?
• Used to compare two or more cases. Sometimes referred to as multiple case study because there is more
than one case. But focus is on the comparison of the cases.
• When researcher intends to replicate the findings, multiple case study research is applicable
• Researcher selects the similar or different cases and compares similarities or differences within and between
the cases
• In a multiple‐case study, mostly three to four distinct cases are considered for the study
• Purposive sampling is mostly used
Examples
• User’s participation in Integrated Settlement Planning: A comparative case study research
• When studying what contributes most to wartime PTSD, a researcher could use case studies from different war
(e.g. Vietnam war vets, SWW vets, Gulf war Vets etc)

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 Case study research: Types
5. Single Case Study
• Answers How? and why? questions
• When researcher knows extreme/critical/typical to test a theory or to explore a phenomenon.
• focus on particularization more than the generalization of the findings
• If the researcher only wants to study one single thing (for example a person from a specific group) or a single
group (for example a group of people), a single case study is the best choice (Yin, 2003).
• Several cases can be applied concurrently
Examples
• Study of failure of resettlement project: Study of Barpak resettlement can be a most information rich case
• Study of child marriage practice: Study of a group/community will give a rich insights to understand the practice

Testing a theory
a theory might be‐ Participatory Study of a typical successful case, study of the Confirm whether the theory is
planning contributes to the participatory process, whether a real participation correct or not (in a specific
success of resettlement project happened or not, user’s satisfaction study will… context)

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 Case study research: Types
6. Intrinsic Case Study
• Can answer all above questions but focus is very specific (personal interest in the case)
• Used to better understand a specific case (. Jean Piaget's observations of his own children‐psychological theory).
• An intrinsic case study is the study of a case wherein the subject itself is the primary interest
Example
• ‘We do things Together’ A case study of “couplehood” in dementia. Dementia, 4(1), 7–22.

7. Instrumental Case Study

• Used to provide insight into an issue or help refine a theory.
• The case plays a supportive role, helping us to understand something else. The case may or may not be seen as typical of
other cases.
• These occur when the individual or group allows researchers to understand more than what is initially obvious to observers.

Example
• a researcher interested in child obesity rates might set up a study with middle school students and an exercise program. In this
case, the children and the exercise program are not the focus.
• The focus is learning the relationship between children and exercise, and why certain children become obese.
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 When to choose case study and types

How or Why
question

Contemporary
set of events

Investigator has little

or no control over
the set of events

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 Case Study- Research Design

Research design > plan of research > an action plan for getting here to there
> links the empirical data to the research questions and its conclusions
•What questions to study? & What data is relevant ?
•How to collect data (major steps)? &
•How to analyze data and results?

Guides the investigator in the process of collecting, analyzing and

interpreting observations. It is a logical model of proof that allows the
researcher to draw inferences and also defines the domain of
generalizability‐
RD is more than just a work plan >is a logical and not a logistical problem

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Case Study Design
No standard reference of design elements or
approaches and case study research designs
are not fully codified

1. The study’s Questions,

2. propositions (purpose),

5 3. units of analysis,
components
of Case study 4. the logic linking the data to
research propositions, and
design 5. the criteria for interpreting the
findings

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Case Study Design- The Study Questions
How and Why questions

1. Substance of the question

The study
Questions well stated, unambiguous and clear question

Well begun is half done and begin with the questions!

Why the urban poor are hit most by housing shortage?

How may their access to housing be improved?

How may we establish a participatory process in the conservation, operation and

management of urban services in a degenerating traditional town?
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Department of Architecture, IOE
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Case Study Design- The Propositions
Propositions define or help define the scope of the study

Propositions are important components of a tentative answer to the

question and give directions to study?
2. It can tell what evidence to look for where
The propositions, if
any (purpose) Set feasible limits to research/study

The urban poor have lost access to land

The Guthi system may be reconstructed to match modern town

services management practices
Exploratory studies: statement of purpose instead of propositions

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 Case Study Design- The unit of analysis

Individual (life histories, successful local

industrialist, working women, educated
Unit of analysis fundamentally girls)
defines the ‘case’
3. Decisions, programs, implementation
The unit of process, event

analysis (UA) Example

The urban poor, the traditionally marginal caste group, the marginalized ethnic group,
traditional degrading Tole, etc.

Can tell whether you need single or multiple cases

Responds to the question and analytical horizon

Time boundaries of the case, Previous studies

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 Case Study Design- single or multiple units of analysis

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 Case Study Design- single or multiple units of analysis

Rationale of Single case designs

Critical case in testing a well‐formulated theory

Unique case

Revelatory case

Holistic versus embedded case studies

More than one unit of analysis > embedded CS

Holistic CS may tend to be abstract/ lack clear data or measures > orientation of study
might change
Embedded CS offer better focus to inquiry

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Case Designs

Comparative judgment/robust and compelling

Not a sampling but replication logic

Rationale of
Multiple-case Selection of cases: (a) predicts similar results (literal replication) (b) produces
designs contrasting results but for predictable reasons (theoretical replication)

Not used to assess the incidence of phenomenon/ must consider context,

which has many variables of relevance.

At most three to six cases (depending on external validity issue)

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 Case Study Method

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 Case Study Design- Linking Data & Analysis
4. Linking the data to the proposition
Linking the data
Limited guidance available (emerging) for linking data

5. Coding for qualitative data

Analysis Non parametric statistical analysis for quantitative data

Other as useful

6. Both a quick widely defined at present and are not ‘precise’ as yet

Establishing the criteria Pattern matching, matching data to proposed patterns/two patterns as rival patterns
for interpreting the How close a match? How great a contrast is conclusive?
findings Limited guidance available (emerging) for linking data

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 Case Study Design- Pattern Matching
Empirical Based Pattern
(Multiple Methods)
Observation

Interviews/ Content
Survey
FGDs analysis.

Statistical Induction/ Content

analysis Deductions Analysis

Empirical pattern (EP) from each method EP does match Finding Supports
PP the (P)
Theory

Alternative
EP does not
Predicted pattern (PP)/propositions (P) match PP
explanation
required

PM involves the comparison of a predicted theoretical pattern (with an)observed empirical pattern as human beings make sense of the world by
comparing what they observe externally (with) internal mental models (Hammond, 1966a)

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 Case Study Design- Pattern Matching
Empirical Based Pattern
(Multiple Methods)
Observation

Tool-1 Tool-2 Tool-3

Probability Meaning Content

analysis analysis Analysis

Empirical pattern (EP) from each method EP does match Finding Supports
PP the (P)
Theory

Alternative
EP does not
Predicted pattern (PP)/propositions (P) match PP
explanation
required

PM involves the comparison of a predicted theoretical pattern (with an)observed empirical pattern as human beings make sense of the world by
comparing what they observe externally (with) internal mental models (Hammond, 1966a)

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 Case Study Design- Interpretation and Proposition

for a hypothetical 3 RQ and 3 Propositions

Result Variables Case investigation (CV)
support (RV) CV-I CV-II CV-III
RV 1 XYZ XY YZ
RV 2 XYZ XY YZ
RV 3 XYZ XY YZ
RV 4 XYZ XY YZ
Support propositions 1. 2 and 3 1 & 2 2&3
Reject Propositions 3 1
Overall support propositions 1, 2, 3, 4
Alternative explanation required
www. Case_Study_Methodology_Designed_Research_in_Softwa.pdf
source: Uprety. 2022
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 Example; Resettlement Dynamics THEORIES
Psychological continuously changing or in flux or describing systems of psychology that emphasize
motivation, mental processes, and the complexities of force and interaction.
Theory;

Social Theory Social dynamics (or socio dynamics) describes the behavior of groups that results from the
interactions of individual group members as well to the study of the relationship between
individual interactions and group level behaviors‐ is a subset of and is a sub‐field of complex
adaptive system or complexity science.

A complex is a system that is complex in that it is a dynamic network of interactions, but the behavior of
the ensemble may not be predictable according to the behavior of the components.
adaptive
It is adaptive in that the individual and collective behavior mutate and self‐
system organize corresponding to the change‐initiating micro‐event or collection of events.[

Political
Theory

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 Example; Resettlement Dynamics-THEORY
Economic Theory;

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 Example; Resettlement
The theory and policy review (mainly gaps) will lead to main proposition (Tentative
RA)>>presented in conceptual framework
• Main Proposition: The resettlement choice of affected HH is largely based upon adequate
policy support to reflect their social cultural background and needs in the planning process

1. Residential household satisfaction (RHS) can influence the decision to make

resettlement choices
Sub Propositions 2. Cultural background of affected households can influence the resettlement choices (or it
(predicted has an impact)
pattern) 3. The policy provisions do not provide adequate institutional support for the stakeholders
participation and lacks to meet stakeholders participation and aspirations

Unit of analysis: RHS, Cultural Background, institutional support

Embedded sub units: environmental, economic and social satisfaction, social cultural spaces, practice, household
economy, policy, implementation, planning and design etc

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 Example; Resettlement
How do planning process affect the affected households decision to make
resettlement choices?
Proposition 1 The propositional pattern could be: Residential household satisfaction (RHS) can
influence the decision to make resettlement choices
(Tentative RA)‐ 1
(Theory‐Planning
The empirically‐based pattern might show: A strong correlation between
Process>>RHS>>influence
residential household satisfaction and unwillingness to move (or it has an impact)
decision)

The survey method (Qunatitative method) here in this proposition helps testing the theory (residential satisfaction
and resettlement)

As ‘planning process’ is a significant Multiple cases (Case 1, Case 2, Case

Unit of analysis- RHS; Embedded
factor in the study’s context, the IV in 3, Case 4)
sub-units (livelihood, thermal
this regard is RHS and the DV is their
comfort, socio‐cultural spaces) Or a single holistic case
resettlement choices

Failing to support the proposition, an alternative explanation is accounted for!!

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 Example; Resettlement
How do planning process affect the households decision to make resettlement choices?
Proposition 2 The experienced pattern could be: Feeling of loss of old household memory in
terms of use, appropriation and comfort of residential space is significant of
(Tentative RA)‐ 2 decision choices
(Theory‐Planning Process
>>PP>>influence decision) The predicted pattern: Cultural background of affected households can influence
the resettlement choices (or it has an impact)

The interview (phenomenology) here in this proposition helps understanding the conceptual
categories households share.

As ‘planning process’ is a significant factor in the study’s

Unit of analysis‐ PP; Embedded
context, the loss of old household memory could be Multiple cases (Case 1, Case 2, Case
sub‐units (social space, use and
understood as a consequence of lack of say of affected HH 3, Case 4)
appropriation, comfort)
in the planning and design‐resettlement choices

Aim is not about confirming or disputing the proposition itself; it is more about building explanations on whether and why the
patterns are matched or not, which eventually results in greater validity and supporting or modifying the theory or conceptual
framework underpinning the study (Yin, 2003).

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 Example; Resettlement
How do planning process affect the households decision to make resettlement choices?

Proposition 3 The pattern of the findings might be: Systematic policy limitations to provide
adequate institutional support is found as can be accounted from lack of
(Tentative RA)‐ 3 participation in planning and design
(Policy Review >>Policy E.g. delays, housing modifications, financial borrowing, poor site selection etc.
Support>>influence decision)

The predicted pattern might be: The policy provisions do not provide adequate
institutional support for the stakeholders participation and lacks to meet
stakeholders participation and aspirations

Aim is not about confirming or disputing the proposition itself; it is more about building explanations on whether and
why the patterns are matched or not, which eventually results in greater validity and supporting or modifying the
theory or conceptual framework underpinning the study (Yin, 2003).

©Sanjaya Uprety (PhD) |Tutor: Barsha Shrestha

Department of Architecture, IOE
39
 Example; Resettlement
The content analysis of policies, process helps understanding the institutional support/commitment to
implementation for successful resettlement outcomes.

Institutional support/commitment to stakeholder’s participation

The comparison process indicated that the
is essential to enhance the planning process, which will
pattern of findings of the policy‐document
eventually result in postivie resettlement choice (greater sense
analysis matched the predicted pattern.
of belonging and socio cultural acceptance (ABC et al., 200..).

for a hypothetical 3 RQ and 3 Propositions

Result Variables Case investigation (CV)
support (RV) CV-I CV-II CV-III
RV 1 XYZ XY YZ
RV 2 XYZ XY YZ
RV 3 XYZ XY YZ
RV 4 XYZ XY YZ
Support propositions 1. 2 and 3 1&2 2&3
Reject Propositions 3 1
Overall support propositions 1, 2, 3, 4
Alternative explanation required
source: Uprety,S. 2022

©Sanjaya Uprety (PhD) |Tutor: Barsha Shrestha

Department of Architecture, IOE
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Example; Resettlement -Multi/mixed method triangulation

Survey

Main Sub
Multi/mixed Interview
proposition Propositions
method (phenomenology) Description/exp
(Main RQ) (specific RQ)
lanation/explor
Document analysis ation
(content)
Alternative
explanation

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 Case Study

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Validity

Validity of research findings > reasonable construct of relations

Reasonableness Internal validity: accuracy of causality assumed in cause‐effect

at different construct
levels
Conclusion Validity: accuracy of program‐outcome construct

Construct validity: correctness of operationalization (inter‐relation of

cause‐effect and program‐outcome construct)
External validity: appropriateness of generalization.

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Assuring Validity and Reliability in Case Study Research

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Threats to Validity in Case Study

Sufficiently develop operational set of measures to limit subjective

judgment during data collection

Multiple sources of evidence

Construct establish and maintain a chain of evidence

Validity
use review by key informants (discussion of data recorded with the
informant/group)

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Threats to Validity in Case Study

Causal studies only >> whether event ‘x’ led to event ‘y’? >> missing out on third
factor? Check and assure

May be extended to the broader problem of Correctness of the inference,

making inferences > consideration of all other
Whenever direct observation is not possible, possibilities, Is the evidence
Internal convergent? Etc.
investigator will ‘infer’ from interview or other
Validity evidence that event ‘x’ occurred due to some
earlier events, etc.

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Threats to Validity in Case Study

Key barrier in Case studies – in Case

studies there is no analogy to samples
and universes‐

External Case Study allow analytical

Validity generalizations to theory and not
statistical generalizations

The target theories need to be tested Replication Logic similar to that of

through replications experiments

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Reliability in Case Study

Well documented procedure

Case Study protocol

Reliability
Case study database

Conduct study as if someone is always observing >> parallel audit?

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 Thank you!

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