Chapter 2

2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Concrete

Concrete and steel are the two most commonly used structural materials. They sometimes

complement one another, and sometimes compete with another so that the structures of

similar type and function can be built in either of these materials. Concrete is made from

cement, aggregate and water with the occasional addition of admixtures. Concrete has a

proven track record as a successful material in the construction of highest towers, the

longest tunnels, the deepest shafts and the largest man made structures, and in conditions

as extreme as the Arctic tundra and Middle Eastern desert (Masterton et al; 1997).

The invention to overcome the problem of the low tensile strength of concrete by

providing steel reinforcement was the starting point for concrete to become the leading

construction material in this century. It was realized that steel will not corrode, even in out

door environments, when embedded in sound concrete (Schiessel, 1996).

2.2 Concrete mixes

Different concrete mixes such as designed mixes, prescribed mixes (done as weigh

batching), nominal mixes (mostly done as volume batching) are used to meet the needs of

construction work. In particular the concrete should have the following (Schacklock, 1974).

1. Comply with the specification requirement for structural strength which is usually
stated in terms o f the compressive strength of standard test specimens

2. Have satisfactory durability in the environment in which the structure is placed

3. Have a satisfactory appearance in those situations where it is exposed to view

4. Be as economical as possible.
2.2.1. Nominal mixes

Following the practice first established many years ago. concrete mixes are still sometimes

specified in terms of volumetric proportions. The proportions o f cement: fine aggregate:

coarse aggregate are in terms of the bulk volumes of the individual materials, (i.e. for grade

20 concrete 1:2:4, for grade 25 concrete 1:1.5:3 and for grade 30 concrete 1:1:2).

According to the ICTAD specifications (1988), the minimum cement contents for the Grade
3
20, 25 and 30 concrete are 320 kg, 405 kg and 552 kg per m of volume batched concrete

respectively. (These values are taking into account the cement bulking as well). Volume

batching is difficult to control and nominal mix specifications provide no control over water

content, so this type of specification should not be used unless site condition make it

necessary (Bambrook et al; 1976)

Expeiience also showed that allowance had to be made for the bulking which occurs with

fine aggregates when they are damp. It is generally accepted that most concreting sands

will bulk on average by about 25%. However, coarse aggregate do not bulk to any

significant extent. The allowance can be increased for finer sands and decreased if the

moisture content of the sand is unusually low (Shacklcck, 1974).

Shacklock (1974) also mentioned that the quantity of water in the nominal mixes are judged

so as to give a concrete of suitable workability for the work in hand. The fact that the

required amount of water affects the final properties o f the concrete very considerably, and

that the quantity varies with both the selected workability of the concrete and the maximum

size o f the aggregate, shows the extreme weakness and the imprecision of this type of

specifications.

In practice, nominal volumetric mix proportions are often associated with a particular,

concrete strength which is checked by the taking of test specimens. This association of the

prescription form o f specification with a performance requirement leads to a difficult and

often unworkable specification (Shacklock, 1974).

7
2.2.2 Specified mixes

B S 5328: Part 2: 1991, recognizes four methods of specifying concrete mixes. A designed

mix is specified by the designer principally in terms of strength, cement content and water

cement ratio; compliance relies on strength testing. A prescribed mix is specified by the

designer in terms of nature and proportion of mix ingredients; the concrete producer simply

makes the concrete 'to order'. The assessment of mix proportions is used for compliance

purposes, strength testing rot being routinely used. The use of prescribed mix is

advantageous when particular properties of concrete; for instance with respect to its finish

or abrasion resistance, are required. However, a prescribed mix should be specified only

when there are sound reasons for assuming that it will have the required workability,

strength and durability.

A standard mix is based on ingredients and proportion fully listed in B 3 5328: part 2:

1991 for several values of compressive strength up to 25 MPa, measured on cubes. The

fourth type of mix is the designated mix, for which the concrete producer selects the water

cement ratio and the minimum cement content, using a table of structural applications

coupled with standard mixes. This approach can be used only if the concrete producer

holds a special certificate of product conformity based on product testing and surveillance,

coupled with certification of quality assurance.

Standard mixes are used only in minor construction such as housing. Designated mixes,

although they can be used for strengths up to 50 MPa, are limited in application to routine

constiuction. It is therefore, only in the selection o f designated and prescribed mixes that a

full knowledge of properties of concrete can be used (Neville, 1996).

2.3 Strength of concrete

Strength of concrete is commonly considered its most valuable property, although, in many

practical cases, other characteristics, such as durability and permeability, may in fact be

more important. Nevertheless, strength usually gives an overall picture of the quality of

concrete because strength is directly related to the structure of the hydrated cement paste.

Moreover, the strength of concrete is almost invariably a vital element o f structural design

and is specified for compliance purposes (Neville, 1996).

8
The properties of in situ concrete are subject to considerable variability, because it is not a

factory produced construction material such as steel, for example. The principal factors that

affect the properties o f concrete are mix proportions (especially the cement content), slump

achieved (primarily depend on the water content) compaction during placing and curing

after casting. The first two factors represent concrete mix constituents, and taken together

will be characterized by the water / cement ratio, which is by far the greatest single

influence on concrete production. However, this composite index is separated into mix and

slump because the latter have more practical significance for concrete production and

placing. Compactions and curing can be considered as workmanship factors.

The characteristic strength of the concrete should be specified at one age only. Unless

specified otherwise, the strength test should be carried out at an age of 28 days for concrete

made with a Portland-type cement (Barnbrook et al; 1976). Under normal conditions

adopted in Sri Lanka, a standard deviation of about 8 is usually used for concrete mixes.
2
This gives a current margin of about 13 N / m m . This means, when Grade 20 concrete is
2
needed, under laboratory conditions, a strength o f about 33 N / m m should be obtained as

the mean strength. However, it is stated that this current margin could be reduced by about
2
3.5 N / m m when nine cubes were tested (Barnbrook et el. (1975)). Thus, the current
2
margin required could be considered as 10 N / m m when 9 cubes were tested. The current
2
margin of 10 N / m m is also confirmed by Dias (1991) as well

One o f the major problem in making specifications for Sri Lankan practice will be to

answer the question as to whether Grade 20 concrete, which is the most widely used grade

in Sri Lanka, is permissible or not. Most modern codes o f practice specify a minimum

Grade of 25 for durability purposes if strength is measured by cube or equivalent cube

strength. However, recent specifications drawn up for Sri Lankan practice - ie the Model

Code and the ICTAD specifications have continued the use of Grade 20 concrete, probably

basing their recommendations on the now outdated CP114 and CP 110 respectively

(Dias, 1991).

On the other hand, the use of Grade 20 concrete can not be rejected outright, because

environmental conditions in Sri Lanka are probably less harsh uVn those in the UK or
Australia, for example. Furthermore, most concrete surface in Sri Lanka receive a mortar

rendering, which provide additional protection. Finally, structures built out of Grade 20

concrete have not performed too badly. Hence, it may be permissible to continue the use of

Grade 20 concrete, especially if it is shown that this does not violate the spirit of BS 8110

which is the code used for the design of concrete structures in Sri Lanka (Dias, 1991).

2.3.1 Mix constituents

Concrete is made from cement, aggregate and water with the occasional addition of an

admixtures. There is some variety in the properties of cements, even between cements of

the same type but made from different raw materials and the variation in properties possible

in natural and manufactured aggregate is almost limitless. Thus, concrete is always a

heterogeneous material with variable properties. The section outlines the typical properties

required by, or inherent in, concreting materials.

2.3.1.1 Cement

In Sri Lanka, Portland cement manufactured by cement corporation is mostly used for

construction work and it shall be is accordance with BS 12(2). At present, cement is

allowed to be imported which again should be complied with B S 12(1). Hence one can

assure that the strength and workability of concrete related to water / cement ratio and

aggregate / cement ratio as in mix design charts are acceptable as for as local cement is

concerned (Samarasinge et al; 1987).

Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC) and Rapid Hardening Cement satisfying BS 12 and

ASTM C I 5 0 (Specification for Portland cement) can be used for producing high strength

concrete. However, different brands of OPC will have different strength development

characteristics because international standards allow variation in chemical composition and

fineness within certain limits. Also the performance of chemical and mineral admixtures

can be affected by variations in cement characteristics. Therefore, when choosing Portland

cement for use in high strength concrete, it is important to examine carefully its fineness &

chemical compositions (Jayanandana et al; 1998).

10
2.3.1.2 Aggregate

The teiiri aggregate is used to describe the gravels, crushed stones and other materials which

are mix with cement and water to make concrete. A s aggregate form bulk of the volume o f

concrete, the selection of suitable material is important.

Of the materials in concrete, aggregate is the most variable. The overall grading of the

aggregate affects the amount of water that must be added because 'fine' grading require

more water than 'coarse' grading to obtain the same degree o f workability. Aggregate

particles which have sharp edges or rough surface, such as crushed stones, need more water

than smooth and rounded particles to produce concrete o f the same workability. It may be

necessary to increase the cement content of a mix made with crushed aggregates or irregular

shaped gravels to allow water to be added in order to make the concrete sufficiently

workable without reducing the strength below the required level. However, due to interlock

between aggregate particles, a crushed aggregate concrete may have higher strength than a

smooth or rounded aggregate concrete with the same water / cement ratio, and this extra

strength may be sufficient to offset the effect of the extra water/ -

As the maximum size o f the aggregate is reduced, the cement content o f the mix will need

to be increased to give the same workability with the same water / cement ratio. This is

because the surface area of aggregate to be wetted is greater with the smaller aggregate size.

The fine and coarse aggregates should be proportioned to obtain the required workability

with the minimum amount of water. Badly proportioned constituents require an excessive

amount of water to give adequate workability, and this will result in concrete o f low

strength and poor durability. Moreover, aggregates should be hard, durable, firm,

appropriately cleaned and suitably graded. The presence of harmful substances such as

dust, mud, organic imparities, chlorides or any other harmful substance should not be in-

larger amount than allowable limits.

2.3.1.3 Water

Mixing water for concrete is usually required to be fit for drinking, or to be taken from an

approved source. This is to ensure that the water is reasonably free from such impurities as

11
suspended solids, organic matter and dissolved salts, which are frequently contained in

natural water and which may adversely affect the properties of concrete.

Water is the most consistent of the constituents of the concrete but water quantity, and in

particular the water / cement ratio, is most important for the production of concrete of

consistent strength. The amount of water used should be the minimum necessary to give

sufficient workability for full compaction of the concrete. When deciding how much water

to use, allowance must be made for absorption by dry or porous aggregates and for the free

surface moisture of wet aggregates.

2.3.2 Curing

The setting and hardening of cement depend on the presence of water. Drying out, if

allowed to take place too soon, results in low strength and porous concrete. At the time the

concrete is placed, there is normally an adequate quantity of water present for full

hydration, but it is necessary to ensure that this water is retained so that the chemical

reaction continues until the concrete has thoroughly hardened. If curing is efficient, the

strength of the concrete increases with age; this increase is rapid at early ages and then

continues more slowly for an indefinite period. Correct curing increases the impermeability

and durability of the concrete, which is particularly important when it will be subject to

water pressure or severe environmental conditions (Barnbrook et al., 1976). Curing

increases resistance to abrasion; effective curing is thus most necessary for floors and other

surfaces subject to wear. Continuous curing from the time the concrete is placed helps to

ensure a hard, dense surface and to reduce the risk of crazing and dusting (Barnbrook et al;

1976).

More specifically, the object of curing is keep concrete saturated, or as nearly saturated as

possible, until the originally water filled space in the fresh cement paste has been filled to

the desired extent by the products of hydration of cement. In the case of site concrete,

active curing stops nearly always long before the maximum possible hydration has take

place (Neville, 1996).

Powers in 1947 showed that hydration is greatly reduced when the relative humidity within

the capillary pores drops below 80 percent. This was confirmed by Patel et al in 1988.

12
Meyer in 1987 has clearly established that the effect of curing on strength is a function of

specimen size. Dias in 1994 has recommended that the curing is very significant main

factor for durability characterize by sorptivity. Results obtained by Rasheeduzzafer et al in

1989 indicate that inadequate curing has a more dramatic effect than inadequate compaction

on the time required to initiate corrosion and on the severity of sulphate attack. Dias (1994)

has recommended that minimum of 7 days of moist curing is essential for concreting in hot

climates.

2.3.2 Water cement ratio

Duff A Abram's water/cement ratio law, which states that fundamentally the strength of

concrete is governed by the ratio of the weight of water to the weight of cement in a mix

provided that it is plastic and workable, fully compacted and adequately cured (Taylor,

1977).

To eliminate excessive porosity, a minimum amount of water should be used. The volume

of the products of hydration is nearly twice that of unliydrated cement (Powers, 1958). At

water / cement ratio grater than 0.38, even if 100% hydration to occur, the products of

hydration can not fill the entire volume of water filled spaces. The obvious conclusion is

that the higher the water / cement ratio, the higher the porosity and the lower the strength

(layathilaka, 1995).

However, the accurate measurement of water / cement ratio on site is difficult, due paitly to

variations in the moisture content of aggregates, partly to an inability to measure the

quantity of water in fresh concrete under most practical conditions. However, for a given

maximum size and type o f aggregate ana a given workability of concrete, the quantity o f

water per unit volume of compacted concrete is reasonably constant over a wide range of

cement contents. Therefore, it is reasonable, in practice, to ensure that the cement content

used exceed a particular minimum value which has been determined in such a way that the

maximum water cement ratio is unlikely to exceed the value which it has been found

necessary, from consideration of permeability and past experience (Shacklock, 1974).

13
There is a very significant influence of curing on sorptivity but that its effect on strength is

minimal especially if the size of concrete elements are around 150 mm or greater (Dias,

1994).

Given that sorptivity is a measures of the quality of cover zone concrete and the fact that

this zone plays a crucial barrier functior in concrete durability ie in the protection of

concrete (especially reinforced concrete) over time it is possible to say that curing is very

important for durability (Dias, 1994).

Ben - Bassat et al, in 1990 have shown that w/c ratio and curing significantly affect the

depth of carbonation, drying shrinkage, initial surface absorption, total absorption and

oxygen permeability. However, the importance of curing was reduced as the water / cement

ratio decreased.

Ho and Lewis (1988) showed that water / cement ratio is the decisive parameter governing

carbonation depth, as opposed to water binder ratio, where blended cements are concerned.

2.3.4 Compaction of concrete

The aim of the concreting process is to achieve a homogeneous mass flee from voids, and

the planner must ensure that the concrete mix and compaction method are selected giving

due consideration to the placing condition. (Masteron et a l . , 1997)

1. Compaction of concrete shall not

be too short so that the concrete is not d.ense enough

- be too long so that segregation takes place

- result in a loss of entrained air

- cause the gathering o f water or air at certain location

leave any void

- damage the formwork or change the position of reinforcing bars

2. Appropriate compaction energy imposed on the concrete shall be specified in terms of

compaction time, compaction spacing and power of the compaction apparatus.

14
Chandrakeerthy et al. (1986) has recommended that the concrete should be compacted with

either immersion or shutter vibrators. Compaction is very important for concrete with a

slump of 10 - 15mm, while it is of a lesser importance for a concrete with a slump of 125 -

150mm.

The difference in strength between specimens subjected to 'high' and 'incomplete'

compaction has also been found by Chandrakeerthy et al, (1986). For 1:2:4 concrete, the
2
properly vibrated concrete yielded a mean equivalent cube strength of 21.6 N / m m and

incompletely vibrated concrete one of 13.9 N/mm . This is also confirmed by Dias in 1994.

However, the effect of compaction on sorptivity is negligible (Dias, 1994).

2.4 Silica fume

2.4.1 General

Microsilica consisting of more than 90% of amoiphous Silicon Dioxide has a quite high

pozzolanic potential. This was first tested in 1947 in Norway and the large scale production

was started in 1970s. The present use of concrete containing microsilica is over 5 milion
3
m /year (Lewis, 2001). The term generally used for Microsilica in the concrete industry is

silica fume. Microsilica concrete has been used in major projects either to produce high

strength concrete or when enhanced durability was required (Lewis and Hasbi, 2001).

Microsilica concrete has proved particularly beneficial in areas where the structures are

subjected to severe environmental attack such as due to hazardous ground condition

(Sulphate and Chloride attack), moisture exposure or physical degradation such as abrasion

and erosion (Keck, 2001). The countries extensively use silica fume include United States

of America, United Kingdom, countries in the Middle East, Hong Kong, Norway, Sweden,

Denmark etc. Recently, India also started using silica fume in many large construction

projects upon the realization of the advantages that silica fume could offer with enhanced

durability.

15
2.4.2 The function and benefits of silica fumes

Silica fume is amorphous silicon dioxide. It is quite similar to silica dust (ground Si02), but
only in appearance. When available in concrete, silica fume will combine with calcium
hydroxide that is released by the hydration of cement, and produce more calcium silicate
hydrates. This is the pozzlanic reaction that gives higher strength and impermeability. Due
to the lack of free Ca(OH)2, it could improve the abrasion resistance in both wet and dry
conditions. Silica fume is a much finer material than cement particles. Therefore, it can
spread well into the mix and hence enhance the cohesive nature o f concrete thus improving
workability while reducing the segregation and bleeding. Since silica fumes are very fine
spherical particles, those can act as a lubricant to enhance the pumpability of concrete
(Lewis et al; 2001).

Since silica fume could enhance both durability and strength, it has been used in many large

scale projects in the world. Few of these are given in Table 1 obtained from Lewis and

Hasbi(2001), Joshi(2001) and Saini et al.( 2001).

Country Project Description Reasons for using silica

fumes
USA 311, South Wacker, Silica fume concrete To achieve high strength and
Chicago, 70 storey 293 of 80 MPa was used also to enhance the
m high skyscraper in with very low water pumpability
1990 contents such as 160
3
kg/'m
USA U S Borax California, 50 MPa concrete To improve the durability
the slabs were subjected was produced with quite significantly and also to
to chemical spillage 10% silica fumes. reduce resistance to sulphate
containing 5% sulphuric attack
acid in 1986
USA Kinzna dam, 86 MPa concrete To improve the resistance to
Pennsylvania in 1983 with 15% silica wet abrasion. The erosion
fumes was reduced by 40 times of
normal concrete.
United Mayer Parry scrap metal 80 MPa concrete To improve the resistance to
Kingdom reprocessing unit in with 10% silica dry abrasion. The erosion
1992 fumes was reduced by 15 times of
normal concrete.

Norway Gullfaks off shore Grade 65 and 70 To improve the workability

platforms concrete was and pumpability of concrete.
produced with 2%
silica fumes.

16
 Abu Dhabi Baynnuah Tower 80 Mpa concrete To improve the durability
(building) of 156 in with 10% silica and Chloride, Sulphate
height in 1992. fumes resistance in harsh
environment of the Gulf
region.
Hong Kong Tsing Ma bridge, a High strength To produce high strength
suspension bridge with concrete with 25% concrete to suit stringent and
200m tall towers and flyash and 5% silica comprehensive performance
2,167m length. fumes criteria.
India Bandra - Worli sea link 60 MPa concrete To reduce shrinkage cracking
of length 5.86Km. with 10% silica associated with high cement
fumes content and also to improve
durability.
India Viaduct in Mumbai. 75 MPa concrete To ensure long term
with 10% silica durability o f the structure.
fumes. This concrete has also given
an excellent finish for the
i
insitu and precast products.

Table 2.1: Application of concrete containing silica fume in many parts o f the world

The details given in Table 1 indicate that silica fume has been used for both durability and

high strength. Generally, silica fumes are added as an additional cementitious material as a

percentage of the original cement content. When the silica fume content is 10%, it means
3
that the weight of silica fume will be 40 kg/m in a concrete containing 400 kg of cement
!
per m . The details given in Table 1 indicates that in the above projects, silica fume were

used from 2%-10% by weight. The guidelines given in Table 2 are suggested by Lewis

(2001) for the use of silica fume.

Application Percentage of silica

fume by weight of cement

Pumping aid 2-3

Improved quality 4-7

Strength 7-15

Under water construction 12-15

Sprayed concrete 8-12

Table 2.2: The contents of silica fumes suggested for different applications

17
It was shown by Keck (2001) that about 7.5% silica fume by weight could reduce the

chloride permeability by about 95% and could be used in the marine structures quite

effectively. Silica fume (5% by cement weight) was used for reducing the drying shrinkage

of bridge deck concrete in U S A (Ramey & Cope, 2001). In Norway, 5% silica fume

concrete was used to ensure good compaction of concrete, high chloride resistance and high

strength (Fidjestol, 1993). Silica fume was found to be an excellent material to reduce the

rebound of shotcrete in addition to improved durability. The silica fume content was about

8 % (Fidjestol, 1993)

Although silica fume has all these advantages, it is suggested by Neville (2001) that if it is

intended to be used in a project, it should be clearly specified in the specification whether it

is permitted and if permitted, where and how to use it. This is because, it is generally

considered as a costly material and hence the benefits should outweigh the extra cost

(Neville, 2001).

2.5 Durability

During the third quarter of the last century, a tremendous boom in construction activities

occurred in the Western World, pushing the development of building materials and

construction technology. Research and development were mainly geared towards

optimization of load design and load bearing capacity, and did net take into account that at

least some of these developments had negative effect on robustness, sensitivity to bad

execution and duration of concrete structures (eg: pure strength oriented development of

cement properties, increase of permissible stress, minimization of dimensions, reductions of

cover etc) (Shies et al; 1996).

Although the initial concern about the concrete properties was regarding strength, there is

now much concern about concrete durability. Here, too, the principal worldwide focus

regarding concrete durability is on the protection o f embedded steel (which is present in

most concrete) from corrosion, although there is also some attention given to the protection

of concrete itself (from phenomena such as sulphate attack and alkali aggregate reactions).

18
 ''.iJ'MftTiS!'-- •—

A durable concrete is one that performs satisfactorily in the working environment during its

anticipated service life. The materials and mix proportions specified and used should be

such as to maintain its integrity and, if applicable, to protect embedded steel from corrosion.

To achieve this, it is necessary to consider many interrelated factors at various stages in the

design and construction process. Thus, the cover to steel is considered at the structural

design stage involving consideration of the environmental conditions. Characteristics

influencing the durability include its permeability and resistance to the ingress of the

potentially deleterious substances. There are 3 fluids principally relevant to durability

which can enter concrete: water pure or carrying aggressive ions, carbon dioxide and

oxygen. They can move through the concrete in different ways, but all transport depends

primarily on the structure of the hydrated cement paste. Durability of concrete largely

depends on the case with which fluids, both liquids and gases, can enter into, and move

through, the concrete; this is commonly referred to as permeability of concrete.

Permeability refers to flow through a porous medium. N o w , the movement of various fluids

through concrete take place not only by flow through the porous system but also by

diffusion and sorption, so that our concern in really with penetrability of concrete.

Penetrability o f concrete is governed by the constituents, their proportions and the

procedure used in making the concrete. A suitably low permeability is achieved by having

an adequate cement content, a sufficiently low free water cement ratio, by ensuring

complete compaction of concrete and by sufficient hydration of the cement through proper

curing method.

It is unfortunate that the concrete has to be reinforced with embedded metal when used to

resist tension or flexural loading. It is the potential corrosion of this embedded metal that is

the prime cause of the majority of the structural concrete deterioration that is now becoming

evident. Indeed, it has been estimated that in 1998, the value of building and civil

engineering repairs and maintenance carried out in the UK was o f the order o f £ 15 billion

of this approximately £ 500 million per annum is spent on concrete repair (Mays, 1999).

With such vast sums of money involved, it is important that the construction industry

recognizes the unwitting errors of the past and puts to good effort the lessons that have been

learned for new construction.

77714

19
2.5.1 Sorptivity testing of concrete

Durability however is a long term property. Hence, appropriate indices have to be chosen

for characterizing it. One such index that is gaining increasing acceptability is sorptivity

(Hail, 1989), especially since it is concerned with the surface areas o f concrete which

protect the steel reinforcement, and also because sorptivity testing reflects to a reasonable

extent some of the process by which actual deterioration of concrete will take place on site.

Dias (1994) obtained the volumes of water (from measured masses) absorbed per unit

surface area, after various durations up to 49 hours, by cylinders coated on their curved

surface and absorbing water through one flat face. A linear relationship can be obtained

when plotting volume absorbed per unit surface area against the square root of time. The

slope of this line is defined as the sorptivity of the specimen. Although, sorptivity is

sensitive to specimen preconditioning there is some evident that repeatability in sorptivity

results can be obtained even if preconditioning, varies to some extent. (Dias, 1994). The

durability of concrete is generally affected, by the corrosion o f reinforcement. Thus, the

quality of concrete in the cover region is quite important to enhance the durability. It is

generally accepted that the sorptivity of concrete could give a very good indication of the

quality of concrete. Although, in general, permeability is taken as the indicator of a

concrete's ability to transport water (or oxygen and carbon dioxide), more precisely there

are two mechanisms controlling the uptake and transport of water. Permeability, which is a

measure of the flow of water under pressure in a saturated porous medium, and sorptivity,

which characterizes the materials ability to absorb and transmit water through it by capillary

suction. Whilst permeability is an important parameter for water retaining structures, a

more important parameter (which is directly related to durability) for above ground

structures is sorptivity.

Hence, sorptivity may be more convenient index of durability than is air peimeability. It

has also being argued that sorptivity, being sensitive to changes in mix constituents and

workmanship factors, is a good index of concrete quality in general (Dias, 1995).

20
2.6 Summary

In BS 8110: Part 1: 1985, the enhancement of durability was achieved by using higher

strength concrete. In obtaining higher strength with adequate quality controlling measures,

weigh batching of constituent materials should be adopted. With this it is possible to use

design mixes since any cement to aggregate ratio is achievable with weigh batching.

In Sri Lanka, still volume batching is often used due to non availability of weigh batching

equipments with many small scale contractors. One nominal mix that is often used is 1: 2: 4

cement, sand and 20mm coarse aggregates. However this may give only a strength of about
2
20N/mm . However the minimum grade recommended in BS 8110: Parti: 1985 is Grade

25.

The mix of 1:1.5:3 of cement sand and 20 mm coarse aggregates is also not often adopted

since is considered as an expensive mix. Therefore, there is an urgent need to develop cost

effective mixes that could be practically used for Grades 25 and 30 concretes. This could

be considered as a short term solution until weigh batching could be adopted in majority of

construction sites in Sri Lanka.

Durability of concrete was improved by using other product like silica fume in many other

parts of the world. However, this is not used very much in Sri Lanka. Therefore, it is

useful to determine the possibility of using silica fume with locally available aggregates.

Therefore, in this research study, the development of economical nominal concrete mixes
and the use of silica fume for enhancing the durability and t i e concrete strength was
determined.

21