NAME SURNAME REG NO PROGRAM COURSE
NAME CODE
Blessing Madhovi R195908V Computer Science HCT 204
Aafia Manzoor
Chiremba Misleydis
TITLE:
Literiture Review on Emotion Detection Techniques in Machine
Learning.
1
DECLERATION
We hereby Declare that this project is a result of our own work of
investigation and Research. Acknowledgments and references of all
sources that has been used in this paper has been written down.
2
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This project would have not been successful if it wasent for our lecture Mr Ruwa. Therefore
we would like to profoundly thank him for his assistance that would never be replaced. His
guadance towards reading materials have really been of great help. Last but most impotantly
we would like to thank God who gives us the grace to push on even if when things get
difficult.
3
DEDICATIONS
We would like to dedicate this research paper to, our parents who have been paying for our
who have been paying our school fees ever since we were in grade 1 up to now. Providing us
with all we need until we have reached this level.
4
Contents
Introduction 6
Theoratical Background 7
Databases for Emotion Recorgnition 15
Facial Recorgnisation Algorithms 16
Perfomance Evaluation 18
References 22
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Introduction
Emotion recognition software has become increasingly popular in recent years, as it has the
potential to revolutionize the way we interact with technology. Emotion recognition software
is designed to detect and interpret human emotions using various techniques, such as facial
expressions, physiological measures, and audio signals. This software has a wide range of
applications, from improving healthcare and education to enhancing customer service and
entertainment.
The purpose of this literature review is to provide an overview of the current state of emotion
recognition software, focusing on the techniques and methods used for emotion detection, the
effectiveness of these techniques, and the limitations of existing software. This review aims
to identify the most promising techniques for emotion recognition and to explore potential
directions for future research in this field.
The review will begin by discussing the theoretical background of emotion recognition,
including the theories of emotion, physiological measures of emotion, and facial expressions
of emotion. It will then describe the traditional and machine learning techniques used for
emotion recognition, including supervised and unsupervised learning. The literature review
will also examine the databases used to train and test emotion recognition algorithms, and the
feature extraction algorithms used to extract relevant features from physiological signals,
audio signals, and facial expressions.
The effectiveness of emotion recognition software will also be evaluated by reviewing the
performance metrics used to evaluate the accuracy of emotion detection, cross-validation
techniques, and the comparison of performance across different techniques and databases.
The review will also discuss the challenges and limitations of existing emotion recognition
software, such as the problem of generalization, the effect of individual differences, and the
need for real-time emotion detection.
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Finally, the literature review will conclude by summarizing the current state of emotion
recognition software and identifying potential directions for future research. The review will
provide insights into the most promising techniques for emotion recognition and highlight
areas where further research is needed to improve the performance and effectiveness of
emotion recognition software.
Theoratical Background
Facial Recorgnition
Emotion recognition is a multidisciplinary field that draws on various theoretical backgrounds,
including psychology, neuroscience, computer science, and statistics. In this response, we will
provide an overview of the theoretical background of emotion recognition, including the theories of
emotion, types of emotion, and the physiological and behavioral measures used to detect emotion.
Theories of emotion:
There are several theories of emotion, each of which provides a different perspective on the nature
of emotion. The most prominent theories of emotion include the James-Lange theory, the Cannon-
Bard theory, and the Schachter-Singer theory.
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The James-Lange theory suggests that emotions are the result of physiological changes in the body.
According to this theory, a person experiences an emotion only after their body has undergone a
physiological reaction to a stimulus. For example, a person may feel fear after their heart starts
racing and their palms start sweating in response to a perceived threat. The James-Lange theory is
expressed mathematically as follows:
Emotion = Physiological response
The Cannon-Bard theory, on the other hand, suggests that emotions and physiological responses
occur simultaneously and independently of each other. According to this theory, a stimulus triggers
both a physiological response and an emotional response in parallel, without one causing the other.
The Cannon-Bard theory is expressed mathematically as follows:
Emotion + Physiological response
The Schachter-Singer theory proposes that emotions are the result of a cognitive appraisal of
physiological arousal, which is influenced by the context in which the arousal occurs. In other words,
a person's emotional experience is determined by their interpretation of their physiological arousal
in a given situation. The Schachter-Singer theory is expressed mathematically as follows:
Emotion = Physiological response + Cognitive appraisal
Types of emotion:
Emotions can be classified into various categories based on their valence (positive or negative) and
arousal (high or low). The most commonly used classification system is the circumplex model of
emotion, which arranges emotions along two orthogonal dimensions: valence and arousal. The
circumplex model is expressed mathematically as follows:
Emotion = f(valence, arousal)
Facial expressions of emotion:
Facial expressions are one of the most prominent and reliable signals of emotion. Researchers have
identified six basic emotions that can be reliably recognized through facial expressions: happiness,
sadness, anger, fear, surprise, and disgust. These emotions are characterized by specific facial
muscle movements, which can be measured using various techniques, such as the Facial Action
Coding System (FACS). FACS is a comprehensive system for describing all observable facial
movements based on the activation of individual facial muscles. The system assigns a code to each
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action unit (AU) that corresponds to the specific muscle or muscle group responsible for the
movement.
Physiology of emotion:
Physiological measures of emotion include changes in heart rate, skin conductance, and muscle
tension, among others. These measures are often used to infer emotional states, as they are thought
to reflect the activation of the sympathetic nervous system in response to emotional stimuli. The
most commonly used physiological measure is skin conductance, which reflects changes in the
electrical conductance of the skin due to changes in sweat gland activity. Skin conductance is often
used as an index of emotional arousal.
Psychophysiological measures of emotion:
Psychophysiological measures of emotion combine physiological measures with cognitive and
behavioral measures to provide a more comprehensive picture of emotional experience. These
measures include self-report measures, such as questionnaires and interviews, as well as behavioral
measures, such as reaction time tasks and eye tracking. One commonly used psychophysiological
measure is electroencephalography (EEG), which measures electrical activity in the brain. EEG can be
used to infer emotional states based on changes in the power spectrum of brain waves in response
to emotional stimuli.
In summary, emotion recognition is a complex process that draws on various theoretical
backgrounds, including the theories of emotion, types of emotion, and the physiological and
behavioral measures used to detect emotion. The James-Lange, Cannon-Bard, and Schachter-Singer
theories provide different perspectives on the relationship between physiological arousal and
emotional experience. The circumplex model of emotion arranges emotions along two dimensions:
valence and arousal. Facial expressions are a reliable signal of emotion and can be measured using
FACS. Physiological measures of emotion include skin conductance, while psychophysiological
measures include EEG.
Techniques for Emotion Recorgnition
Emotion recognition is a challenging task that requires the integration of multiple modalities,
including facial expressions, physiological signals, and audio signals. Various techniques
have been developed over the years to recognize emotions using these modalities, ranging
from traditional approaches based on feature extraction and classification to more recent
machine learning techniques that rely on deep learning models. In this section, we will
provide an overview of the techniques used for emotion recognition, including traditional
techniques and machine learning techniques.
Traditional Techniques for Emotion Recognition:
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Traditional techniques for emotion recognition involve the extraction of features from the
input signal, followed by a classification process that assigns the signal to one of several
predefined emotional categories. The most commonly used traditional techniques for emotion
recognition are based on facial expressions, physiological signals, and audio signals.
Facial Expression Analysis:
Facial expression analysis is one of the most widely studied techniques for emotion
recognition. The basic approach involves the extraction of facial features from images or
videos, followed by the classification of these features into emotional categories. The most
commonly used facial feature extraction algorithms are Local Binary Patterns (LBP),
Histogram of Oriented Gradients (HOG), and Scale-Invariant Feature Transform (SIFT).
Once the features are extracted, various classification algorithms can be used to classify the
features into emotional categories, such as Support Vector Machines (SVM), k-Nearest
Neighbors (k-NN), and Decision Trees.
Physiological Signal Analysis:
Physiological signal analysis involves the measurement of physiological signals, such as
heart rate, skin conductance, and muscle tension, to infer emotional states. The basic
approach involves the extraction of features from the physiological signals, followed by the
classification of these features into emotional categories. The most commonly used
physiological feature extraction algorithms are Principal Component Analysis (PCA),
Wavelet Transform (WT), and Autoregressive (AR) modeling. Once the features are
extracted, various classification algorithms can be used to classify the features into emotional
categories, such as SVM, k-NN, and Decision Trees.
Audio Signal Analysis:
Audio signal analysis involves the processing of speech signals to detect emotional states.
The basic approach involves the extraction of acoustic features from the speech signal,
followed by the classification of these features into emotional categories. The most
commonly used acoustic feature extraction algorithms are Mel-Frequency Cepstral
Coefficients (MFCC), Linear Predictive Coding (LPC), and Gammatone Filter Bank (GFB).
Once the features are extracted, various classification algorithms can be used to classify the
features into emotional categories, such as SVM, k-NN, and Decision Trees.
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Face Recorgnition using SVM
Machine Learning Techniques for Emotion Recognition:
Machine learning techniques for emotion recognition involve the use of machine learning
algorithms to learn the relationship between the input signal and the emotional categories.
These algorithms are typically divided into two categories: supervised learning and
unsupervised learning.
Supervised Learning:
Supervised learning involves the use of labeled data to train a machine learning model to
recognize emotions. The basic approach involves the extraction of features from the input
signal, followed by the training of a machine learning model to learn the relationship between
the features and the emotional categories. The most commonly used supervised learning
algorithms for emotion recognition are Support Vector Machines (SVM), Artificial Neural
Networks (ANN), and Decision Trees.
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Unsupervised Learning:
Unsupervised learning involves the use of unlabeled data to train a machine learning model to
recognize emotions. The basic approach involves the extraction of features from the input
signal, followed by the training of a machine learning model to learn the relationship between
the features and the emotional categories without any explicit labeling of the data. The most
commonly used unsupervised learning algorithms for emotion recognition are K-Means
Clustering, Gaussian Mixture Models (GMM), and Principal Component Analysis (PCA).
Deep Learning Techniques for Emotion Recognition:
Deep learning is a subset of machine learning that involves the use of deep neural networks to
learn complex relationships between the input signal and the emotional categories. Deep
learning models have shown great promise in a wide range of applications, including image
and speech recognition. The most commonly used deep learning models for emotion
recognition are Convolutional Neural Networks (CNNs) and Recurrent Neural Networks
(RNNs).
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Convolutional Neural Networks:
Convolutional Neural Networks (CNNs) are a type of deep neural network that is commonly
used for image recognition. CNNs are designed to learn hierarchical representations of the
input signal, starting with simple features in the lower layers and gradually building up to
more complex features in the higher layers. The most commonly used CNN architectures for
emotion recognition are the VGG, ResNet, and Inception architectures.
Recurrent Neural Networks:
Recurrent Neural Networks (RNNs) are a type of deep neural network that is commonly used
for speech recognition. RNNs are designed to learn temporal dependencies in the input
signal, making them well-suited for sequential data, such as speech signals. The most
commonly used RNN architectures for emotion recognition are Long Short-Term Memory
(LSTM) networks and Gated Recurrent Units (GRUs).
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Various techniques have been developed for emotion recognition,including traditional
techniques based on feature extraction and classification, machine learning techniques such
as supervised and unsupervised learning, and deep learning techniques such as Convolutional
Neural Networks (CNNs) and Recurrent Neural Networks (RNNs). The choice of technique
depends on several factors, including the type of input signal, the number of emotional
categories, and the available data.
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Databases for Emotion Recorgnition
Databases are an essential component of emotion recognition research, as they provide a
standardized set of stimuli and ground truth emotional labels for evaluating and comparing different
emotion recognition techniques. Over the years, several databases have been developed for
emotion recognition, covering a range of modalities, including facial expressions, physiological
signals, and audio signals. In this section, we will provide an overview of some of the most widely
used databases for emotion recognition.
Facial Expression Databases:
The following are some of the most widely used facial expression databases:
1. Cohn-Kanade (CK) Database: The CK database is a widely used database for facial expression
analysis, containing 486 image sequences of 97 subjects displaying six basic emotions: anger,
disgust, fear, happiness, sadness, and surprise. Each image sequence is annotated with the
onset, apex, and offset of the emotional expression.
2. Japanese Female Facial Expression (JAFFE) Database: The JAFFE database is a database of
facial expressions collected from ten Japanese women, containing 213 images of six basic
emotions: anger, disgust, fear, happiness, sadness, and surprise. Each image is rated by ten
human judges for intensity and prototypicality.
3. Extended Cohn-Kanade (CK+) Database: The CK+ database is an extension of the CK
database, containing 593 image sequences of 123 subjects displaying the same six basic
emotions as the CK database. The CK+ database also includes annotations for the presence
of action units (AUs), which are the specific facial muscle movements associated with each
emotion.
Physiological Signal Databases:
The following are some of the most widely used physiological signal databases:
1. Affectiva Q Sensor Dataset: The Affectiva Q Sensor dataset is a collection of physiological
signals, including skin conductance, temperature, and motion, collected from 45 participants
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in response to emotionally evocative stimuli. The dataset contains over 100,000 data points
and has been used to develop and evaluate various emotion recognition algorithms.
2. EmoReact Dataset: The EmoReact dataset is a collection of physiological signals, including
electroencephalography (EEG), electrocardiography (ECG), and galvanic skin response (GSR),
collected from 32 participants in response to emotionally evocative stimuli. The dataset
contains over 35,000 data points and has been used to develop and evaluate various
emotion recognition algorithms.
Audio Signal Databases:
The following are some of the most widely used audio signal databases:
1. EmoDB: The EmoDB is a database of speech recordings collected from ten German actors,
containing 535 utterances of seven emotions: anger, boredom, disgust, fear, happiness,
sadness, and neutral. Each utterance is annotated with the emotional label by multiple
human judges.
2. MSP-IMPROV: The MSP-IMPROV is a database of speech recordings collected from 12
improvisational actors, containing 535 utterances of six emotions: anger, disgust, fear,
happiness, sadness, and surprise. Each utterance is annotated with the emotional label by
multiple human judges.
3. Interactive Emotional Dyadic Motion Capture (IEMOCAP): The IEMOCAP database is a
collection of audio and video recordings of dyadic interactions between actors in
emotionally evocative scenarios. The database contains over 12 hours of data and has been
used to develop and evaluate various emotion recognition algorithms.
databases are an essential component of emotion recognition research, providing a standardized set
of stimuli and ground truth emotional labels for evaluating and comparing different emotion
recognition techniques. The most widely used databases for emotion recognition include facial
expression databases such as the Cohn-Kanade (CK) database, physiological signal databases such as
the Affectiva Q Sensor dataset, and audio signal databases such as the EmoDB.
Facial Recorgnisation Algorithms
Feature extraction is a critical step in facial recognition, as it involves the transformation of raw facial
images into a set of features that can be used as input to a machine learning algorithm for emotion
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recognition. The goal of feature extraction is to capture the most informative and discriminative
aspects of the facial image that are relevant to the task of emotion recognition. In this section, we
will provide an overview of the most commonly used feature extraction techniques in facial
recognition.
Local Binary Patterns (LBP):
Local Binary Patterns (LBP) is a widely used technique for feature extraction in facial recognition. The
basic idea behind LBP is to encode the texture information of the facial image by comparing the
intensity of each pixel with its neighboring pixels. The resulting LBP code is a binary pattern that
represents the local texture of the image.
The LBP algorithm involves the following steps:
I. Divide the facial image into a grid of cells.
II. For each pixel in each cell, compare the intensity of the pixel with its neighboring pixels.
III. If the intensity of the neighboring pixel is greater than or equal to the intensity of the central
pixel, assign a value of 1 to the corresponding bit in the LBP code. Otherwise, assign a value
of 0.
IV. Concatenate the LBP codes for all pixels in each cell to form a feature vector for the cell.
V. Concatenate the feature vectors for all cells to form the final feature vector for the facial
image.
Histogram of Oriented Gradients (HOG):
Histogram of Oriented Gradients (HOG) is another widely used technique for feature extraction in
facial recognition. The basic idea behind HOG is to represent the gradient information of the facial
image by dividing the image into small cells and computing the histogram of gradient orientations
within each cell.
The HOG algorithm involves the following steps:
1. Divide the facial image into a grid of cells.
2. Compute the gradients of the image in each cell using the Sobel operator.
3. Divide the gradient directions into a set of orientation bins.
4. Compute the gradient magnitude and orientation for each pixel in each cell.
5. Accumulate the gradient magnitudes in each orientation bin to form a histogram of gradient
orientations for each cell.
6. Concatenate the histograms for all cells to form the final feature vector for the facial image.
Scale-Invariant Feature Transform (SIFT):
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Scale-Invariant Feature Transform (SIFT) is a feature extraction technique that is robust to variations
in scale and rotation. The basic idea behind SIFT is to detect and describe key points in the facial
image that are invariant to scale and rotation.
The SIFT algorithm involves the following steps:
1. Detect the key points in the facial image using a Difference of Gaussian (DoG) filter.
2. Assign orientation to each key point based on the gradient direction of the image.
3. Compute a descriptor for each key point by dividing the image into a set of cells and
computing the gradient orientation and magnitude within each cell.
4. Concatenate the descriptors for all key points to form the final feature vector for the facial
image.
feature extraction is a critical step in facial recognition, as it involves the transformation of raw facial
images into a set of features that can be used as input to a machine learning algorithm for emotion
recognition. The most commonly used feature extraction techniques in facial recognition include
Local Binary Patterns (LBP), Histogram of Oriented Gradients (HOG), and Scale-Invariant Feature
Transform (SIFT). The choice of technique depends on several factors, including the complexity of
the facial image, the desired level of invariance to scale and rotation, and the available data.
Perfomance Evaluation
1. Eigenfaces:
Eigenfaces is a popular technique for facial recognition that uses Principal Component
Analysis (PCA) to reduce the dimensionality of the facial image. The advantages
of Eigenfaces include:
Advantages:
● It is computationally efficient.
● It works well with a large number of training images.
● It is robust to variations in lighting and facial expression.
Disadvantages:
● It can be sensitive to variations in pose and occlusion.
● It requires a large number of training images to achieve high accuracy.
● It can be affected by noise and outliers in the training data.
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2. Local Binary Patterns (LBP):
Local Binary Patterns (LBP) is a texture-based feature extraction technique that encodes the
local texture information of the facial image. The advantages of LBP include:
Advantages:
● It is robust to variations in lighting and facial expression.
● It is computationally efficient.
● It works well with relatively small training datasets.
Disadvantages:
● It is sensitive to variations in pose and occlusion.
● It may not capture the global structure of the facial image.
● It may not work well with highly complex facial images.
3. Convolutional Neural Networks (CNN):
Convolutional Neural Networks (CNN) is a deep learning technique that has shown high
accuracy in facial recognition. The advantages of CNN include:
Advantages:
● It can capture both local and global features of the facial image.
● It is highly accurate, especially with large training datasets.
● It can handle variations in pose and occlusion.
Disadvantages:
● It is computationally expensive.
● It requires a large number of training images to achieve high accuracy.
● It may be difficult to interpret the learned features.
4. Scale-Invariant Feature Transform (SIFT):
Scale-Invariant Feature Transform (SIFT) is a feature extraction technique that is robust to
variations in scale and rotation. The advantages of SIFT include:
Advantages:
● It is robust to variations in scale and rotation.
● It can capture both local and global features of the facial image.
● It works well with relatively small training datasets.
Disadvantages:
● It may not work well with highly complex facial images.
● It is computationally expensive.
● It may be sensitive to variations in lighting and facial expression.
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In summary, there are several different facial recognition techniques, each with its own advantages
and disadvantages. The choice of technique depends on several factors, including the complexity of
the facial image, the desired level of invariance to variations in pose, lighting, and expression, and
the available computational resources. It is important to carefully evaluate and compare different
techniques to select the most appropriate technique for a given application.
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