Toggle the table of contents

Wormhole
A wormhole (Einstein-Rosen bridge) is a hypothetical structure connecting disparate points in spacetime,
and is based on a special solution of the Einstein field equations.[1]

A wormhole can be visualized as a tunnel with two ends at separate points in spacetime (i.e., different
locations, different points in time, or both).

Wormholes are consistent with the general theory of relativity, but whether wormholes actually exist
remains to be seen. Many scientists postulate that wormholes are merely projections of a fourth spatial
dimension, analogous to how a two-dimensional (2D) being could experience only part of a three-
dimensional (3D) object.[2]

Theoretically, a wormhole might connect extremely long distances such as a billion light years, or short
distances such as a few meters, or different points in time, or even different universes.[3]

In 1995, Matt Visser suggested there may be many wormholes in the universe if cosmic strings with
negative mass were generated in the early universe.[4][5] Some physicists, such as Kip Thorne, have
suggested how to make wormholes artificially.[6]

Visualization
For a simplified notion of a wormhole, space can be visualized as a
two-dimensional surface. In this case, a wormhole would appear as
a hole in that surface, lead into a 3D tube (the inside surface of a
cylinder), then re-emerge at another location on the 2D surface with
a hole similar to the entrance. An actual wormhole would be
analogous to this, but with the spatial dimensions raised by one. For
example, instead of circular holes on a 2D plane, the entry and exit
points could be visualized as spherical holes in 3D space leading
into a four-dimensional "tube" similar to a spherinder.
Wormhole visualized in 2D
Another way to imagine wormholes is to take a sheet of paper and
draw two somewhat distant points on one side of the paper. The
sheet of paper represents a plane in the spacetime continuum, and the two points represent a distance to be
traveled, but theoretically a wormhole could connect these two points by folding that plane (⁠i.e. the paper)
so the points are touching. In this way it would be much easier to traverse the distance since the two points
are now touching.

Terminology
In 1928, German mathematician, philosopher and theoretical physicist Hermann Weyl proposed a
wormhole hypothesis of matter in connection with mass analysis of electromagnetic field energy;[7][8]
however, he did not use the term "wormhole" (he spoke of "one-dimensional tubes" instead).[9]
American theoretical physicist John Archibald Wheeler (inspired by Weyl's work)[9] coined the term
"wormhole" in a 1957 paper co-authored by Charles Misner:[10]

This analysis forces one to consider situations  ... where there is a net flux of lines of force,
through what topologists would call "a handle" of the multiply-connected space, and what
physicists might perhaps be excused for more vividly terming a "wormhole".

— Charles Misner and John Wheeler in Annals of Physics

Modern definitions

Wormholes have been defined both geometrically and topologically. From a topological point of view, an
intra-universe wormhole (a wormhole between two points in the same universe) is a compact region of
spacetime whose boundary is topologically trivial, but whose interior is not simply connected. Formalizing
this idea leads to definitions such as the following, taken from Matt Visser's Lorentzian Wormholes
(1996).[11]

If a Minkowski spacetime contains a compact region Ω, and if the topology of Ω is of the form
Ω ~ R × Σ, where Σ is a three-manifold of the nontrivial topology, whose boundary has
topology of the form ∂Σ ~ S2 , and if, furthermore, the hypersurfaces Σ are all spacelike, then
the region Ω contains a quasipermanent intrauniverse wormhole.

Geometrically, wormholes can be described as regions of spacetime that constrain the incremental
deformation of closed surfaces. For example, in Enrico Rodrigo's The Physics of Stargates, a wormhole is
defined informally as:

a region of spacetime containing a "world tube" (the time evolution of a closed surface) that
cannot be continuously deformed (shrunk) to a world line (the time evolution of a point or
observer).

Development

Schwarzschild wormholes

The first type of wormhole solution discovered was the

Schwarzschild wormhole, which would be present in the
Schwarzschild metric describing an eternal black hole, but it was
found that it would collapse too quickly for anything to cross from
one end to the other. Wormholes that could be crossed in both
directions, known as traversable wormholes, were thought to be
possible only if exotic matter with negative energy density could be
used to stabilize them.[12] However, physicists later reported that
microscopic traversable wormholes may be possible and not require "Embedding diagram" of a
any exotic matter, instead requiring only electrically charged Schwarzschild wormhole
fermionic matter with small enough mass that it cannot collapse into
a charged black hole.[13][14] While such wormholes, if possible, may be limited to transfers of information,
humanly traversable wormholes may exist if reality can broadly be described by the Randall–Sundrum
model 2, a brane-based theory consistent with string theory.[15][16]

Einstein–Rosen bridges

Schwarzschild wormholes, also known as Einstein–Rosen bridges[17] (named after Albert Einstein and
Nathan Rosen),[18] are connections between areas of space that can be modeled as vacuum solutions to the
Einstein field equations, and that are now understood to be intrinsic parts of the maximally extended
version of the Schwarzschild metric describing an eternal black hole with no charge and no rotation. Here,
"maximally extended" refers to the idea that the spacetime should not have any "edges": it should be
possible to continue this path arbitrarily far into the particle's future or past for any possible trajectory of a
free-falling particle (following a geodesic in the spacetime).

In order to satisfy this requirement, it turns out that in addition to the black hole interior region that particles
enter when they fall through the event horizon from the outside, there must be a separate white hole interior
region that allows us to extrapolate the trajectories of particles that an outside observer sees rising up away
from the event horizon.[19] And just as there are two separate interior regions of the maximally extended
spacetime, there are also two separate exterior regions, sometimes called two different "universes", with the
second universe allowing us to extrapolate some possible particle trajectories in the two interior regions.
This means that the interior black hole region can contain a mix of particles that fell in from either universe
(and thus an observer who fell in from one universe might be able to see light that fell in from the other
one), and likewise particles from the interior white hole region can escape into either universe. All four
regions can be seen in a spacetime diagram that uses Kruskal–Szekeres coordinates.

In this spacetime, it is possible to come up with coordinate systems such that if a hypersurface of constant
time (a set of points that all have the same time coordinate, such that every point on the surface has a space-
like separation, giving what is called a 'space-like surface') is picked and an "embedding diagram" drawn
depicting the curvature of space at that time, the embedding diagram will look like a tube connecting the
two exterior regions, known as an "Einstein–Rosen bridge". The Schwarzschild metric describes an
idealized black hole that exists eternally from the perspective of external observers; a more realistic black
hole that forms at some particular time from a collapsing star would require a different metric. When the
infalling stellar matter is added to a diagram of a black hole's geography, it removes the part of the diagram
corresponding to the white hole interior region, along with the part of the diagram corresponding to the
other universe.[20]

The Einstein–Rosen bridge was discovered by Ludwig Flamm in 1916,[21] a few months after
Schwarzschild published his solution, and was rediscovered by Albert Einstein and his colleague Nathan
Rosen, who published their result in 1935.[18][22] However, in 1962, John Archibald Wheeler and Robert
W. Fuller published a paper[23] showing that this type of wormhole is unstable if it connects two parts of
the same universe, and that it will pinch off too quickly for light (or any particle moving slower than light)
that falls in from one exterior region to make it to the other exterior region.

According to general relativity, the gravitational collapse of a sufficiently compact mass forms a singular
Schwarzschild black hole. In the Einstein–Cartan–Sciama–Kibble theory of gravity, however, it forms a
regular Einstein–Rosen bridge. This theory extends general relativity by removing a constraint of the
symmetry of the affine connection and regarding its antisymmetric part, the torsion tensor, as a dynamic
variable. Torsion naturally accounts for the quantum-mechanical, intrinsic angular momentum (spin) of
matter. The minimal coupling between torsion and Dirac spinors generates a repulsive spin–spin interaction
that is significant in fermionic matter at extremely high densities. Such an interaction prevents the formation
of a gravitational singularity. Instead, the collapsing matter reaches an enormous but finite density and
rebounds, forming the other side of the bridge.[24]

Although Schwarzschild wormholes are not traversable in both directions, their existence inspired Kip
Thorne to imagine traversable wormholes created by holding the "throat" of a Schwarzschild wormhole
open with exotic matter (material that has negative mass/energy).[25]

Other non-traversable wormholes include Lorentzian wormholes (first proposed by John Archibald
Wheeler in 1957), wormholes creating a spacetime foam in a general relativistic spacetime manifold
depicted by a Lorentzian manifold,[26] and Euclidean wormholes (named after Euclidean manifold, a
structure of Riemannian manifold).[27]

Traversable wormholes

The Casimir effect shows that quantum field theory allows the energy density in certain regions of space to
be negative relative to the ordinary matter vacuum energy, and it has been shown theoretically that quantum
field theory allows states where energy can be arbitrarily negative at a given point.[28] Many physicists,
such as Stephen Hawking,[29] Kip Thorne,[30] and others,[31][32][33] argued that such effects might make it
possible to stabilize a traversable wormhole.[34] The only known natural process that is theoretically
predicted to form a wormhole in the context of general relativity and quantum mechanics was put forth by
Leonard Susskind in his ER = EPR conjecture. The quantum foam hypothesis is sometimes used to suggest
that tiny wormholes might appear and disappear spontaneously at the Planck scale,[35]: 4 94–496 [36] and
stable versions of such wormholes have been suggested as dark matter candidates.[37][38] It has also been
proposed that, if a tiny wormhole held open by a negative mass cosmic string had appeared around the time
of the Big Bang, it could have been inflated to macroscopic size by cosmic inflation.[39]

Lorentzian traversable wormholes would allow travel in both

directions from one part of the universe to another part of that same
universe very quickly or would allow travel from one universe to
another. The possibility of traversable wormholes in general
relativity was first demonstrated in a 1973 paper by Homer Ellis[40]
and independently in a 1973 paper by K. A. Bronnikov.[41] Ellis
analyzed the topology and the geodesics of the Ellis drainhole,
showing it to be geodesically complete, horizonless, singularity-
free, and fully traversable in both directions. The drainhole is a
solution manifold of Einstein's field equations for a vacuum Image of a simulated traversable
spacetime, modified by inclusion of a scalar field minimally wormhole that connects the square
coupled to the Ricci tensor with antiorthodox polarity (negative in front of the physical institutes of
instead of positive). (Ellis specifically rejected referring to the scalar University of Tübingen with the sand
field as 'exotic' because of the antiorthodox coupling, finding dunes near Boulogne-sur-Mer in the
arguments for doing so unpersuasive.) The solution depends on north of France. The image is
two parameters: m, which fixes the strength of its gravitational calculated with 4D raytracing in a
field, and n, which determines the curvature of its spatial cross Morris–Thorne wormhole metric, but
sections. When m is set equal to 0, the drainhole's gravitational the gravitational effects on the
field vanishes. What is left is the Ellis wormhole, a nongravitating, wavelength of light have not been
purely geometric, traversable wormhole. simulated.[note 1]

Kip Thorne and his graduate student Mike Morris independently

discovered in 1988 the Ellis wormhole and argued for its use as a tool for teaching general relativity.[42] For
this reason, the type of traversable wormhole they proposed, held open by a spherical shell of exotic matter,
is also known as a Morris–Thorne wormhole.

Later, other types of traversable wormholes were discovered as allowable solutions to the equations of
general relativity, including a variety analyzed in a 1989 paper by Matt Visser, in which a path through the
wormhole can be made where the traversing path does not pass through a region of exotic matter. However,
in the pure Gauss–Bonnet gravity (a modification to general relativity involving extra spatial dimensions
which is sometimes studied in the context of brane cosmology) exotic matter is not needed in order for
wormholes to exist—they can exist even with no matter.[43] A type held open by negative mass cosmic
strings was put forth by Visser in collaboration with Cramer et al.,[39] in which it was proposed that such
wormholes could have been naturally created in the early universe.

Wormholes connect two points in spacetime, which means that they would in principle allow travel in time,
as well as in space. In 1988, Morris, Thorne and Yurtsever worked out how to convert a wormhole
traversing space into one traversing time by accelerating one of its two mouths.[30] However, according to
general relativity, it would not be possible to use a wormhole to travel back to a time earlier than when the
wormhole was first converted into a time "machine". Until this time it could not have been noticed or have
been used.[35]: 5 04 

Raychaudhuri's theorem and exotic matter

To see why exotic matter is required, consider an incoming light front traveling along geodesics, which
then crosses the wormhole and re-expands on the other side. The expansion goes from negative to positive.
As the wormhole neck is of finite size, we would not expect caustics to develop, at least within the vicinity
of the neck. According to the optical Raychaudhuri's theorem, this requires a violation of the averaged null
energy condition. Quantum effects such as the Casimir effect cannot violate the averaged null energy
condition in any neighborhood of space with zero curvature,[44] but calculations in semiclassical gravity
suggest that quantum effects may be able to violate this condition in curved spacetime.[45] Although it was
hoped recently that quantum effects could not violate an achronal version of the averaged null energy
condition,[46] violations have nevertheless been found,[47] so it remains an open possibility that quantum
effects might be used to support a wormhole.

Modified general relativity

In some hypotheses where general relativity is modified, it is possible to have a wormhole that does not
collapse without having to resort to exotic matter. For example, this is possible with R2 gravity, a form of
f(R) gravity.[48]

Faster-than-light travel
The impossibility of faster-than-light relative speed applies only locally. Wormholes might allow effective
superluminal (faster-than-light) travel by ensuring that the speed of light is not exceeded locally at any time.
While traveling through a wormhole, subluminal (slower-than-light) speeds are used. If two points are
connected by a wormhole whose length is shorter than the distance between them outside the wormhole,
the time taken to traverse it could be less than the time it would take a light beam to make the journey if it
took a path through the space outside the wormhole. However, a light beam traveling through the same
wormhole would beat the traveler.

Time travel
If traversable wormholes exist, they might allow time travel.[30] A
proposed time-travel machine using a traversable wormhole might
hypothetically work in the following way: One end of the
wormhole is accelerated to some significant fraction of the speed of
light, perhaps with some advanced propulsion system, and then
brought back to the point of origin. Alternatively, another way is to
take one entrance of the wormhole and move it to within the
gravitational field of an object that has higher gravity than the other
entrance, and then return it to a position near the other entrance. For
both these methods, time dilation causes the end of the wormhole Wormhole travel as envisioned by
that has been moved to have aged less, or become "younger", than Les Bossinas for NASA, c. 1998
the stationary end as seen by an external observer; however, time
connects differently through the wormhole than outside it, so that
synchronized clocks at either end of the wormhole will always remain synchronized as seen by an observer
passing through the wormhole, no matter how the two ends move around.[35]: 5 02  This means that an
observer entering the "younger" end would exit the "older" end at a time when it was the same age as the
"younger" end, effectively going back in time as seen by an observer from the outside. One significant
limitation of such a time machine is that it is only possible to go as far back in time as the initial creation of
the machine;[35]: 5 03  it is more of a path through time rather than it is a device that itself moves through
time, and it would not allow the technology itself to be moved backward in time.[49][50]

According to current theories on the nature of wormholes, construction of a traversable wormhole would
require the existence of a substance with negative energy, often referred to as "exotic matter". More
technically, the wormhole spacetime requires a distribution of energy that violates various energy
conditions, such as the null energy condition along with the weak, strong, and dominant energy conditions.
However, it is known that quantum effects can lead to small measurable violations of the null energy
condition,[11]: 1 01  and many physicists believe that the required negative energy may actually be possible
due to the Casimir effect in quantum physics.[51] Although early calculations suggested a very large amount
of negative energy would be required, later calculations showed that the amount of negative energy can be
made arbitrarily small.[52]

In 1993, Matt Visser argued that the two mouths of a wormhole with such an induced clock difference
could not be brought together without inducing quantum field and gravitational effects that would either
make the wormhole collapse or the two mouths repel each other,[53] or otherwise prevent information from
passing through the wormhole.[54] Because of this, the two mouths could not be brought close enough for
causality violation to take place. However, in a 1997 paper, Visser hypothesized that a complex "Roman
ring" (named after Tom Roman) configuration of an N number of wormholes arranged in a symmetric
polygon could still act as a time machine, although he concludes that this is more likely a flaw in classical
quantum gravity theory rather than proof that causality violation is possible.[55]

Interuniversal travel
A possible resolution to the paradoxes resulting from wormhole-enabled time travel rests on the many-
worlds interpretation of quantum mechanics.

In 1991 David Deutsch showed that quantum theory is fully consistent (in the sense that the so-called
density matrix can be made free of discontinuities) in spacetimes with closed timelike curves.[56] However,
later it was shown that such a model of closed timelike curves can have internal inconsistencies as it will
lead to strange phenomena like distinguishing non-orthogonal quantum states and distinguishing proper and
improper mixture.[57][58] Accordingly, the destructive positive feedback loop of virtual particles circulating
through a wormhole time machine, a result indicated by semi-classical calculations, is averted. A particle
returning from the future does not return to its universe of origination but to a parallel universe. This
suggests that a wormhole time machine with an exceedingly short time jump is a theoretical bridge between
contemporaneous parallel universes.[12]

Because a wormhole time-machine introduces a type of nonlinearity into quantum theory, this sort of
communication between parallel universes is consistent with Joseph Polchinski's proposal of an Everett
phone[59] (named after Hugh Everett) in Steven Weinberg's formulation of nonlinear quantum
mechanics.[60]

The possibility of communication between parallel universes has been dubbed interuniversal travel.[61]

Wormhole can also be depicted in Penrose diagram of Schwarzschild black hole. In the Penrose diagram,
an object traveling faster than light will cross the black hole and will emerge from another end into a
different space, time or universe. This will be an interuniversal wormhole.

Metrics
Theories of wormhole metrics describe the spacetime geometry of a wormhole and serve as theoretical
models for time travel. An example of a (traversable) wormhole metric is the following:[62]

first presented by Ellis (see Ellis wormhole) as a special case of the Ellis drainhole.

One type of non-traversable wormhole metric is the Schwarzschild solution (see the first diagram):

The original Einstein–Rosen bridge was described in an article published in July 1935.[63][64]

For the Schwarzschild spherically symmetric static solution

where is the proper time and .

If one replaces with according to

The four-dimensional space is described mathematically by two congruent parts or "sheets",

corresponding to and , which are joined by a hyperplane or in
which vanishes. We call such a connection between the two sheets a "bridge".

— A. Einstein, N. Rosen, "The Particle Problem in the General Theory of Relativity"
For the combined field, gravity and electricity, Einstein and Rosen derived the following Schwarzschild
static spherically symmetric solution

where is the electric charge.

The field equations without denominators in the case when can be written

In order to eliminate singularities, if one replaces by according to the equation:

and with one obtains[65][66]

and

The solution is free from singularities for all finite points in the space of the two sheets

— A. Einstein, N. Rosen, "The Particle Problem in the General Theory of Relativity"

In fiction
Wormholes are a common element in science fiction because they allow interstellar, intergalactic, and
sometimes even interuniversal travel within human lifetime scales. In fiction, wormholes have also served
as a method for time travel.

See also
Physics portal

Star portal

Alcubierre drive
ER = EPR
Gödel metric
 Krasnikov tube
Non-orientable wormhole
Self-consistency principle
Polchinski's paradox
Retrocausality
Ring singularity
Roman ring

Notes
1. Other computer-rendered images and animations of traversable wormholes can be seen on
this page (http://www.spacetimetravel.org/wurmlochflug/wurmlochflug.html) by the creator of
the image in the article, and this page (https://web.archive.org/web/20151228145356/https://
www.vis.uni-stuttgart.de/~muelleta/MTvis/) has additional renderings.

References

Citations
1. Overbye, Dennis (10 October 2022). "Black Holes May Hide a Mind-Bending Secret About
Our Universe - Take gravity, add quantum mechanics, stir. What do you get? Just maybe, a
holographic cosmos" (https://www.nytimes.com/2022/10/10/science/black-holes-cosmology-
hologram.html). The New York Times. Retrieved 10 October 2022.
2. Choi, Charles Q. (2013-12-03). "Spooky physics phenomenon may link universe's
wormholes" (http://www.nbcnews.com/science/science-news/spooky-physics-phenomenon-
may-link-universes-wormholes-f2D11690659). NBC News. Retrieved 2019-07-30.
3. "Focus: Wormhole Construction: Proceed with Caution" (https://physics.aps.org/story/v2/st7).
Physical Review Focus. Vol. 2. American Physical Society. 1998-08-03. p. 7.
4. Cramer, John; Forward, Robert; Morris, Michael; Visser, Matt; Benford, Gregory; Landis,
Geoffrey (1995). "Natural wormholes as gravitational lenses". Physical Review D. 51 (6):
3117–3120. arXiv:astro-ph/9409051 (https://arxiv.org/abs/astro-ph/9409051).
Bibcode:1995PhRvD..51.3117C (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1995PhRvD..51.3117C).
doi:10.1103/PhysRevD.51.3117 (https://doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRevD.51.3117).
PMID 10018782 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10018782). S2CID 42837620 (https://api.s
emanticscholar.org/CorpusID:42837620).
5. "Searching for a 'Subway to the Stars' " (https://web.archive.org/web/20120415100921/http://
www.geoffreylandis.com/wormholes.htp) (Press release). Archived from the original (http://w
ww.geoffreylandis.com/wormholes.htp) on 2012-04-15.
6. Thorne, Kip S. (1994). Black holes and time warps : Einstein's outrageous legacy. New
York. p. 493. ISBN 978-0393312768.
7. Weyl, H. (1921). "Feld und Materie" (https://zenodo.org/record/1424373). Annalen der
Physik. 65 (14): 541–563. Bibcode:1921AnP...370..541W (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/
1921AnP...370..541W). doi:10.1002/andp.19213701405 (https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fandp.19
213701405).
8. Scholz, Erhard, ed. (2001). Hermann Weyl's Raum – Zeit – Materie and a General
Introduction to His Scientific Work (https://books.google.com/books?id=oZLiqDQGnjgC).
Oberwolfach Seminars. Vol. 30. Springer. p. 199. ISBN 9783764364762.
 9. "Hermann Weyl" (https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/weyl/): entry in the Stanford Encyclopedia
of Philosophy.
10. Misner, C. W.; Wheeler, J. A. (1957). "Classical physics as geometry". Ann. Phys. 2 (6): 525.
Bibcode:1957AnPhy...2..525M (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1957AnPhy...2..525M).
doi:10.1016/0003-4916(57)90049-0 (https://doi.org/10.1016%2F0003-4916%2857%299004
9-0).
11. Visser, Matt (1996). Lorentzian Wormholes. Springer-Verlag. ISBN 978-1-56396-653-8.
12. Rodrigo, Enrico (2010). The Physics of Stargates. Eridanus Press. p. 281. ISBN 978-0-
9841500-0-7.
13. "Microscopic wormholes possible in theory" (https://phys.org/news/2021-03-microscopic-wor
mholes-theory.html). phys.org. Retrieved 22 April 2021.
14. Blázquez-Salcedo, Jose Luis; Knoll, Christian; Radu, Eugen (9 March 2021). "Traversable
Wormholes in Einstein-Dirac-Maxwell Theory" (https://journals.aps.org/prl/abstract/10.1103/
PhysRevLett.126.101102). Physical Review Letters. 126 (10): 101102. arXiv:2010.07317 (ht
tps://arxiv.org/abs/2010.07317). Bibcode:2021PhRvL.126j1102B (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.e
du/abs/2021PhRvL.126j1102B). doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.126.101102 (https://doi.org/10.11
03%2FPhysRevLett.126.101102). hdl:10773/32560 (https://hdl.handle.net/10773%2F3256
0). PMID 33784127 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33784127). S2CID 222378921 (https://
api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:222378921). Retrieved 22 April 2021.
15. Schirber, Michael (9 March 2021). "Wormholes Open for Transport" (https://physics.aps.org/a
rticles/v14/s28). Physics. Retrieved 22 April 2021.
16. Maldacena, Juan; Milekhin, Alexey (9 March 2021). "Humanly traversable wormholes" (http
s://doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRevD.103.066007). Physical Review D. 103 (6): 066007.
arXiv:2008.06618 (https://arxiv.org/abs/2008.06618). Bibcode:2021PhRvD.103f6007M (http
s://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2021PhRvD.103f6007M). doi:10.1103/PhysRevD.103.066007
(https://doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRevD.103.066007). Available under CC BY 4.0 (htt
ps://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
17. Vladimir Dobrev (ed.), Lie Theory and Its Applications in Physics: Varna, Bulgaria, June
2015, Springer, 2016, p. 246.
18. A. Einstein and N. Rosen, "The Particle Problem in the General Theory of Relativity," Phys.
Rev. 48(73) (1935).
19. "Black Holes Explained - From Birth to Death" (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9P6rdqiy
baw). YouTube. Archived (https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211211/9P6rdqiyba
w) from the original on 2021-12-11.
20. "Collapse to a Black Hole" (http://casa.colorado.edu/~ajsh/collapse.html#kruskal).
Casa.colorado.edu. 2010-10-03. Retrieved 2010-11-11. This tertiary source reuses information
from other sources but does not name them.
21. Flamm (1916). "Beiträge zur Einsteinschen Gravitationstheorie". Physikalische Zeitschrift.
XVII: 448. ("Comments on Einstein's Theory of Gravity")
22. Lindley, David (Mar 25, 2005). "Focus: The Birth of Wormholes" (http://physics.aps.org/story/
v15/st11). Physics. American Physical Society. 15. Retrieved 20 February 2016.
23. Fuller, Robert W.; Wheeler, John A. (1962-10-15). "Causality and Multiply Connected Space-
Time". Physical Review. American Physical Society (APS). 128 (2): 919–929.
Bibcode:1962PhRv..128..919F (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1962PhRv..128..919F).
doi:10.1103/physrev.128.919 (https://doi.org/10.1103%2Fphysrev.128.919). ISSN 0031-
899X (https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0031-899X).
24. Poplawski, Nikodem J. (2010). "Cosmology with torsion: An alternative to cosmic inflation".
Phys. Lett. B. 694 (3): 181–185. arXiv:1007.0587 (https://arxiv.org/abs/1007.0587).
Bibcode:2010PhLB..694..181P (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2010PhLB..694..181P).
doi:10.1016/j.physletb.2010.09.056 (https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.physletb.2010.09.056).
25. Thorne, Kip S. (1994). Black holes and time warps : Einstein's outrageous legacy. New
York. p. 488. ISBN 978-0393312768.
26. J. Wheeler (1957). "On the nature of quantum geometrodynamics". Ann. Phys. 2 (6): 604–
614. Bibcode:1957AnPhy...2..604W (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1957AnPhy...2..604
W). doi:10.1016/0003-4916(57)90050-7 (https://doi.org/10.1016%2F0003-4916%2857%299
0050-7). (A follow-up paper to Misner and Wheeler (December 1957).)
27. Eduard Prugovecki, Quantum Geometry: A Framework for Quantum General Relativity,
Springer, 2013, p. 412.
28. Everett, Allen; Roman, Thomas (2012). Time Travel and Warp Drives (https://archive.org/det
ails/isbn_9780226224985). University of Chicago Press. p. 167 (https://archive.org/details/is
bn_9780226224985/page/n182). ISBN 978-0-226-22498-5.
29. "Space and Time Warps" (https://web.archive.org/web/20120210233225/http://www.hawkin
g.org.uk/space-and-time-warps.html). Hawking.org.uk. Archived from the original (http://www.
hawking.org.uk/space-and-time-warps.html) on 2012-02-10. Retrieved 2010-11-11.
30. Morris, Michael; Thorne, Kip; Yurtsever, Ulvi (1988). "Wormholes, Time Machines, and the
Weak Energy Condition" (http://authors.library.caltech.edu/9262/1/MORprl88.pdf) (PDF).
Physical Review Letters. 61 (13): 1446–1449. Bibcode:1988PhRvL..61.1446M (https://ui.ads
abs.harvard.edu/abs/1988PhRvL..61.1446M). doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.61.1446 (https://doi.
org/10.1103%2FPhysRevLett.61.1446). PMID 10038800 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/1
0038800).
31. Sopova; Ford (2002). "The Energy Density in the Casimir Effect". Physical Review D. 66 (4):
045026. arXiv:quant-ph/0204125 (https://arxiv.org/abs/quant-ph/0204125).
Bibcode:2002PhRvD..66d5026S (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2002PhRvD..66d5026
S). CiteSeerX 10.1.1.251.7471 (https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.2
51.7471). doi:10.1103/PhysRevD.66.045026 (https://doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRevD.66.045
026). S2CID 10649139 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:10649139).
32. Ford; Roman (1995). "Averaged Energy Conditions and Quantum Inequalities". Physical
Review D. 51 (8): 4277–4286. arXiv:gr-qc/9410043 (https://arxiv.org/abs/gr-qc/9410043).
Bibcode:1995PhRvD..51.4277F (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1995PhRvD..51.4277F).
doi:10.1103/PhysRevD.51.4277 (https://doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRevD.51.4277).
PMID 10018903 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10018903). S2CID 7413835 (https://api.se
manticscholar.org/CorpusID:7413835).
33. Olum (1998). "Superluminal travel requires negative energies". Physical Review Letters. 81
(17): 3567–3570. arXiv:gr-qc/9805003 (https://arxiv.org/abs/gr-qc/9805003).
Bibcode:1998PhRvL..81.3567O (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1998PhRvL..81.3567O).
doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.81.3567 (https://doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRevLett.81.3567).
S2CID 14513456 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:14513456).
34. "Newfound Wormhole Allows Information to Escape Black Holes" (https://www.quantamaga
zine.org/newfound-wormhole-allows-information-to-escape-black-holes-20171023/). Quanta
Magazine. 23 October 2017.
35. Thorne, Kip S. (1994). Black Holes and Time Warps. W. W. Norton. ISBN 978-0-393-31276-
8.
36. Ian H., Redmount; Wai-Mo Suen (1994). "Quantum Dynamics of Lorentzian Spacetime
Foam". Physical Review D. 49 (10): 5199–5210. arXiv:gr-qc/9309017 (https://arxiv.org/abs/g
r-qc/9309017). Bibcode:1994PhRvD..49.5199R (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1994PhR
vD..49.5199R). doi:10.1103/PhysRevD.49.5199 (https://doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRevD.49.5
199). PMID 10016836 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10016836). S2CID 39296197 (http
s://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:39296197).
37. Kirillov, A. A.; P. Savelova, E. (2008). "Dark Matter from a gas of wormholes". Physics Letters
B. 660 (3): 93–99. arXiv:0707.1081 (https://arxiv.org/abs/0707.1081).
Bibcode:2008PhLB..660...93K (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2008PhLB..660...93K).
doi:10.1016/j.physletb.2007.12.034 (https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.physletb.2007.12.034).
S2CID 12150385 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:12150385).
38. Rodrigo, Enrico (2009). "Denouement of a Wormhole-Brane Encounter". International
Journal of Modern Physics D. 18 (12): 1809–1819. arXiv:0908.2651 (https://arxiv.org/abs/09
08.2651). Bibcode:2009IJMPD..18.1809R (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2009IJMPD..1
8.1809R). doi:10.1142/S0218271809015333 (https://doi.org/10.1142%2FS0218271809015
333). S2CID 119239038 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:119239038).
39. John G. Cramer; Robert L. Forward; Michael S. Morris; Matt Visser; Gregory Benford &
Geoffrey A. Landis (1995). "Natural Wormholes as Gravitational Lenses" (https://cds.cern.ch/
record/268926). Physical Review D. 51 (6): 3117–3120. arXiv:astro-ph/9409051 (https://arxi
v.org/abs/astro-ph/9409051). Bibcode:1995PhRvD..51.3117C (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.ed
u/abs/1995PhRvD..51.3117C). doi:10.1103/PhysRevD.51.3117 (https://doi.org/10.1103%2F
PhysRevD.51.3117). PMID 10018782 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10018782).
S2CID 42837620 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:42837620).
40. H. G. Ellis (1973). "Ether flow through a drainhole: A particle model in general relativity".
Journal of Mathematical Physics. 14 (1): 104–118. Bibcode:1973JMP....14..104E (https://ui.a
dsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1973JMP....14..104E). doi:10.1063/1.1666161 (https://doi.org/10.106
3%2F1.1666161).
41. K. A. Bronnikov (1973). "Scalar-tensor theory and scalar charge". Acta Physica Polonica.
B4: 251–266.
42. Morris, Michael S. & Thorne, Kip S. (1988). "Wormholes in spacetime and their use for
interstellar travel: A tool for teaching general relativity". American Journal of Physics. 56 (5):
395–412. Bibcode:1988AmJPh..56..395M (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1988AmJPh..5
6..395M). doi:10.1119/1.15620 (https://doi.org/10.1119%2F1.15620).
43. Elias Gravanis; Steven Willison (2007). " 'Mass without mass' from thin shells in Gauss-
Bonnet gravity". Phys. Rev. D. 75 (8): 084025. arXiv:gr-qc/0701152 (https://arxiv.org/abs/gr-q
c/0701152). Bibcode:2007PhRvD..75h4025G (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2007PhRv
D..75h4025G). doi:10.1103/PhysRevD.75.084025 (https://doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRevD.7
5.084025). S2CID 53529713 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:53529713).
44. Fewster, Christopher J.; Ken D. Olum; Michael J. Pfenning (2007). "Averaged null energy
condition in spacetimes with boundaries". Physical Review D. 75 (2): 025007. arXiv:gr-
qc/0609007 (https://arxiv.org/abs/gr-qc/0609007). Bibcode:2007PhRvD..75b5007F (https://u
i.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2007PhRvD..75b5007F). doi:10.1103/PhysRevD.75.025007 (http
s://doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRevD.75.025007). S2CID 119726654 (https://api.semanticschol
ar.org/CorpusID:119726654).
45. Visser, Matt (1996). "Gravitational vacuum polarization. II. Energy conditions in the Boulware
vacuum". Physical Review D. 54 (8): 5116–5122. arXiv:gr-qc/9604008 (https://arxiv.org/abs/
gr-qc/9604008). Bibcode:1996PhRvD..54.5116V (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1996Ph
RvD..54.5116V). doi:10.1103/PhysRevD.54.5116 (https://doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRevD.54.
5116). PMID 10021199 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10021199). S2CID 31954680 (http
s://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:31954680).
46. Graham, Noah; Ken D. Olum (2007). "Achronal averaged null energy condition". Physical
Review D. 76 (6): 064001. arXiv:0705.3193 (https://arxiv.org/abs/0705.3193).
Bibcode:2007PhRvD..76f4001G (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2007PhRvD..76f4001G).
doi:10.1103/PhysRevD.76.064001 (https://doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRevD.76.064001).
S2CID 119285639 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:119285639).
47. Urban, Douglas; Ken D. Olum (2010). "Spacetime averaged null energy condition". Physical
Review D. 81 (6): 124004. arXiv:1002.4689 (https://arxiv.org/abs/1002.4689).
Bibcode:2010PhRvD..81l4004U (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2010PhRvD..81l4004U).
doi:10.1103/PhysRevD.81.124004 (https://doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRevD.81.124004).
S2CID 118312373 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:118312373).
48. Duplessis, Francis; Easson, Damien A. (2015). "Exotica ex nihilo: Traversable wormholes &
non-singular black holes from the vacuum of quadratic gravity". Physical Review D. 92 (4):
043516. arXiv:1506.00988 (https://arxiv.org/abs/1506.00988).
Bibcode:2015PhRvD..92d3516D (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2015PhRvD..92d3516
D). doi:10.1103/PhysRevD.92.043516 (https://doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRevD.92.043516).
S2CID 118307327 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:118307327).
49. Susskind, Leonard (2005). "Wormholes and Time Travel? Not Likely". arXiv:gr-qc/0503097
(https://arxiv.org/abs/gr-qc/0503097).
50. Everett, Allen; Roman, Thomas (2012). Time Travel and Warp Drives (https://archive.org/det
ails/isbn_9780226224985). University of Chicago Press. p. 135 (https://archive.org/details/is
bn_9780226224985/page/n150). ISBN 978-0-226-22498-5.
51. Cramer, John G. (1994). "NASA Goes FTL Part 1: Wormhole Physics" (https://web.archive.or
g/web/20060627211046/http://www.npl.washington.edu/av/altvw69.html). Analog Science
Fiction & Fact Magazine. Archived from the original (http://www.npl.washington.edu/av/altvw
69.html) on June 27, 2006. Retrieved December 2, 2006.
52. Visser, Matt; Sayan Kar; Naresh Dadhich (2003). "Traversable wormholes with arbitrarily
small energy condition violations" (https://cds.cern.ch/record/598932). Physical Review
Letters. 90 (20): 201102.1–201102.4. arXiv:gr-qc/0301003 (https://arxiv.org/abs/gr-qc/03010
03). Bibcode:2003PhRvL..90t1102V (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2003PhRvL..90t110
2V). doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.90.201102 (https://doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRevLett.90.2011
02). PMID 12785880 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12785880). S2CID 8813962 (https://a
pi.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:8813962).
53. Visser, Matt (1993). "From wormhole to time machine: Comments on Hawking's Chronology
Protection Conjecture". Physical Review D. 47 (2): 554–565. arXiv:hep-th/9202090 (https://a
rxiv.org/abs/hep-th/9202090). Bibcode:1993PhRvD..47..554V (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/
abs/1993PhRvD..47..554V). doi:10.1103/PhysRevD.47.554 (https://doi.org/10.1103%2FPhy
sRevD.47.554). PMID 10015609 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10015609).
S2CID 16830951 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:16830951).
54. Visser, Matt (2002). The quantum physics of chronology protection (https://archive.org/detail
s/arxiv-gr-qc0204022). arXiv:gr-qc/0204022 (https://arxiv.org/abs/gr-qc/0204022).
Bibcode:2003ftpc.book..161V (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2003ftpc.book..161V).
55. Visser, Matt (1997). "Traversable wormholes: the Roman ring". Physical Review D. 55 (8):
5212–5214. arXiv:gr-qc/9702043 (https://arxiv.org/abs/gr-qc/9702043).
Bibcode:1997PhRvD..55.5212V (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1997PhRvD..55.5212V).
doi:10.1103/PhysRevD.55.5212 (https://doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRevD.55.5212).
S2CID 2869291 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:2869291).
56. Deutsch, David (1991). "Quantum Mechanics Near Closed Timelike Lines". Physical
Review D. 44 (10): 3197–3217. Bibcode:1991PhRvD..44.3197D (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.e
du/abs/1991PhRvD..44.3197D). doi:10.1103/PhysRevD.44.3197 (https://doi.org/10.1103%2
FPhysRevD.44.3197). PMID 10013776 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10013776).
57. Brun; et al. (2009). "Localized Closed Timelike Curves Can Perfectly Distinguish Quantum
States". Physical Review Letters. 102 (21): 210402. arXiv:0811.1209 (https://arxiv.org/abs/08
11.1209). Bibcode:2009PhRvL.102u0402B (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2009PhRvL.1
02u0402B). doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.102.210402 (https://doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRevLett.
102.210402). PMID 19519086 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19519086).
S2CID 35370109 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:35370109).
58. Pati; Chakrabarty; Agrawal (2011). "Purification of mixed states with closed timelike curve is
not possible". Physical Review A. 84 (6): 062325. arXiv:1003.4221 (https://arxiv.org/abs/100
3.4221). Bibcode:2011PhRvA..84f2325P (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2011PhRvA..84
f2325P). doi:10.1103/PhysRevA.84.062325 (https://doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRevA.84.0623
25). S2CID 119292717 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:119292717).
59. Polchinski, Joseph (1991). "Weinberg's Nonlinear quantum Mechanics and the Einstein–
Podolsky–Rosen Paradox". Physical Review Letters. 66 (4): 397–400.
Bibcode:1991PhRvL..66..397P (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1991PhRvL..66..397P).
doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.66.397 (https://doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRevLett.66.397).
PMID 10043797 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10043797).
60. Enrico Rodrigo, The Physics of Stargates: Parallel Universes, Time Travel, and the Enigma
of Wormhole Physics, Eridanus Press, 2010, p. 281.
61. Samuel Walker, "Inter-universal travel: I wouldn't start from here (https://www.newscientist.co
m/letter/mg23331111-100-14-interuniversal-travel-i-wouldnt-start-from-here/), New Scientist
(1 February 2017).
62. Raine, Derek; Thomas, Edwin (2009). Black Holes: An Introduction (https://archive.org/detail
s/blackholesintrod00rain) (2nd ed.). Imperial College Press. p. 143 (https://archive.org/detail
s/blackholesintrod00rain/page/n156). doi:10.1142/p637 (https://doi.org/10.1142%2Fp637).
ISBN 978-1-84816-383-6.
63. Einstein, A.; Rosen, N. (1 July 1935). "The Particle Problem in the General Theory of
Relativity" (https://doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRev.48.73). Physical Review. 48 (1): 73–77.
Bibcode:1935PhRv...48...73E (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1935PhRv...48...73E).
doi:10.1103/PhysRev.48.73 (https://doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRev.48.73).
64. "Leonard Susskind | "ER = EPR" or "What's Behind the Horizons of Black Holes?" " (https://
www.youtube.com/watch?v=OBPpRqxY8Uw). Archived (https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/yo
utube/20211211/OBPpRqxY8Uw) from the original on 2021-12-11 – via www.youtube.com.
65. "Magnetic 'wormhole' connecting two regions of space created for the first time" (https://www.
sciencedaily.com/releases/2015/09/150903081506.htm). ScienceDaily.
66. "Magnetic wormhole created for first time" (http://www.uab.cat/web/newsroom/news-detail/m
agnetic-wormhole-created-for-first-time-1345668003610.html?noticiaid=1345689132054).
UAB Barcelona.

Sources
DeBenedictis, Andrew & Das, A. (2001). "On a General Class of Wormhole Geometries".
Classical and Quantum Gravity. 18 (7): 1187–1204. arXiv:gr-qc/0009072 (https://arxiv.org/ab
s/gr-qc/0009072). Bibcode:2001CQGra..18.1187D (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2001C
QGra..18.1187D). CiteSeerX 10.1.1.339.8662 (https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summar
y?doi=10.1.1.339.8662). doi:10.1088/0264-9381/18/7/304 (https://doi.org/10.1088%2F0264-
9381%2F18%2F7%2F304). S2CID 119107035 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:1
19107035).
Dzhunushaliev, Vladimir (2002). "Strings in the Einstein's paradigm of matter". Classical and
Quantum Gravity. 19 (19): 4817–4824. arXiv:gr-qc/0205055 (https://arxiv.org/abs/gr-qc/0205
055). Bibcode:2002CQGra..19.4817D (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2002CQGra..19.48
17D). CiteSeerX 10.1.1.339.1518 (https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.
1.339.1518). doi:10.1088/0264-9381/19/19/302 (https://doi.org/10.1088%2F0264-9381%2F1
9%2F19%2F302). S2CID 976106 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:976106).
Einstein, Albert & Rosen, Nathan (1935). "The Particle Problem in the General Theory of
Relativity" (https://doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRev.48.73). Physical Review. 48 (1): 73.
Bibcode:1935PhRv...48...73E (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1935PhRv...48...73E).
doi:10.1103/PhysRev.48.73 (https://doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRev.48.73).
Fuller, Robert W. & Wheeler, John A. (1962). "Causality and Multiply-Connected Space-
Time". Physical Review. 128 (2): 919. Bibcode:1962PhRv..128..919F (https://ui.adsabs.harv
ard.edu/abs/1962PhRv..128..919F). doi:10.1103/PhysRev.128.919 (https://doi.org/10.1103%
2FPhysRev.128.919).
Garattini, Remo (2004). "How Spacetime Foam modifies the brick wall". Modern Physics
Letters A. 19 (36): 2673–2682. arXiv:gr-qc/0409015 (https://arxiv.org/abs/gr-qc/0409015).
Bibcode:2004MPLA...19.2673G (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2004MPLA...19.2673G).
doi:10.1142/S0217732304015658 (https://doi.org/10.1142%2FS0217732304015658).
S2CID 119094239 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:119094239).
González-Díaz, Pedro F. (1998). "Quantum time machine". Physical Review D. 58 (12):
124011. arXiv:gr-qc/9712033 (https://arxiv.org/abs/gr-qc/9712033).
Bibcode:1998PhRvD..58l4011G (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1998PhRvD..58l4011G).
doi:10.1103/PhysRevD.58.124011 (https://doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRevD.58.124011).
hdl:10261/100644 (https://hdl.handle.net/10261%2F100644). S2CID 28411713 (https://api.s
emanticscholar.org/CorpusID:28411713).
González-Díaz, Pedro F. (1996). "Ringholes and closed timelike curves". Physical Review
D. 54 (10): 6122–6131. arXiv:gr-qc/9608059 (https://arxiv.org/abs/gr-qc/9608059).
Bibcode:1996PhRvD..54.6122G (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1996PhRvD..54.6122G).
doi:10.1103/PhysRevD.54.6122 (https://doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRevD.54.6122).
PMID 10020617 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10020617). S2CID 7183386 (https://api.se
manticscholar.org/CorpusID:7183386).
Khatsymosky, Vladimir M. (1997). "Towards possibility of self-maintained vacuum
traversable wormhole". Physics Letters B. 399 (3–4): 215–222. arXiv:gr-qc/9612013 (https://
arxiv.org/abs/gr-qc/9612013). Bibcode:1997PhLB..399..215K (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/
abs/1997PhLB..399..215K). doi:10.1016/S0370-2693(97)00290-6 (https://doi.org/10.1016%
2FS0370-2693%2897%2900290-6). S2CID 13917471 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/Corp
usID:13917471).
Krasnikov, Serguei (2006). "Counter example to a quantum inequality". Gravity and
Cosmology. 46 (2006): 195. arXiv:gr-qc/0409007 (https://arxiv.org/abs/gr-qc/0409007).
Bibcode:2006GrCo...12..195K (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2006GrCo...12..195K).
Krasnikov, Serguei (2003). "The quantum inequalities do not forbid spacetime shortcuts".
Physical Review D. 67 (10): 104013. arXiv:gr-qc/0207057 (https://arxiv.org/abs/gr-qc/020705
7). Bibcode:2003PhRvD..67j4013K (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2003PhRvD..67j4013
K). doi:10.1103/PhysRevD.67.104013 (https://doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRevD.67.104013).
S2CID 17498199 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:17498199).
Li, Li-Xin (2001). "Two Open Universes Connected by a Wormhole: Exact Solutions".
Journal of Geometry and Physics. 40 (2): 154–160. arXiv:hep-th/0102143 (https://arxiv.org/a
bs/hep-th/0102143). Bibcode:2001JGP....40..154L (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2001J
GP....40..154L). CiteSeerX 10.1.1.267.8664 (https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?
doi=10.1.1.267.8664). doi:10.1016/S0393-0440(01)00028-6 (https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS03
93-0440%2801%2900028-6). S2CID 44433480 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:4
4433480).
Morris, Michael S.; Thorne, Kip S. & Yurtsever, Ulvi (1988). "Wormholes, Time Machines,
and the Weak Energy Condition" (https://authors.library.caltech.edu/9262/1/MORprl88.pdf)
(PDF). Physical Review Letters. 61 (13): 1446–1449. Bibcode:1988PhRvL..61.1446M (http
s://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1988PhRvL..61.1446M). doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.61.1446 (h
ttps://doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRevLett.61.1446). PMID 10038800 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.
nih.gov/10038800).
 Morris, Michael S. & Thorne, Kip S. (1988). "Wormholes in spacetime and their use for
interstellar travel: A tool for teaching general relativity". American Journal of Physics. 56 (5):
395–412. Bibcode:1988AmJPh..56..395M (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1988AmJPh..5
6..395M). doi:10.1119/1.15620 (https://doi.org/10.1119%2F1.15620).
Nandi, Kamal K. & Zhang, Yuan-Zhong (2006). "A Quantum Constraint for the Physical
Viability of Classical Traversable Lorentzian Wormholes". Journal of Nonlinear Phenomena
in Complex Systems. 9 (2006): 61–67. arXiv:gr-qc/0409053 (https://arxiv.org/abs/gr-qc/0409
053). Bibcode:2004gr.qc.....9053N (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2004gr.qc.....9053N).
Ori, Amos (2005). "A new time-machine model with compact vacuum core". Physical Review
Letters. 95 (2): 021101. arXiv:gr-qc/0503077 (https://arxiv.org/abs/gr-qc/0503077).
Bibcode:2005PhRvL..95b1101O (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2005PhRvL..95b1101
O). doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.95.021101 (https://doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRevLett.95.02110
1). PMID 16090670 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16090670).
Roman, Thomas A. (2004). "Some Thoughts on Energy Conditions and Wormholes". The
Tenth Marcel Grossmann Meeting: 1909–1924. arXiv:gr-qc/0409090 (https://arxiv.org/abs/gr-
qc/0409090). doi:10.1142/9789812704030_0236 (https://doi.org/10.1142%2F97898127040
30_0236). ISBN 978-981-256-667-6. S2CID 18867900 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/Corp
usID:18867900).
Teo, Edward (1998). "Rotating traversable wormholes". Physical Review D. 58 (2): 024014.
arXiv:gr-qc/9803098 (https://arxiv.org/abs/gr-qc/9803098). Bibcode:1998PhRvD..58b4014T
(https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1998PhRvD..58b4014T). CiteSeerX 10.1.1.339.966 (http
s://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.339.966).
doi:10.1103/PhysRevD.58.024014 (https://doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRevD.58.024014).
S2CID 15316540 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:15316540).
Visser, Matt (2002). "The quantum physics of chronology protection by Matt Visser". arXiv:gr-
qc/0204022 (https://arxiv.org/abs/gr-qc/0204022). An excellent and more concise review.
Visser, Matt (1989). "Traversable wormholes: Some simple examples". Physical Review D.
39 (10): 3182–3184. arXiv:0809.0907 (https://arxiv.org/abs/0809.0907).
Bibcode:1989PhRvD..39.3182V (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1989PhRvD..39.3182V).
doi:10.1103/PhysRevD.39.3182 (https://doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRevD.39.3182).
PMID 9959561 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9959561). S2CID 17949528 (https://api.se
manticscholar.org/CorpusID:17949528).

External links
"What exactly is a 'wormhole'? Have wormholes been proven to exist or are they still
theoretical??" (https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/follow-up-what-exactly-is/)
answered by Richard F. Holman, William A. Hiscock and Matt Visser
"Why wormholes?" (http://homepages.mcs.vuw.ac.nz/~visser/general.shtml#why-wormhole
s) by Matt Visser (October 1996)
Wormholes in General Relativity by Soshichi Uchii (https://web.archive.org/web/201202220
34225/http://www.bun.kyoto-u.ac.jp/~suchii/wormholes.html) at the Wayback Machine
(archived February 22, 2012)
Questions and Answers about Wormholes (http://www.webfilesuci.org/WormholeFAQ.html)
—A comprehensive wormhole FAQ by Enrico Rodrigo
Large Hadron Collider (https://www.independent.co.uk/news/science/the-big-question-is-tim
e-travel-possible-and-is-there-any-chance-that-it-will-ever-take-place-779761.html) – Theory
on how the collider could create a small wormhole, possibly allowing time travel into the
past
animation that simulates traversing a wormhole (http://www.spacetimetravel.org/wurmlochflu
g/wurmlochflug.html)
 Renderings and animations of a Morris-Thorne wormhole (https://web.archive.org/web/2015
1228145356/https://www.vis.uni-stuttgart.de/~muelleta/MTvis/)
NASA's current theory on wormhole creation (http://www.nasa.gov/centers/glenn/technology/
warp/ideachev.html)

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wormhole&oldid=1161305995"

Toggle limited content width