10 Czopek-Cultural Change
10 Czopek-Cultural Change
Sylwester Czopek*
ABSTRACT
S. Czopek 2011. Cultural Change from the Perspective of Cultural-Historical Archaeology.
Analecta Archaeologica Ressoviensia 6, 317–342
The article discusses the origins of aspects of cultural change using the example of archaeolo-
gical cultures in south-eastern
Poland, and with special reference to the meso-region of the
lower Wisłok River. This study concludes that it is difficult to identify local roots in a tradi-
tional cultural-historical sense for most cultures within the study area. Attention is therefore
focused on migrations and other population movements, as well as more complex external
impacts on local populations, which are regarded as the main factors stimulating cultural
change. In addition, some transformations and formations of new units may be due to local
development (evolution) of cultures.
Ke y words: culture, change, south-eastern Poland, migration of their changes
Received: 14.02.2011; Revised: 31.01.2012; Accepted: 5.04.2012
observation are possible. Firstly, that the analysed area is too small (or
unrepresentative) to draw conclusions about wider cultural change, and
the observed patterns maybe a product of the partly random creation
of the archaeological record. Therefore it may produce a false picture.
Secondly, however, recorded changes may reflect real chronological
and spatial relationships in cultural units.
This is quite a complex and difficult interpretative problem and
has thus provoked ongoing discussion). Analysis of the archaeological
record does not always provide an answer, and an ideal model of infe-
rence must involve recognition of repetitive features or processes which
are maintained across chronological periods in the same area (Table 1).
Table 1. Sequence of cultures and their fatures in regional relations
Tabela 1. Następstwo kultur i cech w relacji regionalnej
Culture/Kultura Feature/Cecha kulturowa Time/Czas
Model of evolution/Model ewolucyjny
Culture/Kultura „X” A, B, C, D, E
Culture/Kultura „Y” B, D, E, F, G
Culture/Kultura „Z” E, F, G, I, K
Model of ‘revolution’/Model „rewolucyjny”
Culture/Kultura „X” A, B, C, D, E
Culture/Kultura „Y” F, G, H, I , K
Culture/Kultura „Z” L, M, N, O, P
changes inspired (or derived) from outside the study area or culture
(i.e. exogenous) and internal transformations (i.e. endogenous), and
these are discussed in more detail below.
Exogenous changes:
• Cultural expansionism with particular emphasis on migration
(broadly defined):
– Management of a “local” anecumene;
– Replacement of an autochtonic culture;
– Beginning of acculturation processes (“innovative migration”).
• “Clash” of cultures (including interactions and influences of neigh-
bours).
• Adaptation of foreign (new) cultural patterns, also in the condi-
tions of isolation (“adaptability of cultures and groups”).
Endogenous changes:
• “Cultural Development” (change of the culture at the time).
• Response to environmental change.
The range of possible interpretations of exogenous changes is much
broader than the literal understanding of endogenous transformations.
We may even dispute the internal development of culture as an im-
portant factor of change. Viewed from the perceptive of archaeologi-
cal data sources an alternative term is modification of culture, but not
necessarily leading to major structural changes. Indeed, very often the
inspiration of “internal” change comes from outside.
An extremely interesting issue is the response to environmental
changes. The oldest known archaeological response to such changes is
migration (i.e. leaving the area because it is not appropriate to the prefer-
red model in a given culture). In fact, this model can help us explain any
cultural change in the oldest hunter-gatherer communities (Palaeolithic
and Mesolithic), which responded to changing natural conditions. The-
se were obviously the very drastic changes of the Ice Age (Pleistocene /
Palaeolithic), so the specific human reaction (migration) stemmed from
the massive scale of change, but also the limited adaptive mechanisms
of the cultures in the face of new and changing climatic conditions and
associated changes of other environmental components.
The ‘clash of cultures’ also requires discussion, principally where
two cultures or groups come together. This may relate not only to ne-
Cultural Change from the Perspective of Cultural-Historical Archaeology | 325
archaeological record and the more accurate our dating the more often
alternative suggestions appear attractive (e.g. Gorski, Kadrow 1996).
The spatial dimension where changes occur is also important, as even
in neighbouring regions such processes may take a different course.
Therefore, it is worth considering (Table 2) the possibility of using
the division into exogenous and endogenous cultures for south-eastern
Poland (see Czopek 1999).
Considering the list of characteristics above, we may notice that
most cultures did not derive from local, previously occupied ground.
Some of them are commonly associated with migration, with the arrival
of a group of people with characteristic features. These characteristic
features may be evident in ceramics, or tools, and other cultural factors,
such as different funeral rites or significant changes in the settlement
system. The most obvious examples that illustrate this phenomenon
are the arrival of the Celts (Woźniak 2004, 133–156) and the forma-
tion of the San cluster of settlement (Karwowski 2007), or the migra-
tion of the first Slavs in the Early Middle Ages (Parczewski 2005). As
for previous periods, the Magdalenian culture (Połtowicz-Bobak 2007,
35–51) or Mesolithic cultures may provide further examples. Probably
the Transcarpathian cultures, particularly in the Bronze Age, can be
interpreted in the same manner. The origins of cultures such as Füze-
sabony, Piliny or the complex of Warzyce type are difficult to identify
in the earlier local groups (Czopek 1999, 111–120). Even the cultures
so closely connected with the basin of the Vistula River such as Trzci-
niec, Pomeranian or Przeworsk, may not also be associated with local
transformations. Their cultural pattern was developed in other areas,
and was then moved to the basin of the San and Wisłok already for-
med. This is confirmed first of all by chronology, but also by analysis
of the geography of settlement.
The cultures considered to be endogenous have also in their ori-
gin some exogenous elements. For example, the Tarnobrzeg Lusa-
tian culture certainly arose in our study area (it did not exist anywhe-
re else), but its cultural features displayed an external (“southern” or
“western”) inspiration. There are cultural elements linking it with an
older substrate of the Trzciniec culture (e.g. similar pottery styles and
technology; continuity of settlement in the same micro-and meso-re-
gions), but its major distinctive feature, the cremation of the dead, is
not a local funeral rite. A similar mechanism can be identified in the
Cultural Change from the Perspective of Cultural-Historical Archaeology | 327
Fig. 2. The Great Migration of the Slavs (fig. P. Major – after Z. Váňa 1985)
Ryc. 2. Wielka wędrówka Słowian (rys. P. Major – za Z. Váňa 1985)
Cultural Change from the Perspective of Cultural-Historical Archaeology | 329
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Sylwester Czopek