Paul Bertagnolli, Prometheus in Music: Representations of the Myth in the Romantic Era

PAUL BERTAGNOLLI, PROMETHEUS IN MUSIC: REPRESENTATIONS OF THE MYTH IN THE RO-

MANTIC ERA (Burlington VT: Ashgate, 2007). ISBN 13–9780754654681, xv + 369pp, £65

One of the most celebrated mythological figures of the nineteenth century, Prome-
theus, son of the Titan Lapetus, brother of Epimetheus, symbolizes man’s creativity
and daring; the artist’s compulsion to raise himself to a new plane and a new power.
First mentioned by name in Hesiod’s Theogony (c700 BC),1 the eponymous hero was
made famous by Aeschylus’s Prometheus Bound, a play in which the protagonist
liberates mortals from their ignorance, teaching them the arts and granting them the
gift of fire. In doing so, his hubris incurs the wrath of Zeus. Punished and made to
suffer for his actions, Prometheus is chained to a rocky crag in the Scythian mountains.
The ancient Greek myth of Prometheus is a philosophical narrative of how man
first acquired the power to shape his world. By inventing his own world, Prometheus
symbolizes the creation of art, which transmutes the order of nature into culture. He
also hands down the civilizing influence of knowledge. Both maverick and messiah,
Prometheus unites the ideals of enlightenment with a radical rejection of tradition,
symbolizing the search for new and alternative possibilities. Even the fire he brings is
inherently ambiguous, standing for the principles of both creativity and destruc-
tiveness.
Raymond Trousson’s Le Thème de Prométhée dans la littérature européene2 and Gerard
Gillespie’s seminal article ‘Prometheus in the Romantic Age’3 are important historical
studies of the Promethean myth in literature, but it is only with the publication of Paul
Bertagnolli’s Prometheus in Music that the musical engagement of the myth can be fully
appreciated. For more than a century we have been accustomed to reading the myth as
literary and philosophical tropes: the portrayal of Prometheus as both rebel and
liberator, an attractive double identity during the age of Napoleon, while the Titan’s
exile, imprisonment and torture are commonly read as metaphors of the nineteenth
century’s notion of the genius or artist as an outcast who endured an uncompre-
hending public’s criticism. These images have been explored in the visual arts from
Peter Paul Rubens’s Chained Prometheus (1611–12) to Dirck van Baburen’s Prometheus

1 Hesiod, Works and Days: epic poem in ancient Greek Eργα καí Ηµεραι / Erga kaí Hemerai, sometimes
called by the Latin name Opera et Dies, ll. 507–616.
2 Raymond Trousson, Le Thème de Prométhée dans la littérature européene, 2 vols (Geneva: Libraire E.
Droz, 1964).
3 Gerard Gillespie, ‘Prometheus in the Romantic Age’, in Gerard Hoffmeister (ed.), European Roman-
ticism: Literary Cross-Currents, Modes and Models (Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1990), 197–
210.

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 Reviews

being chained by Vulcan (1623); from Gustave Moreau’s Prometheus (1868) to Nicolas-
Sébastien Adam’s Prométhée enchaîné (Prometheus Bound, 1762); from Scott Eaton’s
Prometheus Bound (2006) to Vladimer Shioshvili’s Amirani—Georgian Prometheus
(2007). With the publication of Bertagnolli’s new book on Prometheus in Music, matters
undergo a singular metamorphosis. Scholars have known for years about this
discrepancy between literary, visual and musical exegesis4 but now Bertagnolli and his
publisher, Ashgate, have given us a wide-ranging musical exploration of the creation
myth in music of the long nineteenth century: not only canonical works by Beethoven,
Schubert, Liszt, and Wolf, but also lesser-known contributions by Johann Friedrich
Reichardt, Augusta Holmès, Hubert Parry, Wolfram Bargiel, Karl Goldmark and much
else besides. This timely study is not simply an ambitious account of these composers’
engagement with the Promethean figure, but enforces a new way of reading the myth
as a whole. The book is, to borrow Heaney’s words, ‘a critical fantasia, a carnival of ut-
terance’ about the Promethean myth in nineteenth-century European musical culture.
The author, who is Associate Professor of Musicology at the Moores School of
Music, University of Houston, USA, has done prodigious work. Not only has he
provided us with the first serious study of the musical realization of the Prometheus
myth, but in the same volume he has created a chronicle of the Hellenic fable, offered a
comprehensive critique of it, and written a musical apologia for his discourse on many
familiar settings. That said, a definitive book on the subject must remain a phantom
possibility for Scriabin’s Prométhée—Le Poème du Feu, Op. 60 (1910), Carl Orff’s
Aescylean opera Prometheus (1968), Ted Hughes’s anthology, Prometheus on his Crag
(1973) and Luigi Nono’s Prometeo (1984) are excluded from any exploration of the
myth confined to the nineteenth century. Yet for most readers Bertagnolli’s preoccu-
pation with the old Promethean question of how a nineteenth-century composer might
still properly define himself will make this book a scholarly landmark.
One of the many virtues of Bertagnolli’s magisterial book is the wealth of material
he uncovers on the Promethean myth, from Hesiod to Aeschylus; from Lucian of
Samosata to Latin or vernacular literature of the early Middle Ages; from Italian
mythographers to the Dutch scholar, Desiderius Erasmus; from the northern French
humanist, Charles de Bouelles, to Milton’s Paradise Lost. In the compelling opening
chapter, ‘Promethean Legacies’, our knowledge is greatly advanced and yet as I read I
regretted that the engaging analogies he presents so admirably were not developed

4 See, for example, Hugo Riemann, ‘Beethovens Prometheus Musik: Ein Variationenwerk’, Die Musik,
9/13–14 (1909–10): 19–34, 107–25; and Léopold Dauphin, ‘Gabriel Fauré et la Prométhée’, La Vogue, 15
(October 1900), 59–65.

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Paul Bertagnolli, Prometheus in Music: Representations of the Myth in the Romantic Era
 

further. Bertagnolli’s biblical exegesis where he compares Prometheus to a pagan

Moses (11), for example, could easily have been expanded with a comparable en-
lightening portrayal of Adam in Genesis. Like Adam, Prometheus is separate from
God, he addresses the Olympian Deities as gods, refers to himself as man, yet, unlike
Adam, his ascendancy from the Titans links him to the Divinity. Such lineage is central
to understanding the central truth of this myth: Prometheus’s conflict between the
claims of human freedom and a higher order is in defiance of God, yet his genesis and
his role as creator is in accordance with the Divine. While Genesis presents Adam’s
rebellion as an impure act, Prometheus’s opposition to a malign deity, Zeus, exem-
plifies the belief that evil is somehow part of the cosmic fate to which man is con-
demned. Unlike the biblical fable, where evil is not inherited from an existing cosmic
order, in the Promethean myth evil is part of a pre-existing cosmic destiny to which
man and the gods are victims. Prometheus does not cause evil, but is subject to it. The
myth is, therefore, a sedition against the rigidly austere conception of metaphysical
good and evil; a rejection of a distorted conception of God who cannot be other than
good. At the core of the nineteenth-century appropriation of the myth is a funda-
mental rejection of a Christian conception of God, upon whose grace men depend and
whose favour they seek through prayer; and in its place there appears the notion of the
universal Divine, in which man has a portion by reason of his creative force.
While religion may be considered as a propitiation or conciliation of powers
superior to man, in ‘Prometheus’, Goethe shows a recognition of this power in man.
Bertagnolli’s belief that Goethe was the first to grant Prometheus genuine autonomy is
jejune (17): though Goethe’s depiction is unorthodox, it is not a denial of a higher
order.5 In this ode, Goethe characterizes Prometheus’s creativity by an act of rebellion:
an offence against the divine order of things. However, Prometheus’s iconoclasm both
dismantles and acknowledges the harmony of nature as pre-established by a higher
order. As art sets him up as an original creator in his own right, because creativity is
expressed in art, it implies the imitation of an original act. This mimetic role is shown
in Goethe’s verse, for Prometheus’s art is not presented in terms of some internal
subjective power alone, but is evaluated in terms of his relation to the Divine. His crea-
tivity is alio-relative and not ipso-relative.6 Contrary to Bertagnolli’s reading, the imagi-

5 Other errors in Bertagnolli’s knowledge of Goethean literature include the repeated statement (100
and 104) that Mignon’s famous song is taken from Goethe’s novel, Die Leiden des jungen Werther
(1774); like the songs of Goethe’s harper, it owes its origins to Goethe’s later novel, Wilhelm Meisters
Lehrjahre (1795/96).
6 By alio-relative I mean the explication of creativity in relation to something else, whereas ipso relative
is defined exclusively in relation to itself.

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nation of Goethe’s rebellious hero receives its identity from a higher order of original
meaning, which it flouts but is ultimately compelled to acknowledge.
For Bertagnolli, ‘Goethe established directly Romantic perspectives on Prometheus.
His ode replaced the Enlightenment’s benefactor of an Arcadian mankind with a
modern rebel who endured unjust persecution in the solitude of creative genius’ (93).
Yet through the figure of Prometheus, Goethe raises various ontological and theolo-
gical concerns regarding man’s individuality. How can man, an independent, indivi-
dual being, be nevertheless connected to an infinite whole? How can he be connected
to the infinity of the cosmos and yet maintain a separate existence? How can he belong
to the great order of nature and yet work according to his own fashion? In
‘Prometheus’, Goethe answers these problems by insinuating a theory of self-determi-
nation, which is inherently part of the Divine. When Goethe wrote, ‘Nature fashions
man, he transforms himself, and this transformation is in turn natural; he who sees
himself placed in the great wide world, encloses, walls in within this world, a small
world which he organizes in his own image’7 he alluded to a doctrine that man is a
living, creative, reflecting mirror who fashions the world in his own manner. Contrary
to Bertagnolli’s belief, Goethe’s achievement in ‘Prometheus’ was not that he was the
first to represent Prometheus’s autonomy but rather that through this figure the poet’s
theory of creative receptivity reached its culmination.
When the eighteenth century sought to comprehend the nature of the creative artist
in its highest significance, it likened him to Prometheus, whose creation of culture is
celebrated as a free and independent contribution of mankind. Beethoven’s attraction
to the legend remained within this realm. He depicts Prometheus not as an enchained
sufferer but as a great creator, who, like God, fashions men in his own image, intro-
duces them to life and leads them to Mount Parnassus where the Muses bestow upon
Prometheus’s mortals reason and feeling. What the Greeks called hubris and extreme
presumption, the striving to equal the gods, was for Beethoven the only real possibility
of fulfilling oneself and at the same time advancing humanity. The greatness of such a
willing and the fearful sacrifices its realization demand are codified in Die Geschöpfe des
Prometheus (The Creatures of Prometheus) Op. 43, a work generally believed to have
‘inaugurated Beethoven’s all-important middle period’ (27). Bertagnolli challenges not
only the reception of Beethoven’s ballet as being too learned but also the Riemannian

7 ‘Die Natur bildet den Menschen, er bildet sich um, und diese Umbildung ist doch wieder natürlich;
er, der sich in die große, weite Welt gesetzt sieht, umzäunt, ummauert sich eine kleine drein, und
staffiert sie aus nach seinem Bilde’, Von der Physiognomik überhaupt, in Hermann Böhlau (ed.), Goethes
Werke (Weimar: Weimarer Ausgabe, 1887–1919), i, 37, 329.

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Paul Bertagnolli, Prometheus in Music: Representations of the Myth in the Romantic Era
 

recognition that its fundamental compositional impulse was rooted variation tech-
nique, thereby affirming its status as non-representational, absolute music (28). It is
this ability to challenge an accepted position that is one of the greatest attributes of
Prometheus in Music. This book is not an arbitrary gathering of new musical readings; it
seeks to unveil rather than to record. And in this chapter Bertagnolli convincingly
unveils Beethoven as a dramaturgical composer who realizes the Promethean myth
through dance in accordance with the emergence of the ballet d’action. Drawing on
passages from Beethoven’s sketchbook, Bertagnolli argues how stage action and
gesture closely correlate with musical events throughout the score, from the creatures’
first halting steps to the anger Prometheus directs at them when they misunderstand
him, from their animation by four lyricists through to Melpomene’s tragic scene (90).
The author’s portrayal of Beethoven chimes in nicely with contemporary accounts of
the composer as a stricken outsider. The merit of Bertagnolli’s provocative inter-
pretation is that it observes the irreconcilable domains of man contra artist. It declares
Beethoven’s ability to hold a popular myth in his vision and reflect it in the light of his
music, while permitting him to mark out new territory.
Bertagnolli is resolved on creating a resource as well as a reading and, in his
detailed discussion of three settings of Goethe’s transgressive ode, his method is to let
the myriad musical facts speak for themselves—although it must be said that when he
allows himself to indulge in the odd light-hearted comment the narrative is greatly
enlivened, as when he identifies Promethean parallels in Reichardt’s liberal politics
and literary tendencies. More of this literary élan could find its way into the melting
pot but the author in the main directs his energies to rigorous musical exegesis.
Bertagnolli’s shrewd recognition of Reichardt’s setting as one of his best Deklamations-
stücke which scrupulously observe the text’s structure, temporal scheme and rhetoric
provides a long-awaited acknowledgment of Reichardt’s contribution to German song.
Bertagnolli’s reading of Reichardt’s ‘Prometheus’ is unprecedented: he not only
uncovers generic bonds between Reichardt’s and Schubert’s declamatory settings but
argues that ‘Reichardt’s exacting performance standards and preference for lyrics of
highest literary quality helped transform the eighteenth-century domestic lied into the
Romantic art song, as his Prometheus clearly illustrates’ (105–6). While it would be
wrong to deny Reichardt his light touch, in ‘Prometheus’ his note is, undoubtedly,
weightier and his carrying power far stronger. It was, after all, in his 1809 edition of
Goethe-Lieder that Reichardt’s total strength was revealed.8 These were essentially

8 Marjorie Hirsch, Schubert’s Dramatic Lieder (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993), 2;
Dietrich Fischer-Dieskau, Schubert’s Songs: A Biographical Study, trans. Kenneth S. Whitton (New

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transfusions of power, a unique grafting of the Lied tradition and personal sensibility
that happened in 1789 when he first encountered the poet. At that moment, something
in Reichardt suddenly stood up and girded itself for action in earnest. And the
resulting confidence, metrical stride and musical force of Reichardt’s ‘Prometheus’ is
epoch-making.
Schubert’s choice of classical legend always depicted figures who were well known
so that the listener could recognize the episode and imagine the full dramatic context.
In the opening lines of Goethe’s poem, it is clear that the figure who flaunts his crea-
tive power in the face of Zeus is Prometheus. Schubert’s identification with Goethe’s
protagonist is evident in the opening lines of this setting as in his letters where it is
clear that he identified the Promethean complex within himself.9 In a poem written by
the composer in September 1820, Schubert echoes Prometheus’s individuality and re-
cognizes the Divine within himself: ‘Göttlich bin ich’s mir bewußt’. So too do the lines
set by Schubert in the Winterreise—‘Will kein Gott auf Erden sein, / Sind wir selber
Götter’10—reiterate this theme, while the self-portrait Schubert composed in his short
prose extract, Mein Traum, written on 3 July 1822, codifies a Promethean revolt against
his father.11 Bertagnolli overlooks such confessional analogies in favour of an analysis
of the text setting and episodic structure of Schubert’s Prometheus (D 674) which
matches Schubert’s daring harmonies with Goethe’s linguistic audacities. Equally
engaging is the author’s comparative reading of Reichardt’s and Schubert’s settings.
For Bertagnolli, Reichardt’s setting of Prometheus’s lament (stanza 3) ‘genuinely
reflects the Titan’s sorrowful childhood’, while Schubert’s chorale ‘seethes with irony,
intensifying the protagonist’s mockery of his Olympian oppressors’. While such iden-
tification of musical irony is widely acknowledged in Schumannian Lieder and
brilliantly uncovered in Schubert’s late Lieder by Susan Youens in Heinrich Heine and
the Lied (Cambridge, 2007), Bertagnolli’s identification of irony in Schubert’s early
Lieder is unprecedented.
Hutchings’s deliberation that Schubert’s ‘Prometheus’ ‘is a dignified setting, Wolf’s
a tortured utterance of despair’12 points to the difference in the composers’ inter-

York: Knopf, 1978), 130–31; and Elizabeth Norman McKay, Franz Schubert: A Biography (Oxford:
Claendon Press, 1996), 50.
9 See, for example. Schubert’s letter to his friends from Zseliz dated 3 August 1818, in Otto Erich
Deutsch, Franz Schubert: Die Dokumente seines Lebens (Munich and Leipzig: Georg Müller, 1914), 62–3.
10 Winterreise, ‘Mut’, v. 3, ll. 11–12.
11 Die schönsten Schubertbriefe (Munich and Vienna: Langen-Müller, 1975), 55–6.
12 Arthur Hutchings, Schubert (London: Dent, 1977), 166.

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Paul Bertagnolli, Prometheus in Music: Representations of the Myth in the Romantic Era
 

pretation of the lyric. While Schubert highlights Prometheus’s ribald defiance of Zeus,
Wolf portrays him as a tortured hero—a reading which is closer to Shelley’s ‘Prome-
theus Unbound’ than to Goethe’s poem. In Bertagnolli’s reading Wolf’s style here is a
fusion of the highly chromatic style of late-Romantic composers of German song and
contemporary Viennese theatrical technique. And the interesting thing is the influence
of Vienna’s leading actors, Josef Kainz and Alexander Moissi, who based their stylized
yet highly expressive form of recitation on exaggerated pitch inflections. Early
recordings of Kainz and Moissi performing Goethe’s ‘Prometheus’ suggest that Wolf
adopted theatrical mannerisms in his song. But even more interesting and symptoma-
tic of Wolf’s imagination is the ways he draws together such disparate influences,
observing theatrical practices throughout the Lied, setting keywords with higher
pitches and distinguishing successive phrases with pitch stratification and post-Wag-
nerian tonal practice. While acknowledging Wolf’s avid Wagnerianism, Bertagnolli
turns Wolf’s traditional sobriquet, ‘the Wagner of the Lied’, on its head by his
identification of two features of Wolf’s declamatory style which jar with his idol’s text
setting. Firstly, Bertagnolli argues, the ubiquitous repeated notes of Wolf’s ‘Prome-
theus’ are foreign to Wagner’s Versemelodie which derives from the imitation of speech
but is ultimately grounded in melodic contours shaped by the internal rhyme scheme
known as Stabreim (root rhyme). Secondly, the author illustrates how the widespread
syncopation in Wolf’s setting is not typical of vocal lines in Wagner’s music dramas,
where the infamously long tones that require stentorian voices dramatically contrast
with Wolf’s text setting in ‘Prometheus’ where very few pitches last several beats (129–
30). Bertagnolli’s focus on the formal design of the three settings by Reichardt, Schu-
bert and Wolf is also new and yields aesthetic decisions and facets of the Promethean
myth realized by these three song composers.
Liszt’s Prometheus Unbound, originally a choral work written as incidental music for
the 1850 unveiling in Weimar of a statue dedicated to Johann Gottfried Herder, was
reworked by Liszt in 1856 as a symphonic poem. Not only does Bertagnolli under-
stand the creative element in Liszt’s Prometheus, he also convinces us that the central
tenet of Herder’s philosophy of history, Humanität, is reflected in the music Liszt wrote
for Herder’s mythological scenes.  In the opening lines of chapter four, ‘Towards a
Philosophy of Music: Liszt’s Prometheus Music’, Bertagnolli informs us that the
appointment of the ‘Kapellmeister in extraordinary service’ at the Weimar court in
1848 was commissioned by Grand Duke Carl Alexander, who charged Liszt with
restoring the city’s status during the German Enlightenment. While Liszt’s first
compositions in Weimar herald this goal—an overture to the play, Torquato Tasso, to
mark the centennial of Goethe’s birth in 1849 followed by incidental music for Her-
der’s Der entfesselte Prometheus in 1850—Liszt’s musical intelligence and a recognition
of archetypal affinities are what constitute Liszt’s real link with his cultural heritage in

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Weimar. His Prometheus and musical realization of Herder’s mythological scenes are
not a mere matter of Classical distinction; one recognizes that within this psychic and
cultural ground the artist has been able to assuage his primal hunger for a new
musical vocabulary of forms—an enumerative form through which an energy flows
that is every bit as contemporary as it is classical. Bertagnolli’s analysis of the arch
form Liszt imposed on Herder’s lyrics is masterly and offers new terms of appreci-
ation. We value Liszt’s realization because we know from listening to it that it springs
from a preverbal identification with Herder’s humanitarianism and universalism
which found its release and equivalent in the music of Liszt’s symphonic poem.
It is often through contact with a foreign culture that new possibilities suggest
themselves. This is exactly what happened in the French appropriation of the
Promethean myth where it became a vehicle for the expression of nationalistic
sentiment in art. It is Bertagnolli’s exposition of Holmès’s Promethée, an unfinished,
unpublished manuscript at the Bibliothèque Nationale, Paris, which concerns us most
in chapter five, ‘The French Prometheus’, for it is a fine example of the author’s meti-
culous research. Such pairing of Holmès’s treatment of the myth with the literary
tendencies of the Parnassian poets and personal reactions to the Franco-Prussian War
is mirrored in the ensuing chapter on Hubert Parry’s Scenes from Shelley’s Prometheus
Unbound, which twins an engaging discussion of the historical and cultural contexts
for atheism in nineteenth-century England with Parry’s atheist tendencies expressed in
the composer’s diaries and letters held in a private archive in Sussex.
Admirably in possession of much that has been written about this mythological
figure, Bertagnolli offers a rich harvesting of the history of the Prometheus legend in
Western literature and music from Hesiod through the long nineteenth century. The
world of Prometheus is given voice amid a pageantry of musical masters: in effect, a
slowly paced procession of musicological distinction. What I admire about this book is
the author’s natural sympathy not only for his subject but for its transformation in
different cultural contexts: an ability to highlight each composer’s combination of
historical echo and original forthrightness. This book will be a musicological landmark
since it garners both old and new research. But Bertagnolli’s main achievement is to
give us a precise sense of Prometheus in nineteenth-century musical culture and it is
the aesthetic weight of the ancient Promethean theme that makes it such an interesting
and viable musicological study.

Lorraine Byrne Bodley

National University of Ireland, Maynooth

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