GNED – ETHICS enhance their critical thinking ability in

evaluating their gained knowledge and

CHAPTER 1 – INTRODUCTION
information.
Ethics or Morality o To develop a cultured, well-defined, and
o Essentially a Philosophy subject well-rounded individual

A. What is Philosophy?
D. Major disciplines in Philosophy
o The term philosophy was first coined by
1. Logic
Pythagoras, a Greek philosopher.
o Study of right and sound reasoning
o Philos means love and Sophia means wisdom
2. Epistemology
o Love for wisdom
o Study of validity of knowledge
o Search for meaning
3. Metaphysics
o Science of all sciences / mother of all
o Explain the fundamental concept of being
sciences
4. Aesthetics
o Search for the ultimate meaning of
o Philosophical study of beauty
reality/truth
5. Cosmology
o Study that seeks to understand the
o Study of real things in the universe
mysteries of existence and reality.
6. Theodicy
o Study of God and His nature
B. Philosophy and other Sciences
7. Social Philosophy
1. Philosophy and Science
o Study of human and their relation to society
o Both discuss the fundamental truths about
8. Ethics
the universe
o The science of the morality of human acts
o Study nature and life
2. Philosophy and History Notion of ethics
o Understanding of the past, clear view of the
o Ethics from Greek word ethos means a
present and more positive outlook in the
characteristic way of doing things o body of
anticipation of the future.
customs.
3. Philosophy and Mathematics
o A practical science which meant to teach
o Both logical bodies of knowledge
how human ought to live.
4. Philosophy and Religion
o Inseparable fields in a sense that one
E. Imperatives of Ethics
justifies the other.
1. Human Freedom
o To be responsible for one’s action.
C. Importance of Philosophy
o An inherent human power to act or not to
o Help us to cope in the changing world
act that makes them responsible for their
o Improve critical thinking skills, ability to
actions.
comprehend, systematized learning and
2. Existence of God
o God’s presence is a salient factor that 2. IMPORTANCE OF RULE
makes sense in the study of ethics. o Rules are important because they tend to
3. Immortality of the Soul protect human rights and freedom specially
o Immortality of the soul is, indeed, a the "weaker members' in the society as they
cornerstone in ethics. might be exploited if no rules to shield
them.
F. ETHICS and MORALS
o These two define the personality, attitude, G. DEFINITION OF MORALS
and behavior of a person. o Morals refer to the social, cultural and
o MORAL religious beliefs or values practiced
o derived from the Latin word “mos” means overtime by an individual or group
custom. o Morals are the rules and standards made by
o Expressed by words the society or culture which is to be
o Pwede magbago followed by us while deciding what is right.
o Principles of right and wrong o Some moral principles are here to be
- General guidelines formed by the society examined:
- Dictated by the society, culture or religion a. Do not cheat.
- Vary from society-society and culture- b. Be loyal.
culture c. Be patient.
- Expressed in a form of statement d. Always tell the truth.
e. Be generous.
o ETHICS
o derived from Greek word “ethikos” means H. DEFINITION OF ETHICS
character. o Ethics is a branch of philosophy that deals
o Related to right and wrong conduct of and with the principles of conduct of an
individual in a particular situation individual or group.
o Expressed by actions o Principles that when you followed promote
o Hindi nagbabago value.
o Ethical principles
Ethics and morality are set of rules that govern
1. Truthfulness / Honesty
actions.
- leads us to humility, to remorse for that
1. RULE imperfection and the wrongs we all have
o Instructions that tells what we are allowed certainly committed.
and what we are not allowed to do 2. Loyalty
o Stated to achieve success and meet common - the willing and practical and thoroughgoing
goals in society. devotion of a person to a cause
o Absence of rules makes human life difficult
3. Respect
- maintains that human beings have intrinsic free to think and choose the principles of
and unconditional moral worth and should his life in ethics.
always be treated as if there is nothing of 7. Morals may vary from society to society and
greater value than they are. culture to culture. As opposed to Ethics,
4. Fairness this remains same regardless of any culture,
- characterized by equity, respect, justice, religion or society.
and stewardship of the shared world, both 8. Morals do not have any applicability to
among people and in their relations to other business, whereas Ethics is widely applicable
living beings. in the business known as business ethics.
5. Integrity 9. Morals are expressed in the form of
- imposes an obligation on all individuals to be statements, while the principles of Ethics
straightforward and honest in all are translated into an explicit action.
professional and business relationships. o Generally, the terms ethics and morality are
used interchangeably, although a few
different communities (academic, legal, or
I. Key Differences between Morals and religious, for example) will occasionally make
Ethics (Grannan, 2018) a distinction.
1. Morals deal with what is 'right or wrong'.
Ethics deals with what is 'good or evil'. J. MORAL STANDARDS
2. Morals are general guidelines framed by the o laws or commands that allow specifics
society e.g. we should speak truth. actions to be committed or those that
3. The term "moral" is derived from a Latin disallow actions contrary to these norms.
word 'mos' which refers to custom and the o set of norms in society in accord to moral
customs are determined by group of principles that supposed to determine about
individuals or some authority. On the other the kind of actions people believe are
hand, ethics is originated from Greek word morally right and deter them from doing
'ethikos' which refers to character and what is considered as wrong.
character is an attribute.
4. Morals are dictated by society, culture or K. Development of Moral Standards
religion while Ethics is chosen by the person o During childhood, moral standards are
himself who governs his life under the absorbed fromfamily, friends and various
dictate of right reason. societal institutions as a positive regulating
5. Morals are concerned with principles of mechanism to ensure that appropriate code
right and wrong. On the contrary, ethics of conduct is observed among its members.
stresses on good and evil conduct. o Moral standards are postulated by accepted
6. As morals are framed and designed by the cultural practices and established societal
group, there is no option to think and norms overtime
choose; the individual can either accept or L. Moral Standards vs. Non-Moral
reject the norm. Conversely, the people are Standards
❖ MORAL STANDARDS The following six (6) characteristics of moral
o Moral standards deal with matters, which standards further differentiate them from
can seriously injure or seriously benefit non-moral standards:
human beings while it is not the case with a. Moral standards involve serious wrongs or
non-moral standards significant benefits.
o Moral standards are associated with special - Moral standards deal with matters which
emotions and a special vocabulary. If a can seriously impact, that is, injure or
person tells a lie so as to fulfil a purpose and benefit human beings. It is not the case with
then afterwards starts feeling guilty or many non-moral standards. For instance,
ashamed of their behavior. following or violating some basketball rules
o Manebog (2013) added that morality may may matter in basketball games but does not
refer to the standards that a person or a necessarily affect one's life or wellbeing.

group has about what is right and wrong, or
good and evil.
o Some ethicists equate moral standards with b. Moral standards ought to be preferred to
moral values and moral principles. other values.
o Examples of Moral principles: telling lies - Moral standards have overriding character
and become guilty afterwards, “Do not or hegemonic authority. If a moral standard
kill”, moral principles, Golden rule, “Love states that a person has the moral
your neighbor”, “Do no unnecessary harm” obligation to do something, then he/she is
supposed to do that even if it conflicts with
❖ NON-MORAL STANDARDS other non-moral standards, and even with
o the standards of etiquette by which we self-interest.
judge manners as good or bad, and the c. Moral standards are not established by
standards we call "law" by which we judge authority figures.
legal right and wrong. - Moral standards are not invented, formed,
o non-moral standards refer to rules that are or generated by authoritative bodies or
unrelated to moral or ethical considerations. persons such as nations' legislative bodies.
Either these standards are not necessarily Ideally instead, these values ought to be
linked to morality or by nature lack ethical considered in the process of making laws.
sense. d. Moral standards have the trait of
o Basic examples of non-moral standards universalizability.
include rules of etiquette, fashion - Simply put, it means that everyone should
standards, rules in games, and various live up to moral standards. To be more
house rules. Technically, religious rules, accurate, however,it entails that moral
some traditions, and legal statutes (i.e. principles must apply to all who are in the
laws and ordinances) relevantly similar situation.
e. Moral standards are based on impartial
considerations.
- Moral standard does not evaluate standards o Same process, different criteria applied at
on the basis of the interests of a certain a different time
person or group, but one that goes beyond 1. Innovation /\ Manufacturability

personal interests to a universal standpoint 2. Speed (customer satisfaction) /\
in which each person's interests are Accuracy (process integrity)
impartially counted as equal. c. ORTHOGONAL DILEMMA
f. Moral standards are associated with o Different behaviors, different criteria
special emotions and vocabulary 1. Centralization /\ Decentralization
- These moral standards are generally put 2. Service orientation /\ Product
forth as injunction or imperatives (such as, orientation
'Do not kill,"'Do no unnecessary harm,' and d. SEQUENTIAL DILEMMA
'Love your neighbor'). These principles are o Different behaviors, different times
proposed for use, to advice, and to influence 1. Performance /\ Development
to action. Retroactively, this feature is used 2. Work /\ Home
to evaluate behavior, to assign praise and e. UNEQUAL DILEMMA
blame, and to produce feelings of o The dilemma is split across unequal status.
satisfaction or of guilt. 1. High growth /\ Organization integrity
2. Fiscal stability through cost cutting /\
Preserving capability
3. Product innovation /\ Support for
CHAPTER 2 – DILEMMA AND
existing product lines
FOUNDATION OF MORALITY
A. DILEMMA
o A dilemma is a difficult situation in which an 2. MORAL DILEMMA
individual is confronted to choose between
o A moral dilemma is defined as any situation
two or more alternative actions to resolve
in which the person making the decision
the problem.
experiences a conflict between the moral
o The following types of dilemma will provide
rightness of a decision and the quality of
clearer ideas leading to formulating
the results it produces.
concrete measures to confront life's
difficulties and challenges. 3. Types of MORAL DILEMMA

A. PERSONAL DILEMMA

1. Types of DILEMMA o These are situations in which an individual

a. CLASSIC DILEMMA has a choice to be made between two
o Different criteria, same behavior. options, neither of which resolves the
1. Order /\ Freedom situation in an ethically acceptable fashion.
2. Empowerment /\ Alignment B. ORGANIZATIONAL DILEMMA
b. TEMPORAL DILEMMA
o Principle and standards by which business C. Reason and Impartiality: Requisits for
operate according to Reference for Morality
Business. o Immanuel Kant argued that "morality was
o Acts of fairness, compassion, integrity, based on reason alone, and once we
honor, and responsibility. understood it, we would see that acting
C. SYSTEMATIC DILEMMA morally is the same as acting rationally."
o Conformity and compliance of each member This entails that reason is a fundamental
to the expected code of conduct to be requirement for any moral decision.
manifested in the agency/workplace. o morality cannot simply be postulated by
neither personal interest, intense desire to

B. Foundation of Morality: Freedom as be happy nor emotions to influence our

Requisite on Moral Responsibility choices - but reason.
o Reason enables us to think and reflect over
❖ FREEDOM
actions that we intend to do and decide
o In philosophy, it involves freewill as
which of them to take.
contrasted with determinism.
o Impartiality indeed is a good value.
o Comes in a various meaning such as the
power or right to speak or think as one
wants without hindrance or restraint. CHAPTER 3 – THE MORAL AGENT
AND CULTURE
MORAL AGENTS
❖ IMMANUEL KANT
o He claims that freedom is the source of o a being who is capable of acting with
value reference to right and wrong.

❖ BRUTA NECESSITAS o those agents expected to meet the demands

o It is necessitated through the incitement of of morality (choosing between good and
stimuli, and the actions of animals involve evil).
❖ SUMMUM BONUM o For a moral agent must also be capable of

o Freedom in accordance with a will which is conforming to at least some of the demands

not necessitated to action of morality.

❖ ST. AUGUSTINE o So if certain agents can obey moral laws

o Showed that human is free physically yet such as 'Murder is wrong' or 'Stealing is

bound to obey the laws. wrong', then they are moral agents
❖ MORAL FREEDOM A. Characteristics of Moral Agent
o Individuals are expected to determine for o Human being has been defined in various

themselves what it means to lead a good ang ways leading to more complex concepts by
virtuous life. various minds.

o Involves freedom over the things that o Moral agents have a moral responsibility not
to cause unjustified harm.
matter most.
o Traditionally, moral agents are only those o other definitions align multiculturalism with
who can be held responsible for their different ethnic groups living alongside each
actions. other.
B. CULTURE f. GLOBAL CULTURE
o Culture is an aggregate of the learned o A global culture is a key feature of
beliefs, attitudes, values, norms and globalization.
customs of a society or group of people, o they emerged due to patterns of migration,
shared by them and transmitted from trends in international travel and the spread
generation to generation within that of the media, exposing people to the same
society. images of the same dominant world
o Culture too changes with time. companies.
o The society that developed the culture is
continuously being exposed to new 2. Importance of Culture
experiences. Further, the society or group a. Culture affects perceptions
is not a fixed body of people. o How we perceive things is largely affected
by our judgment skills, preconceived
1. Types of Culture notions, attitude, and emotions
a. HIGH CULTURE o Our culture determines the structures of
o The elite, upper class society, those our thinking, which influences our
families, and individuals with an ascribed perceptions on the good or bad.
status position. b. Culture influences behaviour
b. CULTURAL DIVERSITY o Culture affects perception and perception
o is a concept relating to culturally embedded drive behavior.
differences within society, it's the fact o Our environment, which has cultural
that different cultures exist alongside each influences, shapes our behavior.
other. c. Culture shapes personalities
c. SUBCULTURE o The way we perceive a situation and react to
o culture enjoyed by a small group within it, depends largely on what we have learned
society. from the environment and the way we have
o sub-section of society. been brought up
d. POPULAR CULTURE d. Our Culture shapes our value and belief
o it borrows the idea from high culture and systems
popularizes it o In a culture where boys and girls are not
o a positive force for it brings people of treated as equal, children may become
different backgrounds together in a aggressive and look at the opposite gender
common culture. as their enemy, or those treated as inferior
e. MULTICULTURALISM
may grow up to be submissive.
o it is depicted to be very similar to cultural
diversity
3. MORAL BEHAVIOR o Ethical relativism is the theory that holds
o Morals are the prevailing standards of the morality is relative of one’s culture.
behavior that people have to follow and act
6. MORAL RELATIVISM
in accordance with one's beliefs in order to
o The view that moral judgments are true or
live cooperatively in groups.
false only relative to some particular
o Morals of the person or the society that standpoint (for instance, that a culture or a
make them adopt those particular historical period) and that no standpoint is
behaviors. uniquely privileged over all others.
o Moral behaviors are what one believes to be o The idea there is no universal or absolute
the right thing to do. set of moral principles.
o Denial of truth in ethical questions.
o Jeff Landauer and Joseph Rowlands
- Believed that Moral Relativism is an ethical
4. Role of Culture in Moral Behavior judgment which means claims that no ethical
o Culture undeniably does play a significant system is better that another.
pseudo role within shaping moral behavior o Moral relativism can be understood in
and extends even further to social norms several ways:
o Arguably, rather than defining our moral a. DESCRIPTIVE MORAL RELATIVISM
o Also known as cultural relativism
behavior per se, it influences and changes
o Moral standards are culturally defined,
our definitions of what oughttobe deemed
which is generally true.
morally acceptable by consistent exposure b. META-ETHNICAL MORAL RELATIVISM
to it. o States that there are no objective
o Culture shapes us, but many events mold ground for preferring the normal values
culture and we shape these just as much. of one culture over another.
o Culture indeed influences human behavior at c. NORMATIVE MORAL RELATIVISM
any given society's belief system, laws, o Idea that all societies should accept
mores, practices, language and attitudinale other’s differingmoral values, given that
variables which make a people unique from there are no universal moral principles.
others (Victor, 2017).
o Inspite of our cultural uniqueness and
differences, people can still exercise their
power to choose what is morally right and
CHAPTER 4 – ASIAN MORAL
morally wrong. CHARACTER/BEHAVIOR
o the culture of a particular society is very o Southeast Asians have a reputation for
integral to the development of the human
being fun loving, compassionate, gentle,
person.
hospitable, open-minded, laid-bank, smiling
5. CULTURE RELATIVISM and friendly.
o Principle of regarding the beliefs, values,
BUDDHISM CHARACTER
ang practices of culture from the viewpoint
of that culture itself o Buddhism shapes character in Southeast
Asia as Christianity does in Europe.
o Buddhism have also taught us to practice 4. Generosity.
nonviolence, do good deeds, present gifts to
5. Great Sacrifices.
monks, aspire to have gentle thoughts,
meditate, and have respect for the sanctity 6. Sense of family.

of life. The basic tenets of Buddhism C. Joy and Humor

influenced Gandhi and Martin Luther King.
o Filipinos have ac cheerful and fun-loving
CONFUCIAN CHARACTER approach to life and its ups and downs.

o Confucianism is a social code based on D. Flexibility, Adaptability and Creativity

morality rather than laws.
o We can adjust and to adapt to
FILIPINO MORAL CHARACTER circumstances and the surrounding
environment, both physical and social.
1. Filipino Character and Personality- Filipino
are generally more easy-going than other E. Hard Work and Industry
Asians.
o We have the capacity for hard work
2. Strengthens and Weaknesses of Filipino given proper conditions.
Moral Character
F. Faith and Religiosity
STRENGHTS OF THE FILIPINO
CHARACTER o Our innate religiosity enables us to
comprehend and genuinely accept reality
a. Pakikipagkapwa-tao
in the context of God’s will and plan.
1. Pakikipagkapwa-tao- Basic sense of justice
and fairness, concern for others and ability to FILIPINO POSITIVE VALUES
empathize with others. o Filipino values shape our relationships,
2. Sensitivity to people’s feeling (pakikiramdam) behaviors, choices, and sense of who we
are.
3. Pagtitiwala or trust
a. Hospitability- Friendly and welcoming to our
4. Sense of gratitude
guest.
5. Dependent
b. Helpful to others/Bayanihan- Unity.
6. Camaraderie and feeling of closeness to one
c. Respectful- Courteous people. Mano po
another.
gesture as assign of respect to elders.
b. Strong Family Ties
d. Bravery- Hero blood running on our veins.
1. Filipinos possess a genuine and deep love for
e. Jolliness and Sense of Humor- Country of
family.
smiles.
2. Honor and respect given to parents and
f. Discretion and Dignity- Delicadeza
elders.
g. Gratefulness- respect and gratitude.
3. Care given to the children.
h. Honesty and Commitment- “Palabra de 3. Ningas-Kugon- Illustrate how Filipinos
honor” initially exhibit great enthusiasm at the
beginning of the project.
-To fullfill a promise to others is a great self-
fulfillment. 4. Filipino Time- own unique brand of time,
which are minutes or hours behind the standard
i. Helpfulness- Filipino attitude that allows
time.
Filipinos to assist those in need.
5. Colonial Mentality- Patronizing foreign
j. Family-oriented- Willing to make big
instead of local brands, favoring foreign values
sacrifices just to make sure that their loved
over our own, and even desiring to look more
ones will have a good life.
“western”
k. Adaptability and resiliency- Persistent
6. General Disregard for Rules- natural
enough to get back on their feet.
outlook of Filipinos when it comes to laws, rules,
l. Resourcefulness and creativity- Ingenuity. etc.

m. faithfulness- keep us kind, positive, 7. Procrastination or Manana Habit- leaving

peaceful, and determined. work undone and move aside for a later date.

n. Thriftiness- being conscious on the price 8. Corruption- reinforced by a complex web of

tag, discounts, and sale. economic and social factors which include
personal ambitions and twisted sense of loyalty
WEAKNESS OF THE FILIPINO CHARACTER
to friends and kin.
a. Extreme Personalism- no separation
9. Gossiping- stories that tend to be twisted
between objective task and emotional
until the final story becomes too far from the
involvement.
original.
b. Extreme Family Centeredness
10. Passivity (lack of leadership)- shows a
c. Lack of Discipline loss of confidence that our small actions can
d. Passivity and Lack of Initiative bring change.

e. Colonial Mentality

f. Kanya-kanya syndrome CHAPTER 5 – THE MORAL AGENT:

DEVELOPING VIRTUE AS HABIT
g. Lack of Self-analysis and Self-reflection

VALUES
IDENTIFIED FILIPINO NEGATIVE VALUES
o Values or good moral values once they
1. Fatalism- “come what may” attitude. are habitually practiced, they turned

2. Crab Mentality- “if I can’t have it, then you into virtues.
can’t as well” o ‘VALUE’ comes from the latin word
‘VALERE’ which means to be of worth.
HUMAN VALUES o Formation of virtue then is the
acquisition of the true knowledge and in
o They are our feeling for the human
the mind which is the good.
essence of others.
o According to John Dewey, “Value means A. CARDINAL VIRTUES
primarily to price, to esteem, to
Prudence- Best means to approach a given
appraise, to estimate”
situation.
TYPES OF HUMAN VALUES Justice- giving anyone his/her due under no
Moral Values- Help us distinguish between condition.
what’s right and wrong, good or bad for yo as Temperance- Managing sensitive appetites
well as the society.
Fortitude- Keeping resolute in the face of
Types of Moral Values (Kathy Slattengren, overwhelming odds.
2018)
B. THEOLOGICAL VIRTUES
a. Acceptance
Faith- believing in God’s word without seeing.
b. Compassion Hope- Keeping trust in Divine Providence
c. Courage Charity- Loving God and His creatures.
d. Equality
MORAL CHARACTER AND ITS FORMATION
e. Fairness o Moral character as primarily a function
f. Generosity of whether he/she has or lacks various
moral virtues and vices.
g. Honesty

h. Integrity FORMATION OF MORAL CHARACTER

i. Kindness o The habits, actions, and emotional

responses of the person of good
j. Perseverance
character are all united and directed
k. Politeness toward the moral and the good.

l. Respect MORAL DEVELOPMENT

m. Responsibility o The theory of Lawrence Kohlberg states
n. Self-control that the moral development of most
people begins with a desire to avoid
FORMATION OF MORAL VALUES
personal punishment and may evolve over
o Individual’s morals may derive from time to a desire to make the world a
society and government, religion, or self. better and more just place for people.

VIRTUE AND ITS FORMATION STAGES MORAL DEVELOPMENT

Kohlberg Stages of Moral Development values. People now believed that some
laws are unjust and should be changed or
o This theory focuses on the thinking
eliminated.
process that occurs when one decides
whether a behavior is right or wrong. Stage 5: Social-Contract Orientation

o The world is viewed as holding different

opinions, rights, and values. Such
Level 1 – Preconventional
perspectives should be mutually
o Child’s sense of morality is externally respected as unique to each person or
controlled. community.

Stage 1: Obedience-and-Punishment Stage 6: Universal-Ethical-Principal

Orientation. Orientation
o Focuses on the child’s desire to obey o Moral reasoning is based on abstract
rules to avoid being punished. reasoning using universal ethical

Stage 2: Instrumental Orientation principles.

o Expresses the “what’s in it for me?”

position, in which right behavior is CHAPTER 6 – THE ACT
defined by whatever the individual ACT
believes to be in his/her best interest.
o An act is categorically defined only to
Level 2 – Conventional human, an activity that is attributed to

o A child’s sense of morality is tied to human being.

personal and societal relationships. o For Babor (2006) however, mere acts of
human do not make them responsible for
Stage 3: Good Boy, Nice Girl Orientation actions unless done with knowledge,
o Children want the approval of others and freedom and voluntaries.
act in ways to avoid disapproval.
CONSTITUENTS OF HUMAN ACT
Emphasis is placed on good behavior and
people being “nice” to others. 1. Knowledge- Once an act is done with
knowledge of the agent, the act is deliberate,
Stage 4: Law-and-Order Orientation which means the agent is aware upon
performing the act as well its consequences.
o The child blindly accepts rules and
convention because of their importance 2. Freedom- The agent/doer is not
in maintaining a function society. constrained in doing the act.

Level 3- Post-conventional 3. Voluntariness- Requires the presence of

both knowledge and freedom of the agent.
o A person’s sense of morality is defined in
terms of more abstract principles and
FEELINGS AND MORAL DECISION- REASON AND IMPARTIALITY AS
MAKING MINIMUM REQUIREMENTS OF MORALITY

o These emotions are responsible for many Reason is the capacity for consciously making
of our important decisions for which sense of things, establishing and verifying
later on, we may feel regretful or facts, applying logic, and changing or justifying
consider them most cherished ones practices, institutions, and beliefs based on
depending on the outcome. But the fact new or exixting information.
is that they do affect our moral Impartiality (also called evenhandedness or
decision-making. fair-mindedness) is a principle of justice
holding that decisions should be based on
FEELINGS: INSTINCTIVE RESPONSE TO
objective criteria and not on the basis of bias
MORAL DILEMMAS
or prejudice.
o Morals are not derived from cognition
REASON AND MORALITY
but instead are determined by moral
sentiments: passions that we feel o Immanuel Kant argued that morality was
immediately which are akin to other based on reason alone, and once we
bodily feelings such as hunger. understood this, we would see that
acting morally is that same as acting
APPROACHES TO MORAL DECISION rationally. Kant has argued that morality,
1. Utilitarian Approach- It strive to achieve by definition, must help us decide what
the greatest good for the greatest number to do.
while creating the least amount of harm or
IMPARTIALITY AND MORALITY
preventing the greatest amount of suffering.
o The principle of Impartiality from the
2. Rights Approach- follows the belief that
moral point of view asserts that all
individuals have the ability to make their
decisions freely. It believes that if the act persons are considered equal and should
does not respect everyone’s moral rights, it is be treated accordingly. Impartiality is
wrong to act. implied in all moral statements.

3. Fairness/Justice Approach- Gives the THE 7-STEP MORAL REASONING MODEL

individual the opportunity to reflect if the (Davis, 1999)
action is fair to the people. Greek philosopher
1. State the problem.
Aristotle who said that “equals should be
treated equally and unequal unequally” 2. Check the facts.

4. Common Good Approach- regards all 3. Identify relevant factors.

individuals as part of a larger community.
4. Develop list of options.
5. Virtue Approach- Each of us hold internal
5. Test options.
values and morals that we strive to maintain and
hold onto. a. Harm test
b. Publicity test Kants Notion of Will and Reason

c. Defensibility test. o Reason, qua action-directing, is called

“practical.” The problem at issue is the
d. Reversibility test.
relation, if any, between will and reason,
e. Colleague test. i.e. practical reason. On Kantian view of
f. Organization test. practical, if reason is practical, the will,
guided by reason, can affect, or cause,
6. Make a choice based on steps 1-5
action.
7. Review steps 1-6 o A will which is good, not as means to
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN REASON AND some further end, but in itself. In this
WILL sense, freedom of the will makes
morality possible. Kant agrees that free
o There is such an ultimate moral principle,
will is necessary postulate of moral
it must be found in the reason alone and
reason.
if cannot be related to anything in the
empirical (phenomenal) world. He feels Aquinas’ Notions of Reason and Will
he can choose and he feels that he is
o Similarly to Kant’s notion of good will,
free to choose between alternative
Aquinas’s concept of will cannot be
options. Even if this freedom to choose
separated from his notion of reason.
may turn out to be an illusion with
According to Aquinas, will is the rational
respect to his choices in following his
appetite which basically means that will
desires, it must never be an illusion with
as ‘appetite’ is the form of desire, but,
respect to moral action. Morality
as rational, will is guided by
presupposes freedom.
intellect/reason.
MORAL COURAGE o The relation between the will and the
freedom is complex. Even if in its
o Moral courage is the courage to take
essence, reason is superior, the will by
action for moral reasons despite the risk
virtue of being the appetitive power and
of adverse consequences. Courage is
thus being inclined to its object, has its
required to take action when one has
own movement or dynamism. The
doubts or fears about the consequences.
intellect moves the will as an end.
Moral courage, therefore, involves
deliberation or careful thought.

WILL AND REASON

o The will and the can provide fundamental

basis for moral action.