Weldability of steel : For good Weldability, steel should not show high hardness in welded parts but

should have adequate elongation and notch toughness even in the heat affected zone adjacent to the
weld. A major factor in Weldability is the carbon equivalent of the chemical components in the steel.
The smaller this value the better is the Weldability. When the carbon equivalent exceeds 0.3 – 0.43, the
loss of Weldability is compensated by the reheating or post heating of the welded zone. However, if the
carbon content is less than 0.2 then the carbon equivalent can be tolerated up to 0.45%.

Design of compression members:

A structural member which is subjected to compressive force along its axis is called a compression
member. Thus, compression members are subjected to loads that tend to decrease their lengths.
Except, in pin jointed trusses, such members, under external loads experience both bending moment
and shear force. If the net end moments are zero, the compression member is required to resist load
concentric to the original longitudinal axis of the member and is termed as axially loaded column or
simply column. If the net moments are not zero, the member will be subjected to bending moment and
axial load along its length. Such columns are called beam columns. In several interior columns the net
moment will be small and the member will be designed as axially loaded column.

The vertical compression members in building supporting floors or girders are normally called as
columns or sometimes referred as stanchions in UK. They are subjected to heavy loads. Sometimes
vertical compression members are called posts. The compression members used in roof trusses and
bracings are called struts. They may be vertical or inclined and normally have same lengths. The top
chord member of roof truss is called principal rafter. The principal compression member in a crane is
called the boom. Short compression members at the junction of columns and roof trusses are called
knee braces.

Very short columns can be loaded up to the yield stress. For long columns buckling (deformation in the
direction normal to the load axis) occurs prior to the development of full material strength of the
member. Since, compression member have to resist buckling, they tend to be stocky and square and
circular columns are found to be ideal sections since their radius of gyration is same in the two axes. This
situation is in contrast to slender and more compact tension members and deep beam sections. Unlike
the members subjected to tension, a compression member is designed on the assumption that gross
cross sectional area will be effective in resisting the applied loads. Bolts may be used to connect columns
to adjacent members. As the load is applied the member will contract. It is assumed that the action of
bolts is such that they will replace the material removed for holes. Thus, the bolt holes are often ignored
in design. Since, compression members comprise of thin plates, they also experience local buckling.

Columns in buildings are connected to other members and foundations through the following:

1. Beam to column connections.

Loads on compression members:

Axial loading on columns on building is due to loads from roof, floor and walls transmitted to the
columns through beams and also due to its self weight. Floor beam reactions are often eccentric to the
column axis and if either the beam arrangement or the loading is asymmetrical will result in moments to
be transmitted to the column. Wind loads in multi storey building are usually applied as the respective
floor levels and are assumed to be resisted by the bracings and hence braced buildings do not cause
large moments. However in un-braced rigid framed buildings, the moment due to wind loads should be
taken into account in the design of columns. Similarly, in industrial buildings, loads from crane and wind
cause moments in columns. In such cases wind load is applied to the column though the sheeting rails
and may be taken as uniformly distributed throughout the length of the column.

The strength of the column depends on the following parameter.

1. Material of the column.

The imperfection include the following:

1. Material not being isotropic and homogenous.

It is difficult to assess the residual stresses acting on each column cross section and also to assess the
degree of support conditions offered by variety of connections details adopted in practice.

Possible failure modes:

1. Local buckling: Failure occurs by buckling of one or more individual plate element. E.g. flange or
web, with no overall deflection in the direction normal to the applied load. This failure mode
may be prevented by selecting suitable width to thickness ratio of the component plates.
Alternatively, when slender plates are used, the design strength may be reduced.
2. Squashing: when the length is relatively small (stocky column) and its component plate elements
are prevented from local buckling, then the column will be able to attain its full strength or
squash load (yield stress x area of cross section).
3. Overall flexure buckling: This mode of failure normally controls the design of most compression
members. In this mode failure of members occurs by excessive deflection in the plane of weaker
 principal axis. An increase in length of column, results in the column resisting progressively less
load.
4. Torsional and flexure- torsional buckling: This buckling failure occurs by twisting about the shear
center in the longitudinal axis. A combination of flexure and twisting called flexural –torsional
buckling is also possible. Torsional buckling is possible mode of failure for point symmetric
sections. Flexural torsional buckling must be checked for open sections that are singly symmetric
and for sections that have no symmetry. Open sections that are doubly symmetric or point
symmetric are not subjected to flexural torsional buckling, since their shear center and centroid
coincide.

Cross section classification: Determining the resistance of structural steel components requires the
designer to consider first the cross sectional behavior and second the overall member behavior -
whether in the elastic or in elastic material range, cross section resistance and rotation capacity are
limited by the effects of local buckling. In the code IS 800, cross sections are placed into four behavior
classes depending upon the material yield strength, the width to thickness ratio of the individual
members (webs and flanges) and the loading arrangement. The four classes of cross section are defined
as follows:

1. Plastic or class 1 Cross sections which can develop plastic hinges and have the rotation capacity
required for the failure of structure by the formation of plastic mechanism. ( only these sections
are used in plastic analysis and design.)
2. Compact or class 2 Cross sections which can develop their plastic moment of resistance, but
have inadequate plastic hinge rotation capacity because of local buckling.
3. Semi compact or class 3 Cross sections in which elastically calculated stress in the extreme
compression fiber of the steel member,