INTRODUCTION To Statistics [+1] emoouerion vo sraniemics Introduction Statistics means numerical presentation of facts. Its meaning is divided into two forms in plural form and in singular form. In plural form, Statistics means a collection of Rumerical facts or data example price statistics, agricultural statistics, production statistics, etc. In singular form, the word means the statistical methods with the help of which collection, analysis and interpretation of data are accomplished. The word “Statistics” of English language has either been derived from the Latin word status or Italian word statistics and meaning of this term is “An organised political state. Statistics is scientific methods for collecting, organizing, summarizing, presenting é& analyzing sample data as well as drawing a valid conclusion about population. Definitions of Statistics The Definitions of Statistics are as follows : 1. According to Croxton and Crowed : “Statistics can be defined as the collection presentation and interpretation of numerical data”. 2, According to Bowley : “Statistics are numerical statement of facts in any department of enquiry placed interrelation to each other. 3. According to Corner : “Statistics are measurement, enumerations or estimates of natural or social phenomena systematically arrangement to exhibit their inner relation. 4 According to Youle and Kendal : “By Statistics we mean quantitative data affected toa marked extend by a multiplicity of causes. Nature/Characteristics of Statistics The Nature/Characteristics of Statistics are as follows : 1, Statistics deal with aggregate of individuals rather than with individual alone. 2. Statistics should be expressed as numerical figure. 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Twoway Table: A two-way bes tha whic shows bro cheacegg aoe, ror example, able, showing the numberof students in Hanes mrding other sex isa Way HDI fern Nov ot aden as Bon Girt Total BAD 1 « 200 “ @ 100) BAW BAG @ 2 8 BA (uD 0 Toul 300 0 wa “Table = No.of Sudents n a Calage (According io Sex and Class) 'A three-way tableis that which shows three characteristics 2 Three-way Table ta, For example, table shows number of students in a college of the data, For according to class, sex and habitation Bon ie Teak cus [Raat [Urben| Taal | Barat [urban Tout | Rerat [Urban | Tot man tofwto)s|s fof fas fa son] io | | 0 | as | | @ | 25 | 95 | acon a| is] as | o| sf | | o} o| o seman} | | | s | s | ols | | wo Tout] as | 2s fm |» |» | | 75 [ws | 2m Table : No, of Students n a Coleg (According to Class, Sex and Habitation) Similarly, a manifold table showing more than three characteristics can be constructed, Such a type of table gives information about so many related questions. These tables are also called Higher Order Tables. Advantages of Tabulation ‘The advantages of Tabulation are as follows Ease of representation: A large amount of data can be easily confined in a data table, Evidently, itis the simplest form of data presentation, 2. Ease of analysis: Data tables are frequently used for statistical analysis like calculation of central tendency, dispersion ete, | Tata Pusuicarions Fundamentals of Probability and Statistics Fries ot Probabity and Stasis Helps in comparison: In a data table, the rows and columns which are required 1 be compared can be placed next to each other. To point out this facilitates comparison as it becomes easy to compare each value. 4. Economical: Construction of a data table is fairly easy and presents the data in a manner which is really easy on the eyes of a reader. Moreover, it saves time as well as space ‘The frequency distribution of a single variable is called a univariate distribution eg. the frequency distribution of age of students ina classi univariate asit gives the distribution ‘of a single variable Le, age. On the other hand, a bivariate frequency distribution is the frequency distribution of two variables, eg, the frequency distribution of two variable, 68: like the prices of good and sales of the good is a bivariate distribution. Univariate Frequency Distribution. The frequency distribution of a single variable is called a univariate distribution In cther words, the frequency distribution of single variable is called Univariate Frequency Distribution. For example- income of people, marks scored by students, et ‘Types of Frequency Distribution Instatistics, there are four types of frequency distributions, which are discussed belo 1. Ungrouped Frequency Distributions: Instead of sets of data values, it presents the frequency of an item in each particular data value. 2. Grouped Frequency Distributions: The data is organised and grouped into groups called class intervals in this type, In a frequency distribution table, the frequency of data belonging to each class interval is represented. The grouped frequency tableshows the frequency distribution in class intervals, 3. Relative Frequency Distributions: It indicates what percentage of the total number of observations each category belongs to. ‘Cumulative Frequency Distributions: A frequency distribution isthe sum of the first frequency and all frequencies below it. We must add each value to the next, then add the sum to the next, and so.on until the last value is reached. The whole sum of all frequencies will be the last cumulative frequency. Frequency Table for Diserete Data Example 1 Let's observe the marks secured by 20 students in a math test of 20 marks. Cs Tara Pusucarions © scanned with OKEN Scanner© scanned with OKEN Scanner© scanned with OKEN Scanner© scanned with OKEN Scanner© scanned with OKEN Scanner© scanned with OKEN Scanner© scanned with OKEN Scanner© scanned with OKEN ScannerFema Fem itable diagram to represent the following information Fundamentals of Probabily and Statistics ] Facer Note: In case of profit, ie, when SP > CP, the entire rectangle will lie above the X- axis, But in case of loss, iz, when SP < CP, we will have rectangle with a portion Iying below the X-axis which will reflect the loss incurred, ie, can not recovered through sales. sample 2: Draw a su Sang i | me Tani Gott 2. Percentage Sub-divided Rectangular Diagrams Maia) | std [Wags [ners [eT Tea Example 3: Represent the following data through a suitable diagram: mox[ © [smo] 2a [100 [720 a x a Fasoyy | 0 50 [seo [600 [ 900 [2100 = aaa ree = "0 So Show also the profit o ose asthe case may be Cling io a shall calculate the cost (wages, material, misc) and profit per Howe Ret 0 io Solution: Fis of al we shal calculate ges, materials, re : sit a given in the following able Mecsinesie Pf 20 Teal Facog XO ws) etary ¥ 0 a) Teal T0 7 m0 Con ‘Total Per Unit ‘Total Per Unit Solution : © © © fia Since the total incomes ofthe two families are different, an appropriate diagram for we 3.20 10 4000 200 the above data will be rectangular diagram on percentage bass. We fst ind the percentage saa aa Bs 5 a of expenditure on each items for each family Mic 0 0 9.000 200 Tem 7a Pelion 100 0 00 =100 area Nesta team fe Conalntve [Expenditure 8 | Cumolaive ion * ’An appropriate diagram for representing this data would be the rectangles whose Food 200 | 0] 0 Widths are in the ratio ofthe quantities sold, ie, 20: 30, ie, 23. Selling prices would be ad io | 20] 60 ‘represented by the corresponding heights of the rectangles with various costs (wages, i Sa " ia] i eis mis) and proto ss represented by the various divisions ofthe ectangles as Miscelancors wo || 1 fn the following diagram rea fe Twa Pusuearons fe | Tara PuaucaTions © scanned with OKEN ScannerFundamentals of Probability ad Statistics ac, Se ol Ohta re ten in te f9 OCMN of ag The width of he rectangles" 1 ‘The width of the rectangles willbe taken inthe ratio ofthe total income of families, 500: 800, ix, 5:8 ttn 1, 500 : 30 i.e, 5 3. rosin ob (0 wove sen Sr q Fa | 2 = ! x ble diagram i slowing information through a Suita Note: Incase total expenditure = total income, ie., when TE = TI, the entire rectangle will lie above the X-axis. But in case of deficit, ie, when TE > TI, we will have rectangles ith a portion lying below the X-axis which will reflect the deficit. B, Square Diagrams: A Square diagram also isa two-dimensional diagram representing, area, Square diagrams are specifically and if we wish to compare values that differ significantly from one other. Since all sides ofthe square are the same and the square diagram is represented as area of square, the length as well as width of the square should be equal o or proportionate to the square root of the given data. If more than ‘one square is drawn in a single diagram the bases of all the squares must lie on the same line For example, if we need to show the amount set aside in the union budget for Agriculture, Industry and Energy sectors which is say 8,100 crores. & 3,500 crores, and & 400 crores respectively, we need to first calculate the square root of these amounts. This works out to 90, 60 and 20 respectively, we can now consider Lem =10 Solution since the total incomes ofthe two families are different, an appropriate diagram fog the above data wil be rectangular diagram.on percentage basis, We fis find the perceniag of expenditure on each item foreach family. — = = Sa iz as sama eames (oge alt Education Bam 1S cee eas Oo = = GI ‘Tara Puaucarions © scanned with OKEN Scanner© scanned with OKEN Scanner3 en : Shop >) reprenents 20 can : tne pot gained om 808 HTK 50a i Ai What is the total prot of MOP AS Tye many symbols must be drawn 1) the total numberof cana sok 190 shopC? * sold by shop B ©) Whats the difference between the numbe! of cans sold by Shop B and iy, number of cans sold by shop C? Solution: Total profit of shop A= 20 * 4 «05 = 40 +) eymnbol waste drawn sorenep (0200 i 20 x2=40cans Difference between shop B and shop C= c nas carto Cartograms: Cartograms also know basis, Cartographs show d information on a geographical rent parts of the country, size in different areas and the like. ven cartogram isa map thataliers an entire physica! location by sealing paps ae wed © Bi dante ata in the form of mapa, yg ‘ct population in ditesel ccample rainfall in dif penitee regions, sugar mils located resented by i chosen economic, social politica forexample the area cartogram 0 the Hi EXERCISE PROBLEMS using simple bar diagram following data diagrammatically by of 72 billion people. Present the Tw (fexs me oo ca r= [Re of students: ae 500, ta by multiple bar diagram Fundamentals of Protatiy are Statics Pew 7 a 2 7 0 ‘See Example 38] 6. Represent the following data diagrammetically Represent the following dat wa Years Te rere Exports (crore Represent the following data by sub-divided bar diagram: Production of Electricity from Different Sources in India Graphical representation refers to the use of intuitive charts to visualise clearly and ‘simplify data sets. Data obtained from surveying is ingested into a graphical representation of data software. Then it is represented by some symbols, such as lines on a line graph. bars on a bar chart, or slices of a pie chart. In this way, users cam achiewe much more clarity and understanding than by numerical study alone. Tara Pusuicarions © scanned with OKEN ScannerFramers of Probab and States Line Graph : A line graph is a chart used to show information that changes over tation of oe ation in the ener Rae for Gnpicl REPORTS yay formation the graphy si | rales (0 PF t ving are a few ul time. We plot line graphs by connecting several is The following 2¥ riate that indicates thew 3 i several points with straight lines, Another Sean spend be PPP te ‘name isa line chart. The line graph contains two axes: x"’axis and y""axis. 1 ‘Suitable title: The ttle of the gr@P! 14 nen 1. The horizontal axis is the x-axis. ofthe presentation unin the gph SHON 2. The vertical axis the y-axis, neasurement e data accurat 2. Meararmen nt The metas Te dt » a Example: The following graph shows the number of motorbikes sold on diferent . ‘a proper scale rate colours, shades, days of the week. 3 opera: Chine? POPE ST op ines ang Ys 4. Index: For better understan = “Motorbikes sold on days of week | lesigns in the hs. rer it is necessary at the bottom of Se ~ a 5. Data sources: Data! eae ructon ofa graph sould Pe — ch 6 Keep it simple: The cons } 4 understood. et, should be chosen 0 that the graph shoulg j 7 zi } jours etc, shor 7 Neat The corect size, fonts 2 es fd T fig ‘be a visual aid for presenting ees - sages of Graphical Representation 2. Histogram : Continuous data represented on the two-dimensional graph is called a -Adramiapetiet CoP of using graphs are listed below: ' histogram. In the histogram, the bars are placed continuously side by side without a eo re ata or information even when we have ride ‘gap between consecutive bars. In other words, rectangles are erected on the class 1. The graph helps us understan« intervals of the distribution. The areas of the rectangles formed by bars are about it / proportional to the frequencies Pea ae she data for erent time periods oF dif, Example: Following is an example of a histogram showing the average pass percentage 3, Itmakes it easier for us to compare "he Beare ands mean, median and mode for diferent pay 4k. This mainly used in tats to determine the mean ee ata and interpolation and extrapolation of d212- ii : ion 0 “Types of Graphical Representat , ‘The Types of Graphical Representation are 25 folie i a e so: 2. Line graph a 2. Histogram 10 3. Bar gray DUS 2016 2017 2018 2019 Fe 4, Pie chart, Year : 8 can be of = horizontal bar graphs and vertical Be aig 3. Bar Graph : Bar graphs can be of two types ~ horizontal bar grap! aaa OSES! PIE ee. bar graphs. While a horizontal bar graph is applied for qualitative data or data varying 6. Ogives or Cumulative frequency grap! TATA PUBLICATIONS: eS Tara Pusuica © scanned with OKEN Scannerconan ey a eae bar compare related series. representing data divided into Example: The following srarh is" spent month-wise og abr raph representing the mong us observations or components, ang 1 ofall the components. The tofay 1g to the values of the represents vari im of the val ie Chart: The sector of a circle divided accordin the whole circle represents the su central angle of a circle is 3600 and is ‘components ie alue ofthe eOMPONED 56 “The central angle of a component * foal value is expressed in percentages. In Such cases, ‘Sometimes, the value of the components ee percenage valve of DEEOMPOBED yy, Gacenialangle ofacompoent= == 300 Example : The following figure represents a piechat What is your ious ee-creum fav 04 Fundamentals of Probability and Statistics ry en eee Casco an ney ven nee coe ieee. Libs aeavee eee ea tee Tne in cea ee ar Non panes eS eee ear mgettnt ete eee ie eeepc iT er ap ST TET Tos wo as 30 38 tac (miles) Ogives of Cumulative Frequency Graphs : By plotting cumulative frequency against the respective class intervals, we obtain ogives. There are two ogives ~ less than type ogives and more than type, Less than type gives is obtained by taking less than cumulative frequency on the vertical axis. We ‘ean obtain more than type ogives by plotting more than type cumulative frequency ‘on the vertical axis and joining the plotted points successively by line segments Example: The below graph represents the less than and more than ogives for the entrance examination scores of 6060 students. nnerBCA a Ee ea ae —__IwPortant questions _____— 1 Define Statistics. Explain the importance of Statistics and Concepts of Statistics. 2. Write about quantitative and qualitative Data. 3. What are the methods of Primary and Secondary Data ? 4. Discuss briefly about Classification and Tabulation of data. 5. Explain about Construction of Univariate and bivariate Frequency Distribution 6. Explain about Diagrammatic and Graphical representation of data. © scanned with OKEN Scanner