SCAFFOLDING

Scaffolding is a temporary structure to support the original structure as well as workmen used it as a platform to carry on the construction
works. Scaffolding is needed for new construction, repairs of structures or even demolition of a building. Scaffolding is generally needed when
the height of the structural member (wall, column, etc.) is greater than 1.5m. The scaffolding should be made by sufficient strong and stable
materials so that it can easily support and carry workman and construction materials placed on it. During construction, as the work progress on
upwards, the height of the scaffolding is also increased.
Types of scaffolding varies with the type of construction work. Scaffolding is made up of timber or steel. It should be stable
and strong to support workmen and other construction material placed on it.
COMPONENT OF SCAFFOLDING
Scaffolding has the following components: as shown below
Standards: These are the vertical members of the framework, supported on the ground or drums, or embedded into the
ground.
Ledgers:  The horizontal supporting members running parallel to the wall.
Braces: Braces are diagonally fixed on standards.
Putlogs: Putlogs are placed one end on ledgers and other ends right angles on the wall. This is a transverse member.
Transoms: Transoms are a type of putlogs supported on ledgers on both sides.
Bridle: This is a member used to bridge a wall opening; supports one end of the putlog at the opening.
Boarding: Boarding is a horizontal platform supported on putlogs and is used for the support of workmen and materials at the
time working.
Guard rail: This is a rail, provided like a ledger, at the working level.
Toeboard: These are boards, placed parallel to ledgers, and supported on putlogs, to give protection at the level of the
working platform.
TYPE OF SCAFFOLDING
Following are types of Scaffolding in construction:

Single scaffolding
Double scaffolding
Cantilever scaffolding
Suspended scaffolding
Trestle scaffolding
Steel scaffolding
Patented scaffolding

Single Scaffolding
Single scaffolding is generally used for brick masonry and is also called as brick layer’s scaffolding. Single scaffolding
consists of standards, ledgers, putlogs etc., which is parallel to the wall at a distance of about 1.2 m. Distance between the
standards is about 2 to 2.5 m. Ledgers connect the standards at vertical interval of 1.2 to 1.5 m. Putlogs are taken out from the
hole left in the wall to one end of the ledgers. Putlogs are placed at an interval of 1.2 to 1.5 m.

Double Scaffolding
Double Scaffolding is generally used for stone masonry so, it is also called as mason’s scaffolding. In stone walls, it is hard to
make holes in the wall to support putlogs. So, two rows of scaffolding is constructed to make it strong. The first row is 20 –
30 cm away from the wall and the other one is 1m away from the first row. Then putlogs are placed which are supported by
the both frames. To make it more strong rakers and cross braces are provided. This is also called as independent scaffolding.

Cantilever Scaffolding
This a type of scaffolding in which the standards are supported on series of needles and these needles are taken out through
holes in the wall. This is called single frame type scaffolding. In the other type needles are strutted inside the floors through
the openings and this is called independent or double frame type scaffolding. Care should be taken while construction of
cantilever scaffolding.

Generally cantilever scaffoldings are used under conditions such as

When the ground does not having the capacity to support standards,
When the Ground near the wall is to be free from traffic,
When upper part of the wall is under construction.

Suspended Scaffolding
In suspended scaffolding, the working platform is suspended from roofs with the help of wire ropes or chains etc., it can be
raised or lowered to our required level. This type of scaffolding is used for repair works, pointing, paintings etc..

Trestle Scaffolding
In Trestle scaffolding, the working platform is supported on movable tripods or ladders. This is generally used for work
inside the room, such as paintings, repairs etc., up to a height of 5m.

Steel Scaffolding
Steel scaffolding is constructed by steel tubes which are fixed together by steel couplers or fittings. It is very easy to construct
or dismantle. It has greater strength, greater durability and higher fire resistance. It is not economical but will give more
safety for workers. So, it is used extensively nowadays.
Patented Scaffolding
Patented scaffoldings are made up of steel but these are equipped with special couplings and frames etc., these are readymade
scaffoldings which are available in the market. In this type of scaffolding working platform is arranged on brackets which can
be adjustable to our required level.

Use of form work in floor construction

Concrete when first mixed is a fluid and therefore to form any concrete member the wet concrete must be placed in a suitable
mould to retain its shape, size and position as it sets. These moulds are called formwork. Formwork provides a level platform
to support the wet concrete until it hardens enough to be self-supporting. The formwork is made from timber boards propped
up from the floor below by timber supports. The structure must take account of any beams, lintels and openings. It should be
strong and stable so that it can support the weight of people and plant as well as the concrete.
Concrete for floor is basically a four sided box with provisions for beams that may be constructed monolithically with the
floor and propped in the correct position and to the desired level. It is essential that all joints in the formwork are constructed
to prevent the escape of grout which could result in honeycombing and/or feather edging in the slab cast.

FENESTRATION IN BUILDING

Fenestration refers to openings in a building which allow access for air (ventilation), light, walkways and comfort. These openings are also part
of building components. They are namely doors, windows, chimneys, courtyard, screened walls etc

Functional requirement of opening in walls

Openings are made in walls to accommodate doors and windows, and also on some are made to admit light and air into the building. But these
openings forms weakness in walls, and if there happens to be any settlement or shrinkage of materials in the structure, then cracking is most
likely to be seen where these openings are. Therefore, it is essential to ensure that care is taken when making opening, in bricks work to achieve
the greatest amount of strength and stability of the walling surrounding them.

Treatment to Openings
An opening consists of a head, jambs and sill. The different methods and treatments which can be used in their formation are many but are
based on the same concepts.
All openings should be treated with anti-termite treatments, and anti rust treatment; BSC most materials used for doors and windows are either
timber or steel.

Doors and windows are the main openings in brick walls. Their locations are shown on the working drawings together with the head and sill
height. These heights should relate to the datum or over site slab level. If this is not the case, then the heights must be recalculated and decision
taken as to which courses will take the openings. The brick work is finished neatly on each side of the opening with a stop-end. The method is
similar to finishing off at a quoin. Insert a closer before the last header in alternate courses in English and Flemish board.
The sill does not need special treatment but at the head there are alternative methods to carry the brickwork across the opening. These are
lintels and Arches.
Lintel
A lintel (figure 3.1) is a beam that spans across a horizontal opening and supports the load just above the opening. Lintels can be timber or
concrete. Timber is fine for short spans but is not durable. For this reason most lintels are built from reinforced concrete.

The lintel can be covered with skin decorative brickwork which needs support. This is done by:
Bolting a galvanized steel angle to the concrete lintel.
building the decorative brickwork on the edge of the angle;
Tying the brick joints to the lintel with metal ties.

Constructing concrete lintels

Structural engineers design lintels for larger buildings but the following basic guidelines could be used to construct a lintel for domestic scale
construction. Table 3.1 gives some basic requirements for smaller lintels.

After designing the lintel, it should be cast (or made). Lintels can be in situ or precast. The span will determine the height of the lintel, which
should correspond to the height of full brick courses.

Table 3.1 Standard dimensions for lintels

Span (mm) Depth (mm) Reinforcement sizes (mm)

900 150 10
1200 150 12
1500 215 12
1800 215 16
The design of the lintel should use these additional requirements:
one reinforcement bar for each 112mm width of lintel;
the width must be at least 1/20th of the span;
the bearing of the lintel must be more than 150mm;
at least 25mm of concrete must cover the bottom of the reinforcement bar;
at least 50mm of concrete must cover the ends of the bar.