7/13/23, 6:17 PM The Crusades: Definition, Religious Wars & Facts | HISTORY

The Crusades were a series of religious wars between Christians and Muslims started
primarily to secure control of holy sites considered sacred by both groups. In all, eight
major Crusade expeditions—varying in size, strength and degree of success—occurred
between 1096 and 1291. The costly, violent and often ruthless conflicts enhanced the
status of European Christians, making them major players in the fight for land in the
Middle East.
What Were the Crusades?
By the end of the 11th century, Western Europe had emerged as a significant power in its
own right, though it still lagged behind other Mediterranean civilizations, such as
the Byzantine Empire (formerly the eastern half of the Roman Empire) and the Islamic
Empire of the Middle East and North Africa.
However, Byzantium had lost considerable territory to the invading Seljuk Turks. After years
of chaos and civil war, the general Alexius Comnenus seized the Byzantine throne in 1081
and consolidated control over the remaining empire as Emperor Alexius I.
In 1095, Alexius sent envoys to Pope Urban II asking for mercenary troops from the West to
help confront the Turkish threat. Though relations between Christians in the East and those
in the West had long been fractious, Alexius’s request came at a time when the situation
was improving.
When Were the Crusades?
In November 1095, at the Council of Clermont in southern France, the Pope called on
Western Christians to take up arms to aid the Byzantines and recapture the Holy Land from
Muslim control. This marked the beginning of the Crusades.
Pope Urban’s plea was met with a tremendous response, both among the military elite as
well as ordinary citizens. Those who joined the armed pilgrimage wore a cross as a symbol
of the Church.
The Crusades set the stage for several religious knightly military orders, including
the Knights Templar, the Teutonic Knights, and the Hospitallers. These groups defended the
Holy Land and protected Christian pilgrims traveling to and from the region.
Did you know? In a popular movement known as the Children's Crusade (1212), a motley
crew including children, adolescents, women, the elderly and the poor marched all the way
from the Rhineland to Italy behind a young man named Nicholas, who said he had received
divine instruction to march toward the Holy Land.
The First Crusade (1096-1099)
Four armies of Crusaders were formed from troops of different Western European regions,
led by Raymond of Saint-Gilles, Godfrey of Bouillon, Hugh of Vermandois and Bohemond
of Taranto (with his nephew Tancred). These groups departed for Byzantium in August
1096.
A less organized band of knights and commoners known as the “People’s Crusade” set off
before the others under the command of a popular preacher known as Peter the Hermit.
Ignoring Alexius’ advice to wait for the rest of the Crusaders, Peter’s army crossed the
Bosporus Strait in early August. In the first major clash between the Crusaders and
Muslims, Turkish forces crushed the invading Europeans at Cibotus.
Another group of Crusaders, led by the notorious Count Emicho, carried out a series of
massacres of Jews in various towns in the Rhineland in 1096, drawing widespread outrage

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and causing a major crisis in Jewish-Christian relations.

When the four main armies of Crusaders arrived in Constantinople, Alexius insisted that
their leaders swear an oath of loyalty to him and recognize his authority over any land
regained from the Turks, as well as any other territory they might conquer. All but
Bohemond resisted taking the oath.
In May 1097, the Crusaders and their Byzantine allies attacked Nicea (now Iznik, Turkey),
the Seljuk capital in Anatolia. The city surrendered in late June.
The Fall of Jerusalem
Despite deteriorating relations between the Crusaders and Byzantine leaders, the
combined force continued its march through Anatolia, capturing the great Syrian city of
Antioch in June 1098.
After various internal struggles over control of Antioch, the Crusaders began their march
toward Jerusalem, then occupied by Egyptian Fatimids (who as Shi’ite Muslims were
enemies of the Sunni Seljuks).
Encamping before Jerusalem in June 1099, the Christians forced the besieged city’s
governor to surrender by mid-July.
Despite Tancred’s promise of protection, the Crusaders slaughtered hundreds of men,
women and children in their victorious entrance into Jerusalem.
The Second Crusade (1147-1149)
Having achieved their goal in an unexpectedly short period of time after the First Crusade,
many of the Crusaders departed for home. To govern the conquered territory, those who
remained established four large western settlements, or Crusader states, in Jerusalem,
Edessa, Antioch and Tripoli.
Guarded by formidable castles, the Crusader states retained the upper hand in the region
until around 1130, when Muslim forces began gaining ground in their own holy war (or
jihad) against the Christians, whom they called “Franks.”
In 1144, the Seljuk general Zangi, governor of Mosul, captured Edessa, leading to the loss
of the northernmost Crusader state.
News of Edessa’s fall stunned Europe and caused Christian authorities in the West to call
for another Crusade. Led by two great rulers, King Louis VII of France and King Conrad III of
Germany, the Second Crusade began in 1147.
That October, the Turks annihilated Conrad’s forces at Dorylaeum, the site of a great
Christian victory during the First Crusade.
After Louis and Conrad managed to assemble their armies at Jerusalem, they decided to
attack the Syrian stronghold of Damascus with an army of some 50,000 (the largest
Crusader force yet).
Damascus’ ruler was forced to call on Nur al-Din, Zangi’s successor in Mosul, for aid. The
combined Muslim forces dealt a humiliating defeat to the Crusaders, decisively ending the
Second Crusade. Nur al-Din added Damascus to his expanding empire in 1154.
The Third Crusade (1187-1192)
After numerous attempts by the Crusaders of Jerusalem to capture Egypt, Nur al-Din’s
forces (led by the general Shirkuh and his nephew, Saladin) seized Cairo in 1169 and forced
the Crusader army to evacuate.
Upon Shirkuh’s subsequent death, Saladin assumed control and began a campaign of
conquests that accelerated after Nur al-Din’s death in 1174.

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In 1187, Saladin began a major campaign against the Crusader Kingdom of Jerusalem. His
troops virtually destroyed the Christian army at the battle of Hattin, taking back the
important city along with a large amount of territory.
Outrage over these defeats inspired the Third Crusade, led by rulers such as the aging
Emperor Frederick Barbarossa (who was drowned at Anatolia before his entire army
reached Syria), King Philip II of France, and King Richard I of England (known as Richard the
Lionheart).
In September 1191, Richard’s forces defeated those of Saladin in the battle of Arsuf, which
would be the only true battle of the Third Crusade.
From the recaptured city of Jaffa, Richard reestablished Christian control over some of the
region and approached Jerusalem, though he refused to lay siege to the city.
In September 1192, Richard and Saladin signed a peace treaty that reestablished the
Kingdom of Jerusalem (though without the city of Jerusalem) and ended the Third Crusade.
The Fourth Crusade (1202-1204)
Though Pope Innocent III called for a new Crusade in 1198, power struggles within and
between Europe and Byzantium drove the Crusaders to divert their mission in order to
topple the reigning Byzantine emperor, Alexius III, in favor of his nephew, who became
Alexius IV in mid-1203.
The new emperor’s attempts to submit the Byzantine church to Rome was met with stiff
resistance, and Alexius IV was strangled after a palace coup in early 1204.
In response, the Crusaders declared war on Constantinople, and the Fourth Crusade ended
with the devastating Fall of Constantinople, marked by a bloody conquest, looting and
near-destruction of the magnificent Byzantine capital later that year.
Final Crusades (1208-1271)
Throughout the remainder of the 13th century, a variety of Crusades aimed not so much to
topple Muslim forces in the Holy Land but to combat any and all groups seen as enemies
of the Christian faith.
The Albigensian Crusade (1208-29) aimed to root out the heretical Cathari or Albigensian
sect of Christianity in France, while the Baltic Crusades (1211-25) sought to subdue pagans
in Transylvania.
A so-called Children’s Crusade took place in 1212 when thousands of young children
vowed to march to Jerusalem. Although it was called the Children’s Crusade, most
historians don’t regard it as an actual crusade, and many experts question whether the
group was really comprised of children. The movement never reached the Holy Land.
In the Fifth Crusade, put in motion by Pope Innocent III before his death in 1216, the
Crusaders attacked Egypt from both land and sea but were forced to surrender to Muslim
defenders led by Saladin’s nephew, Al-Malik al-Kamil, in 1221.
In 1229, in what became known as the Sixth Crusade, Emperor Frederick II achieved the
peaceful transfer of Jerusalem to Crusader control through negotiation with al-Kamil. The
peace treaty expired a decade later, and Muslims easily regained control of Jerusalem.
From 1248 to 1254, Louis IX of France organized a crusade against Egypt. This battle,
known as the Seventh Crusade, was a failure for Louis.
The Mamluks
As the Crusaders struggled, a new dynasty, known as the Mamluks, descended from former
slaves of the Islamic Empire, took power in Egypt. In 1260, Mamluk forces

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in Palestine managed to halt the advance of the Mongols, an invading force led by Genghis
Khan and his descendants, which had emerged as a potential ally for the Christians in the
region.
Under the ruthless Sultan Baybars, the Mamluks demolished Antioch in 1268. In response,
Louis organized the Eighth Crusade in 1270. The initial goal was to aid the remaining
Crusader states in Syria, but the mission was redirected to Tunis, where Louis died.
Edward I of England took on another expedition in 1271. This battle, which is often
grouped with the Eighth Crusade but is sometimes referred to as the Ninth Crusade,
accomplished very little and was considered the last significant crusade to the Holy Land.
The Last Crusade
In 1291, one of the only remaining Crusader cities, Acre, fell to the Muslim Mamluks. Many
historians believe this defeat marked the end of the Crusader States and the Crusades
themselves.
Though the Church organized minor Crusades with limited goals after 1291—mainly
military campaigns aimed at pushing Muslims from conquered territory, or conquering
pagan regions—support for such efforts diminished in the 16th century, with the rise of the
Reformation and the corresponding decline of papal authority.
Effects of the Crusades
While the Crusades ultimately resulted in defeat for Europeans and a Muslim victory, many
argue that they successfully extended the reach of Christianity and Western civilization. The
Roman Catholic Church experienced an increase in wealth, and the power of the Pope was
elevated during the Crusades.
Trade and transportation also improved throughout Europe as a result of the Crusades. The
wars created a constant demand for supplies and transportation, which resulted in
shipbuilding and the manufacturing of various supplies.
After the Crusades, there was a heightened interest in travel and learning throughout
Europe, which some historians believe may have paved the way for the Renaissance.
Among followers of Islam, however, the Crusaders were regarded as immoral, bloody and
savage. The ruthless and widespread massacre of Muslims, Jews and other non-Christians
resulted in bitter resentment that persisted for many years. Even today, some Muslims
derisively refer to the West’s involvement in the Middle East as a “crusade.”
There’s no question that the years of warfare and conflict brought by the Crusades had an
impact on Middle East and Western European nations for many years, and they still
influence political and cultural views held today.
Sources

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