ME367: Non-Destructive Testing

MODULE 2

LIQUID PENETRANT INSPECTION: principles, properties required for a good penetrants and
developers - Types of penetrants and developers, advantages and limitations of various methods
of LPI - LPI technique/ test procedure, interpretation and evaluation of penetrant test
indications, false indication and safety precaution required in LPI, applications, advantages and
limitations.

2.1. LIQUID PENETRANT INSPECTION (LPI): PRINCIPLES

Liquid penetrant testing is one of the oldest and simplest NDT methods where its earliest
versions (using kerosene and oil mixture) dates back to the 19th century. This method is used to reveal
surface discontinuities by bleed out of a colored or fluorescent dye from the flaw. The technique is
based on the ability of a liquid to be drawn into a "clean" surface discontinuity by capillary action. After
a period of time called the "dwell time", excess surface penetrant is removed and a developer applied.
This acts as a blotter that draws the penetrant from the discontinuity to reveal its presence.

The advantage that a liquid penetrant inspection offers over an unaided visual
inspection is that it makes defects easier to see for the inspector where that is done
in two ways:

 It produces a flaw indication that is much larger and easier for the eye to
detect than the flaw itself. Many flaws are so small or narrow that they are
undetectable by the unaided eye (a person with a perfect vision can not
resolve features smaller than 0.08 mm).

 It improves the detectability of a flaw due to the high level of contrast
between the indication and the background which helps to make the
indication more easily seen (such as a red indication on a white background
for visable penetrant or a penetrant that glows under ultraviolate light for
flourecent penetrant).

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Liquid penetrant testing is one of the most widely used NDT methods. Its popularity can be attributed
to two main factors: its relative ease of use and its flexibility. It can be used to inspect almost any
material provided that its surface is not extremely rough or porous. Materials that are commonly
inspected using this method include; metals, glass, many ceramic materials, rubber and plastics.

However, liquid penetrant testing can only be used to inspect for flaws that break the surface of the
sample (such as surface cracks, porosity, laps, seams, lack of fusion, etc.).

2.2 STEPS/PROCEDURE OF LIQUID PENETRANT TESTING

The exact procedure for liquid penetrant testing can vary from case to case depending on several
factors such as the penetrant system being used, the size and material of the component being
inspected, the type of discontinuities being expected in the component and the condition and
environment under which the inspection is performed. However, the general steps can be summarized
as follows:

1. Surface Preparation: One of the most critical steps of a liquid penetrant testing is the surface
preparation. The surface must be free of oil, grease, water, or other contaminants that may
prevent penetrant from entering flaws. The sample may also require etching if mechanical
operations such as machining, sanding, or grit blasting have been performed. These and other
mechanical operations can smear metal over the flaw opening and prevent the penetrant from
entering.

2. Penetrant Application: Once the surface has been thoroughly cleaned and dried, the penetrant
material is applied by spraying, brushing, or immersing the part in a penetrant bath.

3. Penetrant Dwell: The penetrant is left on the surface for a sufficient time to allow as much
penetrant as possible to be drawn or to seep into a defect. Penetrant dwell time is the total time
that the penetrant is in contact with the part surface. Dwell times are usually recommended by
the penetrant producers or required by the specification being followed. The times vary
depending on the application, penetrant materials used, the material, the form of the material
being inspected, and the type of discontinuity being inspected for. Minimum dwell times
typically range from 5 to 60 minutes. Generally, there is no harm in using a longer penetrant

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dwell time as long as the penetrant is not allowed to dry. The ideal dwell time is often
determined by experimentation and may be very specific to a particular application.

4. Excess Penetrant Removal: This is the most delicate step of the inspection procedure because
the excess penetrant must be removed from the surface of the sample while removing as little
penetrant as possible from defects

Depending on the penetrant system used, this

step may involve cleaning with a solvent,
direct rinsing with water, or first treating the
part with an emulsifier and then rinsing with
water.

5. Developer Application: A thin layer of developer is then applied to the sample to draw
penetrant trapped in flaws back to the surface where it will be visible. Developers come in a
variety of forms that may be applied by dusting (dry powders), dipping, or spraying (wet
developers).

6. Indication Development: The developer is

allowed to stand on the part surface for a
period of time sufficient to permit the
extraction of the trapped penetrant out of
any surface flaws. This development time is
usually a minimum of 10 minutes.

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Significantly longer times may be necessary for tight cracks.

7. Inspection: Inspection is then performed under appropriate lighting to detect indications from
any flaws which may be present.

8. Clean Surface: The final step in the process is to thoroughly clean the part surface to remove
the developer from the parts that were found to be acceptable.

2.3 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES

The primary advantages and disadvantages when compared to other NDT methods are:

2.3.1 Advantages

 High sensitivity (small discontinuities can be detected).


 Few material limitations (metallic and nonmetallic, magnetic and nonmagnetic, and conductive
and nonconductive materials may be inspected).

 Rapid inspection of large areas and volumes. 

 Suitable for parts with complex shapes. 

 Indications are produced directly on the surface of the part and constitute a visual representation
of the flaw.

 Portable (materials are available in aerosol spray cans) 

 Low cost (materials and associated equipment are relatively inexpensive) 

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2.3.2 Disadvantages

 Only surface breaking defects can be detected.


 Only materials with a relatively nonporous surface can be inspected.

 Pre-cleaning is critical since contaminants can mask defects. 

 Metal smearing from machining, grinding, and grit or vapor blasting must be removed. 

 The inspector must have direct access to the surface being inspected.

 Surface finish and roughness can affect inspection sensitivity. 


 Multiple process operations must be performed and controlled. 

 Post cleaning of acceptable parts or materials is required. 

 Chemical handling and proper disposal is required.

2.4 PENETRANTS

Penetrants are carefully formulated to produce the level of sensitivity desired by the inspector. The
penetrant must possess a number of important characteristics:

 spread easily over the surface of the material being inspected to provide complete and even
coverage.
 be drawn into surface breaking defects by capillary action.
 remain in the defect but remove easily from the surface of the part.
 remain fluid so it can be drawn back to the surface of the part through the drying and
developing steps.
 be highly visible or fluoresce brightly to produce easy to see indications.
 not be harmful to the material being tested or the inspector.
Penetrant materials are not designed to perform the same. Penetrant manufactures have developed
different formulations to address a variety of inspection applications. Some applications call for the
detection of the smallest defects possible while in other applications, the rejectable defect size may be
larger. The penetrants that are used to detect the smallest defects will also produce the largest amount
of irrelevant indications.

Standard specifications classify penetrant materials according to their physical characteristics and their
performance.

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
 Penetrant materials come in two basic types:

 Type 1 - Fluorescent Penetrants: they contain a dye or several dyes that fluoresce when exposed
to ultraviolet radiation. Generally green in colour and they contain dye that glow brightly when
exposed to UV lights. It is highly sensitive than visible penetrants and it requires a darkened area
for inspection.

Type 2 - Visible Penetrants: they contain a red dye that provides high contrast against the white
developer background.

Fluorescent penetrant systems are more sensitive than visible penetrant systems because the eye
is drawn to the glow of the fluorescing indication. However, visible penetrants do not require a
darkened area and an ultraviolet light in order to make an inspection.

Fluorescent penetrants Visible penetrants

 It consist of dyes that fluoresce,  It consists of red dye, which
when ultraviolet radiations are produces a fine range of contrast
exposed on them. against the white developer
background.

 They are more sensitive.  They are less sensitive.

 It requires darkened area and  It doesn't require any dark area and
ultraviolet radiations for inspection. ultraviolet radiations for inspection.

 They are more vulnerable to  They are less vulnerable to

contamination contamination

 Penetrants are then classified by the method used to remove the excess penetrant from the part. The
four methods are:

Method A - Water Washable: penetrants can be removed from the part by rinsing with water
alone. These penetrants contain an emulsifying agent (detergent) that makes it possible to wash
the penetrant from the part surface with water alone. Water washable penetrants are sometimes
referred to as self-emulsifying systems.

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Advantages:-
 Sensitivity is high
 Cost involved is less
 Large surface discontinuities can be visualized
 Removal of penetrant is very easy
Disadvantages:-
 Dark environment is required for evaluation
 Insensitive to shallow discontinuities
 Method is not portable
 Quality of penetrant is degraded by contamination

Method B - Post-Emulsifiable, Lipophilic: the penetrant is oil soluble and interacts with the oil-
based emulsifier to make removal possible.

 Method C - Solvent Removable: they require the use of a solvent to remove the penetrant from
the part. Penetrants are removed by wiping with a cloth damped with solvent.
Advantages:-
 Sensitive to discontinuities of spot size.
 When water removal fails, it provides feasible technique

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Limitations-
 Limited to small areas
 Black light and dark environment is required.
 Back ground indications are also generated, which affects the contrast ratio
 Sensitivity reduces if excess remover is used.

Method D - Post-Emulsifiable, Hydrophilic: they use an emulsifier that is a water soluble

detergent which lifts the excess penetrant from the surface of the part with a water wash.

Advantages:-
 Sensitivity is high for small discontinuities
 Sensitive to shallow discontinuities
 Not affected by acids.

Limitation :-
 Method is not portable
 It requires an emulsifier
 Takes more time
 Ineffective for complex and rough surfaces

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 Penetrants are then classified based on the strength or detectability of the indication that is
produced for a number of very small and tight fatigue cracks. The five sensitivity levels are: 

Level ½ - Ultra Low Sensitivity

Level 1 - Low Sensitivity
Level 2 - Medium Sensitivity
Level 3 - High Sensitivity
Level 4 - Ultra-High Sensitivity

The procedure for classifying penetrants into one of the five sensitivity levels uses specimens
with small surface fatigue cracks. The brightness of the indication produced is measured using a
photometer.

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Penetrant Properties
1. Wetting ability:
 Affect penetrability and bleed-back characteristics
 Contact angle and surface tension of penetrant control wetting ability

2. Specific gravity:
¤ Ratio of density of penetrant with density of distilled water at 40°C
¤ Not a problem with oil base penetrant
¤ Penetrant used in tank system must have specific gravity less than 1
 To ensure water will not float on top of penetrant
 Prevent penetrant from covering the test object

3. Flash point:
¤ Temperature at which enough vapor is given off to form combustible mixture
¤ Typical min 93°C
¤ Should not be flammable
4. Volatility:
¤ Characterize by vapor pressure or boiling point
¤ Good penetrant usually evaporate too quickly
¤ Low volatility is desirable
so the penetrant dry from the surface, leave stained and from any discontinuity, leave precipitated dye
5. Chemically inert:
¤ Must be inert, non-corrosive as possible è chemically compatible with the material being tested

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¤ Penetrant is contaminant (contain sulphur, sodium, halogen)- potential reactions must be

considered
¤ To avoid possibility of embrittlement or cracking over years
6. Viscosity:
¤ Affect thickness of penetration due to molecular/internal friction
¤ Low viscosity penetrant
7. Solubility:
¤ Penetrant contain dye in liquid solution
¤ Must hold sufficient dye at ambient or high temperature
¤ Must not come out from solution if temperature drop.
8. Capillarity
¤ It is the ability of a liquid to flow in narrow spaces without the assistance of external force.
¤ This property help the penetrant to fill a void.
9. Solvent ability:
¤ Solvent must be able to remove surplus penetrant from test specimen
¤ To ensure clean, clear background
¤ Must not dissolve the penetrant in defect
10. Tolerance to contaminants:
¤ Penetrant will be contaminated after a period of time, even if a great care is taken
¤ Must be periodically check to ensure all is well, no residue left .
11. Solvent ability:
¤ Solvent must be able to remove surplus penetrant from test specimen
¤ To ensure clean, clear background
¤ Must not dissolve the penetrant in defect
12. Tolerance to contaminants:
¤ Penetrant will be contaminated after a period of time, even if a great care is taken
¤ Must be periodically check to ensure all is well, no residue left.
13. Health hazard:
¤ Must complywith or exceed the most stringent HSE requirements
 Toxicity, odour, skin contact
¤ To prevent allergies or contaminants
14. Availability and cost:
¤ Dye materials are easily obtained
¤ Low cost
15. Electrical conductivity:
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¤ Electrostatic spraying becomes popular

 uniform coverage with complicated shapes
 Reduces over spraying
 Requires less penetrant over all
¤ Spray gun applies –ve charge to penetrant
¤ Test object ground potential
¤ Electrostatic attraction cause penetrant be strongly attracted to the part
 low viscosity and easily attracted to the part
 Must readily accept and hold the electrical charge

2.5 DEVELOPERS

The role of the developer is to pull the trapped penetrant material out of defects and spread it out on the
surface of the part so it can be seen by an inspector. Developers used with visible penetrants create a
white background so there is a greater degree of contrast between the indication and the surrounding
background. On the other hand, developers used with fluorescent penetrants both reflect and refract the
incident ultraviolet light, allowing more of it to interact with the penetrant, causing more efficient
fluorescence.
Properties of a Good developer:
1. Material must be absorptive to perform blotting action
2. Must have fine texture
3. Must mask out background contours and colors
4. Must be easily and evenly applicable
5. Must form light and even coat
6. Must be no fluorescing of developer when fluorescent penetrant is used
7. Penetrant bleeding must easily wet the material
8. Must be high color contrast, white is the best
9. Must be readily removable after test
10. Must be in-toxic and non-irritant

According to standards, developers are classified based on the method that the developer is applied (as
a dry powder, or dissolved or suspended in a liquid carrier). The six standard forms of developers are:
Form a - Dry Powder
Form b - Water Soluble
Form c - Water Suspendable
Form d - Nonaqueous Type 1: Fluorescent (Solvent Based)
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Form e - Nonaqueous Type 2: Visible Dye (Solvent Based)

Form f - Special Applications
2.5.1 Dry Powder

Dry powder developers are generally considered to be the least sensitive but they are inexpensive to
use and easy to apply. Dry developers are white, fluffy powders that can be applied to a thoroughly dry
surface in a number of ways; by dipping parts in a container of developer, by using a puffer to dust
parts with the developer, or placing parts in a dust cabinet where the developer is blown around. Since
the powder only sticks to areas of indications since they are wet, powder developers are seldom used
for visible inspections.

2.5.2 Water Soluble

As the name implies, water soluble developers consist of a group of chemicals that are dissolved in
water and form a developer layer when the water is evaporated away. The best method for applying
water soluble developers is by spraying it on the part. The part can be wet or dry. Dipping, pouring, or
brushing the solution on to the surface is sometimes used but these methods are less desirable. Drying
is achieved by placing the wet, but well drained part, in a recirculating warm air dryer with a
temperature of 21°C. Properly developed parts will have an even, light white coating over the entire
surface.

2.5.3 Water Suspendable

Water suspendable developers consist of insoluble developer particles suspended in water. Water
suspendable developers require frequent stirring or agitation to keep the particles from settling out of
suspension. Water suspendable developers are applied to parts in the same manner as water soluble
developers then the parts are dried using warm air.

2.5.4 Nonaqueous

Nonaqueous developers suspend the developer in a volatile solvent and are typically applied with a
spray gun. Nonaqueous developers are commonly distributed in aerosol spray cans for portability. The
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solvent tends to pull penetrant from the indications by solvent action. Since the solvent is highly
volatile, forced drying is not required.

2.5.5 Special Applications

Plastic or lacquer developers are special developers that are primarily used when a permanent record
of the inspection is required.

2.6 PREPARATION OF PART

One of the most critical steps in the penetrant inspection process is preparing the part for inspection.
All coatings, such as paints, varnishes, plating, and heavy oxides must be removed to ensure that
defects are open to the surface of the part. If the parts have been machined, sanded, or blasted prior to
the penetrant inspection, it is possible that a thin layer of metal may have smeared across the surface
and closed off defects. Also, some cleaning operations, such as steam cleaning, can cause metal
smearing in softer materials. This layer of metal smearing must be removed before inspection.

2.6.1 Penetrant Application and Dwell Time

The penetrant material can be applied in a number of different ways, including

spraying, brushing, or immersing the parts in a penetrant bath. Once the part is
covered with penetrant it must be allowed to dwell so the penetrant has time to
enter any defect that is present.

There are basically two dwell mode options:

- Immersion-dwell: keeping the part immersed in the penetrant during the

dwell period.

- Drain-dwell: letting the part drain during the dwell period (this method
gives better sensitivity).

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Penetrant Dwell Time

Penetrant dwell time is the total time that the penetrant is in contact with the part surface. The dwell
time is important because it allows the penetrant the time necessary to seep or be drawn into a defect.
Dwell times are usually recommended by the penetrant producers or required by the specification
being followed. The time required to fill a flaw depends on a number of variables which include:

 The surface tension of the penetrant.


 The contact angle of the penetrant.

 The dynamic shear viscosity of the penetrant.

 The atmospheric pressure at the flaw opening.

 The capillary pressure at the flaw opening. 

 The pressure of the gas trapped in the flaw by the penetrant.
 The radius of the flaw or the distance between the flaw walls. 

 The density or specific gravity of the penetrant. 

 Microstructural properties of the penetrant.

The ideal dwell time is often determined by experimentation and is often very specific to a particular
application. For example, the table shows the dwell time requirements for steel parts according to some
of the commonly used specifications.

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2.7 Penetrant Removal Process

The penetrant removal procedure must effectively remove the penetrant from the surface of the part
without removing an appreciable amount of entrapped penetrant from the discontinuity. If the removal
process extracts penetrant from the flaw, the flaw indication will be reduced by a proportional amount.
If the penetrant is not effectively removed from the part surface, the contrast between the indication
and the background will be reduced.

2.7.1 Removal Method

As mentioned previously, penetrant systems are classified into four categories according to the method
used for excess penetrant removal.

- Method A: Water-Washable
- Method B: Post-Emulsifiable, Lipophilic
- Method C: Solvent Removable
- Method D: Post-Emulsifiable, Hydrophilic
Method C, Solvent Removable, is used primarily for inspecting small localized areas. This method
requires hand wiping the surface with a cloth moistened with the solvent remover, and is, therefore,
too labor intensive for most production situations.

Method A, Water-Washable, is the most economical to apply of the different methods and it is easy to
use. Water-washable or self-emulsifiable penetrants contain an emulsifier as an integral part of the
formulation. The excess penetrant may be removed from the object surface with a simple water rinse.

When removal of the penetrant from the defect due to over-washing of the part is a concern, a post-
emulsifiable penetrant system can be used. The post-emulsifiable methods are generally only used
when very high sensitivity is needed. Post- emulsifiable penetrants require a separate emulsifier to
breakdown the penetrant and make it water washable. The part is usually immersed in the emulsifier
but hydrophilic emulsifiers may also be sprayed on the object. Brushing the emulsifier on to the part is
not recommended because the bristles of the brush may force emulsifier into discontinuities, causing
the entrapped penetrant to be removed. The emulsifier is allowed sufficient time to react with the
penetrant on the surface of the part but not given time to make its way into defects to react with the
trapped penetrant. Controlling the reaction time is of essential importance when using a post-
emulsifiable system. If the emulsification time is too short, an excessive amount of penetrant will be
left on the surface, leading to high background levels. If the emulsification time is too long, the

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emulsifier will react with the penetrant entrapped in discontinuities, making it possible to deplete the
amount needed to form an indication.

The hydrophilic post-emulsifiable method (Method D) is gives better sensitivity than the lipophilic
post-emulsifiable method (Method B). The major advantage of hydrophilic emulsifiers is that they are
less sensitive to variation in the contact and removal time.

When a post-emulsifiable penetrant is used, the penetrant inspection process includes the following
steps (extra steps are underlined):

 pre-clean part,

 apply penetrant and allow to dwell,

 pre-rinse to remove first layer of penetrant,

 apply hydrophilic emulsifier and allow contact for specified time,

 rinse to remove excess penetrant,

 dry part,

 apply developer and allow part to develop, and

 inspect.

2.7.2 Rinse Method and Time for Water-Washable Penetrants

The method used to rinse the excess penetrant from the object surface and the time of the rinse should
be controlled so as to prevent over-washing. It is generally recommended that a coarse spray rinse or
an air-agitated, immersion wash tank be used. When a spray is being used, it should be directed at a
45° angle to the part surface so as to not force water directly into any discontinuities that may be
present. The spray or immersion time should be kept to a minimum through frequent inspections of the
remaining background level.

2.7.3 Hand Wiping of Solvent Removable Penetrants

When a solvent removable penetrant is used, care must also be taken to carefully remove the penetrant
from the part surface while removing as little as possible from the flaw. The first step in this cleaning
procedure is to dry wipe the surface of the part in one direction using a white, lint-free, cotton rag. One
dry pass in one direction is all that should be used to remove as much penetrant as possible. Next, the
surface should be wiped with one pass in one direction with a rag moistened with cleaner. One dry pass
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followed by one damp pass is all that is recommended. Additional wiping may sometimes be
necessary; but keep in mind that with every additional wipe, some of the entrapped penetrant will be
removed and inspection sensitivity will be reduced.

2.8 Use and Selection of a Developer

The use of developer is almost always recommended. The output from a fluorescent penetrant is
improved significantly when a suitable powder developer is used. Also, the use of developer can have
a dramatic effect on the probability of detection of an inspection.

Nonaqueous developers are generally recognized as the most sensitive when properly applied.
However, if the thickness of the coating becomes too great, defects can be masked. The relative
sensitivities of developers and application techniques as ranked in Volume II of the Nondestructive
Testing Handbook are shown in the table below.

The following table lists the main advantages and disadvantages of the various developer types.
Developer Advantages Disadvantages
Dry Indications tend to remain Does not form contrast background so cannot
brighter and more distinct be used with visible systems
over time Difficult to assure entire part surface has
Easy to apply been coated

Soluble Ease of coating entire part Coating is translucent and

provides poor contrast (not recommended
for visable systems)

Indications for water washable

systems are dim and blurred

Suspendable Ease of coating entire part Indications are bright and sharp
White coating of good Indications weaken and become diffused after
contrast can be produced Time
which work well for both
visible and fluorescent
systems

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Nonaqueous Very portable Difficult to apply evenly to

Easy to apply to readily all surfaces
accessible surfaces More difficult to clean part
White coating of good after inspection
contrast can be produced
which work well for both
visible and fluorescent
systems
Indications show-up rapidly
and are well defined

Interpretation and evaluation of penetrant test indications

 LPI indications depend on the type of penetrant used.
 If fluorescent penetrant is used, defect show-up as glowing yellow-green dots or lines against a
dark background.
 In the case of visible/die penetrant; defects are indicated as red dots or lines against a white
background.
 The interpretation of the characteristic patterns indicating the types of flaws is of great
significance.
Example
 A crack of a small opening is indicated by a line of penetrant. Dots of penetrant indicate pits or
porosities on the surface of object under inspection. Such dots appear over an area or isolated spots
and generally do not from a line pattern. A series of dots forming a line pattern indicates a tight
track, cold shut or partially welded lap.
 Fatigue cracks also generally appear in the form of a series of very fine dots.
 May obtain a rough estimate of the surface opening by measuring the width of the indication (the
amount of spreading of the penetrant on the developer). There doesn’t exist a definite relationship
between the surface opening and spreading of the penetrant.

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In general, penetrant testing is more effective at finding:

 Small round defects than small linear defects. 


 Deeper flaws than shallow flaws. 

 Flaws with a narrow opening at the surface than wide open flaws. 

 Flaws on smooth surfaces than on rough surfaces. 

 Flaws with rough fracture surfaces than smooth fracture surfaces. 

 Flaws under tensile or no loading than flaws under compression loading. 

2.9 HEALTH AND SAFETY PRECAUTIONS

When proper health and safety precautions are followed, liquid penetrant inspection operations can be
completed without harm to inspection personnel. However, there is a number of health and safety
related issues that need to be taken in consideration. The most common of those are discussed here.

2.9.1 Chemical Safety

Whenever chemicals must be handled, certain precautions must be taken. Before working with a
chemical of any kind, it is highly recommended that the material safety data sheets (MSDS) be
reviewed so that proper chemical safety and hygiene practices can be followed. Some of the penetrant
materials are flammable and, therefore, should be used and stored in small quantities. They should only
be used in a well ventilated area and ignition sources avoided. Eye protection should always be worn to
prevent contact of the chemicals with the eyes. Gloves and other protective clothing should be worn to
limit contact with the chemicals.

2.9.2 Ultraviolet Light Safety

Ultraviolet (UV) light has wavelengths ranging from 180 to 400 nanometers. These wavelengths place
UV light in the invisible part of the electromagnetic spectrum between visible light and X-rays. The
most familiar source of UV radiation is the sun and it is necessary in small doses for certain chemical
processes to occur in the body. However, too much exposure can be harmful to the skin and eyes. The
greatest threat with UV light exposure is that the individual is generally unaware that the damage is
occurring. There is usually no pain associated with the injury until several hours after the exposure. Skin
and eye damage occurs at wavelengths around 320 nm and shorter, which is well below the 365 nm
wavelength where penetrants are designed to fluoresce. Therefore, UV lamps sold for use in penetrant
testing are almost always filtered to remove the harmful UV wavelengths. The lamps produce radiation
at the harmful wavelengths, so it is essential that they be used with the proper filter in place and in good
condition.

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ME367: Non-Destructive Testing

Applications of LPI
In general, penetrant testing is more effective at finding:
 Small round defects than small linear defects.
 Deeper flaws than shallow flaws.
 Flaws with a narrow opening at the surface than wide open flaws.
 Flaws on smooth surfaces than on rough surfaces.
 Flaws with rough fracture surfaces than smooth fracture surfaces.
 Flaws under tensile or no loading than flaws under compression loading.
 Turbine rotor discs & blades
 Aircraft wheels, castings
 Assemblies
 Automotive parts – pistons, cylinders, etc.
 Bogie frames of railway locomotives & rolling stock
 Electrical ceramic parts – spark plug insulators, glass-to-metal seals, etc.
 Moulded plastic parts.

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