National Institute of Technology Silchar

Department of Physics
Physics Laboratory, B.Tech. (PH-111) 1st and 2nd Semester

EXPERIMENT NO. 1
1.1 AIM: Calibration of a given ammeter using a potentiometer

1.2 APPARATUS REQUIRED

Potentiometer, Milliammeters, Rheostats, Keys, Galvanometer, Resistance Boxes,

Shunt resistance, Battery, Leclanche cell

1.3 THEORY:

Calibration of an instrument means standardization of the instrument with reference to

another standard similar instruments or some calculated theoretical values. Let 𝑖 be the
current flowing through the low resistance 𝑟. The potential difference at the end of the
resistance 𝑟 is = 𝑖 𝑟. This potential difference is balanced by the length 𝐿 of the
potentiometer wire, then
𝑖𝑟=𝐿𝑒
(1.1)
where, 𝑒 = potential difference per cm of the potentiometer wire,
If 𝐼 is the current in the potentiometer circuit and 𝑅 is the total resistance of the
potentiometer wire, then, 𝑒 = 𝐼𝑅/1000. (Total length of the potentiometer wire is
1000 cm)
Substituting the value of 𝑒 in equation (1.1),
𝑖 𝑟 = 𝐿 𝐼 𝑅/1000
Or, 𝑖 = 𝐿 𝐼 𝑅/1000 𝑟
 (1.2)
mA C
Rh2

K1
r
(Standard mA)

G
B
Rh1 Fig. 1.1 Circuit Diagram
J
R
K2

1.4 PROCEDURE:

1. By adjusting rheostat (Rh1) in the potentiometer and putting a suitable

resistance in 𝑟, opposite deflections are obtained in first and last wire.
2. The standard current (𝐼) in the potentiometer is kept fixed by adjusting Rh1.
Then, adjusting Rh2 and resistance 𝑟 in the resistance circuit, a current (𝑖) is
allowed to flow in the resistance circuit. The corresponding null point is noted.
3. This current (𝑖) is found up by calculation using equation 1.2. This 𝑖 is actually
the calculated value of 𝑖 ˊ .
4. The process is repeated by varying the current (𝑖) in the resistance circuit.
5. For calibration of given ammeter, the observations for 𝑖 should be taken
corresponding to the whole range of the current in the milliammeter to be
calibrated. Graphs (𝑖 vs 𝑖 ˊ and 𝑖 vs 𝑖-𝑖 ˊ ) are plotted and calibration can be made
after analysis of the graph.
1.5 OBSERVATIONS:
TABLE-1.1

Resistance of the potentiometer wire (R) = ……………………………..

No. Reading of Resistanc Current in Balancing length Calculat Correcte

of the e r (box) the standard L ed d
obs milliammete milliammete (cm) Current (i-i/)
. r to be rI On Scale Tota Reading
calibrated i wir readin l
Ω e g L 𝒊ˊ =
𝑳𝑰𝑹
𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎𝒓
(mA) no. (mA) (mA)
(mA)

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10

The current (i/) is calculated using the formula given. Also the correction (ammeter
reading - calculated current) is also found. If the calculated value is less than the
ammeter reading, the correction is positive; if greater than the ammeter reading, the
correction is negative.

A graph is drawn between ammeter reading (i) and calculated reading ( i΄).
1.6 Result:

The given ammeter is calibrated. The graphs were drawn for i vs i΄ and i vs (i-i΄). The
graph is drawn between ammeter reading (i) and correction (i-i΄).

𝑖 − 𝑖ˊ

1.7 PRECAUTIONS:

1. All connections must be checked and should be tight during experiment.

2. EMF of B must be greater than EMF of C.
3. The + Ve of potentiometer battery B and that of EMF C must be joined to
the same end of the potentiometer.
4. The potentiometer circuit should be kept closed only for the time which is
necessary to find the null point otherwise null point will shift due to heating
of the potentiometer wire.

1.8 DISCUSSIONS:
 National Institute of Technology Silchar
Department of Physics
Physics Laboratory, B.Tech. (PH-111) 1st and 2nd Semester
.
EXPERIMENT NO. 2
1.1 AIM:
To study the twist in the thin rod by statical method using Barton’s horizontal
Apparatus and thus to determine the modulus of rigidity (η).

1.2 APPARATUS REQUIRED:

Barton’s horizontal apparatus, Slotted weights, Screw gauge, Inextensible string and Meter
Scale.

1.3 THEORY:

Barton’s horizontal apparatus is sometimes used for the determination of η for

comparatively thick wires. In this apparatus one end of the experimental rod is rigidity
clamped to a block and other end is attached to a steel axle fixed at the centre of the
pulley of large diameter. Both the blocks and bearings are firmly fixed to a shout base
board. A weight can be hanged on one of the pulley to twist the horizontal rod. The
angles of twist of the rod at two different distances from the fixed end of the rod are
measured with the help of pointers P1 and P2 which on the scale S1 and S2 .If a mass M
is hanged with a chord on the pulley of diameter D the external torque developed is

Ʈ= MgD/2 (1.1)

This torque will produce a twist in the rod. At equilibrium, it is to equal to the restoring
couple say πηr4θ/2l

 r 4 MgD
Therefore, = (1.2)
2l 2
Or, η =MgDl / πr4θ
If θ is in degrees then , θ will be replaced by (θπ / 180)
Hence, η = 180MgDl /π2r4 θ (1.3)

For angles of twist θ1 and θ2 at distances l1 and l2 from the fixed end we get,

η = 180MgD(l2 – l1 )/π2r4 (θ2 – θ1) (1.4)

Since the rod is basically a thick wire, therefore weights are placed in steps of 0.5 kg on the
hanger and the angles of twist at distances l1 and l2 , are measures with the pointers P1 and P2
of the horizontal Barton’s Apparatus.

©Department of Physics, NIT

Silchar

Fig 1.1: Barton’s Horizontal Apparatus

1.4 PROCEDURE: 1) The semicircular scales with two pointers are clamed at suitable
distances from the end of the rod and the pointers are adjusted at
0-0 readings before starting the experiments.

2) A half kg weight is put on the hanger and readings of both the

pointers are noted on the respective scales . The loads are
increased by regular steps of half kg till maximum load upto 2 kg is
applied and the corresponding readings are noted time.

3) Now the weights are decreased in regular steps of half kg and the
corresponding readings are recorded each time.

4) The hanger is shifted to the other side of the pulley and the steps
2and 3 are repeated.

5) The mean value of twist θ1 and θ2 are obtained for same load.

6) The distance between two pointers are measured with a meter

scale.

7) The diameter of the rod(d) is measured with a screw gauge.

8) The circumference of the pulley is measured with the help of

a thread and a meter scale and thus the diameter of the
pulley(D) is calculated.

1.5 OBSERVATION: Distance of the 1st pointer from the fixed Cm

end (l1 ) :

Distance of the 2nd pointer from the fixed Cm

end (l2 ) :

Distance between two pointers (l2- l1) Cm

 Serial

4.
3.
2.
1.
number

No.of obs.. Load on

3.
2.
1.
each pan
( M) gm
Linear scale
Reading (N) Load Copy left
increasing to
(cm)
1.6 TABULATIONS:

pulley
(A) Load v/s twist data

Load

Pitch of the screw gauge

decreasing
(degree)

Circular

Zero error of the screw gauge

Least count of the screw gauge

scale Copy right
Load to
Reading (r) increasing pulley
Reading of 1st pointer (Θ1)

Load
Value of decreasing
CSR Load Copy left
(R x L.C) increasing to
pulley
(cm) Load
decreasing

B) Table for determination of the radius of the rod

Total
(degree)

reading Load Copy right

(N+R x L.C) increasing to
pulley
(cm)
Reading of 2nd pointer (Θ2)

Load
decreasing
Mean
diameter(d )
Mean
(cm) (Θ1) (degree)

Corrected Mean
(Θ2) (degree)
diameter
(d) (cm) Mean
(Θ1 – θ2) (degree)

m
Corrected radius(r)

Graph Draw the twist v/s load curve with load along X-axis and the
corresponding mean values of θ2 – θ1 along Y-axis . The graph will
be a straight line passing through origin.

(θ2 – θ1 )

M(gm)
1.7 CALCULATION:

The value of D (Diameter of the Pulley) = ---------

The value of r (Radius of the rod ) = -----------
The distance between two pointers l2 – l1 = -----------
The value of M/ (θ2 – θ1) from graph =-----------
Acceleration due to gravity g = -----------
Hence, η can be calculated from eqn.(1.4)

REFERENCE:

1) University Practical Physics, D.C.Tayal, HPH

2) Mechanics D.S. Mathur, S.Chand.
3) A textbook of practical physics , Dr.Samir Kumar Ghosh, Central publishers .
 National Institute of Technology Silchar
Department of Physics
Physics Laboratory, B.Tech. (PH-111) 1st and 2nd Semester
.

EXPERIMENT NO. 3
1.1 AIM:

To study the bending of beam supported at its ends and loaded at the middle and thus
to determine the young’s modulus (Y) of the material of the beam.

1.2 APPARATUS REQUIRED:

A metallic beam of uniform cross-section and of length 1m, spherometer , two sharp
edges , a hanger with knife edge, slotted 0.5kg weights, leclanche or dry cell, shunted
galvanometer, key screw gauge , vernier caliper and a meter scale .

1.3 THEORY:

Let a beam be supported on two knife edges A and B distance L apart and loaded in the
middle at O with a weight W as shown in figure.

The upper reaction at each knife edge being W/2 and middle part of the beam being
sensibly horizontal. It may be taken to be combination of two inverted cantilevers OA
and OB each of the effective length L/2, and fixed at O and bending upwards under a
load W/2 acting at A and B.

Considering the section PB of the cantilever OB, say a distance x from its fixed ends
O , we have Moment of bending couple due to load W/2= (W/2) (L/2-x). The beam
being in equilibrium, this must be balanced by the bending moment YIg/R

Where,

R is the radius of curvature of the section at P.

Y is the value of young’s modulus of the material of the beam.

Ig is the geometrical moment of inertia of the beam .

For rectangular cross-section

Ig= bd3/12 Where, b is the breadth and d is the thickness of the beam

Now the curvature ,

1/R= (d2y/ dx2)/ [1+(dy/dx)2]3/2

When dy/dx is small 1/R= (d2y/dx2)

Now ,

YIg/R= W/2[(L/2)-x]

YIg(d2y/dx2)= W/2[(L/2)-x]

Integrating ,

dy/dx= [W/2YIg[L(x/2)-(x2/2)]+C

at x= 0,dy/dx= 0,we have C=0.

dy= [W/2YIg[L(x/2)-(x2/2)]dx

Integrating between limit x= 0 to x= L/2

Y= W/2YIg[(L3/16)-(L3/48)]= WL3/48YIg

Replacing Ig,

Y = 12WL3/48Ybd3

Again W=Mg

Hence,

y= MgL3/4Ybd3

Therefore,

Y= (M/y) gL3/4bd3
1.4 PROCEDURE:

1) The beam AB is placed on the knife-edges K1 and K2 symmetrically and

horizontally. The distance between the knife-edges are measured with meter scale and
the breadth and thickness of the rectangular beam at various positions are measured
with vernier caliper and screw gauge respectively.

2) A hanger is suspended from a stirrup, which is resting at the middle of the beam
with the knife-edges. A spherometer is placed just above this knife-edge; a cell, key
and galvanometer are connected in series with the spherometer and beam as shown in
figure 2.

3) As soon as the central spherometer touches the beam, deflection occurs in the
galvanometer. When the central leg or spherometer screw just touches the beam or
deflection in the galvanometer is just appeared, the corresponding spherometer reading
is noted. Weights are increased on the hanger in steps of 0.5 kg and spherometer
readings are observed every time when the galvanometer just shows deflection.

4) The observations are repeated by decreasing the loads in the steps of 0.5 kg and
noting each time the spherometer readings. This time the spherometer is rotated in the
reverse direction and the readings are taken when the galvanometer pointer just comes
to zero.

5) Thus the mean depression δ or y for the various loads applied on the beam is
measured.

6) Graph is plotted between M and δ or y and from it (M/δ) or (M/y) is obtained. This
result is compared with that obtained from observation table by difference method.

1.5 OBSERVATION:

(A) Length of the bar/beam between two knife edges (L) = cm

(B) Measurement of the breath of the beam:

Zero error of the vernier calipers = cm

Least count of the vernier calipers = cm
 Table:1 Measurement of the Breadth (b)of the beam:

V.S.R=Vernier coincidence x Vernier constant

Sl.No. MSR(m) VSR(n) Value of Total Mean
VSR(p) m+p breadth(b)
P=n*L.C
(cm) (cm) (cm) (cm) (cm)

1.
2.
3.

Mean Breadth (b)= …….cm

Corrected breadth (b)= ……..cm

(C) Measurement of thickness of the beam:

Zero error of the screw gauge=……..cm

Pitch of the screw=……….cm

Least count of the screw gauge=……..cm

Table: 2 Measurement of the thickness (d) of the beam:

Sl no. LSR(m) CSR(n) Value of CSR Total(m+p=d) Mean

P=n*L.C thickness(d)
(cm) (cm) (cm) (cm)

1.
2.
3.
Corrected mean thickness (d) = ………..cm

Corrected thickness (d) = ………………cm

 (D) Measurement of Depression (y)of the beam:

Pitch of the spherometer=………..cm

Table: 3

Loading Unloadin
g
No. of complete rotations

No. of complete rotations

Total(T2) =n*Pitch+(b-
Total(T1)=n*Pitch+(a-

Mean (T1+T2/2) (cm )

b)*LC , If a<b then,
[100-(b-a)] *LC (cm )

[100-(a-b)] *LC (cm )

a)*LC ,If b<a then,

Depression (y) (cm)

Initial CSR(a)

Initial CSR(a)
Final CSR(b)

Final CSR(b)
Load M (gm)

of CSR(n)

of CSR(n)

1.
2.
3.
4.

GRAPH

A graph is plotted between the load M and the depression y.

The slope is obtained from the linear part of the curve.

1.6 CALCULATION:

Slope M/ y from the graph=………

For rectangular bar Y= ( M/ y)gl3/4bd3 =……….

Y is calculated by using Y= ( M/ y) both by difference method and by the slope of the

curve .
RESULT

Young’s modulous(Y) of the beam of the material:

Graphical method (Y) = …….N/m2

Difference method (Y) = …… N/m2

Percentage of error=………

1.7 PRECAUTION AND DISCUSSION:

References:

1.University Practical Physics,D.C.Tayal

2. Mechanics ,D.S.Mathur, S.Chand

 National Institute of Technology Silchar
Department of Physics
Physics Laboratory, B.Tech. (PH-111) 1st and 2nd Semester
.

EXPERIMENT NO. 4
1.1 AIM:

To study the diffraction pattern at a single slit and thus to determine the wave length(λ)
of the monochromatic light.

1.2 APPARATUS REQUIRED:

Spectrometer, A Single slit, and Travelling microscope.

1.3 THEORY:

Let a plane wave front AB (shown in figure)of monochromatic light of wavelength λ falls
normally on the surface of a narrow slit S1S2 of width ‘a’. Each point of the wave front in the
plane of the slit may be regarded as a source of secondary wavelets. The complex light
disturbance at the midpoint O of the slit may be represented by 𝐴 = 𝐴𝑒 𝑖𝜔𝑡 where A is the
amplitude and 𝜔 is the circular frequency of the wave. The phase difference between the waves
at Q coming from O and P (at a distance x from O) is given by
𝟐𝛑 𝟐𝛑 𝟐𝛑
× 𝐏𝐍 = 𝐱 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝛉 = 𝐥𝐱 where 𝐥 = 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝛉 …………..(1.1)
𝛌 𝛌 𝛌

Hence the disturbance at Q due to secondary waves from P

is proportional to 𝑒 𝑖(𝜔𝑡−𝑙𝑥)

The disturbance at Q due to element dx is

dy=𝑪𝑨𝒅𝒙𝒆𝒊(𝝎𝒕−𝒍𝒙) .......................(1.2)
Where C is a proportionality constant.

Thus the disturbance at Q due to all the diffracting element

−𝐚
𝐲 = ∫𝐚 𝟐 𝐂𝐀𝐞𝐢(𝛚𝐭−𝐥𝐱) 𝐝𝐱
𝟐
𝐥𝐚
𝐬𝐢𝐧
= 𝐂𝐀𝐚 𝐥𝐚
𝟐
𝐞𝐢𝛚𝐭 …………………………(1.3)
𝟐
The resultant intensity I at Q is obtained by multiplying y with its complex conjugate. Thus
 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐 𝜶 𝒍𝒂 𝝅
I =y.y*=𝑰° 𝜶𝟐
where 𝑰° = (𝑪𝑨𝜶)𝟐 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝜶 = 𝟐
= 𝝀 𝒂𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽

The \ maxima and minima intensities are given by

𝐝𝐈
𝐝𝛂
=𝟎
Hence, either sin𝜶 =0 ……….. (iv)
Or 𝛂 = tan 𝛂 ………(v)

Condition (i) will give minima and condition (ii) will give maxima

Thus for minima sin 𝜶 = 0

Or 𝜶 = m𝝅, m = ±𝟏, ±𝟐 ± 𝟑 ± 𝟒 … … … … … … 𝒆𝒕𝒄
a sin𝜽 = m λ
For maxima equation (1.2) has solution
𝜶 = 𝟎 𝒐𝒓 ± (𝟐m+𝟏)𝝅, m= 1,2, 3………… etc.

Figure below shows the intensity distribution in the

diffraction pattern due to a single slit

1.4 PROCEDURE:

1. Adjust the spectrometer and focus for parallel rays.

2. Mount a single slit and adjust the spectrometer to obtain the diffraction bands.
3. Record the position of the different bright bands on both sides of the central
maxima.
 4. The diffraction angle 𝜃 is half the angular separation between the bright bands of
same
order.

1.5 OBSERVATION:
Table 1:
Verification of slit width with travelling microscope

Sl. Crosswire to the left end Crosswire to the right end Slit width
no a=│a-b│
(cm)
Total VVSR Total
MSR VSR VVSR (a) M.S.R V.S.R (VSR × v.c) (b)
(VSR × v.c)
(cm) (cm) (cm) (cm) (cm) (cm)
1
2
3

Mean Slit Width(a)= …………..(cm)

Table 2:
Measurement of the diffraction angle 𝜽 for the slit of width (a)
Sl. Order Vernier Telescope in the Telescope in the 2𝜽 = Mean Sin
No of left side right side (a-b) 𝜽 𝜽
. Bright (degree)
rings
(m)
MSR VSR VVSR Total MSR VSR VVSR Total
(degree) (VSR*LC) (a) (degree) (VSR*LC) ( b)

1. V1
5
V2
2. V1
4
V2
3. V1
3
V2
4. V1
2
V2
5. V1
1
V2
Least count of spectrometer = …………
GRAPH: Plot a graph between sin 𝜽 and m (no. of the bright bands). The slope of this
linear curve
when multiplied by slit width(a) gives the wave length (λ)of light.

Hence 𝝀 = a sin 𝜽 /m = ……..Å

& also find the percentage error.

1.6 PRECAUTION & DISCUSSION:

 National Institute of Technology Silchar
Department of Physics
Physics Laboratory, B.Tech. (PH-111) 1st and 2nd Semester
.

EXPERIMENT NO. 5

1.1 AIM:

To study the transverse waves over the sonometer wires and hence to determine
their velocity and mass per unit length.

1.2 APPARATUS REQUIRED:

Sonometer wires of different materials, Weights, Magnets, Step down transformer.

1.3 THEORY:

When a wire carrying an electric current is placed in a magnetic field acting normally
to the direction of the current, the wire experiences a force perpendicular to the
direction of the magnetic field and current. For a particular length of the wire it is
thrown into resonance and is observed by large amplitude of vibration. If the current is
alternating the force also alternates in direction and the periodicity of this force is the
same as that of A.C. This condition is achieved when the frequency of the alternating
current passing through it matches with the natural frequency of the wire. The
frequency of the alternating current can be obtained by the eqn. (1)

n = (p/21) [(T/m)1/2] (1)

where,

T = tension on the
m = mass per unit length of the wire

l = resonating length of the vibrating wire

p = number of segments in which the wirevibrates

(say 1,2,3,....etc.)
The velocity v of the transverse wave is given by the relation

v = n λ. (2)

Where, λ. is the wave length.

For the vibration in the fundamental mode,
there is a single loop between the
bridges of the sonometer. Thus, the length of
the wire between the bridges
l = λ/2 or, λ. = 2l for p number of loops
between the bridges.

We have ,
l = p λ/2 or λ. = 2l/p.
Therefore, v= 2nl/p
(3)

From eqn (1) and (3) velocity of the wire can

be expressed as

v= (T/m)1/2
(4)

Thus, for a particular wire with a fixed

tension T applied, v remains constant and for
a fixed m, v2 varies with T.

The mass per unit length of each wire can be

obtained from the slope of T/v2 graph
1.4 PROCEDURE:

1. A suitable weight is now put on the hanger. After putting the transformer switch on and
placing the wire in the magnetic field, the movable bridge is slowly moved. For a particular
position of the bridge the wire is thrown into a violent resonant vibration and the amplitude
is maximum.

2. The length of the vibrating wire is noted. The tension corresponding to this length which
includes the mass of the pan is also recorded.

3. The process is repeated for three or more different tensions..

4. The same procedure is followed and readings are taken for wires of different materials.

1.5 OBSERVATIONS:

Mass of the pan(M) = ……………gm

Mass on the pan(m) = ……………gm

Frequency of the vibration (n) = 50 Hz

Tension T = [(M+ m) ×g]

TABLE: 1

No. of
Obs.
No.
of Loops
Tension
Applied
Resonating
Length
v=2nl/p Mean
(v)
v2
(p) (T) (l)
(N) (m) (m/s) (m2/s2)
(m/s)

1. 1 T1
2
1 T2
2. 2
1 T3
2
3.

Repeat the same table for other two wires also.

21
GRAPHS:

The graph T Vs v2 is plotted for the given wires and hence the mass per unit length is obtained.

RESULTS:

Find mass per unit length of each material of the wires and also find the percentage of error.

1.6 PRECAUTIONS & DISCUSSIONS:

22
 National Institute of Technology Silchar
Department of Physics
Physics Laboratory, B.Tech. (PH-111) 1st and 2nd Semester

EXPERIMENT NO. 6

1.1 Aim of the Experiment:

(i) To study the charging and discharging of a capacitor

(ii) To measure the time constant characterizing charging / discharging process and compare the
experimental RC time constant with theoretical RC time constant.

1.2 Apparatus: D.C. Voltage source (12V), resistors, a capacitor, digital multimeter, connecting
wires.
1.3 Theory:
I. The basic circuit for charging and discharging a capacitor is shown in Figure1. If S1 is closed (by
connecting terminal 1 to terminal 2) keeping S2 open, then the battery charges the capacitor and
current flows through the resistor R1 until the capacitor is fully charged. If the charge on the
capacitor at time t is q(t), then the voltage across the capacitor C is q/C and the current through
R1 is i= dq/dt.

23
 Figure 1

By applying Kirchoff’s second law,

𝑞
𝑖𝑅1 + =𝜀
𝐶
𝑑𝑞 𝑞
𝑅1 𝑑𝑡 + =𝜀 (1)
𝐶

𝑡 𝑡
− −
Which has the solution, 𝑞(𝑡) = 𝐶𝜀 (1 − 𝑒 𝑅1 𝐶 ) = 𝑞0 (1 − 𝑒 𝑅1 𝐶 ) = 𝑞0 (1 −
𝑡
𝑒 −𝜏 ) (2)

Where, 𝑞0 = 𝐶𝜀 and 𝜏 = 𝑅1 𝐶.

The quantity 𝜏 = 𝑅1 𝐶is the charging time constant which characterizes the rate at which charge is
deposited on the capacitor.As 𝑡 → ∞, equation (2) shows that 𝑞 → 𝐶𝜀 = 𝑞0 . In practice the capacitor
charges to its maximum value 𝑞0 (asymptotically) after a time interval equal to a few time constants.
Once the capacitor is fully charged then the current i through the resistor become zero.
II. At this point if the switch S1 is opened (by disconnecting terminal 1 to terminal 2) and S2 is
closed (by connecting terminal 1 to terminal 3) the charge in the capacitor discharges through
the resistor R2.
𝑑𝑞 𝑞
By Kirchoff’s second law, 𝑅2 ( 𝑑𝑡 ) + ( 𝑐 ) = 0,with the solution (taking 𝑞 = 𝑞0 at t=0)
𝑡
−
𝑞(𝑡) = 𝑞0 𝑒 𝑅2 𝐶

Thus the charge on the capacitor decays exponentially with time. In fact after a time 𝑡 = 𝑅2 𝐶 (equal
to the discharging time constant) the charge drops from it’s initial value 𝑞0 by a factor of 𝑒 −1 .

24
1.4 Observations and results:
R1 = …………………….
R2 = ……………………
C = ……………………..
Table I
(For charging capacitor)

Sl. Voltage Charge (Q=CV) Charging time

No. (Volt) (μC) t (Sec)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.

Table II
(For discharging capacitor)

Sl. Voltage Charge (Q=CV) Discharging

No. (Volt) (μC) time t (Sec)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.

25
GRAPH:

Figure 2 illustrates the variation of current I(t) through capacitor during charging. The current
increases, but still approaches a constant value asymptotically.

During charging

Figure 2
Figure 3 illustrates the variation of current I(t) throughcapacitor during discharging. The current
decreases, but still approaches towards a constant value asymptotically.

During discharging

Figure 3

26
RESULT:
RC Time constant for given combination
Theoretical value (𝛕 = 𝐑𝟏𝐂) t = ____________ sec
Theoretical value (𝛕 = 𝐑 𝟐 𝐂) t = ____________ sec
Practical value (from graph) t = ____________ sec

1.5 PRECAUTION AND DISCUSSION:

27
 National Institute of Technology Silchar

Department of Physics
Physics Laboratory, B.Tech. (PH-111) 1st and 2nd Semester
.
EXPERIMENT NO. 7
1.1 AIM:
To determine the refractive index (µ) of a prism by using a spectrometer.

1.2 APPARATUS REQUIRED:

Spectrometer, Prism, Sodium Vapour lamp, Spirit level and Reading lens.

1.3 THEORY :
FORMULA USED
The refractive index of the prism is given by the following formula:
 A  m 
sin  
  2 
 A
sin  
2
Where A = angle of the prism, δm = angle of minimum deviation.

Let IP be the incident ray falling at an angle of incidence i1, at the first face of a prism. It is refracted
along PQ and emerges out as QE.IP and QE are produced to meet at R. Let δ is the angle of
deviation.
< OPQ = r1 , <OQP= r2

28
From the figure ,
δ= <RPQ+<RQP
= (<RPO-<OPQ) + (<RQO-<OQP)
= i1 –r1 +i2 - r2
= 2i – 2r
Also, <A + <POQ = 1800
( In minimum deviation position, r1+r2 = r, i1+i2 = i )
r1 + r2 + <POQ = 1800
r1 + r2 = A
r = A/2
2i = δm + A
i = (δm + A)/2
1.4 PROCEDURE:
The following initial adjustments of the spectrometer are made first.
1. The spectrometer and the prism table are arranged in horizontal position by using the leveling
screws.
2. The telescope is turned towards a distant object to receive a clear and sharp image.
3. The slit is illuminated by a sodium vapour lamp and the slit and the collimator are suitably
adjusted to receive a narrow, vertical image of the slit.
4. The telescope is turned to receive the direct ray, so that the vertical slit coincides with the
vertical crosswire.

(A) Measurement of the angle of the prism:

1. Determine the least count of the spectrometer.
2. Place the prism on the prism table with its refracting angle A towards the collimator and with
its refracting edge A at the centre. In this case some of the light falling on each face will be
reflected and can be received with the help of the telescope.
3. The telescope is moved to one side to receive the light reflected from the face AB and the cross
wires are focused on the image of the slit. The readings of the two verniers are taken.
4. The telescope is moved in other side to receive the light reflected from the face AC and again the
cross wires are focused on the image of the slit. The readings of the two verniers are taken.
5. The angle through which the telescope is moved; or the difference in the two positions gives
twice of the refracting angle A of the prism. Therefore half of this angle gives the refracting
angle of the prism.

29
 (B) Measurement of the angle of minimum deviations:
1. Place the prism so that its centre coincides with the centre of the prism table and light falls on
one of the polished faces and emerges out of the other polished face, after refraction. In this
position the spectrum of light is obtained.
2. The spectrum is seen through the telescope and the telescope is adjusted for minimum
deviation position for a particular colour (wavelength) in the following way: Set up telescope at a
particular colour and rotate the prism table in one direction, of course the telescope should be
moved in such a way to keep the spectral line in view. By doing so a position will come where a
spectral line recede in opposite direction although the rotation of the table is continued in the
same direction. The particular position where the spectral line begins to recede in opposite
direction is the minimum deviation position for that colour. Note the readings of two verniers.
3. Remove the prism table and bring the telescope in the line of the collimator. See the slit directly
through telescope and coincide the image of slit with vertical crosswire. Note the readings of
the two verniers.
4. The difference in minimum deviation position and direct position gives the angle of minimum
deviation for that particular colour.

Arrangement to determine the angle

of prism.

Arrangement to determine the angle

of minimum deviation

30
 1.5 OBSERVATIONS:

(i) Value of the one division of the main scale = ……… degrees
Total number of vernier divisions = ……….
Least count of the vernier = ………. degrees = ……… second

(ii) Table for the angle (A) of the prism.

SL. Vernier Telescope reading for reflection Difference Mean A Mean A

No from first face from second face θ=a–b value of
= 2A 2A
MSR VSR VVSR TR (a) MSR VSR VVSR TR (b)
VSR*LC VSR*LC
(degree) (degree) (degree) (degree)
degree degree degree degree degree degree

1 V1
V2
2 V1
V2
3

(iii) Table for the angle of minimum deviation (δm).

Sl. Vernier Telescope reading for minimum Telescope reading for direct image Difference Mean
No. deviation δm = (a – b) value
of (δm)
MSR VSR VVSR TOTAL MSR VSR VVSR TOTAL
(VSR*L.C) (a) (VSR*L.C) (b)
(degree) (degree) (degree) (degree) (degree) (degree) (degree) (degree)
1 V1
V2
2 V1
V2

MSR = Main Scale Reading, VSR = Vernier Scale Reading,

VVSR= Value of Vernier Scale Reading , TR = MSR+VVSR = Total Reading.

31
1.6 CALCULATIONS:

Angle of the prism(A) = ………degree

Angle of minimum deviation(δm) =

RESULT

Refractive index for the material of the prism ‘µ’ & also find the percentage error.

1.7 PRECAUTIONS AND DISCUSSIONS:

1. The telescope and collimator should be individually set for parallel rays.
2. Slit should be as narrow as possible.
3. While taking observations, the telescope and prism table should be clamped properly with
the help of clamping screws.
4. Both verniers should be read.
5. The prism should be properly placed on the prism table for the measurement of angle of
the prism as well as for the angle of minimum deviation.

32
 National Institute of Technology Silchar
Department of Physics
Physics Laboratory, B.Tech. (PH-111) 1st and 2nd Semester
.

EXPERIMENT NO. 8
1.1 AIM:

Comparison of two low resistances by a potential drop method by using a meter bridge.

1.2 APPARATUS REQUIRED:

Meter bridge, two low resistances (less than 1 ohm), commutator, four way key, galvanometer, cell,
and rheostat.

1.3 THEORY:

Two low resistances ab and cd, whose values are respectively R and X ohm, are connected in series
and they are connected in parallel with the wire of the meter bridge as shown in the figure. If the
whole system is connected in cell then the main current from the cell i is divided and flows through
the two branches. One portion i1 flows through the low resistance branch while the other portion i2
flows through the meter bridge wire AB. If ρ be the resistance per unit length of the meter bridge
wire AB and if a', b', c', d', be the equipotential points with a, b, c and d respectively then the
potential difference between a'b' is l1 ρ i2(where l1 = a'b') and that between c'd' is l2 ρ i2 (where l2=
c'd'). But in the low resistance circuit, the potential drop across R (between ab) is Ri1 and that across
X (between cd) is Xi1. Since a', b', c', d' are equipotential points to a, b, c, d

hence,

R i1=l1 ρ i2 (i)

and X i1=l2 ρ i2 (ii)

Hence ,
R/X=l1 ρ /l2 ρ =l1/l2 (iii)
Thus , by determining the values of l1 and l2, the ratio of the values of R and X can be calculated
again if one of the values R and X be known , then the values of other unknown can be determined.

33
1.4 PROCEDURE:
(i) The circuit connections are made as shown in figure. The connecting wires in the low
resistance circuit, should be thick and short in length.
(ii) The points 1,2,3 and 4 of the four way is successively connected to the galvanometer
through the point G’ of the four way key and null points of the bridge wires are obtained
for each point. These null points on the wire are respectively the points a', b', c', and d'.
From the scale attached to the bridge the distance between a'b'(=l1) and c'd' (=l2) are
measured. These values l1 and l2 are employed in eq (iii) will give the value of the ratio of
R/X.
(iii) The position R and X are interchanged and the whole process is repeated.
(iv) In these way the main current is altered by changing the values of rheostat and for two
other values of the main current, the entire process is repeated.
(v) Thus the mean value of the ratio of R/X is obtained from all such values of the ratio R/X
so obtained.

34
1.5 OBSERVATIONS:
(A) Determination of the null points:
Table: 1
Resistance in
the
Main Current Null point obtained corresponding to a,b,c,and d
Current
Left Right a´ Mean b´ Mean c´ Mean d´ Mean
of b´ of c´ of d´
gap gap of a´
(cm) (cm) (cm) (cm) (cm) (cm) (cm) (cm)

Low R X Direct
Reverse

X R Direct
Reverse

Medium R X Direct
Reverse

X R Direct
Reverse

High R X Direct
Reverse

X R Direct
Reverse

35
 (B) Determination of the ratio of the resistances:

TABLE : 2

No. of obs. Mean

Mean Position of b´ -a´ d´ -c´ Value of
=l1cm =l2cm
= or

a´ (cm) b´ (cm) c´ (cm) d´ (cm)

(R-X )
L- 1
M- 2
H- 3

(X-R)
L- 1
M- 2
H- 3

RESULT:

Hence the ratio = …………………….

& also find the percentage error.

1.6 PRECAUTION AND DISSCUSSION:

36
 National Institute of Technology Silchar
Department of Physics
Physics Laboratory, B.Tech. (PH-111) 1st and 2nd Semester
.
EXPERIMENT NO. 9
1.1 AIM:

To study the variation of magnetic field with distance along the axis of a circular coil carrying current
by plotting a graph.

1.2 APPARATUS REQUIRED:

Circular coil, Magnetic field apparatus, Ammeter (1A), Rheostat, Compass box, Commutator, &
Connecting wires.

1.3 THEORY:

We know a current carrying wire generates a magnetic field. Now let us consider a circular coil of
radius r, carrying a current I. Let P be a point , at a distance x from the centre of the coil. We can
consider that the loop is made up of a large number of short elements, generating small magnetic
fields. So the total field at P will be the sum of the contributions from all these elements. At the
centre of the coil, the field will be uniform. As the location of the point increases from the centre of
the coil, the field decreases.

By Biot- Savart’s law, the field dB due to a small element dl of the circle, centered at A is given by,

37
 This can
be resolved into two components, one along the axis OP, and other PS, which is perpendicular to OP.
PS is exactly cancelled by the perpendicular component PSʹ of the field due to a current and centered
at Aʹ. So, the total magnetic field at a point which is at a distance x away from the axis of a circular
coil of radius r is given by,

If there are n turns in the coil, then

Where, I is the current in amperes flowing through the coil.

Since this field Bx from the coil is acting perpendicular to the horizontal intensity of earth’s magnetic
field, BH, and the compass needle alligns at an angle θ with the vector sum of these two fields, we
have from the figure below

Hence, B = BH tanθ

Or, B α tanθ

38
Hence a graph between tanθ and x will be similar to the graph between B and x . The horizontal
component of the earth’s magnetic field varies greatly over the surface of the earth. For the purpose
of calculation, we will assume its magnitude to be BH = 3.5x10-5 T.

1.4 PROCEDURE:

1. Place the instrument on the table so that the arms of the magnetometer lie roughly east and
west and the magnetic needle lies at the centre of the vertical coil . Place the eye a little above
the coil and rotate the instrument in the horizontal plane till the coil, the needle and its image
in the mirror provided at the base of the compass box all lie in the same vertical plane. The
coil is thus set roughly in the magnetic meridian. Rotate the compass box so that the pointer
lies on the 0-0 line.

2. Connect the galvanometer to a battery , a rheostat, a one way key and an ammeter through a
commutator as shown in fig. 1

3. Adjust the value of the current so that the magnetometer gives a deflection of the order of 600
-700. Reverse the current and again note the deflection. If the mean deflection in the two cases
agrees closely, the coil lies exactly in the magnetic meridian. If the mean deflection in the two
cases does not agree closely, slightly turn the instrument till the deflection with the direct and
the reversed currents agree closely.

4. Now slide the magnetometer along the axis and find the position where the maximum
deflection is obtained. In this position the centre of the needle coincides with the centre of the
vertical coil.

5. Note the position of the arm against the reference mark A and also the value of the current as
indicated by the ammeter. Read both ends of the pointer in the magnetometer, reverse the
current and again read both ends.

39
 6. Similarly repeat the observation by shifting the magnetometer in the opposite direction and
keeping the current const. at the same value.

1.5 OBSERVATION:

Current I =…………amp.

Sl Distance Left Mean tan Right Mean tan

no. From side θ θ side θ θ
the centre(x) (degree) (degree)

direct reverse direct reverse

1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15

40
GRAPH

Plot a graph between tanθ and x. The graph shows how the field varies along the axis of the coil.

1.6 PRECAUTION AND DISCUSSION:

41