PROPERTIES OF CIVIL ENGINEERING MATERIALS

LECTURE 1 – CLASSIC AND MODERN MOST SPREAD USED

MATERIALS IN CIVIL ENGINEERING

1.1 INTRODUCTION

1.2 CIVIL ENGINEERING MATERIALS AND THEIR PROPERTIES – PARTICULAR

REFERENCE TO OUR WEST AFRICAN MARKET

1.3 LABORATORY AND PRACTICAL WORK

1.1 INTRODUCTION

Good collaboration has always been required between architects and those who have the technical
expertise to realize buildings – civil and structural engineers. The nature of the relationship has taken
many forms, but the form in play at any time has always influenced the nature of the interface between
the structure constructed with sound materials and architecture.
”Properties of Civil Engineering Materials” is a fundamental discipline as other engineering courses. It
contains basic presentations of the theory, clarified by well selected illustrations and examples.
Serious attention will be paid especially to most spread used materials and their main properties with
particular reference to our Sub-west African Market.
Laboratory and practical work will be organized to support the theory. By the end of this present
preliminary course in Properties of Civil Engineering Materials all good students should be confident
with the integrity of materials that will be used in the construction of framed multi-storey structures,
water reservoirs, bridges, bridge desks, floors and roofs of different types of buildings, offshore
structures, shells, airfield pavements, railway sleepers, electric poles, beams, slabs, bricks and block,
columns, structural wall elements, girders, trusses, pipes, ram piles … etc.
Finally, ”Properties of Civil Engineering Materials” will be used later in civil engineering heavily
design-oriented specialization courses such as theory of Structures, Structural Analysis, Reinforced
Concrete Design, Numerical Methods in Civil Engineering, Civil Engineering Design, Structural
Engineering I & II, and many other courses.

1.2 CIVIL ENGINEERING MATERIALS AND THEIR PROPERTIES – PARTICULAR

REFERENCE TO OUR WEST AFRICAN MARKET

Referring to our West African market civil engineering materials include many different classic and
modern materials. This present course in Properties of Civil Engineering Materials relates to the most
spread used materials and their properties such us concrete, reinforced concrete, timber, steel, masonry,
and plastics.

1.3 LABORATORY AND PRACTICAL WORK

Laboratory and practical work organized to support the theory will include aggregate grading and
testing on the site, how to store the materials for concrete, how to mix better concrete, the slump test,
how to batch concrete by weight or by volume, how to find the moisture content of aggregates, how to
vibrate concrete, how to make and test concrete cubes, cylinders and prisms.
LECTURE 2 - CONCRETE AND REINFORCED CONCRETE

2.1 Introduction
2.2 Concrete
2.3 Reinforced concrete
2.4 Advantages and disadvantages of Reinforced concrete constructions
2.5 Concrete Materials
2.6 Reinforcing Materials

2.1 INTRODUCTION

Reinforced concrete has been accepted as the most widely used civil engineering material. Concrete in
itself has been proved to be weak in tension but reasonably good in compression. This shortcoming of
concrete as widely-used construction material has been to take care of the tensile handicap of concrete,
and to form in conjunction with each other the composite material called reinforced concrete. The
major constituent of concrete is natural aggregate which is available in different shapes and sizes.
However, artificial aggregates which include blast furnace slag, expanded clay, steel shots, broken
bricks and many other aggregates produced by industrial companies can be also used. The other
constituent of concrete is the material used in putting the aggregates together. This is usually referred to
as the binding medium. For most concretes, the binding medium is formed as a result of the chemical
reaction which takes place between water and cement mixed at an appropriate ratio. Other more
expensive binding media with higher ultimate compressive strengths are also used for specialized
construction such as long-span bridges, nuclear power station, under-ground buildings etc.
Polymer concrete which is better known or sometimes referred to as rein-additive concrete is generally
not suitable for use where the structure is sensitive to fire resistance because it is usually highly
inflammable. However, its resistance to chemical attack makes it the most preferred type of concrete
used in the storage of chemicals and construction of chemical prone drains.
Concrete is also used in conjunction with other materials in a form referred to as composite
construction. The usage of concrete in construction cuts across a wide range of engineering works
which include pavement of airport runways, bridges, roads, dams, chimneys, hydraulic structures,
offshore structures, cooling towers, railway sleepers, ... etc. Concrete is also used structurally in
buildings for columns, foundations, beams, slabs, trusses and precast concrete production. The impact
strength of the normal concrete can be improved by the addition of fibres to the concrete mix. The
commonest fibres used include steel fibres, glass fibres, polypropylene and asbestos. It has been proved
that when fibres of appropriate length to depth ratio are added to a concrete mix the flexural strength of
the resultant concrete is usually improved. Steel fibres reinforced concrete just as polymer concrete are
used mainly for specialized concrete works.

2.2 CONCRETE

In the past, most of the structures were made either in masonry, steel or timber depending upon the
availability of the materials and the nature of the structure. Recently concrete, as building material, has
come into being. In a very short period, concrete has gained so much importance that today more than
65 per cent of structures coming up in the world are constructed with concrete.
Concrete is composed of organic materials called aggregate such as gravel, sand, crushed stone, slag,
etc, cemented together with some cementing material (most commonly used Portland cement) and
water. When the above materials are mixed together so as to form a workable mixture, it can be given
any shape such as beams, slabs or columns. Cement and water react chemically to bind sand (know as
fine aggregate) and gravel or broken stone (know as coarse aggregate). When the constituent materials
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are mixed together, they get hardened after a few hours and a hard stone-like product is obtained. This
is called "concrete". Concrete is very strong in compression but extremely weak in tension and is a
brittle substance. The properties of concrete are dependent upon several factors such as amount of
cement, fine and coarse aggregates, water/cement ratio, temperature at the time of mixing, humidity
during moulding and temperatures and humidity maintained subsequently. The process of keeping the
concrete moist at desired temperature is called "curing of concrete".

2.3 REINFORCED CONCRETE

Concrete being extremely weak in tension, has the tendency to crack when tensile stresses are induced
in any part of the concrete. To arrest these cracks, reinforcement is provided in the tension zone. It
may, however, be noted that reinforcement does not avoid cracks but it simply arrests further widening
of cracks. So by providing tensile reinforcement at a proper place, the micro cracks do develop but
generally they are so small in width that these are not visible to the naked eye. Such a concrete, which
has reinforcement in tension zone, is known as "Reinforced Concrete". Concrete develops in fact, a
very good bond with steel reinforcement.
The ratio between the amount of fine and coarse aggregate necessarily depends on the grading and
another characteristics of the materials in order that the volume of sand is sufficient to fill the voids in
the coarse aggregate and to produce a dense concrete. Water used for mixing and curing should be clear
and free from injurious amounts of oils, acids, alkalis, salts, sugar, organic materials or other
substances that may be deleterious to concrete and steel reinforcement. Potable water is generally
considered satisfactory for mixing, and curing concrete. Mixing or curing of concrete with (for
example) sea water is not recommended because of the presence of the harmful salts in the sea water.

2.4 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF REINFORCED CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION

The reinforced concrete construction has the following advantages as compared to steel or timber
construction.
1. Concrete components can be cast in any desired size and shape.
2. Constituent materials are easily available and are quite cheap.
3. Grade of concrete suitable for a particular structure can be selected to provide an appropriate degree
of durability as well as strength.
4. Concrete with richer cement and with proper proportioning can be made water proof.
5. Its maintenance cost is very small compared to that of timber or steel.
6. In fire resistance, concrete construction is superior to steel and timber construction.
7. Monolithic construction in concrete is possible; this provides greater flexibility in planning and
design
8. Strength of concrete increases with age.

The main disadvantage in concrete construction is that member once cast cannot be dismantled as in
the case of steel and timber constructions. It also requires strict quality control. Also its self-weight is
very higher.

2.5 CONCRETE MATERIALS

2.5.1 Types of Cements

There is a large variety of cements available in the market. A few of them are mentioned below

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1. Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC)
This type of cement is most commonly used in concrete construction. Portland cement consists of the
following constituents:
(a) Lime 60% - 67%
(b) Silica 17% - 25%
(c) Alumina 3% - 8%
(d) Iron Oxide 0.5% - 6%
(e) Magnesia 0.1% - 4%
(f) Soda and Potash 0.2% - 1%
(g) Sulphur Trioxide 1% - 3%
(h) Free Lime 0% - 1%

2. Rapid Hardening Portland Cement

This type of cement is used where the strength of concrete is desired at any early date, e.g. Hospitals,
Public Buildings, and Road Works. Shuttering (formwork can be removed considerably earlier if this
cement is used, thus saving considerable time and expenses. The cement is particularly used under
conditions of frost.)

3. Low Heat Cement

Low heat cement is particularly used in massive constructions like abutments, retaining walls, dams
etc., where less heat of hydration will be evolved. The heat generated if ordinary Portland cement is
used at the end of 3 days, is generally of the order of 80 calories per gram of cement used whereas it is
less than 65 calories per gram at the end of 7 days and less than 25 calories per gram at the end of 28
days in case of low heat cement. The temperature rise is an important factor because the shrinkage that
may take place during cooling process introduces tensile stresses in concrete. This cement offers a
better resistance to chemical deterioration than Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC).

4. Portland Blast Furnace Slag Cement

This cement is obtained by grinding Portland cement clinker with blast furnace slag. The blast furnace
slag content should not exceed 65%. It has low heat of evolution as composed to OPC can be used for
all massive concrete structures like dams, retaining walls, abutments, etc. It is sulfate resistant and
generally used for construction in sea water.

5. Portland Pozzolana Cement

This cement is made either by grinding Portland cement clinker with pozzolana (finely powdered form
of burnt bricks, fly-ash, burnt clay etc).
The pozzolana content generally varies from 10% to 25% by weight of cement. Pozzolana itself does
not possess any cementing property but has the property of combining with lime to obtain a stable
lime-pozzolana compound which possesses the cement property. The pozzolana concrete has a greater
resistance to chemical agencies. It can resist attack of sea water better than OPC.

6. Other Cements

(a) White cement is mainly used for decorative works like facing slabs, floorings, ornamental concrete
products, swimming pools etc.
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(b) Colored cements are obtained by adding 5% to 10% of ground pigments to white or ordinary
cements. There are used for designed colored floors.
(c) Sulfate resisting cement is used in culverts, siphons, canal lining etc., where ground water deposits a
good amount of sulfate in the soil.
(d) High strength ordinary Portland cement is used where very high strength is desired as compare to
OPC.

2.5.2 Coarse Aggregate

Coarse aggregates are inert materials used for increasing the volume and strength of concrete, e.g.,
gravel, crush stone, etc. The nominal sized of the coarse aggregate reinforced concrete work is 20mm
which is generally considered satisfactory. However, for mass concreting work higher size up to 40mm
can be used and still higher size up to 75 mm may be used for lean concrete mixes to be used as
leveling courses below structural foundations.

2.5.3 Fine aggregate

The particles of sand stone which fall between 0.15mm to 4.8mm are called fine aggregates. Coaser
sands give better strength to concrete. Salt content in sands is injurious to concrete strength.

2.5.4 Water

As said, Potable water is generally considered satisfactory.

2.6. REINFORCING MATERIALS

Concrete being extremely weak in tension, reinforcement is provided to take up the tensile stresses in
R.C. (Reinforced Concrete) structures. Reinforcement can be mild steel bars, ribbed or tor steel, steel
fibres, glass fibres or bamboo reinforcement. Steel is generally used because of its easy availability,
high strength, good bond with concrete and its coefficient of expansion being nearly same as for
concrete. Different types of steel bars are available such as Mild Steel, Hot Rolled Deformed bars, Cold
twisted bars, hard drawn steel wire fabric and Rolled steel. All reinforcement should be free from loose
rust and coats of paints, oils, mud or other coatings which may destroy or reduce bond. The steel bars,
generally used as reinforcing bars are of different diameters varying from 5mm to 50mm.

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LECTURE 3: PROPERTIES OF REINFORCED CONCRETE

3.1 Composite Action

3.2 Stress-strain Relation
3.3 Shrinkage
3.4 Creep
3.5 Durability
3.6 Specification of Materials

3.1. COMPOSITE ACTION

The tensile strength of concrete is only about 10 per cent of the compressive strength. Because of this,
nearly all reinforced concrete structures are designed on the assumption that the concrete does not resist
any tensile forces. This is well illustrated by Fig. 3.1 (a-c). Reinforcement is designed to carry these
tensile forces, which are transferred by bond between the interface of the two materials (Fig. 3.1 - d). If
this bond is not adequate, the reinforcing bar will just slip within the concrete and there will not be a
composite action. Thus members should be detailed so that the concrete can be well compacted around
the reinforcement during construction. In addition, some bars are ribbed or twisted so that there is an
extra mechanical grip.
In the analysis and design of the composite reinforced concrete section, it is assumed that there is
perfect bond, so that the strain in the reinforcement is identical to the strain in the adjacent concrete.
This ensures that there is what is known as "compatibility of stress" across the cross-section of the
member.
P

(a) (c)
(b)

(d)

Fig 3.1 Composite action resisting bending failure

Fig 3.1 (d) illustrates the behaviour of a simply supported beam subjected to bending and shows the
position of steel reinforcement to resist the tensile forces, in which the compression forces in the top of
the beam are carried by concrete. Whenever tension occurs it is likely that cracking of the concrete will
take place. This cracking, however, does not detract from the safety of the structure providing there is
good reinforcement bond to ensure that the cracks are restrained from opening so that the embedded
steel continues to be protected from corrosion.

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When the compressive or shearing forces exceed the strength of the concrete, then steel reinforcement
must again be provided, but in these cases it is only required to supplement the load-carrying capacity
of the concrete. For example, compression reinforcement is generally required in a column, where it
takes the form of vertical bars spaced near the perimeter. To prevent these bars buckling, steel binders
are used to assist the restraint provided by the surrounding concrete.

3.2 STRESS-STRAIN RELATIONS

The loads on a structure cause distortion of its members with resulting stresses and strains in the
concrete and the steel reinforcement. To carry out the analysis and design of a member it is necessary
to have knowledge of the relationship between these stresses and strains. This knowledge is particularly
important when dealing with reinforced concrete which is composite material; for in this case the
analysis of the stresses on a cross-section of a member must consider the equilibrium of the forces in
the concrete and steel, and also the compatibility of the strains across the cross-section.

3.2.1 Stress-strain relation for concrete

Concrete is a very variable material, having a wide range of strengths and stress-strain curves. A typical
curve for concrete in compression is shown in Fig. 3.2. As the load is applied, the ratio between the
stresses and strains is approximately linear at first and the concrete behaves almost as an elastic
material with virtually a full memory of displacement if the load is removed.

Fig. 3.2 Stress-strain curve for concrete in compression

Eventually, the curve is no longer linear and the concrete behaves more and more as a plastic material.
If the load were removed during the plastic range the recovery would no longer be complete and
permanent deformation would remain. This is called residual deformation and also called residual
strain. The shape of the stress-strain curve for concrete in compression depends on the length of time
the load is applied, a factor which will be further discussed in section 3.4 on creep. Fig 3.2 is typical for
a shorter loading.
Concrete generally increases its strength with age. This characteristic is illustrated by the graph in Fig
3.3 which shows how the increase is rapid at first, becoming more gradual later. Most codes of practice
allow the concrete strength used in design to be varied according to the age of the concrete when it
supports the design load. A typical variation in strength of an adequately cured ordinary Portland
cement concrete, as allowed by table 2 of CP 110, is

7 days 1 month 2 months 3 months 6months 1 year

16.5 25 27.5 29 30 31 N/mm2

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 Fig 3.3 Increase of concrete strength with age. Typical curve for an OPC concrete.

Modulus of Elasticity of Concrete

It is observed from the stress-strain curve for concrete that although elastic behaviour may be assumed
for stresses bellow about one-third of the ultimate compressive strength, this relationship is not truly
linear. Consequently it is necessary to define precisely what value is to be taken as the modulus of
elasticity E = stress / strain.
A number of alternative definitions exist, but the most commonly adopted is E = Ec where Ec is known
as the secant or static modulus. This is measured for a particular concrete by means of a static test in
which a cylinder is loaded to just above one-third of the corresponding control cube stress and then
cycled back to zero stress. This removes the effect of initial "bedding in" and minor stress
redistributions in the concrete under load. Load is then reapplied and the behaviour will then be linear;
the average slope of the line up to the specified stress is taken as the value for Ec. The test is described
in detail in BS 1881 and the result is generally known as the instantaneous static modulus of elasticity.
The dynamic modus of elascity, Ecq, is sometimes referred to since this is much easier to measure in
the laboratory and there is a fairly well defined relationship between Ec and Ecq. The standard test is
based on determining the resonant frequency of a laboratory prism specimen and is also described in
BS 1881. It is also possible to obtain a good estimate of Ecq from ultrasonic measuring techniques,
which may sometimes be used on site to assess the concrete in an actual structure. The standard test for
Ecq, is on an unstressed specimen. This is also known as site non-destructive test. It can be seen in Fig
3.4 that the value obtained represents the slope of the tangent at zero stress and Ecq is therefore higher
than Ec. The relationship between the two moduli is given by:

Static modulus Ec = (1.25 Ecq – 19) kN/mm2.

This equation is sufficiently accurate for normal design purposes.

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 Fig 3.4 Moduli of elasticity of concrete

The actual value of E for a concrete depends on many factors related to the mix, but a general
relationships is considered to exist between the modulus of elasticity and the compressive cube
strength. Ranges of Ec for various concrete grades, which are suitable for design are shown in table 3.1.
The magnitude of modulus of elasticity is required when investigating the deflection and cracking of a
structure.

Table 3.1 Short-term Modulus of Elasticity of Concrete

Cube strength (N/mm2) Static modulus (kN/mm2)
20 21-29
25 22-30
30 23-33
40 26-36
50 28-40
60 30-42

3.2.2 Stress-strain relation for steel

Fig. 3.5 shows typical stress-strain curves for (a) mild steel, and (b) high yield steel. Mild steel behaves
as an elastic material, with the strain proportional to the stress up to the yield, at which point there is a
sudden increase in strain with no change in stress. After the yield point, mild steel becomes a plastic
material and the strain increases rapidly up to the ultimate value. High yield steel on the other hand,
does not have a definite yield point but shows a more gradual change from elastic to plastic behaviour.

Fig 3.5 Stress-strain curves for steel

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The specified strength used in design is based on the yield stress for mild steel, whereas for high yield
steel the strength is based on a specific proof stress. A 0.2 per cent proof stress is defined in Fig. 3.5 by
the broken line drawn parallel to the linear part of the stress-strain curve. This is the stress, which
occurs at a given permanent strain – say 0.2% = (0.002).
Removal of the load within the plastic range would result in the stress-strain diagram following a line
approximately parallel to the loading portion, as shown by the line BC in Fig. 3.6. The steel will be left
with a permanent strain AC, which is known as 'slip'.

Fig. 3.6 Strain hardening

If again loaded, the stress-strain diagram will follow the unloading curve until it almost reaches the
original stress at B and then it will curve in the direction of the first loading. Thus, the proportional
limit for the second loading is higher than for the initial loading. This action is referred to as 'strain
hardening' or 'work hardening'.
The deformation of the steel is also dependent on the length of time the load is applied. Under a
constant stress the strains will gradually increase - this phenomenon is known as 'creep'. The amount of
creep that takes place over a period of time depends on the grade of steel and the magnitude of the
stress. Creep of the steel is of little significance in normal reinforced concrete work, but it is an
important factor in prestressed concrete where the prestressing steel is very highly stressed.

3.3 SHRINKAGE AND THERMAL MOVEMENT

As concrete hardens there is a reduction in volume. This shrinkage is liable to cause cracking of the
concrete, but it also has the beneficial effect of strengthening the bon between the concrete and the steel
reinforcement. Shrinkage begins to take place as soon as the concrete is mixed, and is caused initially
by the absorption of the water by the concrete and specifically by the aggregates. Further shrinkage is
caused by evaporation of the water which rises to the concrete surface. During the setting process the
hydration of the cement causes a great deal of heat to be generated, and as the concrete cools, further
shrinkage takes place due to thermal contraction. Even after the concrete has hardened, shrinkage
continues due to drying out over many months, and any subsequent wetting and drying can also cause
swelling and shrinkage.
The total shrinkage of concrete depends upon the constituents of concrete, size of members and
environmental conditions. For a given environment, the total shrinkage in concrete is mostly influenced
by the total amount of water present in concrete at the time of mixing, and to a lesser extent, by the
cement content. In the absence on test data, the approximate value of the total shrinkage strain for
design may be taken as 0.0003.
Thermal shrinkage may be reduced by restricting the temperature rise during hydration, which may be
achieved by the following procedures:
(1) Use a mix design with low cement content.
(2) Avoid rapid hardening and finely ground cement if possible.

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 (3) Keep aggregates and mixing water cool
(4) Use steel shuttering and cool with a water spray.
(5) Strike the shuttering early to allow the heat of hydration to dissipate.
A low water-cement ratio will help to reduce drying shrinkage by keeping to a minimum the volume of
moisture that can be lost.
If the change in volume is allowed to take place freely without restraint, there will be no stress change
within the concrete. Restraint of the shrinkage, on the other hand, will cause tensile strains and stresses.
The restraint may be caused externally by fixity with adjoining members of friction against an earth
surface, and internally by the action of the steel reinforcement. For example, for a long wall or floor
slab, the restraint from adjoining concrete may be reduced by using a system of constructing successive
bays instead of alternate bays. This allows the free end of every bay to contract before the next bay is
cast.
Day to day thermal expansion of the concrete can be greater than the movements caused by shrinkage.
Thermal stresses and strains may be controlled by the correct positioning of movement (expansion)
joints in a structure. For example the joints should be placed at an abrupt change in cross-section and
they should, in general, pass completely through the structure in one plane.
When the tensile stresses caused by shrinkage or thermal movement exceed the strength of the
concrete, cracking will occur. To control the crack widths, steel reinforcement must be provided close
to the concrete surface; the codes of practice specify minimum quantities of reinforcement in a member
for this purpose.

3.3.1 Shrinkage Restrained by the Reinforcement Only

The shrinkage stresses caused by reinforcement in an unrestrained member may be calculated quite
simply. The member shown in 3.7 has a free shrinkage strain sh if made of plain concrete, but this
over-all movement is reduced by the inclusion of steel reinforcement, giving a compressive strain sc in
the steel and causing an effective tensile strain ct in the concrete. Thus

sh = ct + sc = (fct /Ec) + (fsc/Es) (3.1)

where fct is the tensile stress in concrete area Ac and fsc is the compressive stress in steel area As.

Equating forces in the concrete and steel for equilibrium gives

Ac fct = As fsc (3.2)

therefore fct = (As/Ac) fsc

Fig. 3.7 Shrinkage strains

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Substituting for fct in equation (3.1)
A 1
 sh  f sc ( s  ) (3.3)
AcEc Es
E
Thus if the moduli ratio  e  s
Ec
 A 1 f  A
 sh  f sc ( e s  )  sc ( e s  1) (3.4)
AcEs Es Es Ac
Therefore steel stress
 sh E s
f sc  (3.5)
 A
1 e s
Ac

EXAMPLE 3.1
A member contains 1.0 per cent reinforcement, and the free shrinkage strain sh of the concrete is 200 x
10-6. The modulus of elasticity for steel Es = 200 kN/mm2 and for concrete Ec = 15 kN/mm2. Calculate
the stress in steel reinforcement fsc and the stress in concrete fct.

Solution: From equation (3.5), the stress in steel reinforcement fsc can be easily calculated:
 sh E s 200  10 6  200  10 3
f sc    35.3 N/mm 2 compression
eAs 200
1 1  0.01
Ac 15
From equation (3.2) having fsc the stress in concrete fct can be determined directly:
A
f ct  s f sc  0.01  35.3  0.35 N/mm 2 tension
Ac
The stresses produced in members free from external restraint are generally small as in this present
example 3.1, and can be easily withstood both by the steel and the concrete.

3.3.2 Shrinkage Fully Restrained

When the member is fully restrained, the steel cannot be in compression since sc = 0 and hence fsc = 0
(Fig. 3.7). In this particular case the tensile strain induced in the concrete ct must be equal to the free
shrinkage strain sh, and the corresponding stress will probably be high enough to cause cracking in
immature concrete.

EXAMPLE 3.2

If the member described in example 3.1 were fully restrained, then the stress in the concrete is given by

fct = ct Ec

where ct = sh = 200 x 10-6

then fct = 200 x 10-6 x 15 x 103 = 3.0 N/mm2.

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3.3.3 Thermal Movement

As the coefficients of thermal expansion of steel and concrete (s and c) are similar, differential
movement between the steel and concrete will only be very small and is unlikely to cause cracking.
The differential thermal strain th due to a temperature change T may be calculated as
th = T (c - s) (3.6)
and should be added to the shrinkage strain sh if significant.

The over-all thermal contraction of concrete is, however, frequently effective in producing the first
micro crack in a restrained member, since the required temperature changes could easily occur
overnight in a newly cast member, even with good control of the heat generated during the hydration
processes.

EXAMPLE 3.3
Determine the fall in temperature required to cause cracking in a restrained member if ultimate tensile
strength of the concrete ft = 2 N/mm2. Take Ec = 16 kN/mm2 and c = s = 10 x 10-6 per C.
Solution: The ultimate tensile strain of concrete
f 2
 ult  t   125  10 - 6
E c 16  10 3
The minimum temperature drop T to cause cracking is
 125
T  ult   12.5  C
c 10

3.4 CREEP

When a load is applied to a structural member it causes an immediate strain, which produces
deformation. If the load is left in place the member continuous to deform slowly with time. This time-
dependent strain is known as creep, and materials, which exhibit it are visco-elastic.
Creep is the continuous deformation of a member under sustained load. It is a phenomenon associated
with many materials, but it is particularly evident with concrete. Creep of concrete depends, in addition
to the factors that affect shrinkage, on the stress in concrete, on age at loading and the duration of
loading. As long as the stress in concrete does not exceed one-third of its compressive characteristic
strength creep may be assumed to be proportional to stress. The precise behaviour of a particular
concrete depends on the aggregate and the mix design, but the general pattern is illustrated by
considering a member subjected to axial compression. For such a member, a typical variation of
deformation with time is shown by the curve in figure 3.7.

Fig 3.7 A creep curve for concrete

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The characteristics of creep are:

(1) The final deformation of the member can be three to four times the short-term elastic deformation
(2) The deformation is roughly proportional to the intensity of loading and to the inverse of the
concrete strength
(3) If the load is removed, only the instantaneous elastic deformation will recover - the plastic
deformation will not.
(4) There is redistribution of load between the concrete and any steel present.

The redistribution of load is caused by the changes in compressive strains being transferred to the
reinforcing steel. Thus the compressive stresses in the steel are increased so that the steel takes a larger
proportion of the load.
The effects of creep are particularly important in beams, where the increased deflections may cause the
opening of cracks, damage to finishes and the non-alignment of mechanical equipment. Redistribution
of stress between concrete and steel occurs primarily in the uncracked compressive areas and has little
effect on the tension reinforcement other than reducing shrinkage stresses in some instances. The
provision of reinforcement in the compressive zone of a flexural member, however, often helps to
restrain the deflections due to creep.

3.5 DURABILITY

Concrete structures, properly designed and constructed, are long lasting and should require little
maintenance. The durability of the concrete is influenced by
(1) The exposure conditions
(2) The concrete quality
(3) The cover to the reinforcement
(4) The width of any cracks
Concrete can be exposed to a wide range of condition such as the soil, sea water, stored chemicals or
the atmosphere. The severity of the exposure governs the type of concrete mix required and the
minimum cover to the reinforcing steel. Adequate cover is essential to prevent corrosive agents
reaching the reinforcement through cracks and pervious concrete. The thickness of cover required
depends on the severity of the exposure and the quality of the concrete. Table 3.2 (based on BS
8110:Part1: 1997) gives the recommended minimum cover for different degrees of exposure. If the
steel reinforcement does start to corrode it increases in volume, which can cause the concrete to
continue cracking, thus exposing the reinforcement even more.

Table 3.2 Durability cover to steel reinforcement for concrete structures (mm)
Degree of exposure Concrete grade
C30 C35 C40 C45 C50
Mild 25 20 20 20 20
Moderate - 35 30 25 20
Severe - - 40 30 25
Very severe - - 50 40 30
Extreme - - - 60 50

The cover is also necessary to protect the reinforcement against a rapid rise in temperature and
subsequent loss of strength during fire.

14
3.6 SPECIFICATION OF MATERIALS

3.6.1 Specification of concrete

The selection of the type of concrete is frequently governed by the strength required, which in turn
depends on the intensity of loading and the form and size of the structural members. For example, in
the lower columns of a multi-storey building a higher-strength concrete may be chosen in preference to
great by increasing the size of the column section with a resultant loss in clear floor space. As well
known the concrete strength is assessed by measuring the crushing strength of cubes or cylinders of
concrete made from the mix. These are usually cured, and tested after 28 (twenty-eight) days according
to standard procedures. Concrete of a given strength is identified by its 'grade' - a grade 25 concrete, for
example has a characteristic cube crushing strength of 25 N/mm2. Table 3.3 shows a list of commonly
used grades and also the lowest grade appropriate for various types of construction.

Table 3.3 Grades of Concrete

Grade Lowest grade for use as specified
7 Plain concrete
10-15 Reinforced concrete with lightweight aggregate
20 Reinforced concrete with dense aggregate
25-30 Concrete with post-tensioned tendons
40 Concrete with pre-tensioned tendons
50
60

Exposure conditions and durability can also affect the choice of the mix design and the grade of
concrete. A structure subjected to corrosive conditions in a chemical plant, for example, would require
a denser and higher grade of concrete than say the interior members of a school or office block.

3.6.2 Specification of Reinforcing Steel

Floor slabs, walls, shells and roads may be reinforced with a welded fabric of reinforcement, supplied
in rolls and having a square or rectangular mesh. This can give large economics in the detailing of the
reinforcement and also in site labour costs of handling and fixing. Reinforcing bars in a member should
either be straight or bent to standard shapes. These shapes must be fully dimensioned and listed in a
schedule of the reinforcement, which is used on site for the bending and fixing of the bars. Table 3.4
lists the characteristic design strengths of several of the more common types of reinforcement. The
nominal size of a bar is the diameter of an equivalent circular area.

Table 3.4 Strength of Reinforcement

Designation Nominal sizes (mm) Specified characteristic
strength fy (N/mm2)
Hot-rolled mild steel (BS 4449) All sizes 250
Hot-rolled high yield (BS 4449) Up to and including 16 460
Cold-worked high yield (BS 4461) Over 16 425
Hard-drawn steel wire (BS 4482) Up to and including 12 485

15
LECTURE 4 - STEEL AND ITS PROPERTIES

4.1 Introduction
4.2. Classification
4.3 Properties

4.1 INTRODUCTION

Steel as other materials is also a widely used engineering material made from iron and it is an alloy
mixed with carbon, chromium, cobalt, copper, manganese, molybdenum, nickel, phosphorus, silicon
and sulphur. Different names have been assigned to steel, based on its composition.
We shall, therefore, in this present Lecture 4 examine the classification and some of the main properties
of steel. Steel is fabricated into a variety of structural shapes for use as beams, columns, plates,
connectors, and to act as reinforcement in the comparatively weak tensile zones of concrete structures.

4.2. CLASSIFICATION

The commonest classification shows that steels may be grouped into three distinct categories, carbon
steel, alloy steel and structural steel.

4.2.1 Carbon Steel

Carbon steel is usually classified in three groups:

(1) Low-carbon steel - less than 1/4 percent carbon
(2) Medium carbon steel - 0.25 to 0.5 percent carbon
(3) High carbon steel - over 0.5 percent carbon

4.2.2 Alloy Steel

Alloy steel is usually made up of a combination of other minerals and metals listed before. For example
should brittle steel be needed, sulphur, silicone and phosphorus may be added proportionately to the
alloy. However, should strength be the optimum requirement, nickel may be added. The hardness of
steel can be sufficiently increased by the addition of manganese. The consequence of this addition will
be the improvement of the steel's abrasion resistance. If copper and chromium are added to steel, then
the steel will have the tendency of resisting corrosion. Another conventional name that is commonly
associated wit alloyed steel is high strength-low alloy steel.

4.2.3 Structural Steel

Structural steel is another classification that steel is usually associated with. This name is associated
with forms of steel alloy that are used in building structures and bridges. Apart from being strong, it
should have permissible values of modulus of elasticity, compressive and tensile strengths, shear
strength. Generally, structural steel is manufactured using diversified methods; the most commonly
used being the cold-rolled or hot-rolled method. In reinforced concrete structures, reinforcement can be
mild steel bars, ribbed tor steel and steel fibres. Steel is generally used because of its easy availability,
high strength, good bond with concrete and its coefficient of expansion being nearly same as for
concrete. Different types of steel bars are available such as Mild Steel, Hot Rolled Deformed bars, Cold
Twisted bars, Hard drawn steel wire and Rolled Steel.

16
In pre-stressed concrete structures high strength steel is mostly used as pre-stressing material. High
strength steels, as already said are often obtained by alloying, which permits the manufacture of such
steels under normal operation. Carbon is an economical element for alloying, since it is cheap and easy
to handle. Other alloys include manganese and silicon. The most common method for increasing the
tensile strength for pre-stressing is by cold-drawing, the process of cold-drawing tends to realign the
crystals, and the strength is increased by each drawing so that the smaller the diameter of wires, the
higher their ultimate unit strength. High strength steel for pre-stressing takes one of the three forms:
wires (5-12mm diameter), strands (2-4mm diameter) or bars. For post-tensioning, wires are widely
employed; they are grouped in parallel into cables. Strands are fabricated in the factory by twisting
wires together. High strength steels usually contain 0.7 - 0.8 per cent carbon, 0.6 per cent manganese
and about 0.1 percent silica. Bars are first hot rolled and subsequently heat treated. Cold drawn wires
are tempered to improve their ductility properties. Tempering or stress relieving of wires at 150 - 400
C results in increasing of tensile strength. The wires used individually or in wire cables are generally 5
-7 mm in diameter having ultimate tensile strength of about 1500 N/mm2. The strands used vary in
nominal diameter from 10 to 44 mm. The ultimate tensile strength of high strength steels varies
inversely to diameter of wire.
Structural-steel shapes are manufactured to certain tolerances with respect to dimensional variations
such as camber, cross-section, diameter, square-ness, flatness, length, straightness, sweep, thickness,
weight, and width. The specific limitations are contained in the code requirements of the British Code
for Delivery of Rolled Steel Plates, Shapes, Sheet Piling, and Bars for Structural Use.

4.3 PROPERTIES

We shall define the following main steel properties, which may depend on the applied load.

4.3.1 Strength and Stiffness

Strength and stiffness are probably the most important of all steel properties when considering the
suitability characteristics for use in structures. The strength of the steel obviously dominates the
determination of the collapse load of a structure.
Stiffness is vital to ensure that structures do not deflect too much under load, however as we shall see
later, it also affects collapse as it controls the buckling load of compression members.
These two steel properties are considered together because they can be investigated in the same simple
test. Suppose we wished to investigate the strength and stiffness of mild steel – one of the commonest
structural steel. The first step is to prepare a test specimen also called coupon. A typical specimen is
shown in Fig. 4.1. It is shaped in this way so that it will fail in the center portion – well away from the
ends, which are gripped in the test machine.
The specimen is then placed in a tensile testing machine, which will pull it until it snaps. The load is
applied in small increments and the extension over the gauge length is measured at each increment.
(Modern test machines are equipped to provide a continuous readout of load and extension).

17
 Fig. 4.1 A tensile test coupon

A nominal stress-strain curve for mild steel is shown in Fig. 4.2. From the origin 0 to a, the curve is
linear, the material in this linear elastic range obeying Hooke’s law. Linear simply means that stress is
directly proportional to strain. Elastic means that the extension is reversible - i.e. if the load was
removed at this stage the specimen would return to its original length. Beyond a, the limit of
proportionality, stress no longer proportional to strain and the curve continuous to b, the elastic limit,
which is defined as the maximum stress that can be applied to a material without producing a
permanent plastic deformation when the load is removed.

Fig. 4.2 Stress-strain curve for mild steel

In other words, if the material is stressed beyond b and the load then removed a residual strain exists at
zero load. From 0 to b the material is said to be in the elastic range while from b to the fracture the
material is in the plastic range. The transition from elastic to plastic range may be explained by
considering the arrangement of crystals in the material. As the load is applied slipping occurs between
the crystals which are aligned most closely to the direction of the load. As the load is increased, more
and more crystals slip with each equal load increment until appreciable strain increments are produced
and the plastic range is reach.
A further increase in stress from b, results in the mild steel reaching its upper yield point at c followed
by a rapid fall in stress to its lower yield point at d. The existence of a lower yield point for mile steel is
a peculiarity of the tensile test wherein the movement of the ends of the test coupon produced by the
testing machine does not proceed as rapidly as its plastic deformation; the load therefore decreases as

18
does the stress. From d to f the strain increases at a roughly constant value of stress until strain-
hardening (discussed in g 4.3.2) again causes an increase in stress. This increase in stress continues,
accompanied by a large increase in strain to g, the ultimate stress ult of the material. At this point the
test coupon begins visibly, to ’neck’ as shown in Fig. 4.3. The material in the region of the ’neck’ is
almost is almost perfectly plastic at this stage and from thence, onwards to fracture, there is a reduction
in nominal stress.

Fig. 4.3 Necking of a tensile test coupon

For mild steel, yielding occurs at a stress of the order of 300 N/mm 2. At fracture the strain (i.e. the
elongation) is of the order of 30 %. The slope of the linear portion of the stress-strain curve gives a
value for Young’s modulus approximately equal to 200 000 N/mm2.
The characteristics of the fracture shown in Fig. 4.4 are worthy of examination. The two halves of the
fractured test coupon have ends, which form a ’cup and cone’.

Fig. 4.4 The two halves of the fractured test coupon

4.3.2 Strain Hardening

The stress-strain curve for steel is influenced by the strain history, or the loading and unloading of the
material, within the plastic range. Thus in Fig. 4.5 the test coupon is initially stressed in tension beyond
the yield stress, a, to a value at b.

Fig. 4.5 Steel strain hardening

The material is then unloaded to c and reloaded to f producing an increase in yield stress from the value
at a to the value at d. Subsequent unloading to g and loading to j increases the yield stress still further to
the value at h. This increase in strength resulting from the loading and unloading is known as ’strain
hardening’. It can be seen from Fig. 4.5 that the stress-strain curve during the unloading and loading
cycles forms loops, the shaded areas in the Fig. 4.5. These indicate that strain energy is lost during the
cycle, the energy being dissipated in the form of heat produced by internal friction. This energy loss is
known as mechanical hysteresis and the loops as hysteresis loops. Although the ultimate stress is

19
increased by strain hardening it is not influenced to the same extent as yield stress. The increase in
strength produced by strain hardening is accompanied by decreases in toughness and ductility.

4.3.3 Creep

Creep occurs in steel to a slight extent at normal temperatures but becomes very important at
temperatures above 316 C. A typical steel creep curve is shown in Fig. 4.6.

Fig. 4.6 A typical steel creep curve

Closely related to creep is relaxation. Whereas creep involves an increase in strain under constant stress
relaxation is the decrease in stress experienced over a period of time by the material with a constant
strain.

4.3.4 Fatigue

Steel structural members are frequently subjected to repetitive loading over a long period of time. Thus
for example, the members of a bridge structure suffer variations in loading possibly thousands of times
a day as traffic moves over the bridge. In these circumstances a structural member may fracture at a
level of stress substantially below the ultimate stress for non-repetitive static load; this phenomenon is
known as fatigue. Fatigue cracks are most frequently initiated at sections in a structural member where
changes in geometry, for example, holes, notches (shapes cut in form of the letter V), or sudden
changes in section, cause stress concentrations. Designers seek to eliminate such areas by ensuring that
rapid changes in section are as smooth as possible. Thus at re-entrant corners fillets are provided as
shown in Fig. 4.7.

Fig. 4.7 Stress concentration at re-entrant corners

Other factors which affect the failure of the material under repetitive loading are the type of loading
(fatigue is primarily a problem with repeated tensile stresses due, probably, to the fact that microscopic
cracks can propagate more easily under tension), the temperature, the material characteristics, the
surface finish (machine marks are potential crack propagators), the corrosion and the residual stresses
produced by welding.

20
LECTURE 5 - TIMBER, ITS SPECIFIC PROPERTIES, CELLULAR STRUCTURE, AND
GROWTH CHARACTERISTICS

5.1 Introduction
5.2 Main Properties and Specifications
5.3 Classification

5.1 INTRODUCTION

By its nature, wood is anisotropic material (i.e. having different properties in different directions).
Generally in materials sciences, relationships between load, duration of load, deformation, and material
strength are usually based on the assumption that the structural material is homogeneous and isotropic,
in both elastic constants and strength properties. Wood is neither, because of its cellular structure and
growth characteristics. The growth of trees is by the addition of cells under the bark (hard substance
that covers a tree), at the ends of branches and at the roots. The thickness and structural characteristics
of the new cell layer depend upon many factors such as temperature, moisture, and species. Most cells
are oriental along the longitudinal axis of the tree while fewer cells develop radially and usually none
tangentially.

5.2 MAIN PROPERTIES AND SPECIFICATIONS

The growth pattern of trees, in certain climates, leads to the development of annual dark and light rings.
These rings exhibit different strength properties, the summer wood being darker in color and stronger
than the lighter-colored spring wood. In estimating the strength properties of some woods the number
of annual rings per inch is used as partial guide. The addition of cells occurs, overall, in a uniform
manner and creates the grain appearance in wood. Wood is often assumed to be an orthotropic material
(Fig 5.1) with the three principal elasticity directions coinciding with the longitudinal (a), radial (r), and
tangential () directions in the tree.

Fig 5.1 Multilayer tree element with the three principal elasticity directions (a), (r), and 

21
As with most materials there is inherent variability in the strength of small, clear samples of wood
under short-term loading. Added to this variability are the effects of duration of load and strength-
reducing factors such as knots (knot = a round hard place in a piece of wood where a branch grew). In
addition, wood exhibits directional properties when subjected to various stress states. The strength
properties to consider are associated with normal and shear stresses parallel to the grain, perpendicular
to the grain radially, and perpendicular to the grain tangentially (Fig 5.1). The difference in strength
properties in the radial and tangential directions is seldom of significance in design. Thus, it is
necessary only to differentiate between directions normal and parallel to the grain. Working stresses for
timber are approximately 20 to 75 percent of the ultimate strength. The large variation of the factor of
safety is due to the variability of the strength properties, which depend on knots, moisture content,
grain, density, voids, splits (cuts or breaks in the material), and many other factors. Wood is not ductile
like steel but, it does have a high capacity of energy absorption which is the consequence of applied
load. The modulus of elasticity of wood varies with species of the same wood, its value being different
in the longitudinal, radial and tangential directions. In concrete design, cracking, creep, dead weight
and ductility are of concern but in the case of timber the design of connections is of utmost importance
and hence the need for an understanding of the strength properties of wood to be used for a particular
construction purpose.
Any timber which is used for structural purposes should be stress graded. Two methods of stress
grading are available. It can be carried out manually by specially trained inspectors. They assess
individual pieces of timber for the number and position of such defects as knots and splits, and then, if
suitable, each piece is stamped with its appropriate grade. There are two manual grades – GS (general
structural) and SS (special structural). Knowing the timber species and the stress grade it is then
possible to place the timber into a strength class, which determines the permissible stresses to be used
in structural design calculations.
The second stress grading method is by machine. Each piece of timber is fed through a machine which
measures the force required to bend the timber. A relationship between the bending stiffness and the
appropriate stress class is then assumed, and the piece stamped accordingly.
For softwoods the strength classes range from C14 to C30, where the number refers to the ultimate
bending stress in N/mm2. For example, two of the most commonly used timbers – whitewood and
redwood – are both classed as shown in table 5.1.

Table 5.1 Strength classifications for whitewood and redwood timber

Stress grade Strength class
GS C16
SS C24

In terms of durability when selecting a structural timber it is important that it remains intact and fully
functional for a reasonable lifetime. Timber is subjected to decay both fungal attack and wood-boring
insects. (Fungus or funguses = any of those plants without leaves, flowers, or green coloring matter,
growing on other plants or decaying matter, including molds, rusts, mildews = funguses that form a
white coating on things exposed moisture, mushrooms = edible funguses with a stem and domed cap,
noted for its rapid growth), … ect. Wet rot is a fungal attack which occurs when the wood is actually
wet, whereas the more sinister dry rot occurs when the moisture content is above 20%. Dry rot is
particularly troublesome because it can spread rapidly, even through brick-work, by releasing long
tendrils (tendril = a thin curling part of a plant serving to attach itself to a support).

22
5.3 CLASSIFICATION

Timber species are usually classified into two main types – hardwoods and softwoods. However, this
classification is independent of the texture of a sawn timber section. Hardwoods originate from broad-
leaved trees such as oak, ask, and mahogany, whereas softwoods originate from coniferous trees such
as spruce, pine, and Douglas fir. Softwoods tend to be quicker growing than hardwoods, and
consequently are cheaper to buy. Most structures are, for this reason, manufactured in softwood. The
selection of timber for usage is usually governed by the code requirements of the British Code for the
Structural Use of Timber in Buildings BS 5268:1996. This is one of the few standards which, is still
written in terms of permissible stresses. However, Eurocode 5 uses a limit state approach. Some
commonly used timber species include Afromosia, a hardwood of West Africa with a density of about
700kg/m3 in seasoned conditions and Agba, another hardwood of West Africa with a density of about
500kg/m3. It has strong resistance to decay and can be used as a structural timber. Other species include
Balsa Beech, Birch, Idigbo, Cedar, Fir, Mahogany, Opepe, Oak, Iroko, Sapele and many other timber
species.

23
LECTURE 6 - MASONRY

6.1 Main definitions

6.2 Classification
6.3 Quality control and main properties

6.1 MAIN DEFINITIONS

Masonry is the art of shaping and laying bricks, burned-clay units, blocks of stones, structural clay
tiles, concrete units used to form walls, columns, slabs, using mortar and grout.
Burned-clay units include common (building brick) and face brick, hollow clay tile, and ceramic tile.
There are many types of finishes to meet beautiful and nice architectural appearance requirements.
Brick masonry units include different grades building bricks made from clay or shale, hollow brick,
sand-lime building brick. Light traffic paving brick, concrete building brick. Hollow and solid load-
bearing concrete masonry units, structural clay load-bearing wall tile, unburned-clay units and glazed
structural clay facing tile are also widely used.
Mortar consists of a mixture of cementitious materials and aggregate to which sufficient water and
approved additives, if any, have been added to achieve as workable, plastic consistency. Bond is more
important to the proper functioning of masonry than the strength of mortar itself is.
Grout consists of a mixture of cementitious materials and aggregate to which water has been added
such that the mixture will flow without segregation of the constituents. Grout is used to fill spaces in
masonry to increase the net area of a section, but more importantly to bond reinforcing steel bars into
the masonry.

6.2 CLASSIFICATION

Masonry is divided into several branches each of which is also subdivided. The main classifications
are:
1. Constructional masonry
(a) Reinforced Masonry
(b) Unreinforced Masonry
2. Monumental masonry
3. Marble masonry
4. Granite masonry

Each of the forelisted classification of masonry is linked with a craftsman who has a good mastery of
the aspect he is involved in and is well apt with the techniques involved. The craftsmen include the
mason or stone cutter, machinist, waller, fixer, mould cutter, and many other craftsmen. They are
subsequently divided into groups which include those working on soft stone, marble, Portland stone,
hardstone, granite, etc

6.3 QUALITY CONTROL AND MAIN PROPERTIES

Since masonry construction consists of assemblages of hand-placed small units, craftsmanship is of

utmost importance. For example to assure adequate bonding, bed joints should be spread in length only
to the extent that the mortar will remain plastic for the last unit to be placed. This depends on the good
mastery of the craftsman, the water retention of the mortar, the rate of absorption of the units at the
time of laying, and weather conditions.

24
The most widely used constructional masonry is unreinforced masonry. Unreinforced masonry is used
within the traditional limits of height to thickness given in Table 6.1

Table 6.1 Minimum Thickness of Masonry Walls

Type of Masonry Maximum ratio of unsupported Specified minimum thickness, in
height of length to thickness (1 mm = 0.0394 in)
Bearing walls:
Unburned-clay masonry 10 16
Stone masonry 14 16
Cavity-wall masonry 18 8
Hollow-unit masonry 18 8
Solid masonry 20 8
Nonbearing walls:
Exterior unreinforced walls 20 2
Interior unreinforced partitions 36 2

The reinforced masonry consists of the introduction of steel wires and bars into the masonry
construction of the buildings, and has revolutionized the orthodox approach towards masonry
construction. Consequently, traditional masonry instead of being the art of building with stones has
become an avenue whereby the carcass of a building may be satisfactorily covered with stones while
maintaining the aesthetics of the structure.

6.3.1 Advantages

*The use of materials such as brick and stone can increase the thermal mass (that has the capacity to
store heat) of a building, giving increased comfort in the heat of summer and the cold of winter and can
be ideal for passive solar applications.
*Brick typically will not require painting and so can provide a structure with reduced life-cycle costs.
*The appearance, especially when well crafted, can impart an impression of solidity and permanence.
*Is very heat resistant and thus will provide good fire protection.

6.3.2 Disadvantages

*Extreme weather may cause degradation of the surface due to frost damage. This type of damage is
common with certain types of brick, though relatively rare with concrete block. If non-concrete (clay-
based) brick is to be used, care should be taken to select bricks suitable for the climate in question.
*Masonry must be built upon a firm foundation (usually reinforced concrete) to avoid potential settling
and cracking. If expansive soils (such as adobe clay) are present, this foundation may need to be quite
elaborate and the services of a qualified structural engineer may be required.
*The high weight increases structural requirements, especially in earthquake prone areas.

6.3.3 Structural limitations

Masonry boasts an impressive compressive strength (vertical loads) but is much lower in tensile
strength unless reinforced. The tensile strength of masonry walls can be strengthened by thickening the
wall, or by building masonry "piers" (vertical columns or ribs) at intervals. Where practical, steel
reinforcement also can be introduced vertically and/or horizontally to greatly increase tensile strength,
though this is most commonly done with poured walls.

25
LECTURE 7 - PLASTICS

7.1 Composition
7.2 Properties
7.3 Manufacturing Methods

7.1 COMPOSITION

Resin is generally applied to the initial polymeric substance from which all plastic products are made.
Plastic refers to a large group of synthetic materials which are made from a number of common
substances such as coal, salt, oil, natural gas, cotton, wood and water. From these said common
substances, relatively simple chemicals known as monomers, which are capable of reacting with one
another are produced. These said monomers are then built up into chain-like molecules called
polymers.
Resins are obtained naturally and synthetically. Natural resins include resin obtained from trees, amber
- a natural yellow or brownish-yellow resin used for making ornamental objects, and lac- a natural resin
obtained from the exudate of a tree lining insect. Synthetic resins include vinyl, epoxy silicone, phenol-
formaldehyde, lurea formaldehyde, furfural formaldehyde and allyl resin.
Plastic can be made to be thermoplastics or thermosetting plastics. Thermoplastics are those that have
elasticity property. Some thermoplastic products include insulating covering or electrical wire and
sheet goods. Thermosetting plastics are however those that have rigidity property and are permanently
set. For example plastic fittings are produced (made) from thermosetting plastics.

7.2 PROPERTIES

Generally plastics have extraordinary quality properties that make them unique materials, and these
said properties include abrasion resistance, adhesive qualities, dimensional stability, ductility, high
impact resistance, low moisture absorption, resistance to chemicals, resistance to weathering,
toughness, transparency, lightness quality and foaming quality, resistance to corrosion.

7.2.1 Polystyrene and PVC

Improvements in chemical technology led to an explosion in new forms of plastics. Among the earliest
examples in the wave of new plastics were "polystyrene" (PS) and "polyvinyl chloride" (PVC),
developed by [IG Farben] of Germany.

Polystyrene is a rigid, brittle, inexpensive plastic that has been used to make plastic model kits. It
would also be the basis for one of the most popular "foamed" plastics, under the name "styrene foam"
or "Styrofoam". Foam plastics can be synthesized in an "open cell" form, in which the foam bubbles
are interconnected, as in an absorbent sponge, and "closed cell", in which all the bubbles are distinct,
like tiny balloons, as in gas-filled foam insulation and floatation devices.

PVC has side chains incorporating chlorine atoms, which form strong bonds. PVC in its normal form is
stiff, strong, heat and weather resistant, and is used for making plumbing, gutters, house siding,
enclosures for computers and other electronics gear. PVC can also be softened with chemical
processing, and in this form it is used for shrink-wrap, food packaging, and raingear.

26
7.2.2 Nylon

The real star of the plastics industry was "polyamide" (PA), far better known by its trade name
'''nylon'''. Nylon was the first purely synthetic fiber, introduced by Du Pont Corporation in New York
City. Du Pont's work led to the discovery of synthetic nylon fiber, which was very strong but also very
flexible. The first application was for bristles for toothbrushes. However, his real target was silk,
particularly silk stockings.
Nylons still remain important plastics, and not just for use in fabrics. In its bulk form it is very wear
resistant, particularly if oil-impregnated, and so is used to build gears, mechanical bearings, and
because of good heat-resistance, increasingly for under-the-hood applications in cars, and other
mechanical parts.

7.2.3. Common plastics and their uses

 Polypropylene (PP): Food containers, appliances, car fenders.

 Polystyrene (PS): Packaging foam, food containers, disposable cups, plates, CD and cassette boxes.

 High impact polystyrene (HIPS): fridge liners, food packaging, vending cups.

 Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS): Electronic equipment cases (e.g., computer monitors, printers,
keyboards).

 Polyethylene terephthalate (PET): carbonated drinks bottles, jars, plastic film, microwavable
packaging.

 Polyester (PES): Fibers, textiles.

 Polyamides (PA) Nylons: Fibers, toothbrush bristles, fishing line, under-the-hood car engine
mouldings.

 Polyvinyl chloride (PVC): Plumbing pipes and guttering, shower curtains, window frames, flooring.

 Polyurethanes (PU): cushioning foams, thermal insulation foams, surface coatings, printing rollers.

 Polycarbonate (PC): Compact discs, eyeglasses, riot shields, security windows, traffic lights, lenses.

 Polyvinylidene chloride (PVDC) Saran plastic: Food packaging.

 Polyethylene (PE): Wide range of inexpensive uses including supermarket bags, plastic bottles.

7.2.4. Advantages

Plastics are durable and according to their chemical composition they degrade very slowly.
Thermoplastics can be remelted and reused, and thermoset plastics can be ground up and used as filler,
though the purity of the material tends to degrade with each reuse cycle. There are methods by which
plastics can be broken back down to a feedstock state.

27
To assist recycling of disposable items, the Plastic Bottle Institute of the Society of the Plastics
Industry devised a now-familiar scheme to mark plastic bottles by plastic type.
Unfortunately, recycling plastics has proven difficult. The biggest problem with plastic recycling is that
it is difficult to automate the sorting of plastic waste, and so it is labor intensive. Typically, workers
sort the plastic by looking at the [[resin identification code]], though common containers like soda
bottles can be sorted from memory. Other recyclable materials, such as metals, are easier to process
mechanically. However, new mechanical sorting processes are being utilized to increase plastic
recycling capacity and efficiency.
While containers are usually made from a single type and color of plastic, making them relatively easy
to sort out, a consumer product like a cellular phone may have many small parts consisting of over a
dozen different types and colors of plastics. In a case like this, the resources it would take to separate
the plastics far exceed their value and the item is discarded. However, developments are taking place in
the field of Active Disassembly, which may result in more consumer product components being re-
used or recycled.

7.2.5 Disadvantages

Some plastics have been associated with negative health effects. Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) contains
numerous toxic chemicals called adipates and phthalates ("plasticizers"), which are used to soften
brittle PVC into a more flexible form. PVC is commonly used to package foods and liquids, ubiquitous
in children's toys, plumbing and building materials, and in everything from cosmetics to shower
curtains. Traces of these chemicals can leach out of PVC when it comes into contact with food. The
European Union has banned the use of DEHP (di-2-ethylhexyl phthalate), the most widely used
plasticizer in PVC, and in children's toys.

Polystyrene (PS) is one of the toxins the USEPA (United States Environmental Protection Agency)
monitors in America's drinking water. Its production also pollutes the atmosphere, destroying the ozone
layer.

A potential disadvantage of biodegradable plastics is that the carbon that is locked up in them is
released into the atmosphere as a greenhouse gas (carbon dioxide) when they degrade, though if they
are made from natural materials, such as vegetable crop derivatives or animal products, there is no net
gain in carbon dioxide emissions, although concern will be for a worse greenhouse gas, (methane)
release. Of course, incinerating non-biodegradable plastics will release carbon dioxide as well, while
disposing of it in landfills will release methane when the plastic does eventually break down.
So far, these plastics have proven too costly and limited for general use, and critics have pointed out
that the only real problem they address is roadside litter, which is regarded as a secondary issue. When
such plastic materials are dumped into landfills, they can become "mummified" and persist for decades
even if they are supposed to be biodegradable.

In some cases, burning plastic can release toxic fumes. Also, the manufacturing of plastics often creates
large quantities of chemical pollutants.

For decades one of the great appeals of plastics has been their low price. Yet in recent years the cost of
plastics has been rising dramatically. A major cause is the sharply rising cost of petroleum, the raw
material that is chemically altered to form commercial plastics.

With some observers suggesting that future peak oil reserves are uncertain, the price of petroleum may
increase further. Therefore, alternatives are being sought. Oil shale and tar oil are alternatives for

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plastic production but are expensive. Scientists are seeking cheaper and better alternatives to
petroleum-based plastics, and many candidates are in laboratories all over the world. One promising
alternative may be fructose 'Sugar plastic' which could reduce reliance on petroleum.

7.3 MANUFACTURING METHODS

Plastic products are formed by a number of methods which include injection moulding, expandable bed
moulding, compression moulding, transfer moulding, rotational moulding, form moulding, and blow
moulding.
Plastic has, to some extent, added a new dimension to the construction industry and a new dimension to
anticorrosion building materials. Since plastic products are in finished form, it becomes imperative to
develop new skills for their installation. Professional demands that craftsmanship requires has been
sufficiently reduced by the simplicity of plastic installations and their intrinsic (belonging to the
essential nature of plastic products) properties.

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