PHYSICS LAB MANUAL

Diagram:

Needle

l Travelling
Microscope

Beam

Scale Pan

Formula:
 4 M g L3 
q=  Nm −2
 bd  
3

where q = Young’s modulus of the material of the given beam in Nm-2

M = Load for which the depression is found in kg
g = Acceleration due to gravity in ms-2
L = Distance between needle and fixed end in ‘m’
b = Mean breadth of the beam in ‘m’
d = Mean thickness of the beam in ‘m’
δ = mean depression produced in ‘m’

Observations:

Least count of T.M. = Value of one M.S.D. / Total no. of V.S.D.

= / cm

= _______ cm

M = Load for which the depression is found = 30 gm = 30 x 10-3 kg

g = Acceleration due to gravity = 9.8 ms-2
L = Distance between needle and fixed end = _______cm =_______m
b = Mean breadth of the scale =_________cm =________m

d = Mean thickness of the scale = _______mm =_______m

δ = mean value of depression = _______cm = _______m

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PHYSICS LAB MANUAL

1. YOUNG’S MODULUS OF A BEAM BY SINGLE CANTILEVER

COURSE OBJECTIVE:

AIM: To determine Young’s modulus of material of a given beam by the method of

single cantilever.

APPARATUS: Single cantilever setup, slotted weights, travelling microscope.

PRINCIPLE: According to Hooke’s law within the elastic limit, stress is directly
proportional to strain or within the elastic limit the ratio of stress to strain is always
constant for a given material and this constant is known as elastic constant or elastic
modulus.

We know there are three elastic constants, one of them is young’s modulus and is
defined as the ratio of longitudinal stress to linear strain within the elastic limit.
Also we know the general expression for young’s modulus of the material of a cantilever,
given by
𝑀𝑔𝐿3
𝑌= Where 𝛿 is the depression & 𝐼𝑔 is the geometric moment of inertia.
3𝛿𝐼𝑔
Since the cantilever is having rectangular cross-section with breadth ‘b’ and thickness
‘d’ then 𝐼𝑔 is given by 𝐼𝑔 = 𝑏𝑑3 ⁄12. By substituting the value of Ig in the above expression
for Y, we get
4𝑀𝑔𝐿3
𝑌= 𝑏𝑑3 𝛿
By knowing the dimensions of the cantilever and by experimentally measuring the
depression, we can calculate the Young’s modulus of the material of the cantilever.

PROCEDURE:

1. The tip of the needle on the single cantilever is made to coincide with the intersection
of the cross wire of the travelling microscope (with no load in the scale pan). Note
down the readings of the travelling microscope in the tabular column as no load
reading.
2. Now add 10 grams of weight to the scale pan. Again coincide the tip of the needle to
the intersection of the cross wire and corresponding readings are noted in the tabular
column.
3. This is repeated up to 50 grams in the steps of 10gms and the corresponding readings
are noted in the tabular column.
4. The experiment is repeated by decreasing the load in the scale pan in the same steps
of 10 grams and the corresponding readings are taken, and tabulated.
5. The depression or deflection of the cantilever beam ‘δ’ for load ‘M’ in Kg is found out
from the tabular column.
6. The Young’s modulus ‘q’ of the given material is calculated using the formula.

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PHYSICS LAB MANUAL

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PHYSICS LAB MANUAL

TABULAR COLUMN:

Load increasing Load decreasing Mean Load increasing Load decreasing Mean Depression
Load Load
R3=(R1+R2)/2 R6=(R4+R5)/2 for 30 g
in g MSR TR=R1 MSR TR=R2 in g MSR TR=R4 MSR TR=R5
CVD CVD (cm) CVD CVD (cm) (R3 ~ R6)
(cm) (cm) (cm) (cm) (cm) (cm) (cm) (cm)

0 30

10 40

20 50

Mean depression = δ = _______ cm = _______ m

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PHYSICS LAB MANUAL

RESULT: The Young’s modulus of a given material of beam q = ________ Nm-2.

Course Outcomes:

Real time application (at least four):

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PHYSICS LAB MANUAL

VIVA-VOCE: Young’s modulus of a beam by Single Cantilever

1. What is deformation?
The change in either shape, size or both due to the application of external force on a rigid
body is called deformation.
If the body regains its initial state completely, after the deforming force is removed, then
it is perfectly elastic.
If the body does not show any tendency of regaining to its initial state after the deforming
force is removed, then it is said to be perfectly plastic.

2. Define least count of an instrument.

Least count of an instrument is defined as the least possible value that can measured
with it.
3. What is stress? Mention its unit. Also mention its different types.
The restoring force per unit area developed inside the body is called stress. It is given by
the ratio of the applied force to the area of its application. . Its SI unit is Nm -2.
There are three types of stresses:
a) Tensile Stress (Longitudinal stress): Stress applied along the length of the given object.
b) Shear Stress (Tangential Stress): Stress applied tangential to the given object.
c) Compressive Stress (Volume Stress): Stress applied across the volume to the given
object
4. What is strain? Mention its unit. Also mention its different types.
The ratio of the change in dimensions to original dimensions of the body is called strain.
It has no unit. There are three types of strains:
a) Linear Strain (or Tensile Strain): It is the ratio of change in length to original length.
b) Volume strain: If a uniform force is applied all over the surface of a body, the body
undergoes a change in its volume. Therefore volume strain is the ration of change in
volume to the original volume.
c) Shear Strain: If a force is applied tangentially to a free portion of the body, another part
being fixed, its layer slides one over the other: the body experiences a turning effect and
changes its shape. This is called shearing and the angle through which the turning
takes place, is called the shearing angle. Shearing angle is the ratio of change in its
dimensions to original dimensions.

5. State and explain Hooke’s law?

Hooke’s states that, “The stress is directly proportional to the strain within the elastic
limit”.
stress
= cons tan t = k Where k is elastic modulus of a material
strain
6. What is an elastic limit? Mention its unit.
It is a limit of stress applied beyond which body looses its property of elasticity and
becomes plastic. Its unit is Nm-2.

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PHYSICS LAB MANUAL

7. What are different types of elastic modulii?

Depending upon the type of deformation, there are three elastic modulii
a) Young’s modulus (Y):
It is the ratio of the longitudinal stress to linear strain, within the elastic limit. It’s unit
is Newton m-2. In this experiment we are determining Young’s modulus of material of a
wooden scale (wood). The Young's modulus of a material signifies its stiffness.
b) Bulk modulus (K):
When the deforming force is applied normally and uniformly to the entire surface of a
body, it produces a volume strain. The ratio of the normal stress or pressure to the
volume strain without change in shape of the body within the elastic limit is called Bulk
modulus. Its unit is Nm-2. Bulk modulus can be defined for liquids also.
c) Rigidity modulus (n): It is defined as the ratio of tangential stress to shearing strain.
8. What is Poisson’s ratio?
Within the elastic limit of a body, the negative ratio of lateral strain to the longitudinal
strain is a constant and is called Poisson’s ratio represented by . It is a dimension less
quantity.
9. What is a beam? Mention its different types.
A homogeneous body of uniform cross section whose length is large compared to its other
dimensions is called a beam.
There are four different types of beams:
1. Single beam: A single beam is a bar resting upon supports at its ends.
2. Continuous beam: A continuous beam is a bar resting upon more than two supports.
3. Cantilever beam: A cantilever beam is a beam whose one end is fixed and the other
end is free.
4. Fixed beam: A beam fixed at its both ends is called a fixed beam.
10. What is a single cantilever beam?
Cantilever beam means a rigid beam or bar that is fixed to a support usually a
vertical structure or wall and the beam's other end is free. ... The beam's fixed end has
a reaction force and moment created by the load acting at the free end.
11. Does Young’s modulus depend on the dimensions of a material?
No. It is constant for a given material. In this experiment, if we change
thickness/breadth of a wooden scale, elevation changes so that Young’s modulus will
remain same.
12. Among rubber and steel, which is more elastic? Justify
Steel is more elastic than rubber. Because for a given amount of stress, strain
produced in steel is less compared to rubber and hence it has more Young’s modulus.

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PHYSICS LAB MANUAL

DIAGRAM:

Diagram 1: Series combination Diagram 2: Parallel combination

FORMULA:

Experimental:
1) Spring constant for Series/parallel combination of springs is equal to slope (m) from
the graph of F versus x.
i.e. kseries or kparallel = m=________ Nm-1
Theoretical:
1) Spring constant for Series combination of springs (Theoretical)
k1k 2
k Series = =_________ Nm-1
k1 + k 2
2) Spring constant for Parallel combination of springs (Theoretical)
k Parallel = k1 + k 2 =_________ Nm-1
OBSERVATIONS:
Spring constants of individual springs: k1 = k2 = 26 Nm-1

TABULAR COLUMN:

Determination of spring constant in series combination of springs

Pointer reading with hanger a = _________ cm

Pointer
Trial Load in Force Elongation
Load in gm reading ‘b’ in
No. kg F = mg in N (x = b – a) in m
cm
1 50

2 100

3 150

4 200

5 250

6 300
k1k 2
Theoretical Calculation, k Series = = ___________ Nm-1
k1 + k 2

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PHYSICS LAB MANUAL

2. SPRING CONSTANT IN SERIES AND PARALLEL COMBINATION

COURSE OBJECTIVE:
AIM: To determine spring constants of springs in Series and Parallel combination.
APPARATUS: Springs, Scale, Rigid stand, Slotted weights.
PRINCIPLE: Spring constant or force constant (k) of a spring is defined as restoring force /
unit displacement. Its value is determined by the elastic properties of the spring. A given
object is attached to the free end of a spring which is suspended from a rigid point support.
If the object is pulled down and then released, it executes simple harmonic oscillations. The
time period (T ) of oscillations of a helical spring of spring constant K is given by the relation
T = 2 m where m is the load that is the mass of the object. The time period of a stiff
k
spring (having large spring constant) is small.
PROCEDURE: Determination of spring constant in series combination of springs:
1. Hang the springs in series combination as shown in diagram 1. With the dead weight
(weight hanger) note down the position ‘a’ of the pointer on the scale.
2. Add 50 gm of load into the weight hanger and note down the position ‘b’ of the pointer on
the scale.
3. Repeat the experiment by increasing the load in the weight hanger in steps of 50 gm up
to 300 gm.
4. Calculate elongation and force applied on the springs.
5. Plot a graph of Force Vs elongation. Estimate slope in the linear region and it gives effective
spring constant kseries.
Determination of spring constant in Parallel combination of springs
1. Hang the springs in parallel combination as shown in diagram 2. With the dead weight
(weight hanger) note down the position ‘a’ of the pointer on the scale.
2. Add 200 gm of load into the weight hanger and note down the position ‘b’ of the pointer
on the scale.
3. Repeat the experiment by increasing the load in the weight hanger in steps of 50 gm up
to 450 gm.
4. Calculate elongation and force applied on the springs.
5. Plot a graph of Force Vs elongation. Estimate slope in the linear region and it gives effective
spring constant kparallel.
Calculate the theoretical values of KSeries and KParallel and compare the values with
experimentally determined values.

RESULT: The spring constants for the combination of springs are found to be

Combination Theoretical (Nm-1) Experimental (Nm-1)

Series KSeries = KSeries =
Parallel KParallel = KParallel =

Course Outcomes:
Real time application (at least four):

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PHYSICS LAB MANUAL

Determination of spring constant in Parallel combination of springs

Pointer reading with hanger a = ……… cm

Pointer
Trial Load in Force Elongation
Load in gm reading ‘b’ in
No. kg F = mg in N (x = b – a) in m
cm
1 200

2 250

3 300

4 350

5 400

6 450

Theoretical Calculation, k Parallel = k1 + k 2 = ___________ Nm-1

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PHYSICS LAB MANUAL

VIVA-VOCE: Spring constant in Series and Parallel Combination

1. Define SHM.
It is the periodic or oscillatory motion executed by a body such that, its acceleration is proportional
to its displacement from the equilibrium position and is always directed towards it under the action
of a force called restoring force.
2. What are the characteristics of SHM?
The characteristics are listed as follows;
a. It is a particular type of periodic motion.
b. The oscillating system must have inertia which in turn means mass.
c. There is a constant restoring force continuously acting on the body/system.
d. The acceleration developed in the motion due to the restoring force is directly proportional to the
displacement.
3. Give an example for mechanical Simple Harmonic Oscillator.
Mass suspended to a spring.
4. Give an example for electrical Simple Harmonic Oscillator.
LCR series and parallel circuit.
5. What is a spring?
A spring is an object that can be deformed by a force and then return to its original shape after the
force is removed.
6. State Hooke's law.
Within certain limits, the force required to stretch an elastic object such as a metal spring is directly
proportional to the extension of the spring. This is known as Hooke's law and commonly written as
F = -kx.
7. What is the meaning of restoring force?
Restoring force is a force that gives rise to equilibrium in a physical system. If the system is
perturbed away from the equilibrium, the restoring force will tend to bring the system back toward
equilibrium.
8. Define force constant or spring constant of the spring and mention its SI unit? Give its
significance.
Force constant of a spring is defined as the force required to produce unit extension or compression
in the spring i.e., k = F/y. The S.I. unit of k is Nm -1.
The spring constant, k, is representative of how stiff the spring is. Stiffer (more difficult to stretch)
springs have higher spring constants.
9. What happens to a spring when it is stretched too far?
When spring is stretched too far, a spring surpasses its elastic limit and can be permanently
deformed.
10. Is the spring constant is the same for all springs or different? Explain.
It differs depending on the material of the spring and other factors. The spring constant is
consistent for each individual spring under the same circumstances (equal temperature, etc.).
Essentially, the spring constant indicates the stiffness of the spring.
11. What is the effective spring constant when two springs are connected in series?
When two springs with spring constant k1 and k2 respectively are connected in series, the effective
spring constant is given by
k1k 2
k Series =
k1 + k 2
12. What is the effective spring constant when two springs are connected in parallel?
When two springs with spring constant k 1 and k2 respectively are connected in parallel, the
effective spring constant is given by
k Parallel = k1 + k 2
NOTE: Refer module 1 for further reading.

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PHYSICS LAB MANUAL

DIAGRAM:

FORMULAE:
8 l  I   I 
(i) n= 4  2 Nm −2 (ii) I 0 =  2  T02 kg m 2
r  T  mean  T  mean

Where,
I0 is the moment of inertia of the irregular body perpendicular to the plane
T0 is the period of oscillations of irregular body about the specified axes
I is the moment of inertial of the regular body
T is the period of torsional oscillations of regular body
n is the rigidity modulus of the material of the suspension wire
l is the length of the wire between the chuck nuts
r is the radius of the wire

Mass of the circular plate, M1 = ___________gm = ___________kg

Radius of the circular plate, R = ____________cm = ___________m

Mass of the rectangular plate, M2 = ___________gm = ___________kg

Length of the rectangular plate, L = ____________cm = ___________m

Breadth of the rectangular plate, B = ____________cm = ___________m

Length of the wire b/w the chuck nuts, l = _______cm = ___________m

Radius of the wire r = ____________mm = __________m

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PHYSICS LAB MANUAL

3. RIGIDITY MODULUS AND MOMENT OF INERTIA USING

TORSIONAL PENDULUM

COURSE OBJECTIVE:
AIM: To determine the rigidity modulus of the material of the given suspension wire and
moment of inertia of given irregular body using torsional pendulum.

APPARATUS: A rectangular plate, a circular plate, an irregular plate, stand with clamp,
suspension wire fixed with chuck nuts at its ends, reference stick, stop clock, meter scale,
thread.
PRINCIPLE: A body suspended by a wire, executing twisting oscillations with wire as its
axis, forms the torsional pendulum. The time period of torsional pendulum is given by

T = 2 I / C
Where I is moment of inertia of a body about the given axis, C is couple per twist and is
constant for a given material of the wire.
By rearranging the terms in the above equation for time period T, we get
𝐼 𝐶
𝑇2
= 4𝜋2 which is constant, because C - couple per twist is constant for a given wire.
𝜋𝑛𝑟 4
Also, we know the expression for couple per unit twist ‘C’ for a wire is given by 𝐶 = 2𝑙
, where
n is the rigidity modulus of the material of the wire. By substituting the value of C in the
above equation of (I/T2), we get
8𝜋𝑙 𝐼
𝑛= (𝑇 2 )
𝑟4
By knowing the dimensions of the wire and (I/T2), we can calculate the rigidity modulus of
𝐼
the material of the wire. Since 2 is constant for all bodies suspended by the same wire, we
𝑇
𝐼0 𝐼
can write 𝑇02
= (𝑇 2 ).
PROCEDURE:

1. The mass and the dimensions of the given regular bodies are noted and the
corresponding moment of inertia about the specified axes of rotation are calculated.
2. The torsional pendulum of the regular body is formed by fixing one end of the wire to
the specified axis and clamping the other end of the wire to the stand.
3. The pendulum is set into the smooth torsional oscillations and the time taken for 10
oscillations is recorded and hence the time period T and corresponding ratio I/T 2 are
found.
4. Now the steps 2 and 3 are repeated for the irregular body for the specified axis and
time period T is determined. Using T, I/T2 is calculated and tabulated in the tabular
column.

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PHYSICS LAB MANUAL

To determine (I/T2) using regular bodies:

Time for 10 oscillations t Time

Moment of
Body Axis inertia I in kg
in s Period I/T2 in
T= t/10 kg m2s-2
m2 Trial 1 Trial 2 Mean t
in s
Circular Perpendicular
plate to its plane
M1R2 / 2 =

Along the
diameter
M1R2 / 4 =

Rectangular
Perpendicular
plate
to its plane
M2(L2 + B2)/12
=

Perpendicular
to its length
M2L2 /12 =

Perpendicular
to its breadth
M2B2/12 =

Mean (I/T2) = ________________kg m2 s-2

To determine time period (T0) of irregular body

Time for 10 oscillations t in s

Body Axis Period T0 = t/10 in s
Trial 1 Trial 2 Mean t
Irregular Perpendicular
body to its plane

5. The length ‘l’ of the suspension wire is measured and its rigidity modulus ‘n’ is
calculated by using the given value of its radius (r).

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PHYSICS LAB MANUAL

RESULT:

1. The moment of inertial of the given irregular body about the axis perpendicular to the plane,
I0 = _______________ kg m2.
2. The rigidity modulus of the material of the given suspension wire is n = _______________Nm-2.

Course Outcomes:
Real time application (at least four):

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PHYSICS LAB MANUAL

VIVA-VOCE: Rigidity modulus & Moment of Inertia using Torsional Pendulum

1. What is a rigid body?

If the distance between any two points in a body is invariable, the body is said to be rigid body.
2. What is Torsional pendulum?
A body suspended by a wire constitutes a torsional pendulum. When a small twist is given at the
lower end torsional oscillations are set up.
3. Explain the principle of torsional pendulum experiment.
The angular twist causing torsional oscillations, gives rise to a twisting couple in suspension wire,
the twisting couple (C) per unit twist is given by C = πnr4/2l. n is rigidity modulus, r is radius
and l is length of the wire. The period of oscillation is given T=2π√I/C. Where I is the moment of
inertia of the suspended body about the axis of wire. For a given wire, C is a constant and hence
(I/T2) is a constant.
4. Define moment of inertia?
It is the sum of the products of the masses of the particles of the body and square of their distances
from the axis of rotation. I = ∑ mr2
5. What are the factors on which moment of inertia of a body depends?
Mass of the body, The axis, Distribution of mass with respect to the axis.
6. Define radius of gyration?
Radius of gyration is defined as the distance from the axis of rotation at which if whole mass of
the body were supposed to be concentrated the moment of inertia would be same as with the
actual distribution of the mass of the body into small particles. It is denoted by K.
7. Is the moment of inertia same about the same axis of suspension for all the bodies?
No.
8. Name the type of oscillations?
Free oscillations, damped oscillations, forced oscillations and torsional oscillations.
9. What is torsional oscillation?
The oscillations executed by a body in the horizontal plane due to twist produced by its suspension
wire are called torsional oscillations.
10. Why do I/T2 remain constant for all bodies in the experiment?
We know that the time period of torsional pendulum is given by T = 2 I / C , where I is moment
of inertia of a body about the given axis, C is couple per twist and is constant for a given material
I C
of the wire. From this equation it is clear that, the ratio (I/T 2) is given by = 2 which is a
T 2
4
constant for all the bodies irrespective of shape and axis of rotation of the body.
11. Mention two applications of a torsion pendulum.
Torsion pendulum can be used to determine;
1. Rigidity modulus of the material of a material,
2. Moment of inertia of an irregular body.
12. What are regular and irregular bodies?
The bodies which possess geometrical shapes are called regular bodies and the bodies which
possess no geometric shapes are called irregular bodies.
13. Does the moment of inertia depend on length and the diameter of the wire? Why?
No. This is because I = ∑ mr2. It does not have dependency on either length or diameter of the
suspended wire.
14. Rigidity modulus is measure of which property of the material?
It is a measure of shearing strength of the material.

15. Which law governs the elastic property of the materials?

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PHYSICS LAB MANUAL

Hooke’s law.
16. State and explain Hooke’s law?
Hooke’s states that; “Stress is directly proportional to strain within the elastic limit”.
𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
= 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 = 𝑘 where k is elastic modulus of a material
17. What is an elastic limit? Mention its unit.
It is a limit of stress applied beyond which body looses its property of elasticity and becomes
plastic. Its unit is Nm-2.
18. What is stress? Mention its unit.
The restoring force per unit area developed inside the body is called stress. It is given by the ratio
of the applied force to the area of its application. . Its SI unit is Nm-2.

19. What is strain? Mention its unit. Also mention its different types.
The ratio of the change in dimensions to original dimensions of the body is called strain. It has
no unit. There are three types of strains:
a. Linear Strain (or Tensile Strain): It is the ratio of change in length to original length.
b. Volume strain: If a uniform force is applied all over the surface of a body, the body undergoes
a change in its volume. Therefore volume strain is the ration of change in volume to the
original volume.
c. Shear Strain: If a force is applied tangentially to a free portion of the body, another part being
fixed, its layer slides one over the other: the body experiences a turning effect and changes
its shape. This is called shearing and the angle, through which the turning takes place, is
called the shearing angle. Shearing angle is the ratio of change in its dimensions to original
dimensions.

20. What are different types of elastic modulii?

Depending upon the type of deformation, there are three elastic modulii
1. Young’s modulus (Y): It is the ratio of the longitudinal stress to linear strain, within the
elastic limit. It’s unit is Newton m-2. In this experiment we are determining Young’s modulus
of material of a wooden scale (wood). The Young's modulus of a material signifies its stiffness.
2. Bulk modulus (K)
When the deforming force is applied normally and uniformly to the entire surface of a body, it
produces a volume strain. The ratio of the normal stress or pressure to the volume strain
without change in shape of the body within the elastic limit is called Bulk modulus. Its unit is
Nm-2. Bulk modulus can be defined for liquids also.
3. Rigidity modulus (n): It is defined as the ratio of tangential stress to shearing strain.

21. What is Poisson’s ratio?

Within the elastic limit of a body, the ratio of lateral strain to the longitudinal strain is a constant
and is called Poisson’s ratio represented by . It is a dimension less quantity.
22. On what factor rigidity modulus depends?
Rigidity modulus depends on the nature/type of the material given. It does not depend on
dimensions of the material (Length, radius etc.) given.
23. What happens to the value of rigidity modulus with the change in dimensions of the given
material?
With the change in dimensions of the given material, the ratio of I/T 2 changes correspondingly
which will compensate the change in dimensions of the material. So, with the change in
dimensions of the given material, the value of rigidity modulus remains same.

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PHYSICS LAB MANUAL

RAY DIAGRAM:

FORMULAE:
𝐗
1. 𝐧 = 𝐭𝐚𝐧−𝟏 ( 𝐧 ) degree
𝐃

Where n is angle of diffraction for nth order maxima in degree

Xn is the distance of nth order maxima from central maximum in ‘m’ and
D is distance between the grating and screen in ‘m’.
2. Wavelength of laser source  is given by

𝒅 𝑺𝒊𝒏𝜽𝒏
𝝀= m
𝒏
where d is grating constant or the distance between two consecutive rulings on grating in
‘m’.
n is the order of diffraction maxima.

OBSERVATIONS:

1. Distance between the grating and screen D = _______________ m.

2. Number of lines per inch (LPI) for the given grating = 500
3. Grating constant or the distance between two consecutive rulings on grating in meters is
given by d = 2.54 x 10-2 / LPI

TABULAR COLUMN:
Distance from Central Mean distance
Order of
Sl.No Maximum in m Xn= (XL+ XR)/2 n (deg)  (m)
spectrum (n)
LHS(XL) RHS(XR) (m)
1 1
2 2
3 3
4 4
5 5
6 6

Mean  =___________-m

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PHYSICS LAB MANUAL

4. WAVELENGTH OF SEMICONDUCTOR LASER USING

DIFFRACTION

COURSE OBJECTIVE:
AIM: To determine the wavelength of a semiconductor laser source using diffraction.
APPARATUS: Laser source, diffraction grating and screen.
PRINCIPLE: Diffraction is the phenomenon of bending of light ray into the geometrical
shadow region of an opaque obstacle whose dimensions are comparable with the wavelength
of the light. The superposition of secondary wave fronts arising from the diffracted light wave
gives rise to diffraction pattern.
A plane transmission grating consists of a large number of ruled parallel opaque lines.
The large number of rulings enables the central maxima to become very narrow and sharp,
distinct line. By measuring the angle of deviation of various maxima and knowing the grating
constant wavelength of laser  can be calculated.

PROCEDURE:

1. Laser is placed on a table and switched on. The leveling screws of the laser are adjusted
such that the laser beam exactly falls on center of graph sheet placed on the screen, which
is placed at about 1m from the laser source.

2. The 500LPI grating is now placed on the grating stand close to the laser source. The
diffracted laser spots are observed on either side of central maximum. The central
maximum is very bright and as the order of diffraction increases the brightness decreases.

3. The center of various spots of the diffraction pattern are marked on a graph sheet using a
pencil, then the graph sheet is removed from the screen and the distances between central
maxima and various diffracted spots are measured on either side of central maximum and
are tabulated in table.

4. Using formula -1, diffraction angles are calculated for various orders of diffraction and
noted in table.

5. Using formula –2, the wavelength of laser for various orders of diffraction is calculated
and the average wavelength is obtained.

RESULT:

The wavelength of given laser by diffraction method using grating is _______________nm.

Course Outcomes:
Real time application (at least four):

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PHYSICS LAB MANUAL

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PHYSICS LAB MANUAL

VIVA-VOCE: Wavelength of semiconductor laser using diffraction

1. What is LASER?
LASER is acronym of ‘Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation’.

2. What are the important characteristics of LASER?

High intensity, High monochromaticity, High coherence, Uni-directionality and High
focussability.

3. What is the basic principle involved in LASER action?

An emission that is caused by an external stimulus known as ‘Stimulated emission’, is
the basic principle involved in LASER action.

4. What is stimulated emission?

Stimulated emission is the emission of a photon by a system, under the influence of a
passing photon of just the suitable energy, due to which the system transits from a higher
energy state to a lower energy state. The photon thus emitted is called the stimulated
photon and will have same phase, energy and direction of movement as that of the
passing photon called the stimulating photon.

5. What are the requirements for LASER system?

a) The excitation source for pumping action,
b) An active medium which supports population inversion and
c) A laser cavity.

6. What are the conditions required for LASER action?

Population inversion and Metastable state.

7. What is Population inversion and define metastable state?

It is a condition at which number of atoms in the excited state exceeds the number of
atoms in the ground state (N2>N1). Metastable state is an energy state having lifetime of
the order of milli seconds and helps is achieving population inversion.

8. What is diffraction?
The phenomenon of bending of light around the edges of obstacles or narrow slits and
hence its encroachment into the region of geometrical shadow is known as diffraction.

9. What is the condition for diffraction?

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PHYSICS LAB MANUAL

The dimension of the object or the size of the slit must be comparable to the wavelength
of light used.
10. Mention the types of diffraction
Fresnel diffraction and Fraunhoffer diffraction.
Fresnel diffraction: In this type of diffraction the incident wave fronts are spherical or
cylindrical. The source and screen are at finite distance from the diffracting obstacle.
Fraunhoffer diffraction: In this type of diffraction the incident wave fronts are plane.
The source and screen are at infinite distance from the diffracting obstacle.

11. What type of diffraction is involved in this experiment?

Fraunhoffer diffraction, because the source and screen are effectively at infinite distance
[Light rays from laser source are parallel (planar wave fronts).

12. What is diffraction grating?

It is a system consisting of large number of equidistant slits separated by opaque spaces.
13. How the gratings are prepared?
Gratings are prepared by ruling parallel and equidistant lines on a well-polished glass
plate using sharp diamond edge.

14. What is grating constant?

The grating constant is the distance between two consecutive opaque rulings on the
grating.
15. What happens to diffraction pattern if this experiment is performed in a liquid?
The distance between fringes decreases, because refractive index  1/ and from
dsin = n, it is clear that , and hence 1/.

16. What happens to diffraction pattern if red light is replaced by blue light ?
The distance between fringes decreases, because blue light has lesser wavelength
compared to red light and from dsin =n, it is clear that ,  decreases and hence xn.

17. What happens to diffraction pattern when laser light is replaced by white light?
The diffraction pattern will be band of seven colours with white spot at the centre. The
violet color is nearer to white spot and red at the extreme end (because ).

18. Which type of laser is being used in laser diffraction experiment?

Semiconductor laser.

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PHYSICS LAB MANUAL

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

FORMULAE:
1
1. The inductance of the given inductor is L = 2 2 --- H,
4π f r C
Where fr → resonant frequency of the LCR circuit in series/parallel (Hz),
C → capacitance of the capacitor used (F)
fr fr
2. Band width f = f2 − f1 (Hz); 3. Quality factor Q = =
f f 2 − f1

TABULAR COLUMN: R =__________  C =__________ µF

Series Parallel
Frequency Resonance Resonance
in Hz
I (mA ) I (mA )
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
1000
1100
1200
1300
1400

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PHYSICS LAB MANUAL

5. SERIES AND PARALLEL LCR CIRCUITS

COURSE OBJECTIVE:
AIM: 1. To study the frequency response of the series and parallel resonance circuits.
2. To determine the resonant frequency, unknown value of given inductor, bandwidth
and quality factor for the series and parallel resonance circuits.
APPARATUS: Inductor of the unknown value, resistor and capacitor of known values, audio
frequency oscillator, ac millimeter and patch cords.
PRINCIPLE: In a series LCR circuit executed with a variable frequency supply, the inductive
reactance XL increases with frequency while, the capacitive reactance XC decreases with
frequency. At resonant frequency XL = XC.
1 1
i.e., 2f r L = or L=
2 f r C 2 2
4π f r C
Where fr is the resonant frequency, L is the inductance of the coil and C is the value of
capacitance. By determining the resonant frequency, the unknown value of the given inductor
can be calculated.
By plotting a graph of current against frequency of the ac, band width f = f2 − f1 is and the
quality factor calculated.
PROCEDURE:
Series Resonance:
1. Audio frequency oscillator, resistor and an inductor, milliammeter and a capacitor are
connected in series as shown in circuit diagram 1. The output of the oscillator is adjusted
suitably and is kept constant throughout the experiment.
2. The frequency of the oscillator is increased from 100 Hz to 1400 Hz (in steps of 100Hz)
and corresponding readings of the current in the milliammeter are noted down.
3. Graph: A graph of frequency taken along the X-axis against the current along the Y-axis
is drawn and fr and Io are marked. A straight line parallel to X-axis corresponding
to (𝐼0 /√2) is drawn. The line intersects the curve at two points. Corresponding frequencies
f1 and f2 are noted. The value (f2~f1) is the bandwidth.
Parallel Resonance:
1. Circuit connections are made as shown circuit diagram 2.
2. The frequency f is varied and the corresponding circuit currents are noted as described
earlier. In this case the resonance frequency fr corresponds to the minimum value.
4. Graph: the readings are plotted as explained earlier and resonance curve is obtained. f r
and Io are marked. A straight line parallel to X-axis corresponding to Io 2 is drawn. The
line intersects the curve at two points. Corresponding frequencies f1 and f2 are noted. The
value (f2~f1) is the bandwidth.
3. Evaluation of L: The value of inductance is evaluated by using the above formula.
RESULT:
Type of Resonance fr (in Hz) L (in H) Band Width Δf in Hz Qgraphic = fr / Δf
Series Resonance
Parallel Resonance

Course Outcomes:
Real time application (at least four):

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PHYSICS LAB MANUAL

VIVA-VOCE: Series and Parallel LCR Circuits

1. Define resistance?
The opposition to the flow of DC offered by a resistor in a circuit is called resistance.

2. Define impedance?
The net opposition to flow of AC by the circuit elements in a circuit is called impedance.

3. What is an inductor? What type of energy does it store?

An inductor is a passive two-terminal electrical component which resists changes in
electric current passing through it. It consists of a conductor such as a wire, usually
wound into a coil. When current flows through it, energy is stored temporarily in the
form of magnetic field in the coil.

4. Define inductance of a coil and mention its unit.

The inductance of a coil is defined as the emf induced in a coil for unit rate of change of
current. Its unit is henry (H)

5. What is inductive reactance in an AC circuit? How it depends on frequency?

The opposition offered to flow of AC by an inductor is called the inductive reactance,
XL = 2fL. Where f is the frequency of AC supply in hertz and L is the inductance. It is
proportional to frequency.

6. What is capacitive reactance in an AC circuit? How it depends on frequency?

The opposition offered to flow of AC by a capacitor is called the capacitive reactance,
XC = 1/2fC , where C is capacitance in farad and f is the frequency. It is inversely
proportional to frequency.

7. Are the inductive reactance and the capacitive reactance frequency dependent?
Yes, at high frequencies, the impedance offered by inductance is high and that of
capacitance is low and vice versa.

8. What is the total impedance in an LCR series circuit?

Z = R 2 + ( X L − X C )2
9. What is the total impedance in an LCR parallel circuit?
1
Z L = RL2 +  2 L2 and Z C = RC2 +
 C2
2

Z L ZC
Z equiv =
Z L + ZC
10. When does resonance occur? Mention the expression for resonant frequency fr.
When the inductive reactance matches with the capacitive reactance in LCR circuit
i.e when XL = XC . f r = 1 / 2 LC
11. What is the potential difference across the resistor at resonance?
Nearly equal to the applied voltage.

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PHYSICS LAB MANUAL

12. Define Q factor? Mention its importance.

It is defined as the ratio of voltage across the inductor or capacitor to the supply
voltage. It measures the sharpness of the curve. If ‘Q’ is high, the frequency response of
the circuit is high.

13. What is bandwidth?

It is the difference between the lower half power frequency and the upper half power
frequency. That is BW = f1 − f2.

14. What are the conditions for resonance in the case of parallel resonance circuit?
When XL = XC the circuit draws zero current from the source theoretically, but practically
minimum current at a particular frequency is called resonance frequency, the circuit is
said to be in resonance.

15. Explain why the circuit current is maximum at resonance in series LCR circuit?
In LCR series circuit, at resonance XL = XC. Hence the value of impedance Z becomes
equal to ‘R’ which is the minimum value. Therefore current becomes maximum.

16. Explain why the circuit current is minimum at resonance in parallel LCR circuit?
The capacitor takes a leading while the inductor draws a lagging current. At resonance
the branch currents are equal and opposite. Consequently they cancel and with the
result, the circuit draws minimum current practically as impedance is maximum.
17. Is the opposition offered by an inductor same for both A.C. and D.C.?
No. The opposition offered by an inductor for DC is constant and is of less value and it
depends on length of the coil. The opposition offered for AC depends on the frequency
(XL = 2fL). It increases with increase in frequency.

18. Is the opposition offered by a resistor or capacitor equal for both AC and DC?
A resistor offers same opposition for both AC and DC. But, a capacitor offers different
opposition for AC and DC. The frequency of DC is zero and the capacitive reactance is
XC = 1/2fC. Thus a capacitor offers infinite resistance for DC. The resistance offered
by a capacitor for AC depends on the frequency. It decreases with increase in
frequency.

19. Why the LCR resonance series circuit is called acceptor circuit?
When a number of signals of different frequencies are fed to an LCR series circuit, it
accepts only that signal whose frequency matches with resonance frequency of the
circuit.

20. Why the LCR resonance parallel circuit is called rejecter circuit?
When a number of signals of different frequencies are fed to an LCR parallel circuit, it
rejects only that signal whose frequency matches with resonance frequency of the
circuit.
21. Mention the applications of LCR resonant circuits?
These circuits are used as tuning circuits in radio/TV receivers, oscillator circuits,
filters etc.

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PHYSICS LAB MANUAL

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

FORMULA:

Responsivity (Rλ) of Photodiode = slope obatined from plot of IPD versus P = IPD/P
Where IPD is the photodiode current and P is the light input power.

TABULAR COLUMNS:
I-V Characteristics of Photo diode Variation of photo current as
a function of light intensity
VPD(V) PLED = 5 mW PLED = 10 mW
IPD(mA) IPD(mA)
0 VPD = 5 V
-0.1 PLED(mW) IPD(mA)
-0.2 5
-0.3
10
-0.4
-0.5 20
-1.0 30
-2.0
40
-3.0
-4.0 50
-5.0
-6.0
-7.0
-8.0
-9.0
-10.0

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PHYSICS LAB MANUAL

6. CHARACTERISTICS OF PHOTO DIODE

COURSE OBJECTIVE:

AIM: To study I-V characteristics of photo diode in reverse bias, Variation of photo current
as a function of light intensity and determination of responsivity.

APPARATUS: Regulated power supply, digital dc current meter, digital dc voltmeter, white
light LED module and photo diode (LED type).

PROCEDURE:

I. Study of I-V Characteristics of Photo diode :

In this part of experiment, Photo diode current and voltage are recorded for different
LED input power.

1. The Photo diode is reverse biased as shown in circuit diagram.

2. The LED power is set to some constant value. The VPD is varied in suitable steps and
the corresponding IPD is noted.
3. Experiment is repeated for different values of LED power.
4. A graph is drawn taking VPD along X-axis and IPD along Y-axis.

II. Variation of photo current as a function of light intensity and determination of

Responsivity:

1. The Photo diode is reverse biased as shown in circuit diagram.

2. The VPD value is set to some constant value. The LED power is varied in suitable steps
and the corresponding IPD is noted.
3. A plot of LED power on X-axis and IPD on Y axis is drawn. A straight line graph is
obtained, slope of which gives Responsivity.

RESULT:

1. I-V characteristics of a given photodiode are studied.

2. The responsivity of the photodiode = _____________A/W.

Course Outcomes:
Real time application (at least four):

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PHYSICS LAB MANUAL

VIVA-VOCE: Characteristics of Photo Diode

Working principle of Photodiode:

A photodiode is a p-n junction diode. When a photon of sufficient energy strikes the
diode, it creates an electron-hole pair. This mechanism is also known as the inner
photoelectric effect. If the absorption occurs in the junction's depletion region, these carriers
are swept from the junction by the built-in electric field of the depletion region. Thus holes
move toward the anode, and electrons toward the cathode, and a photocurrent is produced.
The total current through the photodiode is the sum of the dark current (current that is
generated in the absence of light) and the photocurrent, so the dark current must be
minimized to maximize the sensitivity of the device.

1. What is a photo diode?

A photodiode is a semiconductor device that converts light into electrical energy. The
current is generated when photons are absorbed by the photodiode.
2. What is responsivity? Mention it unit.
The responsivity of a photodiode can be defined as a ratio of generated photocurrent (IPD)
to the incident light power (P) at a given wavelength. Its unit is A/W. R( ) = I PD P
3. Explain the modes of operation of photodiode.
A photodiode can be operated in one of two modes:
a). photoconductive (reverse bias) or
b). photovoltaic (un-biased)
Mode selection depends upon the application's speed requirements and the amount
of tolerable dark current (leakage current).
In photoconductive mode the diode is reverse biased (with the cathode driven positive
with respect to the anode). This reduces the response time because the additional reverse
bias increases the width of the depletion layer, which decreases the junction's
capacitance. The reverse bias also increases the dark current without much change in the
photocurrent.
In photovoltaic mode of operation the diode is un-biased. This mode is preferred when a
photodiode is used in low frequency applications (up to 350 kHz) as well as ultra low light
level applications.
4. What is dark current?
When the photodiode is reverse biased, there will be a small current flow. Since this is the
current without the incidence of light, it is called dark current.

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PHYSICS LAB MANUAL

5. What are I-V characteristics of photodiode?

I-V characteristics of photodiode is the plot of photocurrent IPD versus reverse bias
voltage VPD at constant intensity of incident light.
6. Why photo-diode works in the reverse bias?
The current in the forward bias is primarily due to major carriers but in reverse bias it is
due to the minor carriers. As the fractional change in the reverse current due to the
photo effects is more easily measurable than in the forward bias current. So photodiodes
are operated in the reverse bias.
7. How does photocurrent varies with intensity of incident light?
The photocurrent is directly proportional to intensity of the incident light.
8. What materials are used in fabrication of photodiodes?
The material used to make a photodiode is critical to defining its properties, because only
photons with sufficient energy to excite electrons across the material's bandgap will
produce significant photocurrents. Materials commonly used to produce photodiodes
include:

Electromagnetic spectrum
Material
wavelength range (nm)

Silicon 190–1100

Germanium 400–1700

Indium gallium arsenide 800–2600

Lead(II) sulfide <1000–3500

9. What are the applications of photodiode?

a. Photodiodes are used in consumer electronics devices such as compact disc players,
smoke detectors, and the receivers for infrared remote control devices.
b. Photodiodes are used in optical fiber communication system to detect optical signals.
c. Photodiodes are used to generate an output which is dependent upon the illumination.

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PHYSICS LAB MANUAL

RAY DIAGRAM:

FORMULA:

( Dm2 − Dn2 ) mean

R=
4(m − n ) --- m

Where R is the radius of curvature of the given lens (m)

m, n are the ring ordinal number
Dm & Dn are the diameters of mth & nth rings in ‘m’
λ is the wavelength of sodium light = 5893 x 10-10 m

OBSERVATION:

Least count of T.M. = Value of one M.S.D./ Total no. of V.S.D.

= / cm

= cm

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PHYSICS LAB MANUAL

7. RADIUS OF CURVATURE OF A LENS USING NEWTON’S RINGS

COURSE OBJECTIVE:
AIM: To determine the radius of curvature of a given plano convex lens using Newton’s rings.

APPARATUS: Plano convex lens, traveling microscope, optically flat plane glass plate,
turnable glass plate stand, sodium vapour lamp.

PRINCIPLE: When waves of light are reflected at the surface of a denser medium a phase
changes of λ/2 or π is produced. The regions of crossover with the path difference 2n λ/2
forms the bright ring and (2n+1) λ/2 forms dark ring. And the radius of curvature of lens can
be found by measuring the diameter of the rings.

PROCEDURE:

1. The Plano convex lens is placed with its curved face on the plane glass plate.
2. The arrangement is placed below the microscope with inclined glass plate oriented at
450.
3. The microscope is focused to obtain a clear view of concentric dark and bright
interference ring pattern with central dark spot.
4. The microscope is moved to the left side and the vertical cross wire is set to the left
edge of 8th dark ring and the corresponding microscope reading is recorded.
Similarly, readings are recorded for left edges of alternate even numbers of dark fringes
in sequence till the 2nd ring and to the right edges of 2nd to 8th ring are in sequence.
5. The ring diameters Dm, Dn, (Dm2 – Dn2) are found and tabulated.
6. The radius of curvature of the lens is calculated using the formula

( Dm2 − Dn2 ) mean

R= --- m
4(m − n )

PRECAUTIONS:

1. Traveling Microscope screw should be rotated in one direction only to avoid error due
to backslash.
2. Same position of coincidence of the crosswire for any ring should be considered.
3. Once the experiment is started don’t shake the table or lean on it as this will disturb
the focusing and affect the readings.

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PHYSICS LAB MANUAL

TABULAR COLUMN:

Ring Left hand side Right had side Diameter Ring Left hand side Right hand side Diameter
(Dm2-Dn2)
No. Dm=R1~R2 No. Dn=R3~R4
MSR TR=R1 MSR TR=R2 MSR TR=R3 MSR TR=R4 (cm2)
m CVD CVD (cm) n CVD CVD (cm)
(cm) (cm) (cm) (cm) (cm) (cm) (cm) (cm)

8 4

6 2

Mean (Dm2 - Dn2) = ________________ cm2

= ________________ m2

TR = MSR + (CVD X LC)

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PHYSICS LAB MANUAL

RESULT: Radius of curvature of the given Plano convex lens R = ________________ m.

Course Outcomes:
Real time application (at least four):

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PHYSICS LAB MANUAL

VIVA-VOCE: Radius of curvature of a lens using Newton’s rings

1. What is a Lens?
A lens is an optical medium bounded by two surfaces out of which, at least one is
spherical.
2. Define radius of curvature of a lens?
Radius of curvature is the radius of the sphere of which the lens forms a part.
3. What do you mean by monochromatic light?
A light having a single wavelength is called a monochromatic light.
4. What are coherent sources?
Two light sources which emit continuous waves of same wavelength between which a
state of same phase, or of constant phase difference is maintained throughout, are
called coherent sources.
5. Which phenomenon of light is involved in Newton’s rings experiment and define
the same.
The phenomenon of light is involved in Newton’s rings experiment is Interference.
Interference is the modification in the distribution of light intensity over a region due to
the superposition of two or more light waves coming from two closely located coherent
sources.
6. Mention the conditions for interference of light.
i. The light waves must originate from two identical coherent sources, so that the two
waves will have same wavelength, and constant or zero phase difference.
ii. The two coherent sources must be closely located to avoid overlapping of bright and
dark points at the place of interference.
iii.The two coherent sources must be extremely small in size.
7. Explain the types of interference.
Constructive interference:- The points at which light waves of same amplitude and
wavelength from two sources arrive with a phase difference of 0, 2…… or 2n or path
difference of λ , 2 λ, ….. or n λ, undergo an addition of amplitude. Such interference
causes brightness and hence referred to as constructive interference.
Destructive interference:- The points at which light waves of equal amplitude and
wavelength arrive with a phase difference of , 3, …… or (2n+1) , or path difference
of λ/2, 3 λ/2,…. or (2n+1) λ/2,undergo cancellation which leads to darkness, and
hence referred to as destructive interference.
8. What are Newton’s rings?
The alternately bright and dark concentric rings formed due to interference at an air
film enclosed between a convex surface (lens) and a plane surface (optical flat) is called
Newton’s rings.
9. Why are the fringes circular in Newton’s rings experiment?
Since the locus of points having the constant path difference is a circle (i.e., the air film
has radial symmetry about the point of contact) the fringes are circular.
10. Why the glass plate should be inclined at 450 with respect to vertical axis?
Because the glass plate inclined at 450 makes the rays normally incident on the
combination of lens and plate.
11. What will happen if we use white light instead of monochromatic light?
We will get colored rings.

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PHYSICS LAB MANUAL

12. On what factors the diameter of the rings depend?

It depends on: i) The refractive index of the medium enclosed between the lens and
glass plate. ii) The radius of curvature of the plano-convex lens. iii) The wavelength of
the source used.
13. What will happen if a liquid is introduced between the lens and plane glass plate?
The rings will contract because its diameter will decrease. Because Diameter of ring
is directly proportional to wavelength of light and in liquid wavelength decreases
(n  1 /  ) .
14. In the Newton’s ring system, the rings get closer as we move away from center.
Why?
The nature of spacing (uniform/non-uniform) depends on the rate of change of
thickness of air film. In this experiment, as we move radially outwards the rate of
change of thickness of air film increases non- uniformly (tangentially). The conditions
for constructive and destructive interference change over the larger path differences
nearer to the centre and hence widely spaced. Whereas the conditions for
constructive and destructive interference change over the shorter path differences
away from the centre and hence closely spaced.
15. Why the central spot is dark in the Newton’s ring system?
At the point of contact the path difference between the two interfering beams is equal
to /2. Since this is the condition of minimum intensity, the central spot will appear
dark.
16. What are the properties of Newton’s rings (in the reflected light)?
i. The Newton’s ring system has a central dark spot and the diameter of the dark rings
is proportional to the square root of odd natural numbers. Hence the diameter of
the rings does not increase in the same proportion as the number of rings increases.
ii. The thickness of the rings becomes progressively smaller in radially outward
direction. Since difference between the square root values of any pair of successive
natural numbers is in the decreasing order, gap between the successive dark rings
also become smaller. As a result the ring thickness also becomes progressively
smaller in the radially outward direction.
iii. The Newton’s ring systems for the reflected and the transmitted lights are
complementary to each other.
17. On what factors the diameter of the ring depend?
i. The refractive index of the medium enclosed between the lens and the glass plate.
ii. The radius of curvature of the Plano-convex lens
iii. The wavelength of the source used.
iv. If a liquid is introduced between the lens and the plate, the diameter of the rings will
decrease.
18. Name some of the application of the Newton’s rings.
Newton’s rings are used to determine
i) Wavelength of monochromatic light.
ii) The radius of a spherical surface.
iii) The refractive index of a liquid.

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PHYSICS LAB MANUAL

DIAGRAM:

FORMULA:

B = BH tan 
Where, BH is horizontal component of earth’s magnetic field = 3.5 x 10-5 T
θ is mean deflection in the magnetometer

TABULAR COLUMN:
Input current through coil, I =__________ A

X in Deflection in degrees
Sl. No. Average θ tan θ B = BH tan θ
cm θ1 θ2 θ3 θ4 in degree

1 12

2 10

3 8

4 0

5 8

6 10

7 12

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PHYSICS LAB MANUAL

8. MAGNETIC FIELD INTENSITY DUE TO A CIRCULAR COIL

CARRYING CURRENT
COURSE OBJECTIVE:
Aim: To determine the magnetic field intensity along the axis of a circular coil carrying
current by deflection method.

Apparatus: Deflection magnetometer, sprit level, commutator, ammeter, variable power

supply and connecting wires.

Principle: A current carrying wire generates a magnetic field. According to Biot-Savart’s

law, the magnetic field at a point due to an element of a conductor carrying current is
directly proportional to the strength of the current I, length of the current element dl, sine
of the angle θ between the current element and the line joining the element to the point
and inversely proportional to the square of the distance r between the element and the
point. The total field at P will be the sum of the contributions from all these elements. At
the centre of the coil, the field is maximum. As the location of the point increases from the
centre of the coil on either side, the field decreases.

Procedure:
1. The connections are made as shown in the circuit diagram.
2. Arrange the deflection of the magnetometer in the magnetic meridian of the earth.
3. Now place the coil at the centre of the magnetometer and align its plane perpendicular
to the plane of the magnetometer.
4. Supply current I (1A) through the coil.
5. Place the coil at the distances mentioned in tabular column (from LHS to RHS). For
each distance note down the deflections θ1 and θ2. Then reverse the direction of current
by using commutator and note down the deflections θ3 and θ4.
6. Average deflection θ is calculated for each distance.

7. Calculate the magnetic field strength by using the formula B = BH tan  .

8. Plot the graph of distance Vs magnetic field strength value.

Result:

The magnetic field intensity along the axis of circular coil is measured and the variation
is plotted in the graph.

Course Outcomes:
Real time application (at least four):

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PHYSICS LAB MANUAL

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PHYSICS LAB MANUAL

VIVA-VOCE: Magnetic field intensity due to a circular coil carrying current

1. State tangent law in magnetism.

Tangent Law of Magnetism state that, if a magnetic field ‘B’ is applied at right angles
to the horizontal component of the earth’s field BH, the needle comes to equilibrium at
an angle θ to the magnetic meridian such that tanθ = B/BH.

2. What is tangent law of galvanometer?

Tangent galvanometer is an early measuring instrument for small electric currents. It
consists of a coil of insulated copper wire wound on a circular non-magnetic frame. Its
working is based on the principle of the tangent law of magnetism.

3. What is tangent galvanometer?

A galvanometer consisting of a very small magnetic needle in the center of a large
vertical circular coil of wire through which electric current is passed and whose plane
is in the magnetic meridian with the intensity of the current being proportional to the
tangent of the angle of deflection of the needle.

4. What is a circular coil?

Circular coil means that when the current flows in a circular wire (coil), the magnetic
field produced has straight lines of force near the centre of the coil. The parallel lines
are in a plane perpendicular to the plane of the coil
.
5. State Biot-Savart’s Law?
Bio-Savart’s law deals with the magnetic induction at a point due to a small current
element.
According to Biot-Savart’s law, the magnitude of magnetic induction dB at a point P
due to current element is;
a. Directly proportional to current I,
b. Directly proportional to length dl,
c. Directly proportional to sinθ and
d. Inversely proportional to the square of the distance between the point and the
element.
 0 I dl sin 
Therefore, dB =
4 r2

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PHYSICS LAB MANUAL

6. What is the magnetic field at a point on the axis of a circular coil carrying
current?
The magnitude of the total magnetic field at a point P, is

 0 2nr 2 I
B= ,
4 (r 2 + x 2 ) 3 / 2
Where n is the number of turns in circular coil,
r is the mean radius of the coil,
I is the current flowing in the coil,
x is the distance of P from centre of the axis
Special cases:
When the point P lies at the centre of the coil, magnitude of the magnetic induction at
P is given by

 0 2nr 2 I
B=
4 (r 2 + x 2 ) 3 / 2
When point P is at the centre, x=0
Therefore,
 0 2nI
B=
4 r
When the point P lies far away from the centre of the coil, magnitude of the magnetic
induction at P is

 0 2nr 2 I
B=
4 (r 2 + x 2 ) 3 / 2
When the point P lies far away from the centre of the coil, x>>r, therefore r2+x2 = x2

 0 2nr 2 I
Therefore B =
4 x 3
7. State Right hand thumb rule.
If a straight conductor carrying current is held in the right hand with the thumb
pointing the direction of flow of current, then the curvature of fingers around the
conductor represents the direction of magnetic field lines.

8. State Maxwell’s cork screw rule.

If a right handed screw is rotated such that the tip of the screw moves in the direction
of the flow of current, then the direction of rotation of the head of the screw
represents the magnetic field lines.

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PHYSICS LAB MANUAL

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

FORMULA:

The dielectric constant of the material TABULAR COLUMN:

within capacitor
Voltage across capacitor in volts
Time T (V)
d T1/ 2  10 −6
r = (second) Charging Discharging
0.693  0 A R mode mode
0
d is the distance between the plates in m
10
A is the area of the capacitor plate are in 20
m2
30
T½ is the time required to
40
charge/discharge to 50% of maximum of
applied voltage in seconds. 50

R is Resistance in the circuit in  60

70
εo = 8.85 x 10-12 Fm-1 → Permittivity of 80
free space
90
OBSERVATIONS:
100

Resistance connected in the circuit 130

R =__________ k Ω = __________ Ω 160

Length of the plate in the capacitor 190

l =__________ mm = __________ m 220

Breadth of the plate in the capacitor 250

b =__________ mm = __________ m 280

Area of the plate in the capacitor 310

A = l  b = ______________ m2 340

Distance b/n the plates of the capacitor 370

d = __________ mm = __________ m 400

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PHYSICS LAB MANUAL

9. DIELECTRIC CONSTANT BY RC CHARGING AND DISCHARGING

METHOD
COURSE OBJECTIVE:
AIM: To determine dielectric constant of a given material by using RC charging and
discharging method.
APPARATUS: 5V DC power supply, digital voltmeter, timer, resistors of known values and
capacitor with known values of dimensions and patch cords.

PRINCIPLE: When a capacitor is connected to a DC power supply, it gets charged to the

applied voltage according to the equationV = V o 1 − exp ( RC
−t
).During discharge, the voltage
across the capacitor decreases according to the equation V = V o exp ( RC
−t
)
The time taken for the voltage across the capacitor to increase to 50% of its maximum value
is given by T½ = 0.693 R C and the capacitance of parallel plate capacitor is given by 𝐶 =
𝜀0 𝜀𝑟 𝐴/𝑑.
Thus, by knowing the dimensions of the capacitor and determining the time constant
experimentally, the value of dielectric constant of the material of the dielectric used in the
capacitor can be calculated using the formula.

PROCEDURE:
1. Electrical connections are made as shown in figure.
2. The toggle in the switch S2 is set to halt position. The timer is set to zero by pressing
the reset button. Make sure that voltage across capacitor is zero. If it is not zero, short
the capacitor terminals and achieve it.
3. Charging mode −
a. The toggle of the switch S1 is set to charging mode and the toggle in switch S2 is flicked
to start position, at which instant the capacitor begins to get charged to higher voltage
and the timer starts counting simultaneously.
b. The voltage readings ‘V’ in the voltmeter are recorded at every 10 seconds interval up
to 100 seconds and then in intervals of 30 seconds, until V becomes practically
constant (i.e say when two consecutive readings remain same).
4. Discharging mode: The following operations must be performed in quick succession.
a. The toggle of the switch S2 is changed to halt position. The timer is reset to read zero
b. The toggle in switch S1 is changed to discharging mode, and the toggle in switch S2 is
flicked to start position simultaneously.
c. Immediately, start noting down the reading for V at every 10 seconds interval up to
100 seconds and then in intervals of 30 seconds, until V becomes practically zero.
5. From the tabular column readings, a graph is plotted with time T in seconds taken
along X-axis, and the voltage V in volts along Y-axis. The charge mode curve and the
discharge mode curve intersect at the point P. By referring the position of ‘P’ to the time
axis, the value of its abscissa T½ in seconds is found out. The value of the dielectric
constant is calculated using the formula.

RESULT:
The value of dielectric constant of the material used in the capacitor = ____________.

Course Outcomes:
Real time application (at least four):

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PHYSICS LAB MANUAL

VIVA-VOCE: Dielectric Constant by RC charging and discharging method

Principle of the experiment:

By studying the charging and discharging of RC circuit, time constant can be determined
and using the value of time constant in the formula, r can be determined.
1. What are dielectric materials? Mention their types with examples.
Insulators which can undergo polarization under the influence of electric field are called
dielectric materials.
There are two types of dielectrics
1. Polar dielectrics: In these dielectric centre of positive and negative charges do not
coincides and have permanent dipoles. Ex: Water, NH3, H2S etc.
2. Non-Polar dielectric: In these dielectric centre of positive and negative charges
coincides and have temporary dipoles. Ex: H2, N2, O2 etc.
2. What is a capacitor?
A capacitor is a device to store large amount of charges OR electrical energy.
3. What is capacitance of a capacitor? Define its unit.
Ability of a capacitor to store charges is called its capacitance. It is numerically equal
to the ratio of charge stored and potential between the plates. The unit of capacitance
is farad.
One farad: Capacitance of a capacitor is said to be one farad, if one coulomb of charge
is required to raise its potential by one volt.
4. Why a capacitor blocks DC ?
WKT capacitive reactance XC = 1/2fC. For DC f = 0, XC = ∞ and IDC = 0.
5. Define dielectric constant and in this experiment which dielectric material is
used?
It is the ratio of absolute permittivity of the given medium to that of air or vacuum. For
a given material it is constant or It is the ratio of capacitance of the capacitor with and
without the dielectric medium between the plates of the capacitor. In this experiment
paper is used as dielectric.
6. What is charging and discharging?
Charging is the process of storing the energy in the capacitor.
Discharging is the process of releasing the energy from the capacitor.
7. Define T1/2 ?
It is the time required for the capacitor to charge/discharge to half of its maximum
voltage. It is represented by T1/2.
8. What is the effect of dielectric in a capacitor and justify?
It increases the capacitance of capacitor.

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PHYSICS LAB MANUAL

Based on the working principle of capacitor C = Q/V, with the introduction of dielectric
material b/n the plates of the capacitor generates a field in the direction opposite to the
applied field which results in the reduction of effective field and hence V also decreased
across the capacitor. Therefore the value of C increases.
9. Does dielectric constant depends on frequency of the applied source?
Yes, dielectric constant depends on frequency of the applied source.
10. What is the use of resistor in circuit in this experiment?
When resistor is connected in series with the capacitor, the growth or decay of the
voltage across the capacitor takes place gradually. Otherwise voltage suddenly
reaches maximum.
11. What are  and r, and what are their units?
 is absolute permittivity and its unit is F/m. it is the measure of ability of a dielectric
medium to transfer electrical effects.
r is relative permittivity or static dielectric constant. It is unit less quantity.
12. What is the dielectric constant for conductor?
Infinity
13. What is polarization in dielectrics?
The process of inducing and aligning the electric dipoles by the application of electric
field is called polarization.
14. What is permittivity of a medium? Mention its unit.
Permittivity of a medium is the ability of a medium to allow electric lines of forces or
it measures the ease with which a medium allows electric lines of forces. Its unit is
Fm-1.
13. On what factors dielectric constant of a dielectric material depend?
Dielectric constant of a dielectric material depends on the nature/type of the material
given. It does not depend on dimensions of the material (length, area of cross section
etc.) given.
14. What happens to the value of dielectric constant with the change in dimensions
of the given dielectric material?
With the change in dimensions of the given dielectric material, the time constant T 1/2
changes correspondingly which will compensate the change in dimensions of the
material. So, with the change in dimensions of the given material, the value of
dielectric constant remains same.

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PHYSICS LAB MANUAL

OPTICAL RAY DIAGRAM:

FORMULA
1. Acceptance angle,
D
 0 = tan −1  
 2L 

Where, D – the diameter of the bright circle formed on screen in meters

L – the distance between the optical fiber end and screen in meters

2. Numerical aperture,

NA= sin θ0

TABULAR COLUMN:

Horizontal Vertical Mean Acceptance angle

Trial L in Numerical aperture
diameter D1 diameter D2 diameter D D
 0 = tan −1   NA= sin θ0
No. cm in cm in cm in cm  2L 

(θ0)mean = ____________ (NA)mean = ____________

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PHYSICS LAB MANUAL

10. ACCEPTANCE ANGLE & NUMERICAL APERTURE OF AN OPTICAL FIBER

COURSE OBJECTIVE:

AIM: To determine the Acceptance angle and Numerical aperture of the given optical fiber.

APPARATUS: Laser source, Optical fiber, Screen and Scale.

PRINCIPLE: The Sine of the acceptance angle of an optical fiber is known as the
numerical aperture of the fiber. The acceptance angle can also be measured as the angle
spread by the light signal at the emerging end of the optical fiber. Therefore, by measuring
the diameter of the light spot on a screen and by knowing the distance from the fiber end
to the screen, we can measure the acceptance angle and there by the numerical aperture
of the fiber.

PROCEDURE:
1. Place a graph sheet on the screen.
2. Switch on the laser source and adjust the distance between output end of the optical
fiber and the screen ‘L’, and observe the circle formed on the graph sheet.
3. Mark the points ‘a’, ‘b’, ‘c’ and ‘d’ on the inner bright circle as shown in the diagram.
Note down the horizontal diameter D1 and vertical diameter D2 of the inner bright circle
in the tabular column.
4. Repeat the above steps for different values of L.
5. Find the acceptance angle from the tabular column and hence the Numerical aperture.

RESULT:

The Angle of acceptance and Numerical aperture of the given optical fiber are found to be

θ0 = ____________

NA = ____________

Course Outcomes:
Real time application (at least four):

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PHYSICS LAB MANUAL

VIVA-VOCE: Acceptance angle & Numerical aperture of an optical fiber

1. What is an optical fiber?

An optical fiber is a cylindrical wave guide made of transparent dielectric (glass or
plastic/polymers), which guides light waves along its length by total internal reflection.
2. Mention the optical phenomenon on which optical fiber works?
Light propagate in optical fiber from one of its ends to the other end is based on the
principle of total internal reflection.
3. Define Total Internal Reflection.
It is the complete reflection of a light ray reaching an interface with a less dense medium
when the angle of incidence exceeds the critical angle.
4. What is acceptance angle?
The acceptance angle of an optical fiber is defined as the maximum angle of a ray
(against the fiber axis) hitting the fiber core which allows the incident light to be guided
by the core.
5. What is numerical aperture of an optical fiber?
Numerical aperture is defined as sin of an acceptance angle. It represents the light
gathering ability of optical fiber.
6. What is the condition for propagation for the light signal in an optical fiber?
The condition for propagation for the light signal is, angle of incidence at the fiber axis
should be less than N.A.
7. What are the sources used in optical communication?
LED’s and LASER diodes are the commonly used sources in optical communication
systems.
8. Name the different types of optical fibers?
1. Single Mode Fiber
2. Step Index Multimode Fiber
3. Graded Index Multimode Fiber
9. Define Attenuation?
The reduction in the optical power as it propagates through optical fiber is called
attenuation.
10. Mention the losses responsible for attenuation in optical fibers.
a) Absorption loss,
b) Scattering loss and
c) Bending loss.
11. What are the uses of optical fiber?
1. To transmit the information which are in the form of coded signals of the telephone
communication, computer data…
2. To transmit the optical images (ex: endoscopy)
3. As a sensor to sense change in pressure, temperature, etc.

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PHYSICS LAB MANUAL

12. What are the advantages of Optical fiber communication system?

1. It carries very large amount of information in either digital or analog form due to its
large bandwidth.
2. Since it is made by using dielectrics, it doesn’t produce or receive any electromagnetic
interference.
3. It is easily compatible with electronic system
4. Can operate in high temperature range
5. Not affected by corrosion and moisture
13. What are the disadvantages of Optical fiber communication system?
1. Splicing (connecting of two optical fibers) is a skillful task which if not done precisely
leads to huge signal loss.
2. The optic connectors used for splicing are highly expensive.
3. Optical fibers may suffer line break due to external factors and the operation required
to re-establish the connection is highly skillful and time consuming.
4. Fibers undergo expansion and contraction with temperature that upset the alignment
and lead to loss of signal.

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PHYSICS LAB MANUAL

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

FORMULAE:
1) Input Resistance
∆VBE
Ri = () Where VBE is the change in VBE and I B is the change in IB
∆IB

2) Current gain
∆𝐼 (I −I )
𝛽 = ∆𝐼 𝑐 = (I C2 −IC1 ) Where I C is change in IC and I B is change in IB
𝐵 B2 B1

3) The current amplification factor  =
1+
TABULAR COLUMNS:
Input Characteristics: Dependence of IB on VBE for constant VCE

VCE = 2 V
VBE (volts)
IB (μA )
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7

Output Characteristics: Dependence of IC on VCE for

constant IB

VCE IB = 30μA IB = 60μA

(volts) IC ( mA ) IC ( mA )
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10

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PHYSICS LAB MANUAL

11. CHARACTERISTICS OF TRANSISTOR

COURSE OBJECTIVE:
AIM: To study the input and output characteristics of a given NPN transistor and
determination of input resistance and amplification factors (α and β).
APPARATUS: Transistor SL-100, variable power supply, DC micro ammeter (0 to 200
μA), DC milliammeter (0 to 500 mA), digital voltmeter, patch cards.
PRINCIPLE: Transistor is a three terminal semi-conducting device basically used for
amplification. It is operated in three different modes viz., CE mode, CB mode and CC
mode. In any transistor E−B junction is always forward biased and C−B junction is
reverse biased.
In CE mode, the following characteristics are studied.
Input characteristics: The study of variation in input current (base current) with input
voltage (base−emitter voltage) at constant output voltage (collector−emitter voltage).
Output characteristics: The study of variation in output current (collector current) with
output voltage (collector−emitter voltage) at constant input current (base current).
PROCEDURE:
The circuit is connected as shown in the circuit diagram. All the power supply knobs are
turned to the minimum position.
Input Characteristics:
1. The collector emitter voltage VCE is set to 2 volts by varying VCC.
2. The base emitter voltage VBE i.e., the input voltage is increased from 0 to 0.8 V in steps
of 0.1 V and the corresponding values of the base current I B are noted from the
microammeter.
3. A graph is plotted for input current IB in μA versus input voltage VBE. The voltage at
which the tangent drawn for the curved portion of input characteristics graph meets
the X-axis gives the knee voltage. The input resistance Ri can be calculated from input
characteristics graph.

Output Characteristics:
1. The input current IB is set to 30 μA by varying VBB.
2. VCE is varied from 0 to 0.5V in steps of 0.1V and from 1 to 10V in steps of 1V by varying
VCC and the corresponding readings of collector current IC are recorded.
3. The above procedure is repeated by setting IB = 60 μA.
4. A graph of output voltage VCE verses output current IC is plotted for input current IB for
30 μA and 60 μA as shown in the diagram. The value of β can be calculated using the
formula β = (IC2-IC1)/ (IB2-IB1)

RESULT: The input, output and transfer characteristics for the given NPN transistor
have been studied.
a. The value of input resistance Ri =_____________
b. The value of β = ______________
c. The value of  = ______________
Course Outcomes:
2.

Real time application (at least four):

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PHYSICS LAB MANUAL

VIVA-VOCE: Characteristics of Transistor

1. What are semi conductors?

Materials having the electrical conductivity between that of conductors and insulators
are known as semi conductors.
2. What is a transistor? Why is it called so?
Transistor is a three terminal two-junction semi conductor component. Since it
transfers signal from low resistance region to high resistance region, it is called
Transistor (Transfer resistor).
3. What are the terminals present in a transistor? Mention their functions.
Transistor has emitter which emits charge carriers, collector which collects charge
carriers and base which is sandwiched between emitter and collector, and controls the
flow of charge carriers from emitter to collector.
4. What are the differences between an emitter and a collector in a transistor?
Emitter is heavily doped and collector is moderately doped. The size of emitter is less
than that of collector.
5. Name the types of Transistor?
Transistors are two types NPN and PNP.
6. What is the direction of flow of current in PNP type?
The direction of current is from emitter to base.
7. What is the direction of flow of current in NPN transistor?
The direction of current is from base to emitter.
8. What are the different configurations of a transistor?
The transistor can operate in common emitter (CE), common base (CB), and common
collector (CC) configuration.
9. How many types of characteristics can be obtained from the transistor?
Three types of characteristics can be obtained namely input characteristics output
characteristics and transfer characteristics.
10. Why the common emitter configuration is most widely used to study the
characteristics of a transistor?
The variation of output is very sensitive compared to the other configurations in
common emitter configuration.
11. What are input and output characteristics of a transistor.
The study of variation of input current with input voltage at constant output voltage
is called input characteristics. The study of variation of output current with output
voltage at constant input current is called output characteristics.

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PHYSICS LAB MANUAL

12. What is biasing rule of a transistor?

The biasing rule is that the emitter base junction should be always forward biased and
the collector base junction should be always reverse biased.
13. What happens if the emitter-base junction is reverse biased?
When the emitter-base junction is reverse biased, no electron reach the base from the
emitter, thus no current flows - a dead circuit indeed!
14. What type of device is a transistor?
It is a current control device.
15. What is the basic function of a transistor?
Basically a transistor is used as an amplifier. Also it is used in oscillators, switches
etc.
16. What is amplification?
Amplification is the process of increasing the strength of a weak signal without any
change in the shape of the waveform.
17. Define current gain of a transistor?
The ratio of output current to the input current is called current gain of a transistor
and also called as current amplification factor. There are two types of current gain
factors  and .
 is defined as the ratio of change in collector current to the corresponding change in
the emitter current at constant collector - base voltage in CB mode.
 is defined as the ratio of change in collector current to the corresponding change in
base current at a constant collector – emitter voltage in CE mode.
The relation between  and  is  = / (1+).
18. What is Input resistance?
It is defined as the ratio of a small change in the base-emitter voltage to the resulting
change in the base current at constant collector- emitter voltage in CE mode.

 V 
Rin =  BE 
 I B VCE =cons tan t
19. What are the three regions in transistor operation?
i) active region ii) saturation region iii) cut-off region
In active region, emitter-base is forward biased and collector-base is reverse biased.
In cut-off region, both emitter-base and collector-base junctions of a transistor are
reverse biased. In saturation mode, both collector-base and emitter-base junctions of
a transistor are forward biased.

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PHYSICS LAB MANUAL

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

FORMULA:
The Fermi energy of copper is given by

𝑫𝑨
𝑬𝑭 = 𝟏. 𝟑𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟓 √ 𝑳 𝑴 in J

Where D → Density of copper in kg m −3

A → Area of cross section of the wire in m2
L → Length of the copper wire in m
M → Slope of the line from R Vs T graph

OBSERVATIONS:

Length of the copper wire L =_____________ m

Radius of copper wire r = _____________ mm=_____________m

Area of cross section of copper wire A = r

2
= _____________ m2

Density of copper D = 8.96  10 3 kg m −3

Temperature Temperature
current I in A V in volts R = V/I in Ω
in oC (t) in K = (t+273)

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PHYSICS LAB MANUAL

12. FERMI ENERGY OF COPPER

COURSE OBJECTIVE:
AIM: To determine the Fermi energy of copper.

APPARATUS: DC regulated power supply, digital current meter, digital voltmeter, hot
water bath, thermometer and copper coil.

PRINCIPLE: Metals have positive temperature coefficient of resistance. When the

temperature of a metal increases its resistance also increases. By noting the change in
resistance with temperature for copper metal and knowing the density of copper, its Fermi
energy can be calculated using the formula.

PROCEDURE:

1. The circuit is connected as shown in diagram.

2. A coil is inserted into a hot water bath along with thermometer.
3. When the temperature becomes steady then it is noted. The values of current and
voltage in respective meters are recorded. Water is allowed to cool. For every 5 0C
decrease in temperature the corresponding voltage and current values are noted. This
process is repeated for six different temperatures. For each temperature the resistance
of the coil is calculated.
4. A graph is drawn taking temperature in Kelvin along x-axis and resistance along y-axis
as shown in the typical graph. The slope of straight line is calculated.
5. By using slope and given data, the value of Fermi energy is calculated using the given
formula.

RESULT:

The Fermi energy of copper EF =_________________ eV.

Course Outcomes:

Real time application (at least four):

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PHYSICS LAB MANUAL

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PHYSICS LAB MANUAL

VIVA-VOCE: Fermi energy of copper

Principle of the experiment:

Metals have positive temperature coefficient of resistance. When the temperature of a
metal increases its resistance also increases. By noting the change in resistance with
temperature for copper and knowing the density of copper, its Fermi energy can be
calculated using the formula.

1. What is the difference between resistance and resistivity?

Resistance is the opposition offered by a material for the flow of charges and it depends
on dimensions of the material. Resistivity is the resistance offered by a material of unit
length and unit area and is independent of dimensions of the material. The resistance
is measured in ohms and resistivity in ohm-meter.

2. What is Fermi energy?

The energy of highest occupied level for free electrons in a metal at absolute zero is
called Fermi energy.

3. What is Fermi level?

The top most occupied energy level, below which all are occupied and above which all
levels are empty at absolute zero.

4. What is Fermi velocity?

The velocity of electron in the Fermi level

5. What is the importance of Fermi energy?

It helps to understand electrical and thermal properties of solids. it gives the
information about the velocity of electrons which participate in ordinary electrical
conduction

6. What is Fermi factor?

Gives probability of occupancy of a given energy level (E) at a temp (T)

7. State pauli’s exclusion principle?

It states that no 2electrons having same quantum number can occupy the same energy
level at the same time.

8. How does resistance varies with temperature in metals?

Metal have positive temperature coefficient of resistance. i.e., resistance increases with
increase in temperature.

9. Why resistance of a metal increases with increase in temperature?

As the temperature of metal increases, the amplitude of lattice vibration increases which
results in large number of collisions between free electrons and lattice ions. This
restricts the free flow of electrons and hence resistance increases.

10. What is the effect of temperature on Fermi energy?

Fermi energy decreases with increase in temperature.

11. Does Fermi energy of a metal varies with its dimensions?

No. Fermi energy is constant for a given metal.

54