Freedom through Correct Knowing

A Wisdom Academy Course

By
Geshe Tenzin Namdak

Course Syllabus

A course based on Freedom Through Correct Knowing, On Khedrup Je’s Interpretation of

Darmakirti’s Seven Treatises on Valid Cognition, Translated and commentary by the Sera Jey
Monastic University Translation Department, edited by Geshe Tenzin Namdak and Ven.
Tenzin Legtsok, Wisdom Publications, 2022

Wisdom Academy © 2022

All rights reserved
Introduction
How do we perceive the world and how does our mind shape those perceptions into an
understanding of what we perceive? This course teaches us these essential aspects of our minds and
helps us know how to eliminate distorted perceptions, realize ultimate reality and attain the paths to
liberation and enlightenment. After a general introduction of consciousness, called “What the Mind
Is”, the course has the following outline based on the book Freedom Through Correct knowing 1. The
page numbers of this book are given as a reference.

Topic Page numbers in Freedom

Through Correct knowing
1. Permanent and Impermanent Phenomena 28, 29, 33
2. Manifest Phenomena and Nonconceptual Consciousness 14-22, 43-45, 68-70, 89-91
and Hidden Phenomena and Conceptual Consciousness
3. Direct Perceivers 52,53, 92, 97-153
4. Wrong Consciousness, Doubt and Correctly Assuming 71, 77-79
Consciousness
5. Inference and Emptiness 118, 193-199, 225-236
6. Valid and Non-Valid Awareness 65-68, 81-91
Inattentive Awareness and Subsequent Cognizers 72-75, 79
7. Yogic Direct Perception and Emptiness 117, 118, 150-153, 175-178, 236
8. Omnipresent and Object Ascertaining Mental factors 243-248
9. Virtuous and Non-virtuous Mental Factors 243-248
10. Aspects of Selflessness 186-213 and 255-257

These ten topics outlines the ten lessons of this course. Next to the reference of Freedom Through
Correct knowing, most of the material of this syllabus is based on “Exploring the Mind” of the FPMT
Exploring Buddhism Course, FPMT Education Services, Draft by Geshe Tenzin Namdak, September
2021. Parts of this course are used in this textbook with permission from FPMT Education Services.
The definitions and division of the various types of consciousness are taken from the Tibetan text
yulyulchen dang blo rigs girnam par bshad pa: Explanation of the Presentation of Objects and Object-
Possessors as well as Awarenesses and Knowers by Purbu Chok Jampa Gyatso 2. This text is also used
in the commentary on Khedrup Je’s Clearing Mental Darkness in Freedom Though Correct Knowing.

To prepare well for the lessons, students are advised to read the material to be covered in advance.
If you do this, you will get more out of the teaching sessions because you will already have some
familiarity with the information presented in the teachings and can focus more on the details and
meaning. If you don't, no matter how well you think you know the tradition, you can be left
struggling in the actual teaching sessions to absorb a mass of new information. This will leave you
little mental space to catch the finer detail, contemplate the meaning and to go deeper. Also, if you
don't, it will also affect the quality of your participation in the forum such as your ability to share
your experience and understanding with others and to benefit from the experience and
understanding of others.
The names of the schools of Buddhist philosophy in this syllabus are give in English. Please see their
equivalent Sanskrit names below:
• Great Exposition School (Vaibhāşhika)
• Sūtra School (Sautrāntrika)
• Mind-Only School (Chittamātra)
• Middle Way School (Mādhyamaka) which can be divided into two:
o Middle Way Autonomy Schools (Svātantrika-
Mādhyamaka)
o Middle Way Consequence School (Prāsaṅgika-
Mādhyamaka)

Important reference material for this course:

• Science and Philosophy in the Indian Buddhist Classics, Vol. 2: The Mind, Conceived by His
Holiness the Dalai Lama, edited by Thupten Jinpa, Wisdom Publication, 2020
• Mind in Tibetan Buddhism, Oral Commentary on Ge-shay Jam-bel-sam-pel’s Presentation of
Awareness and Knowledge Composite of All the Important Points Opener of the Eye of New
Intelligence, by Lati Rinbochay and Elizabeth Napper, Snow Lion Publications, Ithaca, New
York, U.S.A., 1986
• Explanation of the Presentation of Objects and Object-Possessors as well as Awarenesses and
Knowers by Purbuchok, translated by Elizabeth Napper. FPMT Basic Program material, FPMT
Education Services, 2020
• A Necklace for Those of Clear Awareness, Clearly Revealing the Modes of Minds and Mental
Factors by Yeshe Gyeltsen, translated by Toh Sze Gee. An FPMT Masters Program
translation, FPMT Education Services, 2020

Next to the explanations in the ten lessons, the course also contains ten guided meditations with the
following subjects:
• Mental Factors Alertness and Mindfulness in Placement Meditation
• Distorted Perceptions of Destructive Emotions in Analytical Meditation
• Ignorance Being the Root of All Afflictions
• How ignorance influences the mind and behaviour
• Recognizing the Object of Refutation of Self of Person
• One and Different Reason to Refute the Object of Refutation
• Dependent Origination of Cause and Effect
• Dependent Origination of Parts and Collection of Parts
• Dependent Origination of Being Merely Imputed
• Emptiness and Dependent Origination of Phenomena
At the beginning and end of each lesson prayers are recited. Traditionally the Praise to Shakyamuni
Buddha, the Heart Sutra and refuge are recited. In this course we will recite verses that condense
these prayers. And for dedication we dedicate toward the two most important points of the path to
enlightenment, Bodhicitta and Emptiness.

Prayers before sessions:

Praise to Shakyamuni Buddha
To the founder, the endowed transcendent destroyer, the one gone beyond, the foe destroyer, the
completely perfected, fully awakened being, perfect in knowledge and in good conduct, Sugata,
knower of the world, supreme guide of human beings to be tamed, teacher of gods and human
beings; to you, the completely and fully awakened one, the endowed transcendent destroyer, the
glorious conqueror, the subduer from the Shakya clan,
I prostrate, make offerings, and go for refuge.

Praise to the Perfection of Wisdom

The inexpressible and inconceivable perfection of wisdom,
Unproduced, unceasing, the nature of space,
Object of the uniquely knowing transcendental wisdom:
To the Mother of the Victorious Ones of the three times, I prostrate.
TADYATHA GATE GATE PARAGATE PARASAMGATE BODHI SVAHA

Refuge and Bodhichitta

SANG GYÄ CHÖ DANG SOG KYI CHOG NAM LA
I go for refuge until l I am enlightened
JANG CHUB BAR DU DAG NI KYAB SU CHI
To the Buddha, the Dharma, and the Supreme Assembly.
DAG GI CHÖ NYEN GYI PE SÖ NAM GYI
By the merits I create through listening to the Dharma,
DRO LA PEN CHIR SANG GYE DRUB PAR SHOG (3x)
May I become a buddha in order to benefit all sentient beings. (3x)

Dedication prayers after sessions:

To Actualize Bodhichitta To Realize Emptiness
JANG CHHUB SEM CHHOG RIN PO CHHE TONG NYI TA WA RIN PO CHHE
May the precious supreme bodhicitta May the precious view of emptiness
MA KYE PA NAM KYE GYUR CHIG MA KYE PA NAM KYE GYUR CHIG
Not yet born arise. Not yet born arise.
KYE PA NYAM PA ME PA YANG KYE PA NYAM PA ME PA YANG
May that arisen not decline, May that arisen not decline,
GONG NÄ GONG DU PHEL WAR SHOG GONG NÄ GONG DU PHEL WAR SHOG
But increase more and more. But increase more and more.
 Moved out of compassion,
You who eliminate wrong views,
Teacher of the sublime dharma,
To Gautam Buddha I pay homage.
Fundamental Wisdom, Arya Nagarjuna

What the Mind Is

This section looks at the definition and main features of mind in both classical Buddhist and modern
scientific perspectives. It examines the relationship between the mind and the brain; the possibility
of the mind existing separate from the body; the continuity of the mind after death and some of the
challenges facing scientific materialism. It is necessary to address questions around these issues to
establish a rational basis for the existence of liberation from samsara and full enlightenment.
Exploring these issues helps us to see the infinite potential of consciousness, generating a deeper
conviction in reincarnation and the possibility of the radical positive transformation afforded by a
continuity of mind over many lives.

The Mind According to Buddhism

The Buddhist definition of mind is “that which is clear and knowing”. It is not something physical; it
does not have mass, shape and colour, yet states of mind are closely correlated with brain activity.
The two features – luminosity i.e., clarity, and knowing i.e., cognizance – have come to characterize
“the mental” in Indo-Tibetan Buddhist thought. Here, “clarity” refers to the ability of mental states
to reveal or reflect whilst in contrast “knowing” refers to mental states’ faculty to perceive or
apprehend what appears 3. “Clear” expresses the essential nature of consciousness and “knowing”
expresses its function 4. Consciousness and mind are synonymous and can be divided into five sense
perceptions, apprehending shapes and colours; sounds; odour; tastes and tangible objects, and
mental consciousness. These six types of consciousness, or main minds, cannot operate by
themselves but need to depend on mental factors such as omnipresent, object-ascertaining, virtuous
and non-virtuous and changeable mental factors.

The mind of a human at the time of conception is the continuation of a stream of awareness which
existed before the sperm and ovum of the parents conjoined. The subtle mind carries on while
coarser minds cease to exist, similar to falling asleep and dying. Mind is neither matter nor physical,
and the substantial cause for a moment of consciousness to come into existence is also
consciousness, such as its previous moment. We see that every moment of consciousness is
produced by a previous moment and that each previous moment is produced by its previous
moment. We cannot really find a beginning because every moment is preceded by a previous
moment infinite in number. In Buddhism we thus state that consciousness is without beginning and
accept rebirth. In a similar way, the Big Bang is not really the start of the universe but is more like a
Big Bounce: matter also has a similar substantial cause without beginning. The Big Bang was likewise
caused by something which was there before it and many contemporary scientists like Roger
Penrose 5, winner of the 2020 Noble Prize in Physics, prefer to refer to it as a Big Bounce. In
conjunction with the continuity of mind, we have a free will in the sense of being able to fully
transform our patterns of thought and attention. There is a downward causation whereby mental
activity produces measurable changes in the physical brain. Evidence for this is found in
neuroplasticity, the reorganization of physical neural networks and the activation of different parts
of the brain according to changes in mental activity 6.

Freedom through Correct Knowing 5

The Mind According to Science
Currently, the mainstream view of neuroscience is that “the mind is what the brain does,”
or that it is an emergent property of the brain. In other words, it is held that what we call “mind” is
an appearance produced by physical activity in the brain. This view of the mind entails the assertions
that the mind of a human, in its’ earliest stages of development, is a product of physical substances
contained in the sperm and ovum of the parents. We do not have authentic free will since all
thoughts and decisions are the outcome of physical processes in our brains which are beyond our
control. In like manner, there is no downward causation: the activity of the mind cannot be a cause
of changes in the brain because mind is only a result of activity in the brain. Without brain activity, a
person cannot have mental experiences or awareness and thereby a person cannot pass from one
life to another rebirth or have any kind of existence after death. Furthermore, all our thoughts,
emotions, and other mental experiences are reducible to physical events and, in a true materialist
view, are in all respects not non-physical.

There is evidence which challenges this scientific materialist view of mind with some of the research
seeming to suggest that there are many common grounds within the Buddhist interpretations of
consciousness with its divisions and functions. Certain types of research prove the possibility of
changing the mind in the field of neuroplasticity. Sweeping away common misconceptions and
neuro-mythology, Daniel Goleman and Richard J. Davidson demonstrate that beyond the pleasant
states mental exercises can produce, the real payoffs are the lasting traits which can result in the
altered traits leading to positive life changes 7. Furthermore, studies in Obsessive Compulsive
Disorder (OCD) show that overactive neural pathways in the brain cause a person to have powerful
thoughts, driving them to engage in obsessive behaviours. By training in alertness and mindfulness
the person can learn to redirect their attention such that they ignore compulsive thoughts and
engage in constructive thoughts. This mental activity causes drastic reorganization of neural
networks in the brain 8.

Next to the importance of the possibility for changing and developing our minds, there is also
evidence which suggests that consciousness can exist with less or no dependence on the physical
brain. Research in Near-Death Experiences (NDE) seems to indicate that there are states of valid
perception without brain activity during a cardiac arrest while a person is clinically dead. About
fifteen percent of people who have experienced such a state and come back to life report having had
vivid perception or experiences during the time they were “dead”. A small number of these report
witnessing events, which can be verified, to have happened at precisely the time they had no brain
activity. Certain types of research suggest that 80-90 % of what is been perceived during a NDE to be
valid 9.

Another example of consciousness without brain activity is the “clear light mind of death
meditation”, or called “Tukdam” phenomenon, in which accomplished meditation masters stay in
such a state. This is considered a clinical death, but the body does not decay for days and sometimes
for weeks. The Buddhist explanation for this is that there is still consciousness abiding in the
meditator’s body which prevents physical decay but being in such a subtle state, it does not depend
on brain activity. Recent research suggests that no detectable brain activity can be measured during
this “Tukdam” period 10. According to the Buddhist interpretation, the person takes rebirth after the
clear light mind of death ceases. The existence of reincarnation is also researched in the field of
children’s memories of past lives. There is an abundance of evidence in support of children
remembering previous lives and the question of how such memories can pass from one life to
another in the absence of brain activity during this transition 11.

A rarer phenomenon than NDE, during which enhanced levels of conscious arise while an impaired
brain structure or state remains the same, is Terminal Lucidity or sometimes called Deathbed

Freedom through Correct Knowing 6

Recovery. It is an unexpected return of mental clarity and memory shortly before death in patients
suffering from severe psychiatric and neurologic disorders like brain abscesses, tumours, strokes,
dementia, schizophrenia 12. Patients get clarity of mind back just before passing away, remember
friends and family again and talk and behave like they did before their ailment.

The aspects of consciousness existing without a physical brain in NDE, Tukdam, reincarnation and
other related events, are thoughtfully summarized by Bruce Greyson, Professor Emeritus of
Psychiatry and Neurobehavioral Sciences at the University of Virginia, in: “Is Consciousness Produced
by the Brain?" https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sPGZSC8odIU

Destructive and Constructive Emotions

After understanding the general aspects of our minds, learning about destructive and positive
emotions, we come to understand how to reduce the one and increase the other. This makes it
immensely easier to actually practice transforming our minds on a daily basis in very tangible ways.

Buddhist psychology, as taught by the Buddha and elucidated by the scholars of Nalanda, is a science
of the mind which explains methods to eliminate destructive thoughts and emotions, and methods
to strengthen positive ones through learning, contemplation, and meditation. These teachings teach
us that, destructive emotions, such as attachment, anger, and ignorance, can be reduced by
analysing their faults and applying their respective antidotes, with contemplating the qualities of
these positive states of mind. Anger is countered by patience and love, attachment is impended by
meditating on impermanence, un-satisfactoriness, and the unattractive aspects of objects; ignorance
is eliminated by wisdom. Explanations that destructive emotions cause suffering and the importance
of training the mind in developing constructive emotions are not only a Buddhist approach. There is
a lot of evidence in the scientific world about this as well. Daniel Goleman writes about the
importance of emotional intelligence and how to overcome destructive emotions with a lot of
scientific data proving the benefits of these developments 13. Destructive emotions can be reduced,
and positive ones enhanced, by training in generating more self-awareness, self-regulation and
compassion toward others combined with wisdom understanding reality.

Self-awareness and Self-regulation

Being aware of our mental inner world is a very important fundamental aspect for our well-being. Not
having this kind of awareness of our own feelings and emotions can cause one to become “hijacked
emotionally” by destructive emotions beyond control which can even cause a person to commit crimes 14.
All mental, verbal and physical behaviours are preceded by a mental state, however short it might be. Thus,
the first step in improving mental health and well-being is improving this awareness based on developing
mental factors like alertness or introspection, sometimes translated as meta-awareness (saṃprajanya), and
mindfulness (smṛti). Our consciousness can be divided into two types: primary consciousness (citta) and
mental factors (caitasika). The primary consciousnesses, or main minds, are of six types: eye, ear, nose,
tongue, body and mental primary consciousness. The Abidharmasamuccaya by Asanga classifies fifty-one
mental factors divided into six groups: omnipresent mental factors; object-ascertaining mental factors;
virtuous mental factors; root afflictions; secondary afflictions and changeable mental factors. The way the
mental factors are related to primary consciousness can be understood as being like the relationship
between a king and his retinue: a king does not travel alone but is always accompanied by ministers and
attendants in order to function in his daily activities. Similarly, every primary consciousness is accompanied
by mental factors. They work together to engage objects in different ways. More about main minds and
mental factors is explained in the section on Mind and Mental Factors, that last section of this textbook.

By training to strengthen the mental factor alertness, one learns to pay more attention to mental
processes, to be alert and aware of what is going on in one’s own mind. It is like a spy in the corner of the
mind observing the mental states from a neutral perspective, without permitting the mind to go into a

Freedom through Correct Knowing 7

particular thought or allowing an emotion to take over. It is an observer who checks if the mind is becoming
distracted by a particular thought or not. The mental factor mindfulness on the other hand, remembers a
particular intention or motivation, which helps to direct the mind to a particular thought or object. With
alertness and mindfulness one can train in being more aware and make more conscientious decisions about
which thoughts to follow or in which acts to engage, thus disciplining oneself. Conversely, an untrained
mind merely follows previously established patterns of habituation without much self-reflection.

Based on the development of self-awareness and self-regulation a person can become more in control of
the mind. This means not only being able to observe the mind and being aware not to follow a particular
thought or destructive emotion, but it can also help to generate a particular antidote to eliminate a
destructive emotion like, for example, anger. Anger, a mental factor belonging to the category of root
afflictions, exaggerates the faults of its object without seeing the qualities; has an aspect of wishing to
harm; wants to be separated from its object and causes the mind to be disturbed, resulting in the person
possessing it experiencing suffering. Self-awareness recognizes and understands the nature of the
destructive emotion, how it arises and abides, how it disturbs the inner peace of mind and how it
disintegrates. With this awareness one sees the negative aspects of the afflictions and sees that these
emotions are not an innate part of the mind – like clouds not being an inherent part of the blue sky – and
thus that they can be eliminated. Self-regulation prevents the destructive emotions from becoming
manifest by applying antidotes. Through various reasonings, one analyses the negative aspects of individual
destructive emotions and contemplates the positive aspects of their antidotes. For instance, one
contemplates the faults of anger and the qualities of loving kindness. Destructive emotions can be
eliminated with a correct consciousness which understands the real and actual nature of its object. This
directly opposes what the affliction apprehends an example of which is loving kindness. Because of wishing
beings to abide in happiness, it apprehends the same object as anger but in a directly opposing way and is
therefore the opposite from anger which wishes to harm others. One particular consciousness cannot
apprehend its object in two opposite ways at a certain moment. This can be exemplified with one mind
wishing a particular person to experience suffering and happiness at the same time being impossible. When
loving kindness becomes more prevalent in a person’s mental continuum through mind training, instances
of anger become less frequent, less powerful, and shorter in duration when they do arise. An inner
happiness or well-being is achieved, with an increased power and presence of a virtuous state of mind, like
loving kindness, when conjoined with the peace arising from the absence of the destructive emotion anger.
Eventually these technics are used in sustained contemplation.

Through various reasons one reaches a conclusion with an insight which sees the faults of the destructive
emotion and the positive qualities of its’ antidote. One then focuses single pointedly on this conclusion in
order to build up habituations with this positive development. When the mind becomes more and more
interested in and familiarizes itself with the qualities of the antidote and positive states of mind, the
destructive emotions lose their potential to become manifest. Familiarization through these mind trainings
and meditation is very important. As Shāntideva mentions in his Bodhisattvacharyāvatāra, “there is nothing
that will not become easier through familiarization.” Through these techniques a stable mental health of
inner well-being can be generated.

Compassion
After having seen the faults of destructive emotions in one’s own consciousness and having
generated the wish to be free of these mental disturbances, as explained above, one can develop
this wish for others as well. When another person becomes angry with oneself, one understands
that it is the affliction anger in that particular person’s mind which creates the problems, not the
person himself or herself. Deep inside, that person also wishes happiness and does not want the
mental disturbances caused by anger. On this basis one can generate compassion for that person.
Compassion can be defined as “a wish for others to be free of suffering”. From a Buddhist
psychological perspective, compassion is a virtuous mental factor which in general is thought to

Freedom through Correct Knowing 8

grant the meditator numerous beneficial effects between sessions, such as creating a general sense
of well-being and aiding in counteracting anger or irritation. Long-term practitioners of this practice
are also said to have an effect on others around them, in that other persons nearby may also feel a
greater sense of well-being and happiness. In research on compassion an increase of gamma waves
was found in the brains of long-term meditators to the extent that the gamma waves were off the
charts, being measured at levels never seen before. This proves the power of mental training to
produce heightened brain states associated with perception, problem solving and positive
emotions 15 thus, establishing a healthier inner well-being.

In the context of stress disorders, and in particular in relation to the most severe one, post-traumatic
stress disorder (PTSD), it has been proven that compassion can prevent PTSD to a significant extent.
Many Tibetans, who were trained in compassion and who had been tortured in prison over many
years in Chinese occupied Tibet, show almost no PTSD 16. Research has shown that being more
compassionate can make us feel less stressed. The reason given is that compassion generates more
happiness through the release from the stress of judging and worrying about ourselves 17. On the
other hand, lack of compassion can cause a person to generate a strong form of narcissism,
personality disorders, psychopathy and certain forms of autism, components which can cause one
not to be able to function normally in social life 18.

Wisdom Understanding Reality

As mentioned above, certain mental disorders are caused by a lack of compassion, rooted in a strong form
of narcissism. In Buddhist psychology and philosophy, narcissism is based on and rooted in an apprehension
of an egocentric self, “I” and “mine,” which is mistakenly apprehended as existing in an independent,
inherent way. The mind which apprehends the self in that way is called ignorance, the root cause for
destructive emotions and suffering. Dharmakīrti stated in his Pramāņavārttikakārikā:

When self is conceived,

Distinguishing as others occurs,
This conception of a self and other leads to attachment and aversion,
This in turn results in the ensuing of all miseries.

Complete elimination of this ignorance causes one to obtain the stable happiness of the liberation of
Nirvana. Nāgārjuna, affirmed in his Mūlamadhyamakakārikā:

When [the views] of [an inherent] “I” and “mine” are extinguished,
Karma and afflictions cease and liberation [is obtained].

The egocentric self appears in an independent inherent way as being separate from body and mind, existing
from its own side. With the correct understanding of how the self exists – in a dependent way in relation
with one’s body and mind – one can eliminate this ignorance and thereby abandon the root cause of the
afflictions. In this way the eradication of all suffering and the attainment of an ultimate state of happiness
and mental well-being is achieved. Not understanding the dependent nature of one’s body, mind and the
world around us, further causes a person to become more self-centred which can lead to disorders of a
painful emotional life and recurrent depression 19. Additionally, self-centeredness and narcissism lead to
problems of self-esteem such as either a puffed-up grandiose self-image or a low self-esteem, leading to
different forms of depression 20.

Buddha’s teaching on the four noble truths shows us how we remain trapped by our destructive
emotions and can attain freedom by generating positive ones. These are:

Freedom through Correct Knowing 9

 • The truth of suffering: one’s mental and physical discomforts and sufferings, which are the
results of the destructive emotions and their actions.
• The truth of the cause of suffering: the destructive emotions themselves, afflictions, such as
anger, attachment and ignorance, and the actions which are motivated by these afflictions.
• The truth of cessation: an absence of afflictions, states of temporary and ultimate happiness.
• The truth of paths: methods of meditation, in particular meditations on ultimate reality,
which eliminate the afflictions and increase beneficial states of mind.

As a doctor first analyses the nature and cause of a sickness, then examines the possibility of curing
the patient, and finally gives treatments which eliminate the sickness, the Buddha explained the four
noble truths in a similar way to help beings eliminate suffering and achieve temporary and ultimate
happiness. In the Setting in Motion of the Wheel of the Dharma Sutra, Buddha said that we need to
identify or know suffering, eliminate the causes of suffering, actualize the cessation of suffering, and
meditate on the paths which cease suffering.

1. Permanent and Impermanent Phenomena Page numbers in the book:

Freedom Through Correct
To understand the various states of consciousness, it is Knowing
important first to understand the objects that appear to our Page: 28, 29, 33
mind, the holders of those objects or sometimes called object-
possessors. We can learn a lot by analysing our minds when emotions come up. When analysing
destructive emotions, we come to see that these mental factors are states of mind which are not in
accordance with reality. For instance, anger overestimates the faults of its’ object and attachment
overestimates the qualities. When we walk away from an irritating situation we walk away with a
mental image of a particular person or problem. In our mind we create our own reality of the event,
we build a mental image, or meaning generality, more negative than the actual situation or person
is. What the mind of anger perceives is coloured and is not only limited to a Buddhist understanding.
Aron T. Beck, a professor emeritus in the department of psychiatry at the University of Pennsylvania,
explains that a person with intense anger creates a mental image which is not in accordance with
reality, and that 80-90% of what appears at that time is mentally fabricated. It is important to
understand what appears to our minds and what is actual reality. To understand the world we live
in, we need to understand the objects of consciousness and the consciousnesses which possess or
experience objects, the object possessor. Dharmakirti mentions in Pramanavartika:

Consciousness has the attribute of apprehending its object;

It apprehends it in the way that it exists;
And by virtue of being existent, the nature of the object
Is to produce consciousness 21.

Object Possessors
All existent phenomena are objects because they “are known by an awareness”. However, when
dividing all phenomena into the two-fold division of objects and object-possessors, persons,
consciousnesses, and expressive sounds are object possessors, while all phenomena other than these
are only objects. These three object-possessors are defined as following:

• A person is defined as: a being imputed in dependence upon any of its five aggregates. Self,
I, person, and being are synonymous.
• An awareness or consciousness is defined as: a knower. The divisions of awareness are
explained in detail below.

Freedom through Correct Knowing 10

 • An expressive sound is defined as: an object of hearing which causes the understanding of
its’ own object of expression through the force of nomenclature.
Expressive sounds are divided into:
o Names: an object of hearing which causes understanding of its’ own meaning. An
illustration, i.e., an example, of a name is speech calling the king of beasts “lion.”
o Phrases: an object of hearing which indicates the intended meaning by joining
objects and their quality or aspects. An illustration of a phrase is “Our bodies are
impermanent, subject to momentary change and disintegration.”
o Letters: a vocalization which is a basis of forming the two, names and phrases.
Illustrations of letters are vowels and consonants.

All object-possessors are also objects while all objects are not necessarily object-possessors. An eye
consciousness seeing a flower is both an object and an object-possessor. It experiences, or holds, its’
object, the flower, and thus is an object-possessor. It, the eye consciousness, can be known by
another consciousness, such as a self-knowing consciousness, and is thus also an object (of that self-
knowing consciousness). The flower by itself is an object but not an object-possessor.

Impermanent and Permanent Objects

Objects are initially divided into two types impermanent and permanent phenomena.
• Impermanent phenomena are phenomena which are in the nature of momentary changing.
They are synonymous with functioning things, products and compounded phenomena.
Impermanent phenomena perform functions such as producing results, like a seed gives rise
to a sprout, moments of consciousness give rise to future moments and the creation of
karma. Impermanent phenomena are produced in dependence upon causes and conditions.
They are divided into three types:

o Physical things, or matter, like our body or a table.

o Consciousness, like a consciousness apprehending a table.
o Non-associated compositional factors, like a person. A person has consciousness and
a body, but the person itself is neither the consciousness nor the body.

• Permanent phenomena are phenomena which are not momentary changing. They are
synonymous with uncompounded phenomena. Permanent phenomena do not perform
functions, they do not produce results and do not change from moment to moment.
Examples of permanent phenomena are the absence of an elephant (in the room), the
absence of afflictions, selflessness and a mental image i.e., meaning generality.

In the Sutra School all existing phenomena are divided into phenomena that are permanent,
meaning not momentarily changing, and those that are impermanent, meaning changing or
transforming moment to moment without pause. They also accept that specifically characterized
phenomena are synonymous with impermanent phenomena because they have their own
uncommon aspects or characteristics such as size, shape, color, and so forth. Further, they accept
that generally characterized phenomena are synonymous with permanent phenomena that don’t
have these uncommon aspects or characteristics but are mere imputations by conceptual
consciousness. The Sutra Schoolrāntika also says that whatever is an object of comprehension of a
valid cognizer is necessarily either a specifically or a generally characterized phenomena because
whatever is an object of comprehension is the appearing object either of a valid direct perceiver or
of an inferential valid cognizer; whatever is the former is necessarily a specifically characterized
phenomena, while whatever is the latter is necessarily a generally characterized phenomena.

Freedom through Correct Knowing 11

In the beginning of this section, it was mentioned that a mental image of a particular person or
problem we have is created by our own mind. Mental images, or technically called “meaning
generalities” are permanent phenomena and appearing objects of conceptual consciousness.
Permanent phenomena are synonymous with appearing object of conceptual consciousness and
impermanent objects are appearing objects of non-conceptual consciousness or direct perceivers.
They are called “direct perceivers” because the objects which appear, appear without the need of a
mental image, and thus, appear directly; like the colour and the shape of a table appearing to our
eye consciousness.

Conventional and Ultimate Truths

The four different schools of Buddhist philosophy give different definitions of the two truths. In his
Presentation of Tenets, Jetsun Chökyi Gyaltsen gives the following definitions according to the Sutra
School. The definition of an ultimate truth is “a phenomenon that is ultimately able to perform a
function”; and the definition of a conventional truth is “a phenomenon that is not ultimately able to
perform a function”. In the Sutra School, concealer truth or conventional truth is synonymous with
permanent phenomena and generally characterized phenomena. Ultimate truth is synonymous with
impermanent, functioning thing and with specifically characterized phenomena. To obstruct direct
apprehension of ultimate truth is to conceal it. For the Sutra School all generally characterized
phenomena are truths for a concealer because they are true primarily in relation to conceptual
consciousness. Conceptual consciousnesses are deemed to conceal the truth because they engage
their objects only through the mistaken appearance of meaning generalities. This way of engaging
specifically characterized phenomena obstructs taking them directly as objects of apprehension due
to having an appearance of them that is mixed with an appearance of something that is in fact not
them, their meaning generalities.

The meaning of “concealer truth” for conventional truth is predominant in The Mind-Only School
and Madhyamaka (Middle Way) in the sense that non-ultimate phenomena seem to be truths for an
ignorant consciousness that conceals reality and thus are “concealer-truths.” According to the Mind-
Only School, sense objects appear to sense consciousnesses in ordinary beings as externally existent,
while in fact they are not. Objects appear in a dualistic way. Therefore, for followers of Mind-Only all
such direct other-knowers are mistaken in that the way their appearing objects appear and the way
those objects in fact exist are discordant. For followers of Sutra School sense objects do in fact exist
externally and thus the way sense objects appear to sense consciousnesses and the way they exist
are concordant; hence such sense consciousnesses are unmistaken.

In his Presentation of Tenets, Jetsun Chökyi Gyaltsen gives the following definitions of the two truths
according to the Mind-Only School. The definition of ultimate truth is “that which is realized by the
direct valid cognizer directly realizing it by way of the vanishing of dualistic appearance”. There are
two divisions of ultimate truths: subtle selflessness of phenomena and subtle selflessness of
persons. The definition of conventional truth is “that which is realized by the direct valid cognizer
directly realizing it by way of being together with dualistic appearance”.

Four Types of Objects

To understand the relation between objects and the consciousnesses apprehending those objects,
objects are divided into the following four:
• Appearing objects
• Apprehended objects
• Determined objects
• Objects of engagement.

Freedom through Correct Knowing 12

Appearing object and object of apprehension are synonymous. Whatever is an existing phenomenon
is necessary an appearing object because whatever is impermanent is an appearing object of a direct
perceiver and whatever is permanent is an appearing object of a conceptual consciousness. The
appearing and apprehended objects refer to the objects that are actually appearing to
consciousness, although such objects may or may not be comprehended by the consciousness to
which they appear. The object of engagement refers to the objects that consciousness
comprehends, actually gets at or engages in. According to Purbu Chok 22 object of engagement of a
direct perceiver and object of the mode of apprehension of a direct perceiver are synonymous.
Determined object of conceptual thought, object of engagement of conceptual thought and object
of the mode of apprehension of conceptual thought are synonymous. Thus, only conceptual
consciousnesses have determined objects.

2. Manifest Phenomena and Nonconceptual Consciousness and

Hidden Phenomena and Conceptual Consciousness

Next to the two-fold division of permanent and Page numbers in the book:
impermanent phenomena, phenomena can also be Freedom Through Correct
posited in terms of the following threefold division: Knowing
Page: 14-22, 43-45, 68-70, 89-91
• Manifest phenomena. Objects of the sense consciousnesses are initially realized by a direct
perceiver, without the need to depend on a mental image and logic or reasoning. Objects of
the senses are shapes and colours; sounds; odour; tastes and tangible objects.
• Slightly hidden phenomena. An ordinary being cannot initially know a slightly hidden
phenomenon through direct valid cognition, like sense consciousness, but need to depend
on the reasoning of conceptual consciousness. For instance, the fact that a table is
impermanent, meaning that it continuality changes through even the shortest units of time,
is a slightly hidden phenomenon. We cannot experience this nature of momentary changing
with our eyes but can come to know it through reasoning. Another example of slightly
hidden phenomena is selflessness or emptiness. We only come to understand this by the
power of reasoning.
• Very hidden phenomena. This type of phenomena cannot be perceived by either an ordinary
direct perceiver or a conceptual consciousness of inference without depending on a valid
source, such as a valid person with clairvoyance or the Buddha with the omniscient mind.
An example of a very hidden phenomenon is the subtle workings of karma, such as the fact
that a particular person who is reading this text has been created by having a certain interest
in this topic. However, when, where and at what time this initial interest was generated in
that individual is a very hidden phenomenon.

The processes of generating valid cognitions with respect to hidden phenomena can be related to
how things appear and how things exist. Take the example of the colour and shape of our body
which can be seen with a direct perception, the eye consciousness. The body also has the quality of
being in the nature of momentary changing, every split second, which needs an inference, a
conceptual reasoning consciousness, to realize this nature. In a similar way, our body is empty of
inherent existence which equally needs this inference to be realized. When and in which life did we
create the causes for the various aspects of our body is a very hidden phenomena and we need to
depend on a type of clairvoyance or an omniscient mind of a Buddha to understand that. In science

Freedom through Correct Knowing 13

there are various similar interpretations regarding the levels of reality of what can and cannot be
measured. In the field of quantum mechanics, Broglie and David Bohm, mention hidden variables
which can explain strange events we empirically measure, such as in the double split experience or
Schrodinger’s cat 23. David Bohm refined this further with his theory of the “implicate and explicate
order” 24, stating that there is an underlying reality connecting interdependent relations, which is a
process of wholeness.

In the introduction “What the Mind Is”, it is explained that consciousness is defined as that which is
clear and knowing. Awareness (blo), knower (rig pa), and consciousness (shes pa) are synonymous.
In this section we discuss two types of consciousness of the two-fold divisions, conceptual and non-
conceptual consciousness.

Conceptual and Non-conceptual Consciousness

In the above it stated that slightly hidden phenomena need to be realized with inference, which is a
conceptual consciousness, and manifest phenomena can be realized with a direct perception, a non-
conceptional consciousness. With this we come to understand that conceptual and non-conceptual
consciousnesses are fundamentally different ways in which our minds engage objects and that they
provide both unique limitations as well as unique advantages and opportunities. As we come to
understand how these two, conceptual and non-conceptual consciousness, play different roles,
giving rise to the afflictive emotions which cause suffering, and how they can be used to generate
not only antidotes to afflictive emotions but also develop positive states of mind, leads to liberation
and enlightenment

Non-conceptual consciousness, such as the five sense consciousnesses, enable us to experience the
physical world of sights and sounds for instance, with all its richness, detail, and beauty. An
advantage of non-conceptual consciousnesses is that they enable us to gain clear, direct, and
immediate impressions of the external world and other sentient beings in it. Furthermore, a non-
conceptual consciousnesses of a yogic direct perception, which we eventually achieve on the paths
of seeing and meditation, is a consciousnesses which can realize profound truths, like emptiness
directly, in ways so powerful that they can eliminate the afflictive and knowledge obscurations.
Conceptual consciousness cannot do this. However, a limitation of non-conceptual consciousness is
that they cannot reason, imagine or remember. These functions are all performed by conceptual
consciousness alone. Another constraint is that non-conceptual sense consciousnesses, such as the
eye consciousness, can only experience a narrow range of objects, in this case visual objects. Before
achieving the path of seeing, an ordinary person’s non-conceptual consciousnesses cannot realize
permanent phenomena such as selflessness. Hence, there is a need to initially realize emptiness with
a conceptual consciousness.

Conceptual consciousness, which is a mental consciousness, has the potential to know any
phenomena which fall into the category of slightly hidden phenomena. An advantage of conceptual
consciousnesses is that they enable us to know slightly hidden phenomena, like selflessness or the
subtle continually changing nature of functioning things, which we cannot perceive with our sense
consciousnesses. Another advantage is that conceptual consciousnesses can be used to fully
generate positive emotions such as kindness and compassion, gratitude, and patience, whereas non-
conceptual minds cannot generate these attitudes. A drawback of conceptual consciousnesses is
that they work with mental images, or meaning generalities, which are not the actual object,
although we think they are, potentially causing problems. For instance, when we become angry at
someone, we generate a mental image of the person which has more faults than the reality and then
we believe the person actually has these faults. Another limitation of conceptual consciousnesses is
that they experience their objects by eliminating everything which is not that object. Therefore, they

Freedom through Correct Knowing 14

do not experience their objects with the fullness of the characteristics which non-conceptual
consciousnesses do. For example, compare thinking about tasting a luscious ripe apple to actually
tasting one.

Conceptual and non-conceptual consciousnesses play different roles in giving rise to the
afflictive emotions which cause suffering. Non-conceptual consciousnesses simply give rise to the
appearance of objects of attachment and anger. An example is when we smell a favourite food and
begin to crave it. Therefore, one method to reduce afflictive emotions is to simply prevent our sense
consciousnesses from coming into contact with such objects. Conceptual consciousnesses, drawing
on past memories of experiencing objects, distort our current perception of them and anticipate
certain future outcomes. A case in point is when we have had an argument with someone before.
When we see them approaching, we anticipate having an unpleasant exchange again, feel aversion
and become tense.

Conceptual consciousnesses are used to contemplate the faults of destructive emotions, like anger
and selfishness, and to think about the benefits of positive attitudes, like patience, loving-kindness,
gratitude and contentment. Non-conceptual consciousnesses, known as yogic direct perceivers, are
most important for eliminating the roots of samsara and the obstructions to full enlightenment once
we reach an Arya being’s paths of seeing and meditation. When we eventually attain full
enlightenment, all instances of awareness are non-conceptual.

The actual definitions of conceptual and non-conceptual consciousness are given below. One can see
that a conceptual consciousness is mistaken with regards to its’ appearing object because the
mental image, or meaning generality, appears to be the actual object. This is not the case as the
mental image we have of a person in our mind is not the actual person.

A conceptual consciousness is defined as: a determinative knower that apprehends a sound

generality and a meaning generality as suitable to be mixed. The standard description of the
meaning generality of, for example, a house, is the appearance of the opposite of not being house.
Although it is not house, it appears to the conceptual consciousness as the actual house. If someone
describes a particular house which one has never seen before, the image of this house which
appears to one’s mind is solely based on the description, and as such, is a sound generality.

The definition mentions: “suitable to be mixed” because there are three possibilities of conceptual
consciousness: 1) that apprehends only a sound generality, 2) that apprehends only a meaning
generality and 3) that apprehends both, a sound and a meaning generality. An example of the first is
a conceptual consciousness, in the continuum of a person that apprehends a vase in dependence on
merely the sound of the name “vase” without knowing the definition of a vase, a bulbous flat-based
thing that is able to perform a function of holding water. An example of the second is a conceptual
consciousness, in the continuum of a person that apprehends “a bulbous flat-based thing that is able
to perform a function of holding water”, without knowing that such a thing is called a “vase”. An
example of the third is a conceptual consciousness, in the continuum of a person who knows both,
the definition of a vase as well as that such a thing is called a vase.

The meaning generality of a vase is an appearance as opposite from non-vase to the thought
consciousness apprehending vase. The meaning generality of vase is not the actual vase but appears
to be so to that conceptual consciousness. The meaning generality of vase is an appearing object of
the conceptual consciousness apprehending vase. Because it is an appearing object of conceptual
consciousness apprehending vase and although it is not a vase it appears to that consciousness as a
vase, therefore that consciousness is mistaken with regard to its' appearing object. Whatever
consciousness is mistaken with regard to its’ appearing object is a mistaken consciousness. All

Freedom through Correct Knowing 15

conceptual consciousnesses are mistaken with regard to their appearing object and thus are all
mistaken consciousness. However, whatever is a mistaken consciousness is they not necessarily a
wrong consciousness. For example, the inferential consciousness realizing sound to be impermanent
is mistaken with regard to its appearing object, the meaning generality of sound being impermanent,
but ascertains sound to be impermanent and thus is not a wrong consciousness. Conversely, the
conceptual consciousness apprehending sound to be permanent is both mistaken and wrong.

Manifest and Hidden Phenomena Debate

Above the difference between manifest and hidden phenomena is explained. In general, Purbu
Chok 25 explains manifest phenomena as phenomena that can be seen with ordinary direct
perception, like the eye consciousness perceiving the color blue. Hidden phenomena are those
which must be established for common, ordinary, beings in dependence on reason and inference.
For example, the impermanent nature of sound can be realized through the reason of being a
product and the selflessness of a person through the reason of dependent origination. This is true
for ordinary beings, but for noble or Arya beings 26, these phenomena can be realized through direct
yogic perception. Khedrub Je explains in Clearing Mental Darkness 27 that a phenomenon like the
impermanence of sound can be a hidden phenomenon in relation to the inference that realizes this
and can be a manifest phenomenon in relation to a yogic direct perception. Although in relation to a
yogic direct perception this phenomenon is realized in a direct manner, initially all beings have to
realize it through inference. This is why Purbu Chok classifies these phenomena as hidden
phenomena and those phenomena that, initially, can be realized by an ordinary being through direct
perception are named manifest phenomena. According to Purbu Chok, manifest and hidden
phenomena are mutually exclusive. Mutually exclusive means that there is no common locus
between two phenomena, they are contradictory, and there is nothing that is both. Alternatively,
according to Khedrub Je, although in general manifest and hidden phenomena are not mutually
exclusive, in relation to a particular awareness they must be mutually exclusive. For example, in
relation to an inferential cognizer realizing that fire exists on a distant mountain top from which
smoke is rising, fire is a hidden phenomenon and not a manifest phenomenon. In relation to that
inference the existence of fire on the distant mountain top has to be realized through the reason of
the existence of smoke. Such a fire is too far away to be seen by the eye consciousness of the person
possessing this inferential cognizer. However, for a person actually on the mountain top that
perceives fire at close range, fire is a manifest phenomenon and not a hidden phenomenon in
relation to that eye consciousness perceiving the fire.

3. Direct Perceivers Page numbers in the book:

Freedom Through Correct
Knowing
Page: 52,53, 92, 97-153
In the above the difference between conceptual and non-
conceptual consciousness is explained. This section explores direct perceivers, a non-conceptual
non-mistaken consciousness. Not every direct perceiver realizes its object. There are direct
perceivers which are not a wrong consciousness and not a valid awareness. Awareness to which the
object appears but is not ascertained is such a direct perceiver. This type of awareness will be
explained in the section “Valid and Non-valid Awareness”. Among direct perceivers are various types
of consciousnesses that realize their object like the eye consciousness perceiving the colour and
shape of a flower, clairvoyance, and yogic direct perception as explained below.

Freedom through Correct Knowing 16

Definition of a Direct Perceiver
A non-conceptual non-mistaken consciousness is defined as: a knower having clear appearance
which is non-mistaken with regard to its appearing object. Non-conceptual non-mistaken
consciousness and directly perceiving awareness are synonyms. The definition of a direct perceiver:
a knower which is free from conceptuality and non-mistaken.

“Free from conceptuality” means that they apprehend objects without depending on a mental image
or meaning generality; they directly apprehend objects without the involvement of conceptual
thought. For example, an eye consciousness apprehending a table sees the table directly and the table
appears clearly to that mind. A conceptual thought of a table needs to generate a mental image, a
meaning generality of the table, in order to apprehend it. The table doesn’t appear as clearly to this
conceptual consciousness as it does to the direct eye sense consciousness. “Non-mistaken” means
that direct perceivers are non-mistaken with regard to their appearing object. This eliminates
conceptual consciousnesses which are always mistaken in regard to their appearing object, as
explained above in the section of conceptual consciousness, and also eliminates sense consciousness
which is mistaken. As an example of the later, an eye consciousness perceiving two moons due to
pressure on the eyeballs is a non-conceptual consciousness but is not a direct perceiver because it is
mistaken with regard to its’ appearing object, the moon. Therefore, not all sense consciousness are
direct perceivers because those which are “non-conceptual wrong consciousness” as explained in the
section “5 Wrong consciousness, doubt and correctly assuming consciousness” below.

Divisions of Direct Perceivers

To understand the division of direct perceivers, one has to understand the difference between self-
knowing and other-knowing direct perceivers. Self-knowing consciousness is directed only inward as
it perceives a consciousness within the continuum of the person who has this knower. This
consciousness does not engage in external objects, like forms. It enables one to remember a
particular experience or object by perceiving the particular consciousness which realizes the object
which is later remembered. For example, when we see a flower, in addition to an eye consciousness
seeing the flower we have a self-knowing direct perceiver which perceives the eye consciousness
seeing the flower. This self-knowing direct perceiver does not engage the flower, which is an
external object, but only engages the eye consciousness, which is and internal object. It is because
this self-knower perceives our eye consciousness seeing a flower that later we are able to recall
having seen the flower. Conversely, an other-knower is a consciousness that is directed outward and
engages in external objects, such as and eye consciousness seeing a flower.

When awarenesses which are direct perceivers are divided there are four:

• A sense direct perceiver is defined as: that which is produced in dependence on its own
uncommon empowering condition, a physical sense power, and is a knower which is free
from conceptuality and non-mistaken.
For a sense direct perceiver to come into existence and function it depends upon three
conditions:
o Their own empowering condition, a physical sense power, like the retina for eye
consciousness
o Observed object condition, the object the consciousness is engaged in
o Immediately preceding condition, a previous moment of consciousness
“Physical sense powers” are subtle physical clear matter located within the sense organs,
similar to what we find in modern science like the retina and optic nerve for the eye sense
power. Except for the Vaibhāşhika, all schools of Buddhist philosophy assert that forms
appear to the sense powers, but the sense powers do not see, hear, taste, feel or apprehend

Freedom through Correct Knowing 17

 forms. The Vaibhāşhika School asserts that the sense powers apprehend and can realize the
forms which appear to them; the eye sense power, for example, sees and apprehends shape
and color. Other Buddhist schools, like the Sūtra School, say that in order for something to
apprehend an object it must be conscious, it has to be a knower. Since sense powers are
matter, they are not conscious and thus cannot apprehend objects.
The ”observed object condition” is the object the sense consciousness is engaged in; for
example, an eye consciousness that is engaged in the colour and shape of the vase.
Khedrup Jé’s explanations the text are mainly based on the Sutra School and Mind-Only
schools of Buddhist philosophy. These two schools have different views regarding the
observed object condition of a sense perceiver. According to Sutra School, the forms
perceived by sense consciousness exist externally as different entities from the mind that
perceive them and are pre-existing conditions acting as causes for those minds. For example,
they hold that the external color blue that appears to the eye consciousness perceiving blue
is a condition for that eye consciousness to arise. Conversely, the Mind-Only accepts form
but does not except that form exists externally, different in entity from the mind that
perceives it, because nothing exists “out there” without being one entity with mind. All
objects of the senses are in the same nature as the sense consciousness that perceives
them. This is argued based on the reason that the sense consciousness and the appearance
of an object to that consciousness come into being simultaneously by the power of a mental
imprint, an assertion that the Sutra School does not accept. For the Mind-Only, instead of
external forms, these mental imprints or latencies are the observed object conditions for
sense consciousness.
The “immediately preceding condition”, the previous moment of consciousness that
produces the sense consciousness. Immediately preceding condition is a prior consciousness
which is not interrupted or cut off from the awareness for which it acts as an immediately
preceding condition by other consciousnesses, and which produces that consciousness as an
entity of experience.
Sense direct perceivers are divided in five:
o Sense direct perceivers apprehending forms
o Sense direct perceivers apprehending sounds
o Sense direct perceivers apprehending odors
o Sense direct perceivers apprehending tastes
o Sense direct perceivers apprehending tangible objects

• A Mental direct perceiver is defined as: that which is generated in dependence on a mental
sense power which is its own uncommon empowering condition and is a consciousness which
is an other-knower which is free from conceptuality and non-mistaken.
What it means to be and other-knower, non-mistaken, and free from conceptuality have all
been explained above. The uncommon empowering condition of any mental direct
perceiver, “a mental sense power”, is whichever of the six consciousnesses has immediately
preceded it.
There exist various divisions of mental direct perceivers in the scriptures. Those scriptures
which only refer to awarenesses to which an object appears but is not ascertained, are
based on the Sutra quote: “Consciousness of forms are of two types, those depending on the
eye and those depending on the mind.” Other sources not referring to this Sutra quote
mention the following threefold divition.
Mental direct perceivers are divided in three:
o Valid cognizers which are mental direct perceivers. For example, the first moment of
a clairvoyance which knows another’s mind.
o Subsequent cognizers which are mental direct perceivers. For example, the second
moment of a clairvoyance which knows another’s mind.

Freedom through Correct Knowing 18

 o Awarenesses to which an object appears but is not ascertained which are mental
direct perceivers. For example, a mental direct perceiver apprehending a sound in
the continuum of a person whose mind is especially attracted to a beautiful form. In
general, there are three varying explanations by three Indian Buddhist scholars
about this mental direct perceiver: Prajnākaragupta, Śhaṅkaranandana, and
Dharmottara. They assert alternating generation, generation of three types, and
generation only at the end of a continuum, respectively. Khedrup Jé follows the
second assertion, generation of three types, as will be explained below. According to
Śhaṅkaranandana’s system, three types of phenomena—the second moment of a
sense direct perceiver apprehending its object, the first moment of a mental direct
perceiver apprehending that object, and the self-knowing direct perceiver
experiencing those two—are generated simultaneously. Khedrup Jé supports his
assertion with a quote from Sakya Paṇḍita that says that when the sense direct
perceiver and the mental direct perceiver arise simultaneously, two types of
externally directed object knower and one type of internally directed self-knower
exist. Alternating generation is as follows: First, the first moment of a sense direct
perceiver apprehending its object is generated; then the first moment of a mental
direct perceiver apprehending that object is generated; subsequently the second
moment of a sense direct perceiver apprehending that object is generated; then the
second moment of a mental direct perceiver apprehending that object is generated,
and so forth. Between each moment of a sense direct perception, a moment of a
mental direct perception is generated. The two are generated alternately.
Generation only at the end of a continuum is as follows: a mental direct perceiver is
only generated at the end of a continuum of a sense direct perceiver.

• A self-knowing direct perceiver is defined as: that which has the aspect of an apprehender, is
free from conceptuality, and is non-mistaken.
The meaning of “aspect of an apprehender” is as follows: through the force of the sense
power, a sense consciousness is generated having the aspect of the object. At the same time
as the consciousness is generated in the aspect of the external object, it is also generated in
its own aspect as the knower of that object. The factor of awareness that realizes the
external object is the “other-knower” and the factor of awareness that realizes the
consciousness is the “self-knower.” The former, knowing the apprehended object, is also
called “that which has the aspect of the apprehended, the object,” and the latter, knowing
the apprehender itself, is called the “that which has the aspect of the apprehender”.
Self-knowing direct perceiver are divided into three:
o Valid cognizers which are self-knowing direct perceivers. For example, the first
moment of a self-knowing direct perceiver which experiences an eye consciousness.
o Subsequent cognizers which are self-knowing direct perceivers. For example, the
second moment of a self-knowing direct perceiver which experiences an eye
consciousness.
o Awarenesses to which an object appears but is not ascertained which are self-
knowing direct perceivers. For example, a self-knower in the continuum of a Nihilist
which experiences an inferential cognizer as being a valid cognizer. Nihilists do not
accept an inferential cognizer as being a valid cognizer.

• A yogic direct perceiver is defined as: that which is generated in dependence on its own
uncommon empowering condition, a meditative concentration which is a union of calm
abiding and special insight and is an other-knowing exalted knower in the continuum of a
Superior which is free from conceptuality and non-mistaken.

Freedom through Correct Knowing 19

 As for its’ own uncommon empowering conditions, yogic direct perceivers depend upon its
own uncommon empowering a meditative stabilization that is a union of calm abiding and
special insight. Yogic direct perceivers occur only in the continuums of superior beings
(aryas) who, among the five paths –accumulation, preparation, seeing, meditation and no
more learning—have achieved the path of seeing or above and have a direct perception of
emptiness. This is explained in more detail in section eight, Yogic Direct Perception and
Emptiness below.
Yogic direct perceivers are divided in two:
o Valid cognizers which are yogic direct perceivers. These can be subdivided into
three:
 Valid cognizers directly realizing subtle impermanence.
 Valid cognizers directly realizing the coarse selflessness of persons.
 Valid cognizers directly realizing the subtle selflessness of persons.
o Subsequent cognizers which are yogic direct perceivers.

4. Wrong Consciousness, Doubt and Correctly

Page numbers in the book:
Assuming Consciousness Freedom Through Correct
Wrong consciousness, doubt and correctly assuming consciousness are Knowing
three types of minds that are not valid. Wrong consciousness is Page: 71, 77-79
incorrect while correctly assuming consciousness is correct, and doubt
can have both possibilities as explained below. These three types of minds are a part of the various
divisions of consciousness, the most common division is the division into seven.

Seven Types of Awarenesses

The division of consciousness into seven is one of the main and inclusive divisions we can find in
various texts on the subject. After listing them, they are explained in accordance with the sequence
they come into being. Thus, we come to understand how we eliminate misunderstandings and
generate correct understandings of the world around us.

The seven types of awareness are:

• Wrong consciousness
• Doubting consciousness
• Inattentive awareness (an awareness to which an object appears but is not ascertained)
• Correct assumption or correctly assuming consciousness
• Subsequent cognizer
• Inferential cognizer
• Direct perceiver

To understand the meaning of the various divisions of consciousness, it is important to understand

both the way and structure of how we generate the realisations of the path to enlightenment.
Initially we have misunderstandings, or wrong views, which need to be eliminated and countered by
generating a correct form of consciousness, all the way up to a direct realisation of reality.

The following example shows the way in which a wrong view can gradually be weakened, eliminated,
and replaced with a realization of truth. A person first has a wrong conceptual consciousness thinking
that the body is permanent, in the sense of not changing moment by moment. Once this person has
accepted that the body is a product, i.e., being produced by causes and conditions, one can put

Freedom through Correct Knowing 20

forward the consequence: “it follows that the subject, body, is a non-product because of being
permanent”. This will challenge the person in believing that the body is permanent, which means not
depending on causes and conditions, as well believing it is a product, which means produced by causes
and conditions. The person will see that what he/she states is a contradiction. This generates doubt
regarding the initial view of the body being permanent. After hearing that the body is in the nature of
momentary changing and thus impermanent because of being a product, the person starts to generate
more doubt about the initial view. Three types of doubt arise in the following sequence. To begin
with, there is the doubt tending towards the non-factual such as doubt which thinks the body is
probably permanent. Following this, there is doubt with qualms to both sides equally for instance,
doubt which wonders whether the body is permanent or impermanent. Lastly, there is doubt tending
towards the factual for example, doubt which thinks the body is probably impermanent arises.
Moving through these three types of doubt leads to a correctly assuming consciousness.
Although a correctly assuming consciousness does not have the unstable aspect of the two-pointed
qualms about the two extremes like doubt has, it is not an incontrovertible knower like a valid
cognizer. When the person, having generated a correctly assuming consciousness apprehending that
the body is impermanent, thinks more about the reasons for the body being impermanent, a correct
valid sign is generated. This gives rise to the generation of inference through which the body is realized
to be impermanent. To generate inference, a correct sign has to be established as the basis, as
explained in the definition of an inferential cognizer in the text below. The second moment of this
inferential cognizer becomes a subsequent cognizer. Through long habituation on the body being
impermanent over sustained contemplation within the union of calm abiding and special insight a
yogic direct valid cognizer eventually arises.
In a similar way it is possible to explain how the grasping at a self, which seems to appear from its’
own side, is a wrong view. After studying some Buddhist philosophy, we start to doubt this wrong
view of ignorance. With more contemplation and reasoning we eliminate the doubt and generate a
correct assumption which develops with more contemplation into a conceptual realisation of
inference. With strong habituation and reasoning, on the paths of accumulation and preparation, it
finally develops into a direct perception, a yogic direct valid cognizer. This causes the person to enter
the path of seeing. On the path of seeing, one eliminates the acquired obscurations, formed by
wrong views of incorrect tenets. When this is eliminated, one starts to enter the path of meditation.
The yogic direct perception on the path of meditation eliminates the innate obscurations which have
been there since beginningless lifetime. Thus, this powerful mind of a yogic direct perception causes
us to ultimately achieve liberation and enlightenment.

The above examples highlight a few important states of mind (in italics) like, wrong view; doubt;
correctly assuming consciousness; inference; subsequent cognizer and a yogic direct valid cognizer.
These are some of the most important ones to be understood. More traditional texts on this subject
identify additional types of consciousness to give a complete overview of the different types of
minds 28.

Wrong Consciousness
Consciousness that misunderstands reality causes problems, even to the extent that ignorance,
which apprehends reality incorrectly, is the root of suffering. Next to ignorance, various types of
wrong consciousnesses are explained below. The definition of a wrong consciousness: a knower
which engages its object erroneously.

Wrong consciousnesses are divided in two:

• Conceptual wrong consciousnesses, for example a thought apprehending sound as
permanent or ignorance apprehending a person or self to exist concrete without
dependence.
• Non-conceptual wrong consciousnesses are divided by Purbu Chok into two:

Freedom through Correct Knowing 21

 o Mental consciousnesses, for example, a dream consciousness which clearly
sees the elephant of a dream as an elephant.
o Sense consciousnesses, an eye consciousness which sees snow mountains as
blue.
Khedru Khedrup Je’s Clearing Mental Darkness in Freedom Though Correct Knowing
mentions seven divisions of non-conceptual wrong consciousness:
• Non-conceptual wrong consciousness which is mistaken with regard to
shape, for example, an eye consciousness to which a wheel appears through
[observing] a quickly whirling firebrand
• Non-conceptual wrong consciousness which is mistaken with regard to
colour, for example, an eye consciousness to which appears a white conch
shell as yellow,
• Non-conceptual wrong consciousness which is mistaken with regard to
action, for example, by force of [someone] sitting in a boat [they generate]
an eye consciousness that sees trees as moving
• Non-conceptual wrong consciousness which is mistaken with regard to
numbers, for example, an eye consciousness that mistakes one moon for
two
• Non-conceptual wrong consciousness which is mistaken with regard to
nature/entity, for example, an eye consciousness that has the appearance of
hairs falling [through the force of cataracts or an eye disease]
• Non-conceptual wrong consciousness which is mistaken with regard to time,
for example, a dreaming consciousness that sees the sun shining at midnight
• Non-conceptual wrong consciousness which is mistaken with regard to
measurement, for example, in a forsaken area when one looks from far
away, an eye consciousness that sees a small object as big
Among these, dreaming consciousness is a mental consciousness and the rest are
sense consciousnesses.

It is important to make a distinction between wrong consciousness and mistaken consciousness. As

indicated in the section “Conceptual and Non-conceptual Consciousness” above, conceptual
consciousnesses are mistaken with regard to their appearing object and thus are all mistaken
consciousness. However, whatever is a mistaken consciousness is not necessarily a wrong
consciousness. For example, the inferential consciousness realizing sound to be impermanent is
mistaken with regard to its appearing object, the meaning generality of sound being impermanent,
but ascertains sound to be impermanent and thus is not a wrong consciousness. Conversely, the
conceptual consciousness apprehending sound to be permanent is both mistaken and wrong.
Likewise, ignorance misapprehending a concrete self of persons is a wrong consciousness. A correct
consciousness, like the yogic direct perception realizing the emptiness of such a concrete self, acts as
the antidote to this wrong consciousness. Two consciousnesses observing the same object, the
conventional mere person, but apprehending it in a contrary manner, one seeing the self as concrete
and the other as lacking this concreteness, cannot abide simultaneous. Thus, by habituation a
correct consciousness of the truth of the path can eliminate ignorance.

Doubting Consciousness
Doubting consciousness is not certain about its object, it has a two-pointed qualm, it is either this or
that. The definition of a doubting consciousness: a knower which has qualms two-pointedly by its
own power. “Its own power” means that a main mind, which possesses similarity with the mental
factor doubt, has qualms by the power of the mental factor doubt, but does not have qualms two-
pointedly by their own power. The relationship between main mind and mental factors, such as
doubt, is explained below in the section Mind and Mental Factors.

Freedom through Correct Knowing 22

Doubting consciousness is divided into three:
• Doubt tending toward the factual: for example, doubt which thinks sound is maybe
permanent or impermanent, probably impermanent.
• Doubt tending toward the non-factual: for example, doubt which thinks sound is maybe
permanent or impermanent, probably permanent.
• Equal doubt or neutral doubt: for example, doubt which wonders whether sound is
permanent or impermanent.

Correct Assumption
Correctly assuming consciousness is a conceptual consciousness that is a correct mode of thought
but does not realize its object, and thus is a non-valid cognizer that is not incontrovertible. Correctly
assuming consciousness goes a step further than doubt tending towards the factual in the sense that
the aspect of qualms to two extremes is not present. It is a mind that one pointedly determines its
own true object. The definition of correct assumption: a factually concordant determinative knower
which is controvertible with regard to determining its object.

Correctly assuming consciousnesses are divided into five:

• Correctly assuming consciousness which does not have a reason. For example,
an awareness which apprehends sound to be impermanent in dependence upon the mere
words, expressing a thesis, “Sound is impermanent” without stating a reason.
• Correctly assuming consciousnesses that have a contradictory reason. For example,
an awareness which apprehends sound to be impermanent from the sign, or proof, of being
empty of being able to perform a function. Empty of being able to perform a function is
contradictory with impermanence.
• Correctly assuming consciousnesses for which the reason is indefinite or lacks pervasion. For
example,
an awareness which apprehends sound to be impermanent from the sign, or proof, of being
an object of comprehension. An object of comprehension is a reason which is indefinite in
the proof of that because whatever is an object of comprehension is not necessarily
impermanent.
• Correctly assuming consciousnesses for which the reason is not established. For example,
an awareness which apprehends sound to be impermanent from the sign, or proof, of being
an object to apprehension by an eye consciousness. An object of apprehension by an eye
consciousness is a reason which is not established in the proof of that. An object of an eye
consciousness is contradictory with the object sound, which is an object of the ear
consciousness.
• Correctly assuming consciousnesses for which a reason exists but is not settled. For example,
an awareness which apprehends sound to be impermanent from the sign, or proof, of being
a product, without its having been ascertained by valid cognition that sound is a product and
that whatever is a product must be impermanent. Although product is a correct sign in the
proof of sound as impermanent, that person has not settled it.

Page numbers in the book:

5. Inference and Emptiness
Freedom Through Correct
Knowing
Inferential Cognizers Page: 118, 193-199, 225-236
In the above section on “Conceptual and Non-conceptual
Consciousness”, the importance of inference is explained. To understand slightly hidden

Freedom through Correct Knowing 23

phenomena, like subtle impermanence and emptiness, we initially need to depend on inference, a
very important consciousness. Inference will help us to understand and realize selflessness and leads
up to a direct perception of selflessness that eliminates ignorance. This section explains its definition
and divisions of inference as well as how we initially realize selflessness, emptiness, the ultimate
nature of reality. The definition of an inferential valid cognizer: a new incontrovertible determinative
knower which is directly produced in dependence on a correct sign that is its basis.

Here “determinative knower” is synonymous with a conceptual consciousness, ”new” refers to a

valid cognition, as a second moment of this cognition is considered to be not a valid cognition but a
subsequent cognizer according to Purbu Chok. “Incontrovertible” refers to a stable realization, able
to withstand examination; the object and its particular quality that is realized can be examined and
one will not reverse one’s estimation of it. For example, having realized the impermanent nature of
sound, one will be totally convinced of this nature. When someone tells one that sound is
permanent, one will not be swayed due to the power of the realization of its real nature. “Directly
produced” refers to a consciousness that directly arises, without interruption, after the correct sign
is established to prove the probandum. The “basis” for inference to arise is the “correct sign”. The
correct sign is a correct reason that proves a particular quality or aspect of an object, for example,
the object “sound” is “impermanent” because of the reason being in a “momentary changing”
nature, which is its sign. This process of generating inference will be explained below.

Inferential valid cognizers are divided into three:

• Inferential cognizers by the power of the fact. For example, an inferential cognizer which
realizes that sound is impermanent through the sign of being a product or that realizes that
there is no inherent self through the sign or proof of interdependence.
• Inferential cognizers through renown. For example, an inferential cognizer which realizes
that it is suitable to express that the formal residence of the United States president is called
the "White House.”.
• Inferential cognizers through belief. For example, an inferential cognizer which realizes that
the scriptural source, “From giving, resources, from ethics, a happy [migration],” is
incontrovertible with respect to the meaning indicated by it by the sign of its being a
scripture free from the three contradictions. The sign, i.e., the reason, “being a scripture free
from the three contradictions”, means that the quotation is not harmed by any of the three
valid cognizers: a valid direct perceiver, an inferential cognizer by the power of the fact and
an inference through belief. Not harmed by inference through belief here signifies that what
has been written or quoted in other valid scriptures does not contradict either the
scriptures’ explicit and implicit meanings or earlier and later explanations.

Realizing Emptiness with Inference by the Power of the Fact

This presentation on how to realize emptiness with Inference by the power of the fact is based on
the Middle Way Schools of Buddhist philosophy. They are called "Madhyamaka" or "Middle Way"
because they propound a 'middle way' which is free from the two extremes:
• Eternalism/reification/permanence/absolutism: also known as the extreme of existence or
the extreme of superimposition, referring to true existence of phenomena.
• Annihilation/nihilism: also described as the extreme of non-existence or the extreme of
denial, referring to the utter non-existence of phenomena.

Followers of the Middle Way are free from the two extremes because they contend that even
though all phenomena are empty of existing truly, they are in the nature of dependent origination.
They understand the relationship between emptiness, being the lack of true existence, and
dependent origination and accept that whatever exists is dependently arisen.

Freedom through Correct Knowing 24

There are three types of dependent origination:
• Dependence on causes and conditions
• Dependence on parts and collection of parts
• Dependence on imputation/designation by name and thought

Dependent Origination of Causes and Conditions

The Middle Way Schools assert that all phenomena are dependently arisen and lack true existence.
The Mind Only, Great Exposition and Sutra Schools, on the other hand, limit the category of
dependent arising to impermanent phenomena. According to them only impermanent phenomena
exist in dependence on causes and conditions while permanent phenomena do not. The Great
Exposition School asserts that partless particles, permanent phenomena, and are ultimate truths and
exist truly. The followers of the Sutra School assert that impermanent phenomena are ultimate
truths and that all external phenomena exist truly. The Mind Only School asserts that other powered
phenomena or impermanent phenomena, and thoroughly established phenomena are truly existent.
According to the Middle Way Schools these three other schools have all fallen to the extreme of
eternalism/absolutism because they accept true existence.

Dependence Origination of Parts and Collection of Parts

Different schools also have various interpretations of the different aspects of this level of dependent
origination. Here, these can be categorised into two types of dependent origination:
• That which arises in dependence on parts or basis of imputation of impermanent
phenomena
• That which is mentally imputed in dependence on the parts or basis of imputation of all
phenomena, impermanent and permanent

Regarding the first type, the dependent origination of arising in dependence on parts or basis of
imputation of impermanent phenomena, nominally existent impermanent phenomena are accepted
by all four schools of Buddhist Philosophy. Nominally existent things need imputation such as a vase,
which arises in dependence on the different parts of the vase such as the flat base, round belly
holding water and able to perform a function and the basis of imputation which is the collection of
the parts. Likewise, a person is imputed on the basis of the collection of the parts of the aggregates
of body and mind.

The second type of dependent origination, that which is mentally imputed in dependence on the
parts or basis of imputation of all phenomena, is accepted only by the Middle Way Schools. The
three other schools assert that dependently originated phenomena need to be impermanent.
Nominally existent phenomena are both impermanent, like a nominally existent person, as well as
permanent, like uncompounded space, exist as being imputed on their parts and basis of
designation. For example, a person is imputed on its parts which are the aggregates, and the basis of
designation which is the mere collection of the five aggregates. Uncompounded space is imputed on
its parts which is the space in each one of its directions, and its basis of designation which is the
mere collection of its parts. In a similar way the absence of an elephant at Jamyang, also being a
permanent phenomenon, depends on its’ absence in the different rooms at Jamyang.

Dependence on Imputation/Designation by Name and Thought

Both Middle Way Schools assert that all phenomena, impermanent and permanent, are imputed by
the mind. The difference is that the Autonomy School accepts that all phenomena also exist by way
of their own character and exist inherently. The reason being that if one looks and searches for a
phenomenon, one can find something, like the basis for imputation. When looking for the person for
example, one finds the basis for imputation which, according to them is the mental consciousness

Freedom through Correct Knowing 25

that proceeds from this to future lives. They also state that if phenomena don’t exist inherently, and
exist by way of their own character, nothing exists at all, because nothing can be found. The
Consequence School also refutes inherent existence and existing by way of their own character. If
you look for the basis of imputation, then one cannot find anything. With the same example, when
looking for the person, even the mental consciousness cannot be found among its moments and
parts and collection of parts, it is merely imputed. This can be likened to a river which comes from
the melting of snow and streams into a lake. It is just temporarily imputed by depending on time and
location. The period and place where the snow melts until the water molecules move into the lake is
the only time and location when one can call it a river. We cannot find the river among the water
molecules as they move in time and space as it is just merely imputed.

To summarise all the above, an overview of what the four schools of tenets accept is given in the
chart below.

Source: Glen Svenson, FPMT Basic Program, Tenets, Education Services, 2020

The chart below indicates how the emptiness of inherent existence is been realised with inference
using the reasoning of dependent origination. The definition of inference, as stated above, is a new
incontrovertible determinative knower which is directly produced in dependence on a correct sign
that is its basis. Here the correct sign or reason that is used is “Dependent Origination”. This sign
proofs the “Probandum”, meaning that the body and mind, the “Subject” has a quality, or the
“Predicate of the Probandum”, that it is empty of inherent existence. Inference is directly produced
in dependence on the correct sign “Dependent Origination”.

Freedom through Correct Knowing 26

In order to become a correct sign that can generate inference, three modes of ascertainment should
be realized:
• The subject being established in the sign, which is sometimes translated as, “the property of
the subject”: the subject “body and mind” being “empty of inherent existence”.
• The forward pervasion: whatever is the sign,” dependent origination”, is necessarily the
predicate of the probandum “empty of inherent existence”.
• The counter pervasion: By explicitly stating the forward pervasion, one implicitly states the
counter pervasion, that whatever is “inherent existence” is necessarily “not dependent
origination”. This refers to the absurd consequence used to induce doubt in the mind of a
person who thinks that body and mind exist inherently and accepts that they are in the
nature of dependent origination: “it follows that the subject body and mind, are not
dependent originated because of existing inherently”.

Reason of Either one with or Different From

To refute inherent existence, the Consequence School uses mainly two forms of reasoning, the three
levels of dependent origination, described above, and the reasoning of one with or different from,
described here below. The following analysis is based on the first two reasons of Chandrakīrti’s
seven-fold reasoning 1 using the example of a chariot. In his Mādhyamakāvatāra he mentions:
“A chariot is neither asserted to be [inherently] other than its parts, nor to be
[inherently] non-other. “
• The first step is recognizing how the self appears to one’s consciousness, recognizing the
object of negation or sometimes called the object of refutation. It appears in an
independent manner, as being separate from body and mind, existing from its own side. This
appearance of a concrete self is especially evident at times when destructive emotions like
anger and attachment arise. At these times there is a strong apprehension of a concrete” I”
and “mine”.

1
The sevenfold reasoning of Chandrakīrti is based on that the (inherent appearing) chariot is not 1) one or 2)
different from its parts, 3) doesn’t inherently possess its parts, 4) the parts don’t inherently depend upon the
chariot, 5) the chariot doesn’t inherently depend on its parts, 6) the mere collection is not the chariot, and 7)
the shape of the collection is not the chariot. These reasons are applied to proof the selflessness of a person.

Freedom through Correct Knowing 27

 • The second step analyses the truth that if a concrete self exists as it appears, it must be
either one with or different from body and mind, there is no other possibility.
• The third step establishes that this mistakenly appearing self cannot be one with body and
mind. If it were one with the body and mind, then the self should be multiple since the body
and mind are multiple. The Mādhyamakāvatāra says:
“If the aggregates [of body and mind] were the self, then since there are many
aggregates, the self would also be many.”
And if the two – the self and the aggregates – are one inherently established entity, the
assertion of a self would be senseless. Furthermore, if the self and the aggregates are one,
the self would die and be buried or cremated when the aggregates die and are buried or
cremated:
- then memory of a former life would not be possible
- actions done would be wasted
- there would be meeting with actions not done.

• The fourth step establishes that the concretely appearing self cannot be inherently different
from body and mind. If it were inherently different from body and mind, how could an
interdependent relationship exist between the conventional self and body and mind? The
Mādhyamakāvatāra says:
“There is no [inherent] self, other than the aggregates because without the aggregates,
it is not apprehended.”
Furthermore, if the self were inherently different from the aggregates, it would not have the
characteristics of the aggregates; and if the self and aggregates were inherently other, the
self could not appropriate the aggregates, and there would not be rebirth; and there is no
self that is inherently other than the aggregates because there is no self apprehended
separate from the aggregates; without the aggregates appearing, the self does not appear to
the mind.

• Based on the previous reasons, the fifth step concludes that an inherently established or
concrete “I” cannot exist. One focuses upon this conclusion for some time and familiarizes
one’s mind with this understanding of the ultimate reality of the self. Following this insight,
one concludes that the self is a mere imputation upon the aggregates of body and mind in a
nature of dependent origination. Through this one finds the view of the middle way;
Nāgārjuna says in his Mūlamadhyamakakārikā:
“Whatever is dependently originated, that is explained to be emptiness, that
[emptiness reflects] dependent designation, this indeed is the middle way.”

The above method for the meditation on selflessness can be applied to how to meditate on the
selflessness of other schools of Buddhist Philosophy as well. When describing how to recognize the
object of negation, one should focus on how this object is described in a particular school. After this
one can follow a similar form of logic as described above, by analysing that if that particular self
exists, it should be one or different from the aggregates and so forth. Thus, one can realize
selflessness according to a particular school with a similar form of logic which is given here.

Difference of Selflessness of Persons and Phenomena

Among the division of persons and phenomena, a person is merely imputed upon the mere
collection of the aggregates and a phenomenon is all that exists which is not a person, like a table, a
computer our legs, arms and so forth. The Autonomous School asserts a person’s emptiness of being
self-sufficient substantially existent to be the subtle form of selflessness of persons and all
phenomena's (persons as well as phenomena) emptiness of true establishment is asserted to be the

Freedom through Correct Knowing 28

subtle selflessness of phenomena. According to the Consequence School the person’s emptiness of
being self-sufficient substantially existent is asserted to be a coarse selflessness of persons and the
person’s emptiness of true establishment, or of inherent existence, is asserted to be the subtle
selflessness of persons. The emptiness of a gross object composed of partless particles and the valid
cognizer apprehending it being different substances is posited as a coarse selflessness of
phenomena. According to the Mind Only School this is asserted to be a subtle level of emptiness of
phenomena. Furthermore, the Consequence School states that emptiness of true establishment, or
of inherent existence, of body and mind, table, computer and so forth is posited as the subtle
selflessness of phenomena.

One main difference between the Consequence School and the Autonomous School is that in the
Consequence School the two selflessnesses are differentiated by way of the basis of emptiness,
being a person or a phenomenon, and in the Autonomous School by way of the object of negation.
In the Consequence School the emptiness of inherent existence of a person is the emptiness of a
person and the emptiness of inherent existence of a table, for example, is the emptiness a
phenomenon. In the Autonomous School the emptiness of a self-sufficient substantial existing self is
the selflessness of a person and emptiness of true existence the selflessness of phenomena.

Page numbers in the book:

6. Valid and Non-Valid Awareness
Freedom Through Correct
Knowing
Next to the above divisions of conceptual and non-conceptual Page: 22-28, 65-68, 81-91
consciousness, awareness can also be divided into the following
two groups: valid and non-valid awareness. The above section mentions the importance of the valid
cognizer inference. The section below this section will explain the importance of yogic direct
perception, a valid cognizer that eliminates ignorance, the root of suffering. It is important to know
when a consciousness is valid or not. This is explained through definitions and divisions.

• Valid cognizer is a consciousness which realises its’ object, for example, an eye
consciousness apprehending the colour and shape of the table.
• Non-valid awarenesses is a consciousness which does not realize its object, for example,
wearing blue sunglasses whilst looking at a snow mountain and seeing the white snow as
blue is a wrong consciousness. It does not realize the colour white of the snow mountain.

A valid cognizer is defined as a new incontrovertible knower.

• “new” eliminates that subsequent cognizers are valid cognizers. According to the Sutra
School of Buddhist Tenets, a valid cognizer must be both fresh and new and thus, only the
first moment is considered valid. Following moments are generated by the power of
previous moments and hence, are called subsequent cognizers. For example, when first
looking at a flower, the first moment is valid while subsequent moments are subsequent
cognizers.
• “incontrovertible” eliminates that correctly assuming consciousnesses are valid cognizers. As
we learn later, correctly assuming consciousness is correct about its’ object, but it does not
have the power of a realization. Thus, it is controvertible.
• “knower” eliminates that physical sense powers are valid cognizers. The Great Exposition
School of Buddhist Tenets states that physical sense powers also realize their object. The
Sutra School of Buddhist Tenets, and the other schools, say that a valid cognizer has to be
consciousness and cannot be physical.

Freedom through Correct Knowing 29

Explicit and Implicit Realization
Consciousness can realize its object in an explicit or implicit manner. There are two distinguishing
features that set explicit realization apart from implicit realization. The first is that a valid cognizer
explicitly realizing an object turns its attention to that object that is explicitly realized. The second
feature of explicit realization is that the object explicitly realized must appear to the consciousness
that explicitly realizes it. This stands in contrast to the two main distinguishing features of implicit
realization. First of all, when a consciousness implicitly realizes object A, it does not turn its attention
to A but rather turns its attention to object B, which it explicitly realizes. Through the force of
explicitly realizing object B, superimpositions are cleared away with respect to object A. An example
of implicit realization is the clearing away of the superimposition that sound is not a non-product by
a conceptual consciousness explicitly realizing that sound is a product. Through turning its attention
toward the fact that sound is a product, this consciousness implicitly realizes that sound is not a non-
product without having explicitly engaged this fact. Similarly, when we hear a voice and recognize it
as that of our mother, we implicitly realize that it is not the voice of our father. Although not
expressly stated above, a second feature of implicit realization is that the object implicitly realized
does not appear to a consciousness that implicitly realizes. If a consciousness implicitly realizes
object A, then object A does not appear to that consciousness.

Valid cognizers are divided into two:

• Direct valid cognizer. These cognizers directly realize their objects without the need to
depend on a mental image or meaning generality. Direct valid cognizers can be subdivided
into four in a similar way as direct perceivers, explained in lesson 3:
o A sense direct perceiver
o A Mental direct perceiver
o A self-knowing direct perceiver
o A yogic direct perceiver
• Inferential valid cognizer. These cognizers realize their objects through the power of a
mental image, or meaning generality, and use reasoning. This valid cognizer is explained in
lesson 5.

Non-valid consciousness is defined as a knower that is not newly incontrovertible and are divided
into five:

• Subsequent cognizer, is not “new” because it is a subsequent moment of a valid cognizer

and thus the realization is induced by its previous moment. Although it realizes its object and
is “incontrovertible”, it doesn’t realize it by its own power freshly because it is induced. For
example, the second moment of inference or the second moment of a valid eye
consciousness perceiving the colour blue. Subsequent cognizers will be explained below in
the section “Inattentive Awareness and Subsequent Cognizers”.
• Correct assumption is explained in the above section, were it mentions that it is a factually
concordant determinative knower which is controvertible with regard to determining its
object. This consciousness is controvertible with regard to its object, it does not realize its
object, it just has a mere correct understanding of it.
• Inattentive awareness (an awareness to which an object appears but is not ascertained). This
is a direct perceiver that does not realize its object but is not a wrong consciousness.
Awareness to which the object appears but is not ascertained will be explained in the
section below of “Inattentive Awareness and Subsequent Cognizers”.
• Doubting consciousness, explained above, has a two-pointed qualm about its object and is
thus not certain and therefore doesn’t realize it.

Freedom through Correct Knowing 30

 • Wrong consciousness, explained above, engages its object erroneously and therefore
doesn’t realize its object.

The above mentioned two valid cognizers and the five non-valid cognizers for the seven types of
awareness explained in lesson 4. Among the seven types of awareness inattentive awareness and
subsequent cognizers and explained below. Inattentive awareness and subsequent cognizers are
non-valid types of awareness but are not wrong forms of consciousness. Inattentive awareness
doesn’t realize its object and a subsequent cognizer does. They will be
explained below. Page numbers in the book:
Freedom Through Correct
Knowing
Page: 72-75, 79

Inattentive Awareness (Awareness to which an object appears without being ascertained)

These are states of mind to which objects appear but are not realized or ascertained. For instance,
when engaging in a concentrated conversation with someone and one friend passes by, one does
not realize or recognize that friend who passes by because of being absorbed in the conversation.
One’s attention is totally in the conversation and not focused on the friend passing by.
The definition of inattentive awareness: a knower which is a common locus of:
• having clear appearance of the specifically characterized phenomenon which is its object of
operation and
• being unable to induce ascertainment with respect to the specifically characterized
phenomenon [, meaning impermanent phenomena] which is its object of operation.

Examples of inattentive awareness are:

• a sense direct perceiver apprehending John which induces the doubt wondering, “Did I see
John or not?” For example, when one is watching a movie intensively and a person passes
by, one does not really realize or recognize the person who appears.
• mental direct perceivers in the continua of ordinary beings apprehending the five objects –
forms, sounds, smells, tastes, sensations. Every sense consciousness is directly followed by a
mental direct perceiver for a very short moment. These moments of mental direct
perceivers are too short to realize their object and thus the object appears but is not realized
or ascertained.
• self-knowers experiencing those mental direct perceivers. As these moments of mental
direct perceivers are too short to be realized, the self-knowing consciousness experiencing
these mental direct perceivers also do not realize their object.

Subsequent Cognizer
Although subsequent cognizers ascertain or realize their object, they are not called valid awareness
because the way they realize their object depends on and is induced by a previous valid cognizer. For
this reason, they are not “new” in the sense indicated in the definition of valid cognizer as explained
in section valid cognizers. The definition of a subsequent cognizer: a knower which realizes what has
already been realized.

Subsequent cognizers are divided into two:

• Directly perceiving subsequent cognizers:
o Directly perceiving subsequent cognizers which are sense direct perceivers. For
example, the second moment of a sense direct perceiver apprehending the colour
blue.

Freedom through Correct Knowing 31

 o Directly perceiving subsequent cognizers which are mental direct perceivers. For
example, the second moment of a clairvoyance knowing another’s mind.
o Directly perceiving subsequent cognizers which are self-knowing direct perceivers.
For example, the second moment of a self-knowing direct perceiver experiencing an
eye consciousness.
o Directly perceiving subsequent cognizers which are yogic direct perceivers. For
example, the second moment of an uninterrupted path of a path of seeing.
• Conceptual subsequent cognizers:
o Conceptual subsequent cognizers which are induced by direct perceivers. For
example, a factually concordant ascertaining consciousness ascertaining blue which
is induced by a sense direct perceiver apprehending blue.
o Conceptual subsequent cognizers which are induced by inferential cognizers. For
example, the second moment of an inferential cognizer realizing sound to be
impermanent.

7. Yogic Direct Perception and Emptiness

Page numbers in the book:
Unlike the first three kinds of direct perceivers, sense direct Freedom Through Correct
perceivers, mental direct perceivers and self-knowing direct Knowing
perceivers, yogic direct perceivers do not occur naturally in Page: 117, 118, 150-153, 175-
ordinary beings but are the intended result of prolonged 178, 236, 260-265
meditation. The following definition is mentioned in lesson 3:
That which is generated in dependence on its own uncommon empowering condition, a meditative
concentration which is a union of calm abiding and special insight and is an other-knowing exalted
knower in the continuum of a Superior which is free from conceptuality and non-mistaken.

Yogic direct perceivers occur only in the continuums of superior beings or Aryas 29, who, among the
five paths –accumulation, preparation, seeing, meditation and no more learning—have achieved the
path of seeing or above.

Presentation of Grounds and Paths

To understand how we need to proceed on the spiritual paths, it is important to have the map of this
journey. This section explains what needs to be abandoned, eliminating the afflictions together with
their seeds, and what needs to be accumulated, method and wisdom, and how to proceed in one’s
realization of emptiness from a conceptual one to a direct realization. It also explains the different
three vehicles and how to proceed on those paths:
• The Hearer Vehicle
• The Solitary Realizer Vehicle
• The Bodhisattva Vehicle

Cause to Enter the Paths for the:

o Hearers and Solitary Realizers vehicles: renunciation, the uncontrived and
spontaneously arising wish to attain liberation from samsara for oneself. This wish is
generated through meditation on the various types of suffering of samsara until an
effortless wish to be free of these sufferings naturally arises.
o Bodhisattva vehicle: an uncontrived realization, spontaneous wish, of the mind of
enlightenment, bodhicitta; wanting to become a buddha to liberate all sentient
beings. This wish is generated through meditation not only on the various types of

Freedom through Correct Knowing 32

 suffering of samsara, but also on the wish to free all sentient beings from these
sufferings. To achieve this, one comes to see that the state of full enlightenment is
necessary. This meditation is done until an effortless attitude of bodhicitta— having
these two aspirations of freeing all beings and for this purpose needing to attain the
state of Buddhahood—naturally arises.

Results of the Paths for the:

o Hearers' path: Path of no more learning of the state of Hearer Arhat, liberated from
samsara.
o Solitary Realizers’ path: Path of no more learning of the state of Solitary Realizer
Arhat, or sometimes called Pratyeka Buddha, liberated from samsara.
o Bodhisattva path: Path of no more learning of the state of Buddhahood, liberated
from samsara and attainment of full enlightenment.

The five paths in each of the three vehicles:

o Path of Accumulation starts with having or acquiring a conceptual realization of
emptiness.
o Path of Preparation has a conceptual realization of emptiness in the union of calm
abiding and special insight and prepares for a direct realization.
o Path of Seeing starts with a direct, non-conceptual, realization of emptiness, a yogic
direct perception, which eliminates the acquired obscurations, formed by wrong
views of incorrect tenets.
o Path of Meditation has a direct realization of emptiness which eliminates the innate
obscurations which have been there for beginningless lifetime.
o Path of no-more Learning achieves the attainment of liberation in the Hearers and
Solitary Realizers vehicles and complete enlightenment in the Bodhisattva Vehicle.

In order to generate yogic direct perceivers in their continuum a practitioner must first achieve calm
abiding, the ability to maintain single-pointed concentration effortlessly for as long as one wishes.
On that basis, he or she can achieve special insight, the ability to analyze an object of meditation
within the space of calm abiding such that the analysis increases the stability of concentration, and
the concentration increases the strength and clarity of analysis. A further development is the ability
to apply such special insight to increasingly more profound objects like subtle impermanence and
selflessness.

Initial meditation on selflessness is performed through conceptual consciousness on the basis of

various reasonings. Such minds only engage selflessness through the filter of a meaning-generality, a
mere mental image of selflessness. Through repeated familiarity, their object appears with great
clarity and vividness, requiring less effort to bring to mind. Eventually, through the force of
familiarity and merit the filter of the meaning-generality falls away, and a meditator achieves a
direct perception of selflessness. This experience is described as being “like water poured into
water”, because in the face of the yogi’s awareness there is no distinction between the mind
meditating and the object realized. When a person first generates a direct realization of selflessness,
this mind is their first achievement of a yogic direct perceiver. Subsequently the practitioner must
cultivate and deepen this mind whose future continuity will eventually become the enlightened
mind.

Although this mind of the yogic direct perceiver is direct, it does not arise suddenly or randomly. It is
the definite result of a long process of intentional cultivation, and even after achieving it, a
practitioner must make continual effort to cultivate and enhance it. The principal quality of this mind
is that it acts as the direct antidote to afflicted states of mind, eliminating their seeds such that they

Freedom through Correct Knowing 33

cannot arise again in the continuum of the practitioner. This very yogic direct perception eventually
overcomes all afflictions together with their seeds or potentials, thereby freeing one from cyclic
existence and achieving liberation.

As for its’ own uncommon empowering conditions, yogic direct perceivers depend upon its own
uncommon empowering a meditative stabilization that is a union of calm abiding and special insight.
This is clearly indicated in Purbu Chok’s 30 definition of a yogic direct valid cognizer: an other-knowing
exalted knower in the continuum of a superior being that, in dependence upon its [uncommon]
empowering condition, a meditative stabilization that is a union of calm abiding and special insight,
newly and directly realizes either subtle impermanence or the coarse or subtle selflessness of
persons.

As explained in the sections manifest and hidden phenomena above, manifest phenomena can be
seen with ordinary direct perception, like the eye consciousness perceiving the color blue. Hidden
phenomena are those which must be established for common, ordinary, beings in dependence on
reason and inference. For example, the impermanent nature of sound can be realized through the
reason of being a product and the selflessness of a person through the reason of dependent
origination. This is true for ordinary beings, but for noble or Arya beings these phenomena can be
realized through direct yogic perception. Khedrub Je explains in his text Clearing Mental Darkness,
that a phenomenon like the impermanence of sound can be a hidden phenomenon in relation to the
inference that realizes this and can be a manifest phenomenon in relation to a yogic direct
perception. Although in relation to a yogic direct perception this phenomenon is realized in a direct
manner, initially all beings have to realize it through inference. This is why Purbu Chok classifies
these phenomena as hidden phenomena and those phenomena that, initially, can be realized by an
ordinary being through direct perception are named manifest phenomena. According to Purbu
Chok, manifest and hidden phenomena are mutually exclusive. Mutually exclusive means that there
is no common locus between two phenomena, they are contradictory, and there is nothing that is
both. Alternatively, according to Khedrub Je, although in general manifest and hidden phenomena
are not mutually exclusive, in relation to a particular awareness they must be mutually exclusive. For
example, in relation to an inferential cognizer realizing that fire exists on a distant mountain top
from which smoke is rising, fire is a hidden phenomenon and not a manifest phenomenon. In
relation to that inference the existence of fire on the distant mountain top has to be realized
through the reason of the existence of smoke. Such a fire is too far away to be seen by the eye
consciousness of the person possessing this inferential cognizer. However, for a person actually on
the mountain top that perceives fire at close range, fire is a manifest phenomenon and not a hidden
phenomenon in relation to their eye consciousness perceiving the fire 31.

In the section on permanent and impermanent phenomena, it is explained that permanent

phenomena are synonymous with appearing object of conceptual consciousness and impermanent
objects are appearing objects of non-conceptual consciousness or direct perceivers. This explained
according to the Sutra School of Buddhist philosophy. Purbu Chok 32, following the Sutra School, also
says that the realization of selflessness by a yogic direct perceiver is an implicit realization because
the aspect of the object –the selflessness of a person—does not actually appear to this direct
perceiver since it is a permanent phenomenon and permanent phenomena cannot appear to direct
perceivers. It realizes selflessness of a person implicitly through realizing a compounded
phenomenon, such as the aggregates, being without a self of a person explicitly. So, there is a
difference between realizing an object by means of a direct perceiver and realizing it explicitly.

Freedom through Correct Knowing 34

 8. Omnipresent and Object Ascertaining Mental factors

Mental factors, such as mindfulness and alertness are Page numbers in the book:
particularly important in the context of mind training. Freedom Through Correct
Mindfulness remembers a particular intention or motivation, Knowing
which helps to direct the mind to a particular thought or object. Page: 243-248
Alertness is like a spy in the corner of the mind which checks if the mind is becoming distracted. It
observes the mental states from a neutral perspective, without permitting the mind to be taken over
by thoughts and emotions. Training in these mental factors is not only necessary in order to
meditate but also helps prevent reflexively following destructive patterns of behaviour established
previously. For instance, this can happen in cases such as depression, OCD and addiction. Other
mental factors, such as wisdom and concentration, which are included within the object-ascertaining
mental factors, are used in analytical meditation. Furthermore, it is important to understand the
need for developing positive states of mind and eliminating destructive emotions. The more we
understand the positive and negative states of mind, rooted in various mental factors, the more we
can use this knowledge in our mind trainings in daily life as well as in the paths to enlightenment.
This section on the division of consciousness into main minds and mental factors further facilitates
our understanding of how different aspects of mental factors aid us to appreciate how fully
experience and engage objects in harmful, helpful, and neutral ways.

First of all, consciousness can be divided into two types:

• Primary consciousness or main mind (citta). The definition of a main mind is which is posited
by way of apprehending the entity of its object. Main minds are divided into six: five sense
consciousnesses and one mental consciousness.
• Mental factors (cetasikas). The definition of a mental factor is a knower which apprehends
any of the features of its object and accompanies whatever main mind is concomitant with it.

This means that that which knows the mere entity of its object is a main mind. Although mental
factors take as their basis the same objects as the main mind they accompany, they engage their
objects by means of different attributes, such as function, and examine the different aspects of their
object. For example, the mental factor discrimination helps the main mind, apprehending one’s
body, to focus on the impermanent aspect of the body. It is only through the action of mental
factors that an object can be understood and realized, supporting the main mind they accompany to
become virtuous, non-virtuous or neutral. Every primary consciousness is accompanied by multiple
mental factors as primary consciousness cannot really function without mental factors.

The way mental factors are related to the main mind they accompany can be understood as similar
to that of the relationship between a prime minister and his or her retinue: a prime minister does
not travel alone but is always accompanied by cabinet ministers and assistants who perform specific
functions. Similarly, every primary consciousness is accompanied by mental factors which perform
specific functions for the main mind. They work together to engage objects in different ways.

A main mind and its accompanying mental factors possess five aspects of mutual similarity:

• Basis. If a main mind is supported by a sense power, or sense organ, then the mental factors
in its’ retinue are also supported by that sense power. For example, a mental factor
accompanying an eye consciousness, also depends on the physical eye sense power.
• Object of observation. A main mind and the mental factors in its’ retinue have the same
object.

Freedom through Correct Knowing 35

 • Aspect. The accompanying mental factors have the aspect of any object which appears to it in the
same way it appears to the main mind. When primary consciousness has the aspect of
apprehending the colour blue, then the mental factors in its’ retinue also have the aspect of
apprehending the colour blue.
• Time. A main mind and the mental factors in its’ retinue are simultaneous, they are
produced, abided cease at the same time.
• Substantial entity. The accompanying mental factors are produced by being one type of
substantial entity and are not produced as different substantial entities, meaning one main
mind can only have one mental factor of a similar type in its’ retinue. For example, one
specific main mind can only be accompanied by one type of feeling, pleasant, unpleasant or
neutral at any one time. It cannot have two or three different types of feelings
simultaneously.

There are fifty-one mental factors which are divided into six main groups:

• Five omnipresent mental factors. Mental factors which are always present in every moment
of consciousness.
• Five object-ascertaining mental factors. Mental factors which help the main mind to
understand and realize its object.
• Eleven virtuous mental factors. Mental factors which produce happiness.
• Six root afflictions. Root afflictions lead to suffering.
• Twenty secondary afflictions. Twenty secondary afflictions lead to suffering.
• Four changeable mental factors. Mental factors which can be virtuous, non-virtuous or
neutral.

Five Omnipresent Mental Factors 33

These mental factors are called “omnipresent” because they accompany all main minds.
Furthermore, if any of the five omnipresent mental factors are missing, then the utilization of an
object is not complete: if feeling is absent, then there is no experience; if discrimination is absent,
then there is no apprehension of the uncommon signs of the object; if intention is absent, then the
mind is not directed to an object; if mental engagement is absent, then the mind is not focused on
a particular object of observation; and if contact is absent, then there is no support for feeling.
Therefore, for the utilization of an object to be complete, all five omnipresent mental factors must
be present without exception. The definitions and functions of these five mental factors are as
follows:

• Feeling: has the characteristic of experience. Through the entity of experience, three types
are observed – pleasant, suffering, and that which is neither suffering nor pleasant.
• Discrimination or discernment: has the characteristic of knowing upon aggregation. It has
the entity of apprehending the sign for both: an object which appears to a non-conceptual
consciousness and apprehending the mark and for an object which appears to conceptual
thought, through which one designates an expression to objects of perceptions, hearing,
differentiation, and knowledge. For example, distinguishing between “this is yellow and that
is red”.
• Intention: is a compositional mental action of the mind. It has the function of engaging the
mind in virtue, non-virtue, or the unspecified 34 and thus motivates one’s actions of body
speech and mind.
• Contact: distinguishes the transformation of the sense power upon the aggregation of the
three: object, sense power and primary consciousness. It has the function of acting as a
support for feeling. “Transformation of the sense power” means that for example, due to

Freedom through Correct Knowing 36

 meeting with an attractive form, the eye sense power transforms into a cause for
attachment to the pleasant feeling. Likewise, contact, by distinguishing an attractive form,
transforms into a cause fora pleasant feeling.
• Mental engagement or attention: an engagement of the mind. It has the function of holding
the mind to the object of observation. The difference between intention and mental
engagement is that intention moves the mind towards general objects, whereas mental
engagement directs the mind towards a particular object.

In the above we can see that we cannot prevent encountering objects and having feeling responses
to them which are either pleasurable, suffering, or neutral. To prevent overreacting with either
excessive attachment to the feelings of pleasure or aversion to the feelings of suffering, we need to
train in being the observer without becoming involved. As discussed before training in the mental
factors of alertness and mindfulness can help us to be more of an observer, creating distance so that
one is more able to avoid becoming involved with destructive emotions. The mental factor
equanimity, discussed below in the section on eleven virtues mental factors, helps these two mental
factors to remain in a neutral state. Having this unbiased perspective can assist in keeping one’s
mind at peace in daily life, being able to be in more control over the mind and challenging situations.

Five Object-ascertaining Mental Factors

These mental factors help the main mind to understand and realize its object. It is thanks to these
factors that we understand things in life and can transform our minds all the way up to
enlightenment. First, we need an aspiration to start training our mind through understanding the
possibility of change and generate belief or resolution in mind training methods. When training our
minds, mindfulness is one of the most important factors to help us to remember and be aware of our
positive intentions. To progress in our mind training and to examine destructive and constructive
emotions, we need to examine thoroughly using the mental factor wisdom. We need to do this
without much distraction and thus should develop meditative stabilization or concentration. Without
concentration we might waste much time by being distracted, like while reading a book, after a few
pages we ask ourselves “What did I read?”. The mental factor concentration helps us to maintain
focused and absorb the information we need to. The five object-ascertaining mental factors are
defined as follows:

• Aspiration: is the very wish to be endowed with this or that attribute of a desired thing. It has
the function of acting as a support for making effort. When one is convinced about the
benefits of mind training and meditation, one aspires to practice it and thus the benefits of
these practices will come.
• Belief or resolution: holds an ascertained thing to be just the way it has been ascertained. It
holds the object which has been ascertained by its valid cognition, thinking, “It is just like
this and not otherwise.” It has the function of non-captivation. Once one has gained firm
belief in the object which one has ascertained, an opponent cannot steer one away from it.
• Mindfulness: is a non-forgetfulness of the mind with respect to a familiar object. It has the
function of non-distraction. The increase of all the excellent qualities of the paths and
grounds are contingent upon the two – mindfulness and alertness – and all accomplishments
of meditative concentration of sutra and tantra are necessarily achieved through this special
mindfulness. Therefore, this very method of relying on mindfulness is of utmost importance
for those who, from their heart, wish to practice.
• Concentration: is a one-pointedness of the mind with respect to an imputed thing. “An
imputed thing,” means that when cultivating meditative concentration with mental
consciousness, one holds the mind on an object of observation which is imputed by the
mind. Meditative stabilization has the function of acting as a support for knowledge.

Freedom through Correct Knowing 37

 • Wisdom: strongly differentiates the qualities of things which are to be examined like
virtuous, non-virtuous, and unspecified. It has the function of overcoming doubt.

9. Virtuous and Non-virtuous Mental Factors

Page numbers in the book:
Freedom Through Correct
Next to the above mentioned omnipresent and object Knowing
ascertaining mental factors, which are neutral by nature, the Page: 243-248
eleven virtuous mental factors, the two groups of non-virtuous afflictions and changeable mental
factors are explained below.

Eleven Virtuous Mental Factors

These mental factors produce happiness because they are virtuous mental factors. Virtue is defined
as that which produces happiness as a result. In our mind training it is important to produce virtuous
states of mind which result in happiness and when these virtuous mental factors are present, non-
virtuous mental factors, like the destructive emotions or afflictions, cannot become manifest at that
particular time. For example, non-attachment, non-hatred, and non-ignorance are the three
antidotes to the three poisons of our mind: attachment, hatred, and ignorance. These three virtuous
mental factors are like the root of all virtuous qualities, the method for ceasing all misconduct, and
the essence of all the paths. The more we generate these kinds of virtuous minds and habituate
ourselves towards them, non-virtuous minds will lose their potential to become manifest. The
eleven virtuous mental factors are defined as follows:

• Faith: conviction, clarity, and wishing with respect to an existent which is endowed with
excellent qualities and power. It has the function of acting as a support for aspiration. Faith
can be of three types: Clarifying faith is a clear mind engendered by seeing the excellent
qualities of those so endowed, such as the Three Jewels. When this faith is generated, the
murkiness of the mind is cleared away, whereupon all excellent qualities of realization
become suitable to arise in one’s continuum. Faith of conviction is the gaining of conviction
through contemplating the modes of dependent-arising and cause and result for example.
Wishing faith, is, for instance, after having contemplated the modes of the four noble truths,
ascertainment of true sufferings and true origins as objects of abandonment, and true
cessations and true paths as objects of attainment and understanding that these can be
attained if one makes the proper effort, with faith thinking, “I shall definitely obtain them.”
• Self-dignity or sometimes translated as “shame”: is an avoidance of misdeeds on account of
oneself.
• Embarrassment: is an avoidance of misdeeds on account of others. Shame is such that, when
one is about to engage in misconduct, one avoids it, thinking, “This is not something I should
do”. In the case of embarrassment, when one comes close to engaging in misconduct, one
avoids it on account of others, thinking, “If others were to despise me as a result of my
engaging in misconduct, this would not be fitting.”
• Non-attachment: lack of attachment to cyclic existence and the articles of cyclic existence. It
has the function of acting as a support for non-engagement in misconduct. It is a mental
factor which is disenchanted and lacks attachment.
• Non-hatred: is a lack of malice with regard to sentient beings, suffering and the sources of
suffering. It has the function of acting as a support for nonengagement in misconduct. It is a
mental factor which conquers the generation of hatred.
• Non-ignorance: is knowledge arisen from fruition, scripture, contemplation or realization,
and is a wisdom of individual investigation. It has the function of acting as a support for the

Freedom through Correct Knowing 38

 non-engagement in misconduct. It is a mental factor which is a wisdom of individual
investigation which is able to serve as the antidote to ignorance.
• Effort or diligence: effort is a mind which takes pleasure in and enjoys doing virtue. It is a
mind which is enthusiastic regarding:
o armouring i.e., having a courageous attitude
o application i.e., of constant putting effort
o non-inferiority i.e., an engagement of virtue without the mind being discouraged
o irreversibility i.e., not being diverted from virtuous activities
o non-complacency i.e., seeking higher qualities. It has the function of fulfilling and
accomplishing the class of virtue through enjoying doing so and is the antidote for
laziness.
• Pliancy: is a bliss that is generated when the mind becomes calmer and is concentrated. It is a
serviceability of body and mind, through the bliss of meditation, due to severing the
continuum of unfavourable states of body and mind. It has the function of eliminating all
obscurations. Through the increase of the bliss of pliancy, meditative concentration
increases, and one is empowered to overcome obscurations. When advanced levels of
concentration are generated, mind and body are in blissful states which makes it easier to
stay in meditation and maintain concentration without becoming tired or distracted.
• Conscientiousness or heedfulness: is a cultivation of virtuous qualities within abiding in
nonattachment, non-hatred, non-ignorance, as well as effort, and guards the mind against
contaminations (of non-virtues or negative states of mind or deeds). It has the function of
thoroughly completing and fully establishing all mundane and supramundane success.
• Equanimity: is a discordance with afflictive states, an evenness of mind, a dwelling in a
natural state, and a spontaneous abiding, within abiding in nonattachment, non-hatred,
non-ignorance, as well as effort. It has the function of not allowing an opportunity for
afflictions to arise.
• Non-harmfulness or non-violence: is a mind of compassion and is involved with non-hatred.
It has the function of not inflicting injury and observes suffering sentient beings, thinking,
“May they be free of that suffering!”.

Six Root Afflictions

Afflictions are types of minds that cause us to suffer. They afflict our mind in the sense that we lose
our clarity and peace of mind. The definition of an affliction is a phenomenon such that when it
arises, has the characteristic of being very unpeaceful arises, and due to its arising, the mental
continuum arises as being very unpeaceful. Root afflictions are afflictions which cause other
afflictions to arise and are divided into six. The last one, afflicted views is further subdivided into
five, resulting a total of ten:
• Attachment
• Anger
• Pride
• Ignorance
• (Afflicted) Doubt
• Afflicted views:
o View of the transitory collection
o View holding to an extreme
o Conception of a bad view as supreme
o Conception of bad ethics and modes of conduct as supreme
o Wrong view

The first five are afflictions that are non-views while the last group of five are afflictions that are
views.

Freedom through Correct Knowing 39

These ten afflictions are defined as follows:
• Attachment overestimates the qualities of its object without seeing the faults. It is a mental
factor which perceives a contaminated thing to be attractive and thereupon seeks it. The
Abhidharmakośakārikā gives the following definition: “A clinging of the three realms, its
function is to produce suffering.”

• Anger overestimates the faults of its object without seeing the qualities. It is a mental factor which
has malice toward others, seeks to be separated from its object and has the function of acting as a
support for misconduct. The Abhidharmakośakārikā gives the following definition: “A malice
towards sentient beings, suffering, and phenomena that is a cause for suffering, its function is to
act as a support for not abiding in contact and for misconduct.”

• Pride is a puffing up of the mind in dependence on the view of the transitory collection. It has the
function of acting as a support for disrespect and suffering. It is a mental factor which has the
aspect of a puffing up of the mind upon observing the basis for puffing up like one’s own wealth
and qualities, thinking that one is superior to others.

• Ignorance is unknowing of the three realms. It has the function of acting as a support for the
arising of wrong ascertainment, doubt and afflictions with respect to phenomena. It is of
two types: obscuration which is the mental factor of unknowing and an awareness which
apprehends erroneously. For example, an ignorance which is an obscuration with respect to
actions and their results, thinking that there is no law of cause and effect. When not
believing in cause and effect, or karma, we prevent ourselves from making positive changes.
Not believing in the possibility of changing ourselves, or the effects of training our minds,
prevents us from developing and becoming better human beings.

• (Afflicted) Doubt is being two-minded with regards to the truths. For example, have a two-
pointed mind with regards to the four noble truths, such as doubting if afflictions and karma,
the truth of the cause of suffering, causes suffering, the truth of suffering, to arise or not. It
has the function of acting as a support for not engaging in the class of virtue. The doubt here
is an afflicted doubt which is not in accordance with reality. Among the three types of
doubt, tending toward the non-factual, equal doubt and tending toward the factual, this is
the one which is tending toward the non-factual.

• View of the transitory collection is any endurance, desire, intelligence, conception, or view
which views the five appropriated aggregates as a real “I” and “mine”. It has the function of
acting as a support for all afflicted views. This affliction is very important to understand well.
It is the root of all other root afflictions, as was explained in the wisdom realizing reality
section of the part on Destructive and Constructive Emotions in the beginning of this
textbook. In that section it mentions that this affliction is the cause for self-centeredness,
and narcissism which by itself is the cause for many types of suffering and problems.

• View holding to an extreme is any endurance, desire, intelligence, conception, or view which
views the five appropriated aggregates as being either permanent or annihilated. It has the
function of hindering the generation of renunciation and prevents the development of a
genuine wish to be free from all forms of suffering. In the teachings of the Middle Way, we
learn that everything is interdependent which helps us not to fall into the two extremes of
eternalism or nihilism.

Freedom through Correct Knowing 40

 • Conception of a bad view as supreme is any endurance, desire, intelligence, conception, or
view which views: views and the locus of the views, that is, the five appropriated aggregates,
to be supreme, to be chief, to be superior, and to be excellent. It has the function of acting as
a support for strongly adhering to bad views. This view is the cause of ones’ own wrong
views to be completely right and thus makes it difficult to generate correct understandings.

• Conception of bad ethics and modes of conduct as supreme is any endurance, desire,
intelligence, conception, or view, which views: bad ethics and modes of conduct and the locus
of the bad ethics and modes of conduct, that is, the five appropriated aggregates, to be
purifying, liberating, and delivering. It has the function of acting as a support for fruitless
fatigue. This afflicted view also includes views about immoral behaviors such as animal
sacrifices and steeling for obtaining success.

• Wrong view is any endurance, desire, intelligence, conception, or view which deprecates
cause, result or functionality, and wrongly conceives existent disintegrating things. It has the
functions of severing roots of virtue, holding tightly to roots of non-virtue, and acting as a
support for engaging in non-virtue and not engaging in virtue. This afflicted view also
includes views of not believing in the law of cause and effect. When not believing in the
possibility to change our minds, it prevents us from changing ourselves and becoming better
human beings.

A clear understanding of afflictions is very essential in the process of seeing the faults of these
destructive emotions as is indicated in the section on destructive emotions. Knowing them well
assists us in becoming more aware. Knowing their faults and the benefits of their antidotes can
generate more self-regulation which transforms our minds in sustainable contemplations. Thus,
eliminating these disturbances of mind and generating more constructive emotions produces more
lasting happiness. When using these techniques to help others also makes our compassion and
loving kindness stronger. This is conscientiously summarized by Yongzin Yeshe Gyeltsen, an
important author of mind trainings and presentations on mental factors.

Having strongly tied us with thousands of nooses of karma

To the prison of [cyclic] existence since beginningless time,
The enemies who torture us with hundreds of unbearable sufferings and agonies
Are certainly the afflictions themselves.

In the wilderness covered by thickets of [cyclic] existence,

The intolerable thieves who steal even the slightest benefit and happiness
And torment us without allowing a single moment's relief
Are just those [afflictions].

Alas! Who is more foolish than one who holds this enemy from beginningless time
As his dear friend, planting him at the center of his heart,
But holds as enemies his kind father and mother sentient beings,
The six types of migrators?

Hey! Instead, if intelligent discerning people were to

Uproot the enemy of afflictions from their hearts and
Cherish their kind parents, planting these wish-fulfilling gems
At the very center of their hearts, it would be far better!

Freedom through Correct Knowing 41

Twenty Secondary Afflictions
The secondary afflictions arise from and are closely associated with the root afflictions just discussed
above. For completeness they are listed below. Definitions and divisions of these twenty mental
factors can be found in Explanation of the A Necklace for Those of Clear Awareness Clearly Revealing
the Modes of Minds and Mental Factors by Yeshe Gyeltsen. Translation Toh Sze Gee. Latest edition,
November 2020, Education Services, or in Science and Philosophy in the Indian Buddhist Classics, Vol.
2: The Mind, conceived by His Holiness the Dalai Lama, edited by Thupten Jinpa, Wisdom
Publication, 2020.

1) Belligerence 6) Miserliness 11) Non-shame 16) Laziness

2) Resentment 7) Deceit 12) Non- 17) Non-
3) Concealment 8) Dissimulation embarrassment conscientiousness
4) Spite 9) Haughtiness 13) Lethargy 18) Forgetfulness
5) Jealousy 10) Harmfulness 14) Excitement 19) Non-introspection
15) Non-faith 20) Distraction

Four Changeable Mental Factors

These mental factors become virtuous, non-virtuous, or unspecified through the force of being
concomitant with the motivating thought. Sleep is one of these changeable mental factors. As we
spend some hours sleeping every day, the Buddhist teachings advise us to motivate well with a
positive intention before falling asleep. We can see that how we feel and how we think influences
our sleep. If we go to bed with a positive mind, we mostly wake up refreshed. If we fall asleep with
irritation, we do not really feel rested when waking. Sleep can be virtuous, non-virtuous or neutral,
depending on the state of mind before falling asleep. Falling asleep is similar to dying. In the dying
process a positive motivation or state of mind is also very important for a peaceful death process
and for a good rebirth. Regret is another changeable mental factor, regretting positive deeds is non-
virtuous and regretting negative deeds is virtuous. In the teachings on purification, regretting having
done negative deeds is a very important opponent power in the purification process. Investigation
and analysis are two further changeable mental factors. When using these factors in planning to
harm someone, it is non-virtuous and, when using them to analyse and investigate loving kindness
and compassion, it is virtuous. Below are more traditional definitions given for these four mental
factors.

• Sleep: is a withdrawal of the mind in dependence upon sleep, its cause, with respect to:
virtue, non-virtue and the unspecified, the timely and the untimely, and the appropriate and
the inappropriate, and is involved with ignorance. It has the function of acting as a support
for failing to perform actions. It is a mind which causes the engagement in objects of the
sense consciousness to powerlessly withdraw inwards in dependence upon its causes, such
as heaviness of body, weakness, fatigue, and mental engagement to signs of darkness.
“Timely” refers to sleep during the middle part of the night, being the best period. Arya
Nagarjuna says in his Letter to a Friend (stanza 39):

Sensible ones! Occupy yourselves the entire daytime and

Also, the first and last parts of the night.
Sleep with mindfulness between these;
Then even the time of sleep will not be wasted.

Freedom through Correct Knowing 42

 Regarding "the appropriate and the inappropriate" in the citation above, sleeping during the
middle watch of the night out of the wish to engage in virtue by developing the elements of
the body is appropriate, whereas sleep motivated by afflictions, even during the middle
watch of the night, is inappropriate. Hence, it is taught for the sake of understanding this.
Know the reasons from the passages which have been cited above. Its’ function is specified
as "failing to perform actions" because, since sleep is of two types – the virtuous and the
non-virtuous – the non-virtuous type, afflicted sleep, causes virtuous activities to
degenerate.

• Regret: is a remorseful mind dependent on any proper activity or improper activity, intended
or unintended, with respect to: virtue, non-virtue and the unspecified, the timely and the
untimely, and the appropriate and the inappropriate, and is involved with ignorance. It has
the function of hindering the stability of the mind. "The timely and the untimely, and the
appropriate and the inappropriate" in the citation above means that generating regret when
something is rectifiable is appropriate, whereas regret when it is not is inappropriate.
Moreover, appropriateness of regret when it is rectifiable refers to, for instance, the
necessity to confess misdeeds with regret before the fruition has been established in the
present. Not rectifiable refers to, for instance, without purification the experience of
suffering due to fruition having been established.
• Investigation: is a mental expression of inquiry depending on either intention or wisdom; it is
a coarse mind.

• Analysis: is a mental expression of individual examination depending on either intention or

wisdom; it is a fine mind.

Hence, through becoming skilled in the classifications of virtue and non-virtue as explained above, at
the time of endeavouring single-pointedly in the practice of the stages of the path to enlightenment,
repeatedly examine your own continuum in order to recognize the root and secondary afflictions
which have been explained above, and if these afflictions arise, having recognized them,
immediately overcome them with the antidotes. This is a crucial point. It is just as it has been said in
Engaging in the Bodhisattva Deeds (stanza 5.108):

In brief,
To examine the state of body and mind
Again and again,
Is the sole defining characteristic of guarding introspection.

Arya Nagarjuna says his Letter to a Friend (stanza 17):

Know that the mind is like a drawing

Made on water, earth, or stone.
From among these, in regard to the afflicted, the first is best, and
In regard to wishing for the Dharma, the last.

And the Foremost Omniscient Tsong-kha-pa says in his Great Exposition of the Stages of the Path:

Having recognized the afflictions, contemplate their drawbacks and the benefits of being
separated from them and then plant the spies of mindfulness and introspection. Whenever
any affliction sprouts forth, again and again, you must nip it in the bud. Further, as soon as
any affliction stirs in your continuum, you must regard it as an enemy and combat it.

Freedom through Correct Knowing 43

 Otherwise, if it were to emerge first, and you acquiesce and foster it with improper mental
engagement, then, without any resistance, you will only succumb to it.

Just as it has been said above, at all times – during the actual sessions as well as the session breaks –
again and again examine your own mind and rely upon the antidote to whichever affliction has
arisen. This is the principal training in virtue and the excellent essential point. Likewise, be mindful of
the manner in which one must generate the corresponding modes on the various occasions of
training in virtue. Repeatedly rely upon mindfulness and introspection and make every effort in the
means to generate that which has not been generated, as well as to increase that which has
already been generated 35.

10.Aspects of Selflessness
Page numbers in the book:
Freedom Through Correct
Knowing
One of the most important aspects of our spiritual path to
Page: 186-213 and 255-257
liberation and enlightenment is the realisation of emptiness. To
understand the most subtle view of selflessness or emptiness, one first needs to understand the
coarser explanation. This lesson explains interpretations of the different schools of what selflessness
of person and phenomena is. A few main examples of selflessness given in the text are the following,
going from a coarser explanation to a more subtle:

• Person’s emptiness of being permanent, unitary and independent:

o Permanent: If we were to assert that the self is permanent, that means the self, the
person, or “I” is unchanging. However, we have to be able to posit a self or person
who experiences happiness and suffering. If we assert that the self or person is
permanent, how then do we explain that there is a self who experiences happiness
and suffering? If the “I” is permanent, i.e., the “I” is unchanging, how does it
experience happiness and suffering?
o Unitary: The self is not unitary, or one, because there is nothing to be found in the
body and mind like this or separate from body and mind.
o Independent: Independence means being independent of causes and conditions. If
you were to assert that there is an “I” which is independent, in this context. You
then have to be able to explain how such an “I” which is independent of causes and
conditions exists. You should be able to account for an “I” which is independent of
causes and conditions.

• Person’s emptiness of being self-sufficient substantially existent: When there is an

apprehension of a self-sufficient substantially existent person, there is the idea that there is
a person or an “I” who is the possessor of the aggregates. In that sense, the person or the “I”
is not dependent on the body and mind. In this relationship, the body and mind have some
kind of dependence or reliance on the “I.” It is similar to a pilot of an aircraft, being the
controller of the people, the people in the plane depend on the pilot but the pilot is more
free to fly without depending on the people in the aircraft. This kind of dependence is not
realistic, there is no self who has control over body and mind, without depending on it,
which is free from law of cause and effect.

Freedom through Correct Knowing 44

These two types of selflessness, mentioned above, are accepted by all schools of Buddhist
philosophy. The Great Exposition School (Vaibhāşhika), Sūtra School (Sautrāntrika), Mind-Only
School (Chittamātra) and the Middle Way School (Mādhyamaka) Middle Way Autonomy Schools
(Svātantrika-Mādhyamaka), accept the first as a coarse selflessness of person and the second as a
subtle selflessness of person. The Middle Way Consequence School (Prāsaṅgika- Mādhyamaka)
accept both to be only coarse selflessness of person and the one below are a subtle selflessness of
person.

• Person’s emptiness of being empty of inherent existence: A self which exists inherently
without dependence cannot exist because:
o body and mind depend on causes and conditions and so the person should
likewise depend on causes and conditions
o body and mind depend on parts and collections of parts, and such an inherent self
cannot be found among parts and collections of parts.
o the person is merely imputed based on the mere collection of body and mind; an
inherent independent self cannot be found in this process.

By following the different explanations and contemplating these types of selflessness, one comes to
understand the more subtle interpretations. The difference between selflessness of a person and
phenomena is that the selflessness of sentient beings and of buddhas are the selflessness of a
person and the selflessness of everything else that exists, like a table, a computer, is defined as
selflessness of phenomena. The Great Exposition School (Vaibhāşhika) and the Sūtra School
(Sautrāntrika) only accept the selflessness of a person and do not accept selflessness of phenomena.
The other schools do accept both but have different interpretations.

Mind Only School

The Mind Only School has an uncommon division of reality into three natures. They divide all
phenomena into this three-fold division of: imputed natures, other-powered phenomena and
thoroughly established phenomena.

• Imputed Natures:
Imputed natures are posited by names and terminology and imputed by consciousness. An
illustration of an imputed phenomenon is the absence or lack of a phenomenon like the
absence of an elephant and mental images, or meaning generalities, fabricated by
conceptual consciousness. Understanding imputed natures helps one to understand that a
phenomenon is a referent of conceptual consciousness whilst a referent of terminology is
merely imputed and thus is not established by way of its own character. This can be
exemplified by considering the mental image we have of an object of aversion or
attachment. This is not the actual object, as it is created through thoughts, which are
influenced by mental dispositions of previous habituation patterns of afflictions.

• Other-powered Phenomena:
Impermanent, or momentary changing, phenomena like a table, elephant, aspects of mind,
emotions and so forth, are without the nature of being produced in and of themselves. They
are produced by causes and conditions other than themselves and thus are called “other
powered phenomena”. This means not produced by themselves without depending on other
causes and conditions. For impermanent phenomena to come into being they depend on
both their previous moments, being the cause for the present moment as well as external
conditions which have an influence on their existence. They exist through a dependent web
of causes and conditions in the external world and within the samsaric world of karma and

Freedom through Correct Knowing 45

 afflictions. Learning about other-powered phenomena helps one to understand the law of
cause and effect and karma. One comes to understand that one is conditioned, controlled,
“other-powered” by karma and afflictions which helps one to understand samsaric suffering,
and to generate renunciation with the need to abandon afflictions. Furthermore, to see that
the afflictive consciousness, which apprehends the person, the mind-basis-of-all, as a self-
sufficient substantially existing self, is the root from which afflictions arise.

• Thoroughly Establish Phenomena:

Are “ultimate” because of the ultimate nature of reality they present. This is the absence of
the object of negation, i.e. selflessness, which is the absence of a self. Thoroughly
established phenomena are permanent. An illustration of a thoroughly established
phenomena is a consciousness apprehending an elephant and the appearance of the
elephant to that consciousness being empty of being of different substance. According to
the above example, the appearing elephant and the consciousness apprehending it, appear
as different substances, subject and object appear distant and cut off, like two different
entities. However, in reality, they are empty of being a different substance. Or in other
words, the apprehended and apprehender existing as substantially different is the self of
phenomena, and the very negation of that is the selflessness of phenomena.
This is asserted because they accept that the mind, the apprehender that knows its object,
and the object that is apprehended are empty of being substantially different because they
arise simultaneously by the power of a single imprint.

By reflecting on thoroughly establish phenomena, one comes to understand that what

appears to one’s mind does not exist externally without depending on consciousness. One
learns that what appears as distant and cut off, as a different entity from one’s
consciousness, does not exist as such as an external object. Furthermore, in terms of
selflessness of persons, the apprehension of a sufficient substantially existing self can be
eliminated with a direct perception of selflessness. These types of selflessness of persons
and phenomena are thoroughly established phenomenon.

On top of the uncommon division into the above three-fold division they also have uncommon
aspects of consciousness: Mind-Basis-of-All Consciousness and Afflictive Consciousness, and thus
come to a division into eight types of consciousness: five sensory perceptions, mental consciousness,
plus, Mind-Basis-of-All Consciousness and Afflictive Consciousness. These last two are uncommon to
Mind Only.

• Mind-Basis-of-All Consciousness:
Mind Only School Following Scripture says that from the accumulation of karma to the
ripening of an effect, a large amount of time may elapse. If you do not accept a mind-basis-
of-all, how do you explain the correspondence between cause and effect? If the karmic seed
remains until it ripens as an effect without disintegrating, it follows that karma is permanent
and you fall into the extreme of permanence. If karma disintegrates in the second moment,
karma is not suitable to produce a fully ripening effect. This is because, according to the
Mind Only, that which has disintegrated is not a functioning thing. If the cause has
disintegrated, it no longer exists, and thus there can be no effect. If there is no effect it
follows that karma goes to waste. Even though karma disintegrates, there is a basis upon
which the potencies of karma are placed; this basis is known as the mind-basis-of-all. And
thus, the potencies or seeds of karma remain in this mind-basis-of-all until it comes to
ripening.

Freedom through Correct Knowing 46

 Some proponents of the Great Exposition School have likened disintegration of karma to the
repayment of a debt. When a person borrows money for instance, they must pledge
something to ensure that the debt is repaid. Similarly, when a person accumulates karma, a
pledge ensures that it produces a result. Some schools say that when a karmic action ceases,
it leaves a potential on the primary mental consciousness that is an illustration of the
person. The Mind Only says that the mind-basis-of-all is an illustration of the person.

The Consequence school does not accept a mind-basis-of-all and says that performed karma
does not go to waste. Even if a mind-basis-of-all is not accepted, the disintegration of karma
does not preclude it producing an effect. The sequence of disintegration of karma are effects
of that action, but they are not its primary effect. The sequence continues until the primary
ripening effect is produced when the right conditions are met, at which point the effect
exhausts the karma. Furthermore, the Mind Only says that the basis-of-all is an illustration of
a person. The Consequence School says that if this basis-of-all can be found as being the
person, one should accept the self of a person.

In addition to karmic imprints, the Mind Only School mentions three types of predispositions
or imprints:
• Imprints caused by verbal expressions or conceptual consciousness. Conceptualization
or verbalization create mental images which are not in accordance with reality. The
habituation of this creates potentials in the mind which influences the way objects
appear in the future.
• Imprints of a similar type. Having seen things like elephants or tables in the past
produces potentials in the mind which influences future appearances of similar objects.
• Imprints of self. The habituation of apprehending a self to exist as being both self-
sufficient and substantial creates potentials in the mind which cause one to believe that
the self exists in that way. In a similar way one apprehends external phenomena to
appear as distant and cut of as a different entity from one’s consciousness.

• Afflictive Consciousness
In the above we saw that the Mind Only says that the basis-of-all is an illustration of a
person. Afflictive consciousness is a mind which, by focusing on this mind-basis-of-all, sees it
as existing in a permanent, unitary, and independent way, or as existing in a self-sufficient
substantial way.

The selflessness of person and phenomena of the Middle Way Consequence School (Prāsaṅgika-
Mādhyamaka) is explained in lesson 5, “Inference and Emptiness”. The chart below gives an
overview of the various types of selflessness in the four schools of Buddhist philosophy.

Freedom through Correct Knowing 47

School Coarse selflessness Subtle selflessness of Selflessness of Phenomena
of person person
Great Exposition Person’s emptiness Person’s emptiness of Don’t accept selflessness of
School of being permanent, being self-sufficient phenomena
(Vaibhāşhika) unitary and substantially existent
independent

Sūtra School Person’s emptiness Person’s emptiness of Don’t accept selflessness of

(Sautrāntrika) of being permanent, being self-sufficient phenomena
unitary and substantially existent
independent

Mind-Only School Person’s emptiness Person’s emptiness of The apprehended and

(Chittamātra) of being permanent, being self-sufficient apprehender being empty of being
unitary and substantially existent substantial different
independent

Sūtra Middle Way Person’s emptiness Person’s emptiness of Phenomena being empty of being
Autonomy School ( of being permanent, being self-sufficient truly established
Sautrāntrika- unitary and substantially existent
Svātantrika- independent
Mādhyamika)
School Coarse selflessness Subtle selflessness of Coarse Subtle
of person person Selflessness Selflessness
of of Phenomena
Phenomena
Yogic Middle Way Person’s emptiness Person’s emptiness of The Phenomena being
Autonomy School of being permanent, being self-sufficient apprehended empty of being
(Yogācāra- unitary and substantially existent and truly established
Svātantrika- independent apprehender
Mādhyamika) being empty
of being
substantial
different
Middle Way Person’s emptiness Person’s emptiness of The gross Phenomena being
Consequence of being self- being truly established in object empty of being
School (Prāsaṅgika- sufficient the sense of empty of composed of truly established in
Mādhyamika) substantially inherent existence part-less the sense of
existent particles and empty of inherent
the existence
apprehender
being empty
of being
substantial
different

Freedom through Correct Knowing 48

When the above types of selflessness are well studied, contemplated, and meditated, one can
develop correct assumption, inference and eventually a yogic direct perception. The direct
realization of emptiness of such a yogic direct perception eliminates ignorance, the root of samsara.

Through ceasing karma and afflictions, Nirvana is achieved.

Karma and afflictions arise from [distorted] conceptions.
These arise from elaborations [of grasping at inherent existence].”
Elaborations cease by emptiness.
Mūlamadhyamakakārikā, Arya Nāgārjuna

Having seen this important aspect of the path to enlightenment, the Buddha taught all his teachings
for the purpose of realizing emptiness.

All the branches of the Doctrine

The Enlightened One expounded for the sake of wisdom [realizing emptiness]
Therefore, cultivate this wisdom
Who wish to put an end to suffering.
Bodhicharyavatara, Shantideva

Freedom through Correct Knowing 49

Notes
1
Freedom Through Correct Knowing, On Khedrup Je’s Interpretation of Darmakirti’s Seven Treatises on Valid
Cognition, Translated and commentary by the Sera Jey Monastic University Translation Department, edited by
Geshe Tenzin Namdak and Ven. Tenzin Legtsok, Wisdom Publications, 2022
2
Purbu Chok’s yulyulchen dang blo rigs girnam par bshad pa, Complete English translation: Explanation of the
Presentation of Objects and Object-Possessors as well as Awarenesses and Knowers by Purbuchok, translation
Elizabeth Napper. FPMT Basic Program material; latest edition, November 2020, FPMT Education Services.
3
His Holiness the Dalai Lama, The Universe in a Single Atom, p 124
4
Science and Philosophy in the Indian Buddhist Classics, Volume 2: The Mind conceived and introduced by His
Holiness the Dalai Lama, p.41
5
Roger Penrose, Cycles of Time: An Extraordinary New View of the Universe, Vintage Books, 2011
6
Meditation and the Neuroscience of Consciousness: An Introduction, Antoine Lutz, John D. Dunne, and Richard
J. Davidson, The Cambridge Handbook of Consciousness, Chapter 19, 2006 and Long-term Meditators Self-
induce High-amplitude Gamma Synchrony During Mental Practice, Antoine Lutz, Lawrence L. Greischar, Nancy
B. Rawlings, Matthieu Ricard, and Richard J. Davidson, PNAS, 16 November 2004, Communicated by Burton H.
Singer, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ, October 6, 2004
7
Daniel Goleman & Richard J. Davidson, Altered Traits, Science Reveals How Meditation Changes Your Mind,
Brain, and Body, Pinguin Random House, New York, 2018.
8
Jeffrey M. Schwartz and Sharon Begley, The Mind & The Brain: Neuroplasticity and the Power of Mental
Force, Regan Books, 2003.
9
Bruce Greyson, The Handbook of Near-death Experiences: Thirty Years of Investigation, Praeger Publishers,
2009 and Pim van Lommel, Consciousness Beyond Life: The Science of the Near-Death Experience, Cambridge
University Press, 2011.
10
No Detectable Electroencephalographic Activity After Clinical Declaration of Death Among Tibetan Buddhist
Meditators in Apparent Tukdam, a Putative Postmortem Meditation State, Frontiers in Psychology, US National
Library of Medicine, National Institute of Health, 2021 January 28.
11
Jim Tucker, Return to Life, 2015 and Life Before Life: A Scientific Investigation of Children's Memories of
Previous, 2009.
12
Michael Nahm, Bruce Greyson, Emily Williams Kelly, Erlendur Haraldsson, Terminal Lucidity: A Review and a
Case Collection, Archives of Gerontology and Geriatrics, Elsevier, 2011
13
Daniel Goleman and Barrett Whitener, Emotional Intelligence, and Goleman and Bill Swainson, Destructive
Emotions: A Dialogue with the Dalai Lama (Mind and Life Series).
14
Emotional Intelligence, Daniel Goleman, Bantam Books, 2006
15
Meditation and the Neuroscience of Consciousness: An Introduction, Antoine Lutz, John D. Dunne, and
Richard J. Davidson, The Cambridge Handbook of Consciousness, Chapter 19, 2006 and Long-term Meditators
Self-induce High-amplitude Gamma Synchrony During Mental Practice, Antoine Lutz, Lawrence L. Greischar,
Nancy B. Rawlings, Matthieu Ricard, and Richard J. Davidson, PNAS, 16 November 2004, Communicated by
Burton H. Singer, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ, October 6, 2004
16
Healing Emotions (p. 90), Daniel Goleman, Shambhala Publications, 1997
17
A Fearless Heart, Why compassion is the Key to Greater Wellbeing (p. 40), Thupten Jinpa, Piatkus, 2015
18
Altruism, The Power of Compassion to Change Yourself and the World (p. 329), Matthieu Richard, Atlantic
Books, 2015
19
Altruism, The Power of Compassion to Change Yourself and the World (p. 329), Matthieu Richard, Atlantic
Books, 2015
20
Healing Emotions (p. 194), Daniel Goleman, Shambhala Publications, 1997
21
Quoted in: Science and Philosophy in the Indian Buddhist Classics, Volume 2: The MInd conceived and
introduced by His Holiness the Dalai Lama, p.44
22
yulyulchen dang blo rigs girnam par bshad pa, Explanation of the Presentation of Objects and Object-
Possessors as well as Awarenesses and Knowers,
23
Helgoland, Carlo Rovelli, Allen Lane, Penguin Books, 2021
24
Wholeness and the Implicate Order (Routledge Classics), David Bohm, Routledge and Kegan Paul, 2002
25
yulyulchen dang blo rigs girnam par bshad pa, Explanation of the Presentation of Objects and Object-
Possessors as well as Awarenesses and Knowers

Freedom through Correct Knowing 50

26
A noble or Arya being is a person who has yogic direct perceivers, who can realize slightly hidden
phenomena, like subtle impermanence, selflessness and so forth, directly. This person doesn’t have to depend
on a conceptual consciousness using reasoning to realize these hidden phenomena.
27
Freedom Through Correct Knowing, On Khedrup Je’s Interpretation of Darmakirti’s Seven Treatises on Valid
Cognition, Translated and commentary by the Sera Jey Monastic University Translation Department, edited by
Geshe Tenzin Namdak and Ven. Tenzin Legtsok, Wisdom Publications, 2022
28
Explanation of the Presentation of Objects and Object-Possessors as well as Awarenesses and Knowers by
Purbuchok, translation Elizabeth Napper. FPMT Basic Program material; latest edition, November 2020, FPMT
Education Services.
29
A noble or Arya being is a person who has yogic direct perceivers, who can realize slightly hidden
phenomena, like subtle impermanence, selflessness and so forth, directly. This person doesn’t have to depend
on a conceptual consciousness using reasoning to realize these hidden phenomena.
30
Purbu Chok’s yulyulchen dang blo rigs girnam par bshad pa, Explanation of the Presentation of Objects and
Object-Possessors as well as Awarenesses and Knowers
31
This slightly edited section is taken from Freedom Through Correct Knowing, On Khedrup Je’s Interpretation
of Darmakirti’s Seven Treatises on Valid Cognition, Translated and commentary by the Sera Jey Monastic
University Translation Department, edited by Geshe Tenzin Namdak and Ven. Tenzin Legtsok, Wisdom
Publications, 2022
32
Purbu Chok’s tshadma’igzhung don ‘byedpa’ibsdusgrva’Irnambzag rigs lam ‘phrulgyildemig, The Introduction
Path of Reasoning, The Presentation of Collected Topics Revealing the Meaning of the Texts on Valid Cognition,
The Magic Key to the Path of Reasoning
33
The definitions and divisions in this section are based on Yongzin Yeshe Gyeltsen’s sems sems byung gi sdom
tshig dang ‘drel wa, English translation: A Necklace for Those of Clear Awareness, Clearly Revealing the Modes
of Minds and Mental Factors by Yeshe Gyeltsen, translated by Toh Sze Gee. An FPMT Masters Program
translation, latest edition, November 2020, FPMT Education Services.
34
In this context, "unspecified" has the meaning of being neither virtuous nor non-virtuous.
35
These concluding remarks are taken from Yongzin Yeshe Gyeltsen’s sems sems byung gi sdom tshig dang
‘drel wa, English translation: A Necklace for Those of Clear Awareness, Clearly Revealing the Modes of Minds
and Mental Factors by Yeshe Gyeltsen, translation Toh Sze Gee.

Freedom through Correct Knowing 51