CHAPTER 1 RESPIRATION

1.1 THE HUMAN RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

A characteristic shared by all living organisms is respiration. Respiration is a series

of chemical reactions that happens inside every living cell. The kind that happens
inside our cells is called aerobic respiration. Aerobic respiration uses oxygen. The
cells produce carbon dioxide as a waste product.

The air around you contains oxygen. When you breathe, you take that air/oxygen
into your lungs. Some of the oxygen then goes into your blood. Your blood delivers
the oxygen to every cell in the body so that the cells can use it for respiration. The
blood collects the waste carbon dioxide from the cells and returns it to your lungs.
The organs that help you take oxygen out of the air and get rid of carbon dioxide
make up the respiratory system.

ENTRANCE TO NOSE
ENTRANCE TO MOUTH
VOICEBOX(LARYNX)
WINDPIPE(TRACHEA) (RINGS OF CARTILAGE AROUND IT)
These rings of cartilage keep the trachea open and prevent it from collapsing so that
air can be kepy moving in and out of your body.
LUNGS
BRONCHI(s.g bronchus)- The bronchi also have cartilage rings to support them.
One bronchus goes to each lung. Each bronchus carries air deep into the lungs.
Each bronchus(2) divides into several smaller tubes called bronchioles). They allow
air to reach deeper into the lungs.
The bronchioles(smaller tubes) end by branching into many tiny structures called
air sacs. This is where oxygen goes into the blood, and the carbon dioxide comes out.

1. 2 GAS EXCHANGE
Another name for the air sacs is alveoli. There are also lots of very tiny blood vessels
in the lungs, wrapped around the air sacs. These are called capillaries.
You can see that there is a blood capillary around the outside of the alveolus. The
capillary is pressed tightly against the alveolus. The wall of the capillary is also
made of a single layer of very thin cells.

Gas Exchange in the Air Sacs

Inside the air sacs, oxygen from the air goes into the blood. Carbon dioxide from the
blood goes into the air. This is called gas exchange.

Think about the blood capillary. The blood inside the capillary comes from the
heart. Before reaching the heart, it came from the organs in the body. These organs
contain cells that respire, using up oxygen and making carbon dioxide. So the blood
in this capillary contains only a small amount of oxygen, and a lot of carbon dioxide.
The air inside the air sac came from outside the body, where the air contains a lot of
oxygen and only a small amount of carbon dioxide. Inside the alveolus the air is
very close to the blood. The oxygen particles in the air are a gas. They can easily
move from the air through the thinpwalled cells into the blood. This is called
diffusion. The oxygen particles move from where there are a lot of them in the air to
where there are fewer of them in the blood. When the oxygen gets into the blood, it
dissolves. The oxygen goes into the red blood cells where it combines with
haemoglobin.

The carbon dioxide is plentiful in the blood in the capillary but scarce in the air sac,
so carbon dioxide diffusses into the air in the air sac.

1.3 Breathing
The pressure of a gas increases when the volume of its container is decreased.

When you breathe in, these things happen:

★ The intercostal muscles between the ribs contract. This pulls the ribs
outwards and upwards.
★ The muscles in the diaphragm contract. This pulls the diaphragm
downwards.
★ The two movements make more space inside the chest cavity. They increase
the volume inside it.
★ When the volume increases, the pressure inside the chest cavity and the
lungs decreases.
★ Air moves down through the trachea into the lungs to fill the extra space.

When you breathe out, these things happen:

★ The intercostal muscles between the ribs relax. This allows ribs to drop down
to regular position.
★ The muscles in the diaphragm relax. This allows it to return to the normal
shape.
★ The two movements make less space inside the chest cavity, decreasing the
volume and increasing the pressure. Air is squeezed out of the lungs.

ACTION What do the diaphragm What do the intercostal

muscles do? muscles do?

Breathing in contract contract

Breathing out relax relax

When we breathe in, the muscles in the diaphragm and between the ribs increase
the volume of the chest.
This makes air move into the lungs.
When we breathe out, the muscles in the diaphragm and between the ribs decrease
the volume of the chest.
This makes air move out of the lungs.

1.4 RESPIRATION

When we eat food containing carbohydrates, our digestive system breaks the
carbohydrates down to a kind of sugar called glucose. The glucose enters our blood.
The blood delievers glucose to every cell in the body. The cells use the glucose to get
their required energy.
Energy must be transferred in order to do something. Glucose is an energy store,
meaning tat before the energy inside it can be used by the cells, it must be released.
This is done by the tiny structures called the mitochondria and are the powerhouse
of the cell. Mitochondria release energy from glucose so cells can use it.
This is called aerobic respiration. Aerobic means that it uses oxygen, from the air.
Glucose+oxygen → carbon dioxide+water
In this reaction, some of the energy from glucose is released, just a bit at a time for
the cell’s needs.
1) Neurons have more extended and complex shapes than cheek cells and
consequently face a greater challenge in distributing and maintaining
mitochondria throughout their arbors, so they need more energy for it
2)
a) Glucose and Oxygen
b) Carbon dioxide and water

3) This is because our cells use oxygen from the inhaled air to release energy
and give out carbon dioxide as a byproduct.
Every time energy is transferred or transformed, some of it is changed to heat
energy. In respiration, chemical energy is stored in glucose and is transferred to
other subtances. In this process, some of the energy is changed to heat energy do
respiring cells get a bit warmer than their surroundings.

1.5 BLOOD

Every cell in the body needs a good supply of glucose and oxygen and the carbon
dioxide and water must be taken away. The delievery and removal is done by blood.
The blood moves around in blood vessels.

● The liquid part of blood is called plasma and it is a pale yellow. It is mostly
water. The red and white blood cells are transported around the body in this
liquid. It contains many other substances dissolved in it such as glucose.
Carbon dioxide is produced in every body cell by respiration. This carbon
dioxide dissolves in the plasma and it carried away from the cells. The blood
takes it to the lungs, where carbon dioxide diffuses out and is expired.
● Blood looks red because it contains red blood cells which float in plasma.
They do not have nuclei or mitochondria. They are full of haemoglobin. This
makes them look red. It is only cell membrane and cytoplasm.
● The haemoglobin helps the red blood cells transport oxygen. As the blood
flows through the capillaries next to the alveoli, oxygen from the air diffuses
into the blood. Once in the blood, oxygen diffuses into the red blood cells.
Inside the red blood cell, the oxygen merges with haemoglobin creating
oxyhaemoglobin. The blood which has given away most of its oxygen now
 travels back to the lungs to collect some more. Not having mitochondria stops
them from using up all the oxygen from themselves instead of delivering it.

They are quite small in size so they can fit through the capillaries(compared to other
cells especially).
1) If mitochondria are found in the RBC, then mitochondria will use all the
oxygen that has to be transferred to other organs as mitochondria require
oxygen for ATP synthesis.

There are white blood cells(have a nucleus, unlike red blood cells)
MOST ARE LARGER THAN RBC
White blood cells defend us against pathogens.
Some kinds of WBC can change their shape and push their cytoplasm out to make
fingers than capture a pathogen. The WBC then produces chemicals that kill and
digest the pathogen. Other types of WBC produce chemicals that kill the pathogens.
These chemicals are called antibodies. They stick to the pathogen. Sometimes they
kill it directly and other times they glue the pathogens together so other WBCs can
capture and kill them.

Component of blood Appearance Function

RBC Red, disc-shaped with an To deliver oxygen

 dent in the middle, tiny throughout the body from
the lungs

WBC White, very light pink, Defend us against

fuzz/spiky, has a nucleus, pathogens
larger than RBC

plasma Pale yellow, liquid The main role of plasma

is to take nutrients,
hormones, and proteins
to the parts of the body
that need it.

In plasma there are nutrients, proteins and cells(glucose too)

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1) Trachea, bronchus, bronchiole, alveolus

2) Haemoglobin molecules that make up the RBC pick up the diffused oxygen
and now they are carried around the body in blood vessels and cappilaries.
These cells flow away from the lungs to the cells where haemoglobin gives
away oxygen to the cells and it diffuses into them.
3) C- RESPIRATION USES UP ENERGY
B- EXPIRED AIR CONTAINS MORE CO2 THAN INSPIRED AIR
C- RESPIRATION IS A SERIES OF CHEMICAL REACTIONS THAT
RELEASES USEFUL ENERGY FROM GLUCOSE
A- MUSCLES IN THE LUNGS CONTRACT TO MAKE AIR MOVE INTO
THEM
4)
a) Nuclei, mitochondria
b) This one changed the shape and pushes the cytoplasm out to make
fingers that can capture the pathogen. The white blood cells then
produce chemicals that kills and digests the pathogen.
c) Other WBC create different chemicals. hese chemicals called
antibodies will be released from the WBC and if they do not straight
up kill the pathogen they will encumber it so another WBC can come
and kill it and digest it.

CHAPTER 2 PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS

2.1 DISSOLVING
When you place a lump of sugar in the water the sugar dissolves. You are left with
a colourless solution. The substance that dissolves is called the solute. The substance
that it dissolves into is called the solvent. A solution is a mixture( in our example, it
is a mixture of sugar and water.) Although the sugar seems to disappear, it is still
there. The sugar particles havs simply spread out among the water particles.

sugar- solute
Water-solvent
sugar+water= solution (colourless)
The sugar is visible because it is made of lots of groups of vibrating particles that are
tightly packed together. As the water particles vibrate and slide past one another, ,
they bump into the vibrating sugar particles. The movement helps to separate the
sugar particles and they get mixed up with the water particles. Eventually, the water
particles separate all the sugar particles making them too small to be seen.
All solutions are transparent. This does not mean colourless.
Milk is not a solution since it is opaque.
Examples of dissolving:
● Sugar(solute) in black tea
● Insant coffe(solute) in hot water(solvent)
● Nail polish(solute) in nail polish remover(solvent)
Examples of melting:
● Candle wax as candle burns
● Ice cream on a warm day
● Butter in a frying pan

1) Sugar- solute Water-solvent

2) Dissolving needs two substances(solute and solvent) unlike melting, that only
requires one and a catalyst
3) 59g both weights will merge; even if the salt will not be visible anymore, it
will still be there and its weight will be combined with that of the water into
one
4) No. The mixture is not transparent yet and is opaque. Also, since it contains
lumps it means that it has not been properly dissolved and therefore that is
not a solution.
5) To get an accurate measurement, you want the surface of the liquid to be at
eye level, and you need to take your measurement at the bottom of the
meniscus.

2.2 Solutions and solubility

More particles of the solute are dissolved in a concentrated solution than in a dilute
solution. A solid that dissolves in a solvent is said to be soluble. Solids that do not
dissolve in water are insoluble. If you keep adding a soluble solid to a beaker of
water there comes to a point where no more solid will dissolve. This is a saturated
solution. Sodium chloride has greater solubility than lead chloride.

1) A solution in which no more will dissolve.

2) 32g
3) 14g
4) 18g

Most solutes dissolve faster and easier in hot water than cold water. The
more energy the particles have the more they vibrate and move and therefore
the process is faster. As temperature increases so does the solubility of most
solutes.

1) 100g water- 204g sugar

200g water- 408g sugar
50g water- 102g sugar
250g water= 510g sugar
2) As the temperature increases, the solubility of the salts also increases
3) 71g
4) Sodium Nitrate
5) Potassium Nitrate

2.3 PLANNING A SOLUBILITY INVESTIGATION

All the different things that could affected experiment results are called variables.

1) The volume of water, temperature, number of spatulas

Independent variable – the variable that is altered during a scientific experiment.
Dependent variable – the variable being tested or measured during a scientific
experiment.
Control variable – a variable that is kept the same during a scientific experiment.
When you plot a graph of your results, the independent variable always goes along
the horizontal axis. The dependent variable always goes up the vertical axis.
1) independent variable- the temperature of the water
dependent variable- the number of spatulas that will dissolve
Control variable- the amount of water/ the size of the spatula
2) Number of spatulas

2.4 PAPER CHROMATOGRAPHY

You can separate out the coloured inks in an ink such as black using paper
chromatography. The resulting image is called a chromatogram. The more soluble
the ink the further its particles are carried. Permanent marker is not soluble in
water but in alcohol.

1) Blue, yellow
2) Brown
3) Blue
4) Red
5) C
6) Maybe she has done a mistake/ double-proofing
7) D because it has been carried the furthest from the line

Filtrate- a liquid which has passed through a filter.

2.1 A solute is a solid that dissolves in a liquid. The liquid it dissolves into is called a
solvent. Together they make a solution. A solid that does not dissolve in a liquid is
called The solubility of a solid measures how much of a solute will dissolve. When
you measure the solubility of a solute you must use the same volume and type of
solvent at a given temperature.
2.2 a) zinc carbonate
b) colourless
c)Pure copper sulphate can be obtained from an impure sample by re-
crystallization. The impure sample is dissolved in water, heated and then cooled
which then later forms crystals. These copper sulphate crystals are then separated
by filtration and drying.
2.3
a)saturated solution
b) 20C-80C
c)10C
d)Amount of water
e)Temperature of water
f) 60C- 30g
g) As the temperature increases, so does the amount of copper sulfate that
can be dissolved.

CHAPTER 3 FORCES OF ENERGY

3.1 FORCES AND MOTION

The force of gravity pulling the object towards the center of the Earth is called its
weight. The rock does not move towards the center of the Earth because the ground
is pushing up on the rock. This force is the contact force.
These two forces are balanced. This means the forces are equal in size and opposite
in direction.
If the wind will push the rock it won’t move because the wind is balanced by
friction between the rock and the ground. The longer the arrow the bigger the force.
If a vehicle pushes on the rock for example, the pushing force will be larger than
the friction. The rock will now move because the sideways forces are not balanced.
Unabalanced or unequal forces can also make moving objects slow down.

When an object is falling quickly, the parachute causes a force of air resistance that
is larger than the weight of the object. When the parachute first opens, the forces
are unbalanced, making the object slow down. After it slows down, the air resistance
decreases so the forces become balanced again. Then, the object falls at a constant
speed( equal weight and air resistance)
Unbalanced forces can also make objects change direction. The force of gravity on a
planet is a constant, unbalanced force. When an object moves in a circle, its
direction is always changing. A constant unbalanced force is needed to keep the
object moving in a circle.

OVERALL

Balanced forces cause no change in movement.

When forces are equal in size and opposite in direction they are balanced.

3.2 SPEED

Standard unit for speed is m/s metres per second.

The way you calculate speed is liked to the unit per second.

100m in 20s
Nr of m travelled in each second = total distance travelled/total time
Nr of netres travelled each second= speed
S = d/t
s=100/20
2=5m/s
Speed = distance/time
The term average speed is sometimes used because the speed of an object during a
journey is not always constant. Constant means not changing. Average speed is
calculated in exactly the same way as speed.

s t

t= d/s
d=s * t

s= 4m/s
t=60s
d=s x t
d=240m

s= 35 m/s
d=2100m
t= d/s
t=2100/35=60s

Sometimes you can use km/h

d=2500km
t=5h
s= 2500/5 = 500km/h

3.3 DESCRIBING MOVEMENT

Scientists use distance/time graphs to describe the movement of an object. Distance
on vertical axis and time on horizontal.
Not doing anything= stationary/at rest
Moving at a constant speed is shown by a straight, upward sloping line. Showing
that a greater distance is travelled you use a steeper straight line.
Decrease is shown by using a downward sloping line.

3.4 TURNING FORCES

When you push on a door handle, it turns.

The object that turns is called a lever.
The point around which it turns is called a pivot.
When you bend your arm, the arm acts as a lever and the elbow is a pivot.
The moment of a force describes the turning effect of a force.
The moment of a force depends on:
● The size of a force(the bigger the force, the bigger the moment)
● The distance between the point where the force acts and the pivot( the
greater the distance the greater the moment)
Calculate moment using this equation:
moment= force x distance
Distance in the equation is the distance from the pivot to the position where the
force acts. We use netwon metre or N/m.
Distance = moment/force
d= 1200/800 = 1.5m

Moment is the turning effect of a force.

moment= force x distance
N/m

3.5 PRESSURE BETWEEN SOLIDS

A knife works becayse the forced used to push down on the clay causes pressure on
the clay. You think of this pressure as the pushing effect of a force. To increase this
pushing force you could either increase the force on a knife or use a sharper knife.
A sharp knife has less sufrace area in contact with the clay. As the area decreases
the pressure increases.
Pressure = force/area
The unit of pressure is newtons per metre squared or N/m squared

Example- the camel has large feet so the force of the weight of the camel is applied
over a large area so the camel does not sink in the sand since the pressure on the
sand is decreased.
3.6 PRESSURE IN LIQUIDS AND GASES

The pressure in a liquid increases with depth because as you go deeper in a liquid
there is more liquid above you. The weight of this liquid, caused by gravity, pushes
on the particles of the liquid. When the particles of the liquid are pushed, the force
on the particles increases. As the particles in a liquid are moving randomly in all
directions, then the pressure in the liquid is equal in all directions.

As you blow more air into a balloon, you are adding more gas particles. Particles in a
gas move randomly and collide with the walls of the container. Every time a gas
particle collides with the walls of the container, the particle exerts a small force on
the wall. The more particles there are in the gas, the more collisions happen with
the walls and so the force on the walls increases. As this force is exerted on an area,
the force causes pressure. The pressure inside the balloon gets bigger as you blow in
more air, pushing the walls of the balloon outwards.

If you put more air inside the tire, the pressure will increase. More collisions will
happen inside the walls of the tire, pushing the tire outward and supporting the
vehicle.

Altitude is the height above sea level. The Earth’s atmosphere is made from gases.
Sea level is where the atmosphere is at its deepest and so at sea level atmospheric
pressure is the highest.

As you go higher in the atmosphere, two variables that affect atmospheric pressure
change:
● The number of particles in 1m cubed of air decreases, so the concentration of
gas particles decreases.
● The weight of air above your current position decreases.

The effect of atmospheric pressure can be shown by pumping the air out of a
metal container. Before the air is pumped out, the pressure on the inside of
the container is equal to the pressure on the outside. When the air is pumped
out, the pressure inside the container is close to zero while the pressure on
the outside does not change. The container is crushed by the pressure of the
air outside the container.

As the temperature of gas increases, the speed of the particles in the gas increases as
well.

3.7 PARTICLES ON THE MOVE

If we mix two gases in one container, each one will have particles that move
randomly. That means each gas will spread to fill the container. The movement of
the particles of each gas is called diffusion. Diffusion
means the overall
random movement of particles from an area where they are in
higher concentration to an area where they are in a lower
concentration. Concentration is the number of particles in a particular volume.

E.X Diffusion is how you can smell food when it is cooking. When it is heated, some
particles in the food change state and become gas. The gas particles from the good
move randomly and so spread out through the air by diffusion. The strength of the
smell will get stronger as you move closer to the food. This is because the
concentration of the particles is higher as you get closer to their source.

Speed of diffusion depends on:

● The difference in concentration of the particles ( the bigger the faster)
● Temperature (the hotter the faster)

3.1 A,C
3.2 a) Bicycle moves backwards
b) The car will move faster in the direction that it is moving
c) The ball will change direction sideways
3.3 m/s
3.4 s=d/t s=550/10= 55 m/s
3.5
 CAN BE MEASURED MUST BE CALCULATED

TIME SPEED

AREA PRESSURE

LENGTH MOMENT

FORCE

3.8 The longer the spanner, the more perpendicular distance between the axis and
the spanner through which it rotates and the distance of your hand. And when
perpendicular distance is more, less force is required.
i) B
ii) C
3.9 A
3.10 The temperature and the area available for diffusion

CHAPTER 4 ECOSYSTEMS

KEY WORDS

Adaptations- features of an organism that help it survive and reproduce in its

habitat
Nectar- a sugary liquid made by flowers to attract insects for pollination
Pollinating- Transferring pollen grains from an anther to a stigma
Nocturnal- animal that is active at night
Ecosystems- a network of interactions between living and non-living things
Food webs- interconnected food chains
Ecology- the study of organisms and their environment
Habitat- the place where an organism lives
Native species- a species that belongs in a country or ecosystem and has not been
introduced by humans
Extinct- species that no longer exist on Earth
Invasive species- a species that has been introduced into an ecosystem where it
does not belong and has multiplied and spread widely.
Insecticide- a chemical used to kill insect pests
Toxic- poisonous
Bioaccumulation- the build-up of a substance in an organism’s body over time
because it does not break down inside the organism
Biomagnification- the increase in the concentration of a substance along a food
chain
Biodegradable- can be broken down naturally by microorganisms such as bacteria
and fungi into products that are not harmful to the environment.

NON LIVING PARTS OF THE ENVIRONMENT

LIGHT
WATER AIR
SOIL
TEMPERATURE

Producers are organisms that make their own food by absorbing sunlight and using
this energy to thrive. Consumers are animals that eat living things as a means of
energy. Decomposers break down dead plants and animals.

Invasive species:
❖ Can introduce new diseases
❖ Compete with native species for food and shelter
❖ May kill to extinction and eradicate some native species

DDT is an insecticide.
E.x DDT goes into water- goes into algae- shrimp eat algae- fish eat shrimp- birds
eat fish
All that the fish consumed from DDT goes into the body of the bird. This is
biomagnification.
Ecosystem is defined as the interrelationships between the biotic and abiotic
component of the environment. Whereas habitat is defined as the natural
environment in which a particular species of plants and animals lives.

CHAPTER 5 MATERIALS AND CYCLES ON EARTH

Atoms are made up of even smaller particles called sub-atomic particles. Atoms are
made up of three particles; protons, neutrons and electrons.
The protons and neutrons are grouped closely together in the centre of the atom.
They form the nucleus of the atom. The electrons move around the nucleus.
The three different particles in an atom have different properties.
★ Protons and neutrons have much more mass than electrons. In fact, electrons
have almost no madd.
★ Protons and neutrons have the same mass.
★ Protons have a positive charge
★ Neutrons have no charge
★ Electrons have a negative electrical charge

There is an attraction between the positive and negative charges. This electrostatic
attraction between the positive charge on the protons and the negative charge on
the electrons is what holds the individual atoms together.
1) Proton
2) Electron
3) Protons and neutrons
4) Neutral
5) By the electrostatic attraction between the positive and negative charges of
the protons and electrons
J.J THOMPSON discovered the electron. His model’s electrons were scattered all
around the structure of the atom.
E. RUTHERFORD discovered the proton and nucleus
Deflected- the direction of the particle was changed
J. CHADWICK proved that neutrons existed
6) Thompson’s model had no neutrons, protons or nucleus
7) J.J THOMPSON IN THE LATE 1890s
8) J. Chadwick in 1932
9) It had protons and a nucleus
10) It did not have neutrons which it does have now

5.2 PURITY
Pure gold = 24 carats
The more gold the higher the purity.
18-carat gold has 18/18 parts that are gold( the rest are made out of other metals)
18/24 x 100 = 75%
The purer the gold the more golden it is.
925 silver
925/1000 x 100 = 92.5%
Pure diamonds are translucent and colourless.
carbon atoms+ nitrogen= yellow diamond
Boron + nitrogen= blue
1/1000 carbon atoms is replaced by nitrogen/nickel/ hydrogen.
E.x to obtain seawater you evaporate off the water. Sometimes you do this by
allowing the seawater to fill flat and shallow areas called beds and allowing the sun
to evaporate the water.
1000g of seawater, 35 g is salts. 68% of the salts are sodium chloride.
Salts are compounds made from acids. The names tell you which acid has been used
to form them. Hydrochloric acid=sodium chloride.
magnesium+oxygen= magnesium oxide
Barium chloride+sodium sulfate= barium sulfate+sodium chloride
Lead nitrate+potassium iodide= potassium nitrate+lead iodide
When there is more than one product they are mixed up together.

5.3 WEATHER AND CLIMATE

CLIMATE= the weather of a place over a much longer time, usually more than 30
years
weather = short term climate (RAIN, SUNNY, CLOUDY, STORMY)

Climate is affected by two key factors: temperature and precipitation

The study of weather = meteorology
The study of climate = climatology

polar= very cold and dry

temperature= cold winters mild summers
arid= hot and dry
tropical= hot and wet
mediterannean = mild winters and hot summers
mountains/tundra/taiga= very cold

5.4 CLIMATE AND ICE AGES

When much of the Earth is frozen it is called a glacial period. Today, the Earth is in
an interglacial period. In between the warm periods of no ice even at the poles,
there were cold periods with glacials and interglacials called ice ages.
When plants die they decay but in some conditions which lack oxygen and are
slightly acid, the decay is very slow and a peat bog will be formed.

5.5 ATMOSPHERE AND CLIMATE

The atmosphere is a layer of gas above the Earth’s surface. Volcanoes produced the
gases that formed the early atmosphere. Water vapour was produced by the
volcanoes and as the Earth cooled, this water vapour condensed into liquid water.
The water fell as rain and formed the first lakes and oceans.

Before the atmosphere had little to no oxygen.

It had mainly CO2.
Resembled the atmosphere of Venus today.
CO2+WATER= GLUCOSE+OXYGEN
PLANTS USE CO2 TO PRODUCE FOOD BY PHOTOSYNTHESIS.

When organisms die and rot, the CO2 in them is recycled(goes back in the
environment). The organisms that die and do not rot turn into fossil fuels such as oil
or coal.
The evidence is that there was enough oxygen to combine with iron in the rocks to
form iron oxide.
There is evidence that carbon dioxide and other gases such as methane act like a
blanket around the Earth. This is an analogy and the blanket represents the gases
that keep the Earth warm. Another analogy is that the gases are like putting Earth in
a greenhouse. A greenhouse lets in light and heat from the sun but the heat energy
is trapped inside. The layers of gases produce the greenhouse effect. This causes
global warming.
Renewable resources= wind/tidal/solar power

5.1
a) Proton
b) Neutron
c) Electron
d) Nucleus
5.2 18 CARAT GOLD
5.3 A pure diamond is only made up of carbon atoms while diamonds that contain
other elements are not solely made up of carbon atoms.
5.4 A2 B5 C4 D3 E1
5.5 10C Glacial Period ( ice age) 24C
5.6 The glaciers are melting and retreating, the intensification of rainfall and the
time that migrant birds arrive at
5.7 a) false
b) true
c) true
d) false
e) true
5.8 solar, wind, and tidal power

CHAPTER 6 LIGHT

6.1 Reflection

Most mirrors are plane mirrors. Plane means a flat surface. Light travels in straight
lines called rays. A light ray arriving at a surface is called an incident ray. The line
perpendicular ot the mirror is called a normal. Ray diagrams obey the law of
reflection. The angle of reflection is equal to the angle of incidence.

6.2 Refraction

Distorted means changed in some way from the original.

The background appears distorted because of refraction. The material that light
passes through is called a medium. Air glass and water are each examples of a
medium for light to pass through.
FASTEST - AIR
WATER
SLOWEST- GLASS

The change of speed can cause light to change direction. One side of the ray of light
sows down first, causing it to change direction. Refraction of light is defined as the
change in direction of light on passing from one medium to another because of
change in speed.
The ray diagram shows what happens when light passes from air into glass or
water. The light slows down and changes direction. The light passing from air into
glass/water is bent towards the normal. That means the refracted ray is closer to the
normal than it would be if the incident ray just carried in on a straight line.
Slows down= bent towards the normal

When a ray of light passes from water or glass into air the light speeds up. This
causes it to change direction. It is bent away from the normal, meaning that it
speeds up. Also, when light passes from glass or water into air, the angle of
refraction is greater than the angle of oncifence. Both angles are measured from the
normal.

Slows down= bent towards the normal, angle of incidence larger

Speeds up= bent away from the normal, angle of refraction larger

QUESTIONS

1) Light travels slower in water than it does in air

2) Light travels faster in air than it does in water
3) Refraction of light happens when light changed direction because of a
change in speed.

6.3 MAKING RAINBOWS

The rangle of colours that can be seen in white light is called a spectrum. The
colours are not separate but merge from one another.
ROY G BIV
RED ORANGE YELLOW GREEN BLUE INDIGO VIOLET

Dispersion means splitting light into different colours. It happens because light is
refracted. Each of the different colours of light that make up white light is refracted
through a slightly different angle. This can be shown using a triangular prism.
When a ray of white light passes through the prism the ray is refracted. Violet light
is refracted through the largest angle and red light through the smallest angle.

Questions

1) Dispersion
2) B
3)
a) A
b) A
c) Spectrum
4) There must be rain or small drops of water in the air to cause dispersio of
light
5) 6 colours

6.4 Colours of light

Primary colours of light: red, green and blue

red+green= yellow
red+blue= magenta
green+blue= cyan
red+green+blue= white
You can use coloured filters to remove colours from light. The only light of colour
will be transmitted will be the colour of the filter; the rest will be absorbed.
Subtraction of light= e.g coloured filter red→ white light has had
six colours sibtracted to leave only red. Transmits only red. It
is possible to subtract colours of light until the end result is
zero. For example, if light shines on a green filter, only green
light will get through. The other colours of the white light are
absorbed.
If this green light then shines on a red filter, then no light will get through. That is
because green is one of the colours that a red filter absorbs. When you look at a
non-luminous object, you see the light that is reflected from the object. Non-
luminous means the object does not emit its own light.
A white object reflects all colours in white light equally. A blakc object absorbs all
the colours and does not reflect any.

6.5 Galaxies and 6.6 Rocks in Space

Galaxies are made from= steller dust, stars, solar systems, gas
Asteroids are objects made from rock that orbit the Sun. Most asteroids orbit the Sun
between Mars and Jupiter in an asteroid belt. Asteroids are too small to be planets.

Similarities w planets: they both orbit the sun,

Asteroids are remnants from the solar system.

QUESTIONS

1) Flat
2) The angle of reflection is equal to the angle of incidence
3) Refraction
4) Slows down, slows down, speeds up
5) TTT

CHAPTER 7 DIET AND GROWTH

7.1 Nutrients

Carbohydrates are a major source of energy of our body, and they come mainly from
grains, such as rice and noodles. Besides, fruit, root vegetables, dry beans and dairy
products also contain carbohydrates.
Proteins

Meat, fish, seafood, eggs, dairy products, dry beans and bean products are good
sources of protein. Its major functions include building, repairing and maintaining
healthy body tissues.

Fats

Fats can be found in foods such as meat, fish, seafood, dairy products, nuts, seeds and
oils. Fats serve as an energy source. They prevent heat loss in extreme cold weather
and protect organs against shock. They are responsible for making up part of our
body cells and transporting fat-soluble vitamins such as vitamin A, D, E and K.

Vitamins

There are many kinds of vitamins from various food groups and they participate in
different body metabolism such as maintaining healthy skin and hair, building bones
and releasing and utilizing energy from foods. Vitamins can be classified into water-
soluble and fat-soluble vitamins.

Minerals

Minerals are a group of essential nutrients which regulate many body functions such
as fluid balance, muscle contraction and transmission of nerve impulses. Some
minerals also contribute to body structure and build strong and healthy bones, such
as calcium

Dietary fibre

Dietary fibre is the indigestible part found in plant. It helps stablise blood sugar,
promote gastrointestinal health and prevent constipation. Dietary fibre can be
classified into soluble and insoluble fibre.

Water

Water is the most abundant substance in human body and is also an essential nutrient
to maintain our health. The major functions of water include regulation of body
temperature, production of body fluids, transportation of nutrients and removal of
waste products.
Vitamin A- needed to help your eyes work well.
deficiency= night blindness

Vitamin C helps the skin to stay strong and heal quickly if damaged. Keeps blood
vessels and bones healthy.
deficiency= scurvy

Vitamin D is needed for strong bones and teeth/ helps the body absorb calcium
from the foods that you eat.
deficiency= rickets

calcium = plenty of calcium to keep your bones and teeth strong.

Iron= iron is needed to make haemoglobin.
deficiency= anaemia
Energy is measured in megajoules

Every person on earth began their life as a single cell. This cell divided and divided
again. This produced a little ball of cells called an embryo

Cigarettes contain nicotine, tar and carbon monoxide and particulates.

Animals bodies are supported by a skeleton. Insects and other anthropods have a
skeleton outside their body called an exoskeleton. Some joints work like the hinge
on a door; these are called hinge joints. They move back and forth in one direction
like a door opens and closes. Some joints move in a complete circl;e. These are ball
and socket joints. You use muscles to move bones at joints. Muscles are specialised
cells. These cells are able to make themselves shorter. This is called contraction.
Muscles need energy to contract. Muscles can produce a strong pulling force when
they contract. Many of your muscles are attached to bones by tough cords called
tendons. When the muscle contracts it pulled the tendon which pulls the bone and
makes the bone move at the joint.

CHAPTER 8 CHEMICAL REACTIONS

8.1 and 8.2 Exothermic and Endothermic reactions

When something burns a chemical reaction takes place. Burning is a chemical

reaction in which a substance combines with oxygen. In a burning reaction, there
are fuel changes. The substance that reacts with oxygen is caled a fuel. These fues
have a store of chemical energy. Charcoal, wood, coal, natural gas are all examples
of fuels.
When the fuel burns, the chemical energy is changed to thermal light and sound
energy. The thermal energy is changed to thermal light and sound energy. These
dissipate into the surroundings.
Burning requires oxygen, fuel and heat
Combustion is another term for burning. A chemical reaction in which thermal
energy is given out is called EXOTHERMIC REACTION.

E.G BURNING MAGNESIUM

Burning magnesium= magnesium oxide
energy= heat and light as magnesium and oxygen atoms rearrange themselves
When a substance burns, it combines with oxygen and a new substance called an
oxide is ormed. Any reaction in which a substance combines with oxygen is an
oxidation reaction

E.g Sofia and Marcus measured 10cm3 of dilute hydrochloric acid into a test tube
and measured the temperature. Then they each added an indentical piece of
magnesium ribbon to their test tube of acid. When the reaction stopped they each
measured the temperature again.

Some chemical reactions absorb thermal energy from their surroundings and
change it to chemical energy stored in chemical bonds. These are called
endothermic reactions. When an endothermic reaction takes place, the temperature
at the end of the reaction is lower than at the start of the reaction
Sodium hydrogencarbonate+citric acid= sodium citrate+water+carbon dioxide
During this reaction, thermal energy is aborbed from the surroundings and stored
in the form of chemical bonds. So if this reaction was carried out in a test tube, the
surroundings would have a lower temperature and the test tube would feel cooler.

E.x sherbet sweets - endothermic reactions. The sherbet is a mixture of dry citric
acid and sodium hydrogencarbonate. When you eat the sweets, these substances
dissolve in your mouth giving you a cool fizzy feeling.

1) Sodium hydrogencarbonate and citric acid

2) Sodium citrate, water and carbon dioxide
3) A reaction in which thermal energy is absorbed and changed to chemical
energy stored in bonds
4) Because the sodium hydrogencarbonate and citric acid it contains dissolve in
your mouth giving you a cool feeling.
When potassium chloride dissolves in water, thermal energy is absorbed from the
surroundings. This is why the beaker feels cold. This is called an endothermic
process.

Ice melting is another endothermic process. Thermal energy is absorbed from the
surroundings as the solid ice changes to liquid water. The particles in the ice are
lined up in rows and can only vibrate about fixed positions. They cannot move
around inside the ice. The forces between the particles are strong.
As the particles absorb thermal energy from the surroundings they vibrate more
and more and the ice begins to melt. When the particles have enough energy, they
can move and overcome the forces holding them in place and slide past another
into a liquid state.

1) Because no reaction takes place. You start with ice and after applying heat
you get liquid water. There has been no change in the chemical nature of the
water, only in the physical state. Therefore this is an endothermic process,
not a reaction.
2) Vaporisation
3) When you get out , the water on your skin will start evaporating quickly.
Evaporation is an endothermic process and this means that the water,
turning into vapour, will take heat away from your body.
4) Exothermic because it releases heat, warming up its surroundings.

exothermic= heat is given out

endothermic= heat is taken in

8.3 REACTIONS OF METALS WITH OXYGEN

Reactive- reacts faster

Some metals react very quickly with oxygen without even being heated. When
pieces of sodium, potassium ot calcium are taken from their containers, they appear
dull/ When the pieces are cut, the surface is shiny. The shiny surface soon becomes
dull because the metal reacts with the oxygen in the air. The surface becomes
covered with a new substance- the oxide of the metal. These metals are so reactive
that they have to be stored under oil to prevent them reacting with the water vapour
in the air. The layer of metal oxide on the surface prevents any more of the metak
from reacting with the air or water vapour.

metal +oxygen → metal oxide

Inert means they do not react/ are unreactive
iron+oxygen= iron oxide
To prevent rust you can galvanise
Galvanization or galvanising (also spelled galvanisation or galvanising) is the
process of applying a protective zinc coating to steel or iron, to prevent rusting
Iron can also be painted as the paint acts as a wall between the iron and the oxygen

8.4 REACTIONS OF METALS WITH WATER

Some metals are too reactive for you to test in water. Sodium and potassium are
examples. They have to be stored under oil to prevent them from reacting with water
vapour in the air.
In what way and in what form does sodium react with water? A colourless solution is
formed, consisting of strongly alkalic sodium hydroxide (caustic soda) and hydrogen
gas. This is an exothermic reaction. Sodium metal is heated and may ignite and burn
with a characteristic orange flame.

When Potassium reacts with water it produces potassium hydroxide and hydrogen
with a large amount of heat. Since heat evolved in this reaction. So, this is an
example of an Exothermic reaction.

Metal + acid= salt+hydrogen

8.1)
a) exothermic reaction
b) Sodium hydrogencarbonate added to citric acid
c) Decreases
d) Melting ice
e) Endothermic
8.2) the amount of water and quantity of fuels
Wear goggles
Carbon+oxygen= carbon dioxide

CHAPTER 9 MAGNETISM

9.1 MAGNETIC FIELDS

A magnet is something that will attract magnetic materials. Magnetic materials

include:
- Iron
 - Steel
- Nickel
- Cobalt

The rules of magnetic field lines:

- Join opposite poles
- Have arrows that point n → s
- Must not touch each other
- Must not cross each other

The magnetic field is the closest where the lines are closest together
If one magnet is stronger than the other, the magnetic field of the stronger magnet
will be different in two ways:
- All the field lines will be closer together
- The field lines will extend further away from the magnet

Magnetic field- a region around a magnetic material or a moving electric charge

within which the force of magnetism acts.