Jieyi He

Standard Level Mathematics Internal Assessment

Research Question:
What makes certain combinations of musical notes sound harmonic and others not so much, and how
can we prove this using harmonics and sine waves as mathematical evidence?

Aim:
In this investigation, I will be focusing on why certain combinations of notes sound good together,
while others do not. I will do this by studying a single string and seeing how changes to the string
will affect the frequency and thus the sound generated. I will also be looking at the beat, intervals,
and octave harmonics along with pitches and contrasting musical notes.

Introduction:
The term “musical harmonies” was very intriguing to me when I first started researching how math
and music tie together. I wanted to explore the fundamentals of how math and music come together
to create beautiful sounds. As an individual who has been playing the piano and the violin for years,
it made me curious to know how sounds travel and how this relates to math. I have always been keen
on learning how musical sounds are generated in the chords and in what form they travel. Hence, I
started searching about musical notes and chords and how they are presented mathematically. During
my research, I came across how sine waves are used to represent soundwaves of different chords. I
discovered that harmonies occur when two pitches vibrate at frequencies in small integer ratios
(Music Math Harmony – Math Fun Facts). This is where the inspiration for my research question
came, and I started to look into the mathematical reasoning for why certain combinations of music
notes sound harmonic, while others not so much.

Background:
Musical chords and harmonies all have note frequencies, which is the number of waves that pass a
location in a certain amount of time (“What Is Frequency?”). They can be described through a base
frequency multiplied by rational numbers (Ryan) These notes can also be remodeled to base
frequencies when multiplied by whole numbers. We can analyze the structure of a chord
mathematically by identifying functions that are constant when the chord is altered. The functions are
important in understanding harmony as they are invariant (Glattfelder). Every chord that is described
using whole numbers either has a greatest common divisor (GCD) or a lowest common multiple
(LCM). Generally, a musical sound is modeled using a sine wave, where the x-axis represents the
time and the y-axis represents the pressure (What is sound? sine waves - university of Washington).
Sounds usually have two characteristics; pitch and volume. The pitch correlates to the frequency of
the wave. The pressure quickly varies as high notes have a high frequency. Similarly, low frequencies
are associated with low notes. Frequency is a rate in which the current changes its direction per
second, and is measured in the unit, Hertz (Hz), where one hertz is equivalent to one cycle per second
(“What Is Frequency?”).
𝑃 = 𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛(2𝜋𝑓𝑡)

One way to represent a musical note in a sine wave is the equation above, in which “P” is the
pressure in decibels (dB) or Pascals, “t” is the time in seconds, “A” is the amplitude; height of wave

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in (dB) or Pascals. “f” is the frequency or pitch measured in hertz (Hz). Something that is not
mentioned is (T) which is the period; the duration of one wave in seconds. (T) is usually determined
by: T = 1/f.

Sine waves are usually related to a rotating vector at a particular angular speed (𝜔) (“Notes on
Sinusoids”) because from a rotating vector, it is possible to determine a sine or cosine wave related to
it. The vector goes through a 2𝜋 radians rotation for every cycle in the sinusoid. It then follows if the
sinusoidal waveform has a frequency of one Hz, and the rotating vector that is associated has an
angular speed of 2𝜋 radians per second. The angular speed (𝜔) and the sine frequency (f) have the
following relationship:
𝜔 = 2𝜋f

Commonly, the sine wave frequency can be expressed in both Hertz and radians per second (rads/s).
The sinusoid can also be presented mathematically using angular velocity where 𝜑 is called the phase
constant. The equation is presented below.

𝑦(𝑡) = 𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑)

A harmonic is any term in the harmonic series. It is usually used in many subjects such as music,
physics, acoustics, radio technology, and more. Harmonics in music are notes that are produced in a
specific way. They are notes that are produced as part of the harmonic series, which in the subject of
music is the sequence of frequencies, musical tones, or pure tones in which each frequency is an
integer multiple of a fundamental (the Physics Classroom). The harmonic series in mathematics is
known as a divergent infinite series, meaning that the infinite sequence of the partial sums of the
series does not have a finite limit (Wikipedia Contributors, “Divergent Series”). The following is an
example of a divergent infinite series:

The name, “harmonic series”, is derived from the concept of overtones or from the harmonics in
music. The wavelengths of the overtones in a vibrating string are 1/2, 1/3, 1/4, etc. of the string’s
fundamental wavelength (“Harmonic Series (Mathematics)”). The first term in the harmonic series is
called the fundamental harmonic; it represents the number “1”. The following harmonics are written
as fractions, as shown in the divergent infinite series. Every term in the series after the fundamental is
called the harmonic mean of the neighboring terms (Wikipedia Contributors, “Harmonic”). The
“harmonic means” refers to an average, calculated by dividing the number of values in a data series
by the sum of the reciprocals of each value on the data series.

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Below is the formula for how to determine the harmonic mean.

In the formula above for the harmonic mean, the “n” is the number of terms in the series, and the Xi
is the point in the series.

Investigation:
I will first be looking at the “A” chord, also known as the major chord on the string. “Chord” is
defined as a group of musical tones sounded simultaneously (“Definition of CHORD”). The major
chord (“A”) consists of the notes A, C# and E — the first, third and fifth notes in the key of “A”
major (Waterman).

Octaves and Harmonics:

The frequency formula for a vibrating string is:

Frequency is in Hertz (1/s), length is in meters, tension (the force applied) is in newtons (kg*m/sec2),
and line density (thickness of the string) is in (kg/m). Frequency can be changed in 3 separate ways:

Table 1: Outlines the three methods in which the frequency can be altered.

Method Effect of alteration Result

The string is tightened The tension increases Frequency is high

A thick string is used The line density increases Frequency is low

Fingers are positioned on the The length decreases Frequency is high

fret

Generally, the frequency is always inversely symmetrical to the length of the string, signifying that if
the length of the string is divided by half, the frequency of the string will double. This also means
that the frequency will be an octave higher. An octave is the distance between one note and the
following note that bears the same name (“What Is an Octave?”). Using this information, the
following chart was constructed. The chart solely is based on the “A” chord:

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Table 2: Outlines the frequency of the “A” chord in the different octaves.

Octave Note Frequency (𝐻z)

1 Low low low A 55

2 Low low A 110

3 Low A 220

4 Middle A 440

As seen, to identify the frequency of the notes in different octaves, the previous frequency is
multiplied by 2. 𝐸𝑥𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒: 55 𝐻𝑧 ∗ 2 = 110 𝐻z. This indicates that the sequence for the frequency of
the octaves is geometric. A geometric sequence is a sequence of numbers where every term in the
sequence is determined by multiplying the previous one by a fixed, non-zero number called the
common ratio (Estela, “Geometric Sequence Formula”). We can graph this sequence, determining
what type of function it will be:

Graph 1: Represents the geometric sequence in a graph of the frequency of the “A” chord in
different octaves.

Looking at the graph, I can conclude that it is an exponential function, therefore I can find the
equation of this function. Since I know the sequence is geometric and is an exponential function, our
equation will look like this:
u𝑛 = u𝑟𝑛−1

u𝑛 = nth term of a sequence

u = the first term in the sequence
r = common ratio

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Using this information, I am able to generate the following equation:

u𝑛 = (55)2𝑛−1

Now that I have identified the equation, I’m going to test it. Since I know the 4th term in the
sequence is 440, then using the equation, I’m going to determine the 5th term, u5:

u5 = (55)25−1
= (55)(16)
= 880

According to the equation, the 5th term in the sequence is 880. To check if the answer is correct, I am
going to multiply the 4th term by 2 to see if I get the same answer.

440 Hz * 2 = 880 Hz — Therefore, I was able to determine the graph and equation of the geometric
sequence, and I also identified that a geometric sequence is formed from the frequencies of the
octaves. This also specifies that an instrument that is lower in octave must be twice the size. If we
were able to see the string in slow motion, we would notice that the string is vibrating in many
different modes, as exhibited in table 3 below. The fundamental frequency is the main mode, which
gives the note its special frequency (the Physics Classroom). The fundamental frequency is the
lowest frequency that is produced when the object as a whole is vibrating. The frequency is also
called the first harmonic (the Physics Classroom). The string would vibrate in harmonics, higher
modes, at multiple different times, or even all together at once:

Table 3: Represents the harmonics for the vibrating string in slow motion.

Harmonic Note Frequency (𝐻z)

Fundamental Low low low A 55

Second Low low A 110

Third Low E 165

Fourth Low A 220

Fifth Middle C# 275

Sixth Middle E 330

Seventh Middle G 385

Eighth Middle A 440

As seen in the table above, to identify the frequency for each harmonic, the frequency for the
fundamental harmonic was added to each term to identify the frequencies of the 2nd, 3rd, 4th…
harmonic. 𝐸𝑥𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒: 110 𝐻𝑧 + 55 = 165 𝐻z. The sequence for the frequencies of the harmonics forms

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an arithmetic sequence. An arithmetic sequence is a list of numbers that have a definite pattern. There
is a constant difference in all pairs of consecutive or successive numbers in a sequence called the
common difference (Estela). Like I did for the geometric sequence, I’m now going to graph the
sequence and then find the equation of the arithmetic sequence.

Graph 2: Represents the arithmetic sequence of the harmonics and frequency of a vibrating
string in slow motion.

Looking at the graph, we can determine that the function is linear. Since the data is an arithmetic
sequence, the following formula will be used.

u𝑛 = u1 + (𝑛 − 1) 𝑑

u𝑛 = nth term in the sequence

u1 = first term in the sequence
d = common difference

Since I know the frequency of each harmonic is increasing by 55, this means that my common
difference (d) is 55, and the first initial term in the sequence is also 55, therefore using this, I
generated the following equation:

u𝑛 = 55 + (𝑛 − 1) 55

Now let’s test it out by determining the frequency for the 9th harmonic in the sequence:

u𝑛 = 55 + (9 − 1) 55
= 55 + 440
= 495

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The same answer is calculated since according to the arithmetic sequence, 440 + 55 = 495.

Summarizing our findings, geometric sequences are formed from the frequencies of the octaves.
They are an exponential function and are modeled by the mathematical equation u𝑛 = (55)2𝑛−1.
Arithmetic sequences are formed from the frequencies of harmonics. They are a linear function
which are modeled by the mathematical equation u𝑛 = 55 + (𝑛 − 1) 55

Intervals and Beats:

Beats are usually generated when two sine waves that have similar frequencies are played (“Physics
Tutorial: Interference and Beats”). They can be heard when two instruments are playing at the same
time, but one has a flatter tone than the other. Below, I have played two violin strings on my violin;
one has frequency 100 Hz, and the other has frequency of 110 Hz. The graph is presented below:

Graph 3: Sine wave of two frequencies, 100 Hz and 110 Hz, both having a sound pressure
(period) of 0.01 Pa

(Legend: Blue = 100 Hz, Red = 110 Hz)

Graph 4: Sum of the two sine waves of 100 Hz and 110 Hz

Since the two sine waves are being combined into one, I’m going to find the equation of the sum of
the two sine waves. I will be combining two functions into one to determine the equation of the sum
of the two sine waves. The function is a sinusoidal wave and the wave begins at the origin (0,0),
hence the following formula will be used:
𝑦 = 𝐴 sin(𝑏𝑥 − 𝑐) + 𝑑
A = amplitude c = phase shift
b = period d = vertical shift

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I’m first going to find the equation of the blue sine wave with frequency 100 Hz. Looking at the
wave, there is no vertical shift or horizontal shift as both waves are overlapping on the same plane
and not shifting up or down or to the left or right. Therefore, the vertical shift and phase shift is zero.
Also, from the graph, I can determine that the amplitude of the function is one since the vertex of the
sine wave at its maximum reaches (0,1). So far, using the information I have, I am able to generate
the following equation:
𝑦 = 1 sin(𝑏𝑥 − 0) + 0

I now have to identify the period (b) by doing some trial and error. I am taking two vertex points
(marked yellow) on the sine wave (𝜋/14, 1) and (5𝜋/14, 1) and I am going to subtract the x
coordinates:

b = X2 – X1
= 5𝜋/14 - 𝜋/14
= (4𝜋/14) / 2
= 2𝜋/7

Let’s try two different points (marked purple) to confirm the answer. The points I will use this time
are (9𝜋/14, 1) and (13𝜋/14, 1):

b = X2 – X1
= 13𝜋/14 – 9𝜋/14
= (4𝜋/14) / 2
= 2𝜋/7

In both trials, the same answer was deduced which means that the period for the sine wave is 2𝜋/7.
Since the period is determined by dividing the b value with 2𝜋, then my b value for the equation is 7.
Therefore, the equation of the sine wave is 𝑦 = 1 sin(7𝑥) or 𝑦 = sin(7𝑥).

I am now going to determine the equation for the red sine wave with frequency 110 Hz. Same as with
the blue sine wave, there is no vertical shift or horizontal shift in the line therefore the values for c
and d are zero. Also similar to the blue sine wave, the amplitude for the red sine wave is also one
because both waves have a maximum height of (0,1). Now all I have left to do is to find the period (b
value). Like how I did before, I am going to use the trial and error method again:

I have picked two coordinates from the wave (𝜋/8, 1) and (5𝜋/8, 1). The points are labeled in green:

b = X2 – X1
= 5𝜋/8 - 𝜋/8
= (4𝜋/8) / 2
= 2𝜋/4

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Let’s try the other two coordinates (marked blue). I have picked (9𝜋/8, 1) and (13𝜋/8, 1):

b = X2 – X1
= 13𝜋/8 - 9𝜋/8
= (4𝜋/8) / 2
= 2𝜋/4

In both trials, I got the same answer which means that the period for the sine wave is 2𝜋/4. Since the
period is determined by dividing the b value with 2𝜋, my b value for the equation is 4. Therefore, the
equation of the sine wave is 𝑦 = 1 sin(4𝑥) or 𝑦 = sin(4𝑥).

Summarizing our findings, the equation for the blue sine wave with frequency 100 Hz is: 𝑦 = sin(4𝑥)
and the equation for the red sine wave with frequency 110 Hz is: 𝑦 = sin(7𝑥). Using this, I found the
sum of the two equations so that I can determine the equation for the sum of the two sine waves of
100 Hz and 110 Hz. To sum the equations together, the following equation will be used:

f(𝑥) 𝜊 𝑔(𝑥)

𝑓(𝑥) = sin(7𝑥), which will be substituted in 𝑔(𝑥) = sin(4𝑥) as the x value:

𝑓𝜊𝑔 (𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑔(𝑥))

= 𝑓(𝑠𝑖𝑛(4𝑥))
= 𝑠𝑖𝑛(7 𝑠𝑖𝑛(4𝑥))

Therefore, the equation for the sum of the functions f(x) and g(x) is y = sin (7 sin(4x)). These sine
waves when played produce super-waves which are then played as beats. Observing the two waves in
the first graph, they are not completely aligned but are still very close to each other. The sum of the
curve seen in the second graph is doubled when I align the two graphs together. They are also much
closer than the two original sine waves. Beats are generally strongest when the frequency separation
is in the range of a half step and minor third. The smaller the separation, the harder it is for an
individual to hear, and the larger the separation, the harder it is for an individual to comprehend since
the beats being played are too fast (“Physics Tutorial: Interference and Beats”). This is represented
graphically in Figure 1 below:

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If we look at it from a physiological perspective, the human brain dislikes beats (“How the Brain
Perceives Rhythm”). Therefore, I can predict that frequencies that are extremely close when
generating beats are not harmonious. Using this, we can investigate why certain notes when
combined sound consonant or harmonious and others don’t. Constant pairs of sound are what can be
two sounds that have a similar pitch. For example, when I play the G key on my piano and the G
string on my violin, it sounds like the same note is being played. I have graphed a G key on my
piano, shown in a sine wave:

Graph 5: G key played on my piano.

The equation for the sine wave above is 𝑓(𝑥) = 6 sin(7𝑥 − 4) + 6 because amplitude is 12/2 = 6, period
= X2 – X1 = 2𝜋/7, phase shift = c/b = 4/7, and vertical shift = 6 because it is the same as the amplitude
since the y-value is not changing. The waves that are generated from notes cause the little hairs in
ears (stereocilia) to vibrate. We are able to recognize the sound in our ear at different frequencies
since the hairs are able to detect and vibrate according to them. Essentially, the sum of different
frequencies is the definition of sound and this can be modeled using math to identify the frequencies
and sound using a Fourier transform (mathematical technique where a function of time is
transformed to a function of frequency) (Cheever, 2005).

Graph 6: Sine wave of the G note on my violin.

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The equation for this sine wave is 𝑓(𝑥) = 6 sin(8𝑥 − 2) + 6 because the amplitude = 12/2 = 6, the
period = X2 – X1 = 𝜋/4, phase shift = c/b = 2/8 = ¼, and vertical shift = 6 because the y-value is
not changing (so it is the same as the amplitude).

Both graphs look almost identical, not only visually but also their equations are very similar
since they have the same amplitude and vertical shift. If I were to graph both equations on the
same plane it would look like this:

Graph 7: Sine waves of the G note on my violin, and the G key on my piano.

This shows that the G note on my piano and the G key on my violin are consonant pairs because
their pitches sound very similar which makes them sound harmonious. This also shows that if
two pitches that don’t sound similar are played together, the sound wouldn’t be harmonious, but
it would sound extremely loud and irritating and unappealing to the human ear. The sound will
be dissonant.

Conclusion:
Vibrating strings and the mathematics of harmonics is a magnificent example of mathematics
that surrounds us. Using harmonics, I can prove why different notes and keys sound harmonious
(consonant) and disharmonious (dissonant). Different frequencies help us see why certain pitches
go together, and intervals and beats use sine waves to represent when beats are strongest and how
intervals aid the human ear in perceiving musical notes. I can also discover that the frequencies
of octaves form geometric sequences, and frequencies of harmonics generate arithmetic
sequences. These show the relationship between the frequency of a note and harmonics, and the

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relationship between octaves and frequencies. Music and math are both interconnected as music
revolves around us, creating patterns in sounds, and mathematics is the study of patterns. Music
creates the patterns, and mathematics studies the patterns using sine waves, harmonics and
frequencies. This investigation answers the research question because as found, certain notes
sound harmonic when their harmonics in the beats and intervals section are aligned and are not
as close to generate beats. I also learned that consonant pairs are used to generate harmonic
sounds which I saw when I was comparing the G note on a piano to the G key on a violin.
Therefore, in the investigation, I concluded that if two notes that have similar pitches are played,
they are consonant pairs and they produce harmonious (consonant) sounds, whereas if notes with
dissimilar pitches are played, the sound generated will be in disharmony (dissonant).

Limitations:
- I wasn’t able to use more complex methods and techniques to present my idea. For
example, when comparing the G key on a piano and violin, I could have used a Fourier
transform to look at the different frequencies in the notes and therefore looked further
into how the different frequencies in the G key of the violin and piano were similar, and if
they had anything to do with why the pitches of the two instruments were so alike
- My graphs don’t clearly depict how the sine wave of the music notes would actually look,
making my exploration a little flawed as the graphs are not as accurate as they can be

Extensions:
One possible extension is looking at why different instruments sound good together, since in this
exploration we focused on why different notes sound harmonious. Using the same ideology, we
can investigate why certain instruments were grouped in the following categories: strings, brass,
percussion, woodwind and keyboard. Is it only because of the way they are built, or does it also
have something to do with how they sound? We can look at the sine waves and compare the
sounds to help determine the reasoning behind the groupings.

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