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A review on sugar industry wastewater: sources,

treatment technologies, and reuse
a
Jai Prakash Kushwaha
a
Department of Chemical Engineering , Thapar University , Patiala , Punjab , India Phone:
Tel. +91 175 2393388 Fax: Tel. +91 175 2393388
Published online: 20 Sep 2013.

To cite this article: Jai Prakash Kushwaha (2013): A review on sugar industry wastewater: sources, treatment technologies,
and reuse, Desalination and Water Treatment, DOI: 10.1080/19443994.2013.838526

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 Desalination and Water Treatment (2013) 1–10
www.deswater.com

doi: 10.1080/19443994.2013.838526

A review on sugar industry wastewater: sources, treatment

technologies, and reuse

Jai Prakash Kushwaha

Department of Chemical Engineering, Thapar University, Patiala, Punjab, India
Tel. +91 175 2393388; Fax: +91 175 2393005; email: [email protected]
Received 13 June 2013; Accepted 20 August 2013
Downloaded by [University of Waterloo] at 06:11 11 October 2014

ABSTRACT

Sugar industries have an important place in the Indian economic development. However, the
wastewater generated from these industries bear a high degree of pollution load. Sugar
industries in India generate about 1,000 L of wastewater for one ton of sugar cane crushed.
Wastewater from sugar industry, if discharged without treatment, poses pollution problems
in both aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems. In this review, the sugar industry wastewater
generation sources, characteristics, recent advancements in the aerobic, anaerobic, and
physico-chemical treatment technologies, and the areas needing further research have been
explored. Possibility of treated wastewater reuse was also investigated. Most of the research
work for sugar industry wastewater treatments has been carried out by anaerobic treatment
processes. However, oil and grease are not easily degraded by anaerobic processes. Also, an
anaerobic process partly degrades nutrients whereas, aerobic processes consume higher
energy. Anaerobic-aerobic combined systems can remove organics completely. Unfortunately,
very few studies are available for anaerobic-aerobic combined systems, and more work is
needed in this field.

Keywords: Sugar industry; Wastewater sources and characteristics; Aerobic treatment;

Anaerobic treatment; Physico-chemical treatment

1. Introduction
Sugar industries wastewaters are characterized by
India is the world’s largest sugar-consuming coun- high biological oxygen demand (BOD), chemical
try and the second largest in terms of sugar production. oxygen demand (COD), and total dissolve solids.
The growth of sugar factories along with the sugar Wastewater from sugar industry generally contains
industries segment depicts the sugar industry scenario carbohydrates, nutrients, oil and grease, chlorides,
in India [1]. Cane cultivation areas increased to sulfates, and heavy metals [3–6].
5,086,000 hectares in 2011–2012, which were 5,055,000 The sugar industries have important place in the
hectares in 2007–2008. Moreover, there were 516 indus- Indian economic development. However, the waste-
tries in operation in 2007–2008. Currently, in 2011–2012, water generated from these industries bears high
this figure increased to 529, producing 26.0 million tons degree of pollution load. Wastewater from sugar
of sugar [2]. Consequently, the amount of wastewater industry, if discharged without treatment, poses
generated from these industries has also increased. pollution problem in both aquatic and terrestrial

1944-3994/1944-3986 Ó 2013 Balaban Desalination Publications. All rights reserved.

 2 J.P. Kushwaha / Desalination and Water Treatment

ecosystems [7]. Also, sugar industry wastewater when followed with clarification by continuous clarifier. The
not treated completely produces unpleasant smell clear juice is decanted, and thickened sludge is send
when released into the environment. Moreover, Indian to the rotary drum vacuum filter for the recovery of
government imposed very strict rules and regulations remaining juice contained in sludge. Here, in this
for the effluent discharge to protect the environment filtration process, water is added to enhance the effi-
(Table 1). Therefore, suitable treatment methods are ciency of process, and the dewatered sludge known as
required to meet the effluent discharge standards. press mud is discarded and utilized as fertilizer. The
Primary treatment of sugar industry wastewater clear juice is then send to vacuum multiple-effect
includes filtration, sedimentation, and load equaliza- evaporators, where juice is concentrated. Afterwards,
tion [8,9]. Whereas, secondary treatments are biologi- sucrose crystallization is carried out using pans where
cal methods like lagoons [10–12], aerated ponds [10], the remaining water is evaporated under vacuum.
up-flow anaerobic sludge blanket (UASB), expanded Product leaving the vacuum pans is called massecuite,
granular sludge blanket, fluidized bed reactor (FBR) which is then centrifuged, washed, dried, screened,
[13,5]. Sometimes combined anaerobic and aerobic and packaged [16].
treatments are also used for sugar industry wastewa- In view of generated wastewater volume and
Downloaded by [University of Waterloo] at 06:11 11 October 2014

ter treatment [10,14]. characteristics, sugar industries are one of the most
In this review, the sugar industry wastewater polluting industries. Volume of effluent generated
generation sources, their characteristics, recent depends on the cane crushing capacity of industry
advancements in the aerobic, anaerobic, and physico- and management of water [16]. Sugar industries in
chemical treatment technologies, and the areas in which India generate about 1,000 L of wastewater for one ton
further research is needed have been identified. of sugar cane processed [17]. Therefore, the sugar
Possibility of treated wastewater reuse was also industry having the capacity of 2,500 tons crushed per
investigated. day (TCD) will generate about 450
106 L of wastewa-
ter in a running session of six months. It has also been
reported that Mexican sugar industries generates
2. Process, wastewater sources, and characteristics
45.9 m3/s wastewater (713.83
106 m3) for six months
Processing steps involved in production of sugar running session [18].
are milling, clarification, evaporation, crystallization, Sugar industry wastewaters are produced mainly
and centrifugation. In milling process, sugar cane is by cleaning operations. Washing of milling house
crushed to extract juice. During milling process, some floor, various division of boiling house like evapora-
amount of water is added to crushing cane, known as tors, clarifiers, vacuum pans, centrifugation, etc.
imbibition water, to increase the efficiency of juice generates huge volume of wastewater. Also, wash
extraction [15]. After extraction of juice, fibrous resi- water used for filter cloth of rotary vacuum filter and
due, which is known as bagasse, is generally utilized periodical cleaning of lime water and SO2 producing
as fuel for boiler after drying. The extracted juice is house becomes a part of wastewater. Periodical clean-
very turbid and greenish in color, which is then ing of heat exchangers and evaporators with NaOH
clarified and bleached with Ca(OH)2 and SO2 dosing and HCl to remove the scales on the tube surface

Table 1
Minimal standards for discharge of effluents from the sugar industry
Parameter Maximum value (mg/L)
World bank guidlinea CPCB, Indiab

pH 6–9 –
BOD3 – 100 for disposal on land, 30 for disposal in surface water
COD 150–250 –
Total suspended solids 50 100 for disposal on land, 30 for disposal in surface water
Oil and grease 10 10
Total nitrogen – –
Total phosphorus – –
Temperature 63˚C increase –
a
World Bank [8]. bhttp://cpcb.nic.in/Industry-Specific-Standards/Effluent/411.pdf
 J.P. Kushwaha / Desalination and Water Treatment 3

References
contributes organic and inorganic pollutant loadings
to wastewater. Leakages from pumps, pipelines,
centrifuging house also contribute to wastewater

[23]
[27]

[61]
[62]
[19]
[22]
[63]
[17]
[20]
[5]
produced. Except this, wastewater is also produced
from boiler blowdown, spray pond overflow [19], and
48–559 from condenser cooling water which is discharged as

1,043

3,195
wastewater when it gets contaminated with cane juice.

195
Cl

–
–

–
–
–
–
Sugar industry wastewater contains wash water
with lost cane juice in various operations, detergents,

BSI: beet sugar industry; CSI: cane sugar industry; SBS: synthetic beet sugar wastewater; SR: sugar refinery. aoil = 23 mg/L; boil and grease = 118 mg/L.
2,460 (CaCO3)
bagasse particles, oil and grease used for lubrication,
and lost sugar solids in process. It is characterized by
high concentrations of nutrients, organic and
inorganic contents [20]. Ahmad and Mahmoud [21]
906
441
100
Ca

have nicely reported the characteristics of wastewater

–
–

–
–
–
–
from six different sugar industries. Quantity and
Downloaded by [University of Waterloo] at 06:11 11 October 2014

composition of sugar industry wastewater depend on

1–3 (P)

the final products, production processes, equipments

TP

12

used, and composition variations [22]. Table 2 shows

3
–
5
3
–
–

characteristics of sugar industry wastewater reported

by various authors. It can be seen that there is
4 ), 6 (NO3 )


large variation in COD (110–12,211.44 mg/L) and BOD

(60–5,103 mg/L) (Table 2). Most of the COD loading
to wastewater is due to the lost cane juice and sugar
53 (TN)
44 (TN)
4 (NHþ

solids. The pH and total solids (TS) concentration

15–40
TKN

varies in the range of 4.5–10 and 6,062 ± 62 mg/L,

10

38
–

–
Characteristics of sugar industry wastewaters (composition in mg/L, except for pH)

respectively [23]; and significant amount of nutrients,

15–40 mg/L of total Kjeldahl nitrogen (TKN) [17] and
173–2,190

1.3–12 mg/L of total phosphorous are also found in

335 ± 7

sugar industry wastewater. Except this, very high

VSS

654

amount of chlorides (48–3,195 mg/L), ca (CaCO3),

–
–
–
–
–

SO4+, Na+, K+, and heavy metals (Zn2+, Ni2+, Cu2+,

Mn2+, Pb2+, Cd2+, Cr3+, and Fe2+) [20] have also been
760–800 (TSS)
5–1,480 (TSS)

reported in literature.
1,769 (TSS)

9,212 (TSS)
6,062 ± 53

763 (SS)

3. Treatment methods
TS

–
–

Screening, grit removal, flow equalization,

sedimentation, or dissolved air flotation are used to
5–6.5
6–10

reduce suspended solids (SS) load from sugar indus-

pH

4.5

9.5
7
7
–
8
–

try wastewater. Biological treatment methods are

applied for the reduction of soluble organic matter
4,641–5,103

and disinfections [22]. Biological treatment includes

350–2,750

aerobic and anaerobic process. Except biological

60–1820
BOD5

3,837

3,163

3,131

methods, physico-chemical methods are also used for

sugar industry wastewater treatment.
–

–
8,339–9,033

1,000–4,340

3.1. Biological methods

6,621 ± 113

110–3,400

12,211

Since, sugar industry wastewater contains mostly

COD

6,300
6,513
2,731

7,568
3,382

sugars and volatile fatty acids, which are easily biode-

gradable, therefore all the biological (anaerobic and
aerobic) treatment processes are suitable [22]. Table 3
Table 2

Waste

summarizes the reported literature of biological

CSIb
type

CSIa
SBS
CSI

CSI
CSI
BSI

BSI

BSI
SR

treatment for sugar industry wastewater treatment.

 4 J.P. Kushwaha / Desalination and Water Treatment

3.1.1. Anaerobic treatment if irrigated with wastewater treated by this method.

Therefore, complete removal of pollutants is
Anaerobic treatment method for concentrated
necessary. In this regard, the mesophilic UASB reactor
wastewater, in terms of pollutants (as the sugar
was studied and evaluated by Nacheva et al. [22] for
industry wastewater), is widely used method in the
the treatment of previously treated sugar cane mill
industries. It has several advantages over aerobic pro-
wastewater. They reported more than 90% COD
cesses, which include the lesser energy required;
removal at organic loading rate (OLR) up to 16 kg
methane production due to the degradation of organic
COD/m3 d with high biogas production. Finally, they
matters, which is a source of energy; and lesser sludge
concluded that the discharge standards in terms of
production, which indirectly reduces sludge disposal
COD concentration can be found if the UASB reactor
costs greatly [24–26]. Anaerobic batch reactor, anaero-
is operated at lower OLR of 4 kg COD/m3 d; but at
bic fixed-bed reactors (AFR), up-flow anaerobic fixed
higher OLR, an additional biological treatment stage
bed (UAFB) reactor, and UASB reactor are generally
is needed. Hampannavar and Shivayogimath [17]
used for anaerobic treatment of sugar industry waste-
have also reported sugar industry wastewater
water (Table 3).
treatment in a UASB reactor seeded with a
Anaerobic and facultative lagoons have been
Downloaded by [University of Waterloo] at 06:11 11 October 2014

non-granular anaerobically digested sewage sludge,

previously used for years. However, lower removal
operated with OLR of 0.5–16 kg COD/m3 d. Optimum
efficiency and larger area requirement are the draw-
HRT was found to be 6 h giving maximum COD
backs of this method [27]. Sanchez Hernnandez and
removal efficiency of 89.4%. In another study [30],
Travieso Cordoba [28] reported the application of
treatment of strong sugar-beet wastewater by an
AFR to treat sugar-mill wastewater with varying
UAFB was done, and it was reported that the COD
hydraulic retention times (HRT) (0.5, 1.0, 2.0, and
removal efficiencies P90% could be achieved. They
4.0 d). It was found that the increase in HRT increased
have also reported that by using a suitable packing
organic matter removal and more than 90% of COD
material, the system is capable of tolerating very high
removal was found at 4 d HRT.
organic loading of 10 kg COD/m3 d. Jayanthi and
Most of the sugar industries have implemented
Sonil [31] investigated the effectiveness of
only solid separation pretreatment with clarifiers/dis-
Cyanobacteria for the bioremediation of sugar industry
solved flotation systems [22]. Effluent discharged from
effluent. It was reported that the color, BOD, COD,
these industries needs further treatment to avoid
and TDS removal were found to be 39.2, 25.69, 37.9,1
adverse environmental effects in the water receiving
and 48.51%, respectively, in four weeks of treatment.
bodies. Some mills utilize this treated wastewater for
Waste characteristics, reactor configurations, and
irrigation purpose, but clogging problems arise when
operational parameters all affect the efficiency of
the solids are not removed completely. Moreover,
anaerobic digestion [32]. If the waste characteristics
Doke et al. [29] have reported that the plant growth
are unsuitable for anaerobic treatment, co-digestion is
and crop yield are reduced, and soil health is affected,

Table 3
Reported studies on biological treatment methods for sugar industry wastewaters
Waste Reactor type % COD BOD/COD loading HRT Methane yield References
type reduction (mL/g
CODremoved)

BSI and Anaerobic batch reactora 64–87 – – 236–322 [31]

BP
CSI AFR <90 – 4 (d) – [27]
SR Rotating biological contactorb 48 – – – [38]
CSI aerated fixed-film biological 74–68% 0.005–0.120 kg BOD / 2–8 – [47]
systemsc m3 d (h)
CSI UASB >90 16 kg COD m3 d1 – 355
103 ± 2
103 [22]
BSI UAFB >90 10 kg COD m3 d1 20 h – [35]
CSI UASB 89% 16 kg COD m3 d1 6h – [17]
a
F/M range (0.51–2.56 g COD/g VSS and 70–89% VS reduction. bPhenol reduction = 63% and color reduction = 55%. cCOD removal
efficiency = 98–89%.
 J.P. Kushwaha / Desalination and Water Treatment 5

one of the alternate used to enhancement the process, FBRs were used and nitrification was studied
anaerobic degradation of wastes with different charac- in an airlift reactor system for sugar industry wastewa-
teristics. Alkaya and Demirer [32] used sugar-beet ter. It was concluded that the porous materials retain
industry wastewater and exhausted beet pulp was higher quantity of biomass for the hydrolysis (up to
subjected as a co-digestion system for anaerobic 55 kg/m3). During nitrification, pumice used as
biodegradation in batch reactors. About 63.7–87.3% of support material showed best result with 1.2 kg
COD and 69.6–89.3% of volatile suspended solids NH4–N/(m3 d) of nitrification; and the denitrification
(VSS) removal were observed for 0.51–2.56 g COD/g rate was found to be four times higher (3.5–5 kg
VSS F/M range. This shows high biodegradability for NO3–N/(m3 d)). In an another study, Phanerochaete
both wastewater and beet pulp. Alkaya and Demirer chrysosporium immobilized on polyurethane foam and
[33] conducted experiments for the treatment of scouring web decolourized efficiently the sugar refin-
sugar-beet processing wastewater and beet pulp ery effluent in a long-term repeated batch operation. It
simultaneously. The waste was first treated in a batch- was found that the color, total phenols, and COD were
fed continuously mixed anaerobic reactor (FCMR), reduced by 55, 63, and 48%, respectively [38].
then the same reactor was used as an anaerobic
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sequential batch reactor (SBR), and the performance

3.1.2. Aerobic treatment
was compared with the methane production. It was
reported that the methane production yield was Aerobic biological treatment generally involves
increased to 32.2% when the configuration was chan- degradation of organics in the occurrence of oxygen.
ged from FCMR to anaerobic SBR. In an another Conventional aerobic treatment includes activated
study, Samaraweera et al. [34] studied on anaerobic sludge, trickling filters, aerated lagoons, or a combina-
treatment for sugar industry wastewater and reported tion of these [39]. Sugar industry wastewaters are
that chlorination, addition of macronutrient, and biodegradable except oil and grease which are not
increase in temperature improved the process in terms easily degraded by anaerobic processes [40], because
of filaments and lipopolysaccharide disappearance oils produce long-chain fatty acids during the
from the anaerobic tank, decrease in concentration of hydrolysis step which causes retardation in methane
the anaerobic clarifier overflow solids, increase in the production [41]. Long-chain fatty acids were reported
concentration of the anaerobic clarifier underflow to be inhibitory to methanogenic bacteria [42].
solids, increase in alkalinity in the anaerobic tank, Ahmad and Mahmoud [21] conducted experiments
decrease in total volatile fatty acids in the anaerobic in batch reactor to show whether the aerobic treatment
tank, increase in percent methane in the biogas, and for sugar industry wastewater is acceptable. It was
increase in COD loading. reported that the aerobic biodegradation of wastewater
Various steps involved in organic pollutants is agreeable. It was also reported that the COD reduc-
degradation by anaerobic process are hydrolysis/ tion can be predicted at given parameters with the
fermentation, acetogenesis, and methanogenesis; and help of relationship suggested by Tucek et al. [43].
anaerobes involved are fermentative bacteria, acetogen- Earlier, lagoons were used for sugar industry
ic bacteria, and methanogens, respectively [35,30]. wastewater treatment [44,10] because of being an
Alkaya and Demirer [23] studied for maximizing the economic process. But, larger area requirements [10]
hydrolysis and acidification of sugar-beet processing and emission of unpleasant and annoying odor during
wastewater and beet pulp to produce volatile fatty acid the treatment process [45] are some of the disadvan-
using acidogenic anaerobic metabolism in continuously tages of lagoons. Aerated lagoons were also used in
mixed anaerobic reactors. The important step in this is past, and showed lesser residence time and area
to inhibit the methanogenic activity. Optimum HRT of required compared to lagoons, to treat sugar industry
2 d with 1:1 waste mixing ratio (in terms of COD) wastewater, but oxygen consumption and HRT were
showed highest total volatile fatty acid concentration found to be high, and still large area requirement is
3,635 ± 209 mg/L as acetic acid with the acidification disadvantage [10]. Effluents from Mumias Sugar fac-
degree of 46.9 ± 2.1%. Bacterial immobilization on solid tory is treated using ponds before discharging into
supports leads to better cell–liquid separation and Nzoia River. To explore the pollution of river due to
enables the system to hold high count of active this activity, Moses’ et al. [46] examined the samples
biomass in the reaction system during the anaerobic for temperature, pH, BOD, COD, TDS, and TSS and
treatment [36,37]. Jördening et al. [13] investigated a concluded that the values were well above than
system for hydolysis/acidification of sucrose-contain- discharge limits defined by NEMA and the World
ing wastewater with the immobilized bacteria on solid Health Organisation (WHO). Hamoda and Al-Sharekh
supports. For organics hydrolysis and denitrification [47] examined the performance of a system, aerated
 6 J.P. Kushwaha / Desalination and Water Treatment

submerged fixed-film (ASFF), in which bio-film was and/or poly hydroxides which remove the organics
attached on submerged ceramic tiles with diffused by coagulation. Electro-flotation process removes
aeration condition. It was concluded that the ASFF pollutants with the help of buoyant gases bubbles
process is capable of handling severe organic loadings generated during electrolysis, which take with them
of 5–120 g BOD/m2 d with minute decrease from 97.9 the pollutant materials to the surface of liquid
to 88.5% in BOD removal efficiency and from 73.6 to body [50].
67.8% in COD removal efficiency. Nitrification rate Capunitan et al. [51] investigated electro-oxidation
was also decreased but at higher rates. and electro-coagulation to treat spent ion-exchange-
None of the above studies showed completely/ process wastewater from a sugar refinery at different
nearly complete organics removal. Therefore, an addi- current values. EO method showed 99.9, 63.1, and
tional biological treatment stage is needed. Hybrid 90.5% of decolorization, COD removal, and TSS
systems of comprising anaerobic and aerobic treat- removal, respectively, at 5 A in 7 h electrolysis time.
ments have been approved capable of giving high Whereas, in electro-coagulation 71.2, 18.5, and 97.4%
COD removal efficiency with smaller required energy of decolorization, COD removal, and TSS removal
[5,10,14]. Yang et al. [48] reported a combined anaero- were found, respectively, at 5 A in 8 h electrolysis
Downloaded by [University of Waterloo] at 06:11 11 October 2014

bic (UASB) and aerobic (EAFB) treatment system for time. EO was concluded as the better treatment option
effluent from primary treatment of sugarcane mill in comparison to electro-coagulation not only in terms
wastewater for its application for drip irrigation, and of removal, but also in terms of energy cost.
P99% organics and solids removal were reported at In another study, Guven et al. [5] conducted EC
HRT of 2 d. This treated wastewater hold better water experiments to treat simulated sugar-beet factory
quality for drip irrigation. wastewater. The effect of various operational variables
such as applied voltage, electrolyte concentration, and
3.2. Physico-chemical methods waste concentration was studied for percentage COD
removal and initial COD removal rate. Highest COD
Coagulation/flocculation with inorganic coagulants removal and COD initial removal rate were reported
and adsorption are widely used for the removal of as 86.36% and 43.65 mg/L min, respectively, after 8 h
suspended, colloidal, and dissolved solids (DS) from at the applied voltage of 12 V, 100% waste concentra-
wastewaters. Generally, coagulation/flocculation is tion with 50 g/L NaCl. At optimized set of process
used in the primary purification of industrial wastewa- variables and at 100% waste concentration, percentage
ter (in some cases as secondary and tertiary treatment) COD removal and COD initial removal rate were
[40]. In coagulation process, insoluble particles and/or found to be 79.66% and 33.69 mg/L min, respectively.
dissolved organic materials aggregate to be larger, and In EC process, the electrode material plays a very
are removed by sedimentation/filtration stages. important role in quality of treatment. Asaithambi
Only one study is reported in open literature by and Matheswaran [52] conducted EC experiments to
coagulation with lime and subsequent adsorption with treat simulated sugar industrial effluent with RuO2-
activated charcoal [20]. BOD and COD removal effi- coated titanium as an anode and stainless steel as a
ciency was reported to be 96 and 95%, respectively. cathode. Maximum percentage COD removal was
Parande et al. [49] studied on COD removal from reported to be 80.74% at 5 A/dm2 current density and
sugar industry wastewater using metakaolin, tamarind 5 g/L of electrolyte concentration in the batch electro-
nut carbon, and dates nut carbon as adsorbents. Lang- chemical reactor.
muir and Freundlich adsorption isotherms were
reported to fit the experimental data. Studies revealed
4. Treated effluent quality, reuse and
that metakaolin was found to give maximum COD
recommendations
removal efficiency at a dosage of 500 mg/L in a con-
tact time of 180 min at pH = 7. Form the above study, it can be said that most of
Electro-chemical (EC) treatment process is an the research works for sugar industry wastewater
emerging wastewater treatment technology. EC treat- treatment have been carried out by anaerobic treat-
ment method involves electro-oxidation, electro-coag- ment process. As discussed earlier in Section 3.1.2, oil
ulation, and electro-floatation. In electro-oxidation and grease are not easily degraded by anaerobic
(EO) treatment, organic materials are oxidized to processes [40] due to the production of long-chain
carbon dioxide and water or other oxides by fatty acids during hydrolysis step, which causes retar-
electrochemically generated reactive oxygen and/or dation in methane production. Also, anaerobic process
oxidizing agent. Whereas, electro-coagulation process partly degrades nutrients. Moreover, none of the
involves generation of anode material hydroxides study reports complete removal of organics (Table 3).
 J.P. Kushwaha / Desalination and Water Treatment 7

In the field of aerobic treatment process, aerated Anaerobic-aerobic combined system can remove
lagoons, ASFF culture, and mixed culture activated organics completely from sugar industry wastewater
sludge process have been used for the treatment of [48]. Very few studies are available for anaerobic-aero-
sugar industry wastewater. However, future studies bic combined systems, and more work is needed in
have to give attention on aerobic SBR treatment, this field.
which is mixed culture activated sludge process and Because sugar industry wastewater bears high load-
not previously reported in literature. Various authors ing of DS and SS, physico-chemical methods like
have reported previously the treatment of varieties of adsorption and coagulation are well suited for its treat-
wastewater by aerobic SBR [53–59] and showed that ment. However, only one study for coagulation fol-
aerobic SBR give high percentage of organics removal. lowed by adsorption [20], and another study by
Also, in the case of aerobic SBR, smaller area is Parande et al. [49], for adsorptive treatment of sugar
needed as compared to other aerobic activated sludge industry wastewater, is reported. Moreover, in this
processes. study, mechanism of coagulation/adsorption is lacking.

Table 4
Opportunities and limitations of aerobic, anaerobic, and physico-chemical treatment methods for sugar industry
Downloaded by [University of Waterloo] at 06:11 11 October 2014

wastewater
Treatment Opportunities Limitations
method

Anaerobic • Comparatively smaller reactor in size • Oil and grease are not easily degraded [40]
• Lesser energy is required • Anaerobic process partly degrades organics
• Energy production is possible due to generation of meth- • Post-treatment of effluent is often required
ane production during degradation of organic matters
• Excess sludge produced is less
• Up to 90% of VSS removal may be achieved with
co-digestion [32]
• Effluent quality in terms of COD is good [40]
• High COD loading of 16 kg COD m3 d1 is possible
[17,22]
• Nitrogen removal is low, however denitrification rate dur-
ing treatment may be increased with immobilised bacteria
on solid supports [13]

Aerobic • Aerated submerged fixed-film (ASFF) process is capable of • Excess sludge produced is high
handling severe organic loadings of 5–120 g BOD/m2 d • Require larger area [10]
• Excellent effluent quality in terms of COD, BOD, and • Emission of unpleasant and annoying odor during the
nutrient removal treatment process [45] using lagoons
• Aerobic-SBR has been reported to give high percentage of • None of the studies available reports complete
organics removal for varieties of industrial wastewater removal of organics
[53–59]. Therefore, it may be a good option for the sugar • Aerobic SBR treatment systems are more controlling
industry wastewater treatment
• Also, in the case of aerobic SBR smaller area is needed as
compared to other aerobic activated sludge processes

Physico- • Coagulation/flocculation, adsorption and electro-chemical • Chemical coagulation/flocculation process generates

chemical methods are the various physico-chemical methods secondary pollutants
reported for sugar industry wastewater treatment • In electro-coagulation process electrodes are dissolved
• Combined system of coagulation with adsorption has been into wastewater due to oxidation, and need to be reg-
reported to give BOD and COD removal efficiency of 96 ularly replaced
and 95%, respectively [20] • A layer of electrode material oxide is deposited over
• Electro-oxidation was shown as the better treatment the cathode leading decrease in efficiency of electro-
option in comparison to electro-coagulation [51] coagulation process
• No generation of secondary pollutants take place in • In the case of electro-coagulation, treated effluent may
electro-oxidation method be contaminated with electrode material
 8 J.P. Kushwaha / Desalination and Water Treatment

Kinetic and isotherm parameters for adsorption process the promising treatment technology for the sugar
have not been reported, which are important for the industry wastewater, because aerobic SBR has been
design of any adsorption unit. More study with differ- reported to give good removal efficiency in terms of
ent types of electrodes is needed for the EC treatment both nutrients and other organics.
of sugar industry wastewater. EO is an emerging area Membrane-assisted treatment may be very effective
for wastewater treatment, needs to be explored for where there is need to produce high-quality effluent to
sugar industry wastewater. In EO process organic reuse. But, sugar industry wastewater bears high load
contamination are oxidised directly at the surface of the of DS and SS, this will lead to severe fouling of mem-
electrode or an oxidising agent is generated electro- branes. Therefore, in view of producing good quality
chemically. Therefore, no generation of secondary treated wastewater for reuse, hybrid system comprising
pollutants take place. Various opportunities and membranes with aerobic/anaerobic treatment methods
limitations of aerobic, anaerobic, and physico-chemical and/or physico-chemical methods may be promising.
treatment methods for sugar industry wastewater are
shown in Table 4. Abbreviations
Imbibition water, cooling water, boiler make-up BOD — biological oxygen demand (mg/L)
Downloaded by [University of Waterloo] at 06:11 11 October 2014

water, scrubber feed and scrubber make-up water, COD — chemical oxygen demand (mg/L)
and condenser feed and condenser make-up water are TCD — tones crushed per day
various water using streams in sugar industries. An TS — total solids
average amount of approximately 11 m3 of water is TKN — total Kjeldahl nitrogen (mg/L)
required in one day for these activities for one ton of AFR — anaerobic fixed-bed reactors
cane crushed [19]. Therefore, daily 27,500 m3 of water UASB — up-flow anaerobic sludge blanket
is needed for a sugar industry having capacity of HRT — hydraulic retention time
2,500 TCD. Treated wastewater may be reused for OLR — organic loading rate
different water consuming activities in order to reduce UAFB — up flow anaerobic fixed bed
fresh water load and to achieve the target of zero TDS — total dissolved solids
water discharge. On other hand, irrigation is one of VSS — volatile suspended solids
the traditional utilization of treated wastewater from FCMR — batch-fed continuously mixed anaerobic
sugar industries. Due to residual pollutants in treated reactor
wastewater, it was reported that plant growth was SBR — sequential batch reactor
affected and crop yield was reduced. Also, affected TSS — total suspended solids
soil health has been reported [29]. ASFF — aerated submerged fixed-film
Membrane assisted treatment such as reverse DS — dissolved solids
osmosis (RO), microfiltration (MF), nanofiltration (NF), SS — suspended solids
ultrafiltration (UF) are very capable where there is NF — nanofiltration
need to produce high-quality effluent to reuse directly RO — reverse osmosis
[40,60]. No work is reported in open literature for the MF — microfiltration
treatment of sugar industry wastewater using mem- UF — ultrafiltration
branes in best of author knowledge. But, sugar indus- EC — electro-chemical
try wastewater bears high load of DS and SS, this will EO — electro-oxidation
lead to severe fouling of membranes. Therefore, in TP — total phosphorous
view of producing good quality treated wastewater for
reuse, hybrid system comprising membranes with
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