COMMUNICATION LAB 18ECL67

Laboratory Experiments: Page Marks

Part A No
1. Time Division Multiplexing and Demultiplexing of two band limited 02-04
signals.
2.amplitude modulation and demodulation 05-08
3.FSKgenerationanddetection 09-11
4.PSKgenerationand detection 12-14
5.Frequency modulation using 8031 15-18
6.a) pulse amplitude modulation 19-22
6. b) Flat-top modulation 23-26
7. Measurement of frequency, guide wave length, power, VSWR and 27-29
attenuation in microwave test bench.
8.Measurementofdirectivityandgainofantennas 30-31

9. Determination of
 Coupling and isolation characteristics of micro strip 32-33
directional coupler.
Resonance characteristics of micro-strip ring resonator and power 34-37
divider computation of dielectric constant of the substrate.
Power division and isolation of micro strip power divider 38-41
Part B
1. Simulate NRZ, RZ, half-sinusoid and raised cosine pulses and 43-47
generate eye diagram for binary polar signaling.
2. Simulate the Pulse code modulation and demodulation system and display 48-50
the waveforms.
3. Simulate the QPSK transmitter and receiver. Plot the signals and its 51-55
constellation diagram.
4.Test the performance of a binary differential phase shift keying system by 56-62
simulating the non-coherent detection of binary DPSK

PART-A: FollowingExperimentsNo.1to6,has to be performed using discrete

Components.7to10usingkits.
PART-B: Simulation Experiments using SCILAB/MATLAB/Simulink or Lab-View

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ExperimentNo:1
Time Division Multiplexing of2BandlimitedSignals

Aim: To design and demonstrated the working of TDM using Pulse Amplitude
Modulated signals
Components required: Transistors-SL-l00, SK-l00, Resistors- 1kΩ, 1.5kΩ, Op-Amp
µA741.

Theory:-TDM is a technique used for transmitting several message signals over a

communication channel by dividing the time frame into slots, one slot for each
message signal. This is a digital technique in which the circuit is highly modular in
nature and provides reliable and efficient operation. There is no crosstalk in TDM due
to circuit nonlinearities since the pulses are completely isolated. But it also has its
disadvantages, which include timing jitter and synchronization is required. In pulse-
amplitude modulation, the amplitude of a periodic train of pulses is varied in
proportion to a message signal. TDM provides an effective method for sharing a
communication channel.

Procedure:
1. Rig up the circuit as shown in the circuit diagram for multiplexer.
2. Feed the input message signals ml and m2 of 2 volts P-P at 200 Hz.
3. Feed the high frequency carrier signal of 2V (P-P) at2kHz.
4. Observe the multiplexed output.
5. Rig up the circuit for demultiplexer.
6. Observe the de-multiplexed output in the CRO.
.

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Circuit Diagram: Multiplexer

Fig1.Circuit diagram of Multiplexer and Demultiplexer

Calculations:
Modulation:

Triangular wave, f= 1
=1KHz, 1V p-p
1*1*10−3

Sine-wave, f= 1
=526Hz, 4V p-p
3.8*0.5*10−3

Demodulation:
Triangular-wave, f= 1
11*1*10−3

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Sine-wave ,f= 1
=833.3 Hz
1.2*1*10−3

Expected Waveform:

Fig2. TDM waveforms

RESULT: Demonstration and design of time division multiplexing is done and the
multiplexed signal is obtained.

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EXP-2AMPLITUDE MODULATION AND DEMODULATION

Aim: To generate AM signal using transistor

Components required:

SLNO COMPNENTS RANGE QUANTITY

1 Resistors 22KΩ 1
120Ω 1
220Ω 1
2 Capacitor 0.01µF 2
1µF 1
3 AFT 1
4 IFT 1
5 Signal Generator 2
6 CRO & probes
7 Power supply +6V 1

Theory:

Amplitude Modulation is an electronic communication systems technique wherein the

base band signal is superimposed with the amplitude of the carrier wave ie the amplitude of
the carrier wave is varying with proportion to the base waveform being transmitted. Amplitude
Modulation has been in use since the earliest days of radio technology.
When an amplitude modulated signal is created, the amplitude of the created signal
represents the original base band signal to be transmitted. This amplitude forms an envelope
over the under lying high frequency carrier wave. Here the overall envelope of the carrier is
modulated to carry the audio signal.
Demodulation is a process where the signal that is a mixture of the amplitude of the
base band signal and the frequency of the carrier signal, is deconstructed to yield the original
signal that is to be transmitted. Amplitude modulation and demodulation are equally simple
toperform.TheAmplitudemodulatedsignalneedsjustasimplediodedetectorcircuittodemodulate.
The Diode rectifier rectifies the incoming signal, allowing only one half of the signal wave
format pass through. The capacitor is then used to remove the radio frequency parts of the
signal, leaving just the original waveform.

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Design: Amplitude Modulation Design: Amplitude

Demodulation Tuned frequency fIFT=455KHz 1/fm>1/(R1C1)>1/fc
T=1/fIFT ChooseR1C1=100/fc
T=2.19µs R1C1=100/fIFT
RC>>T R1C1=100/455K
Choose, RC=100T and C= 0.01µF Choose C1=1µf
R=21.97KΩ R1=219Ω

Select R=22K Select R=220

Circuit Diagram: Amplitude Modulation and Demodulation

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Waveform: Amplitude Modulation

Amplitude Detection:

Tabular Column:

m(t)(Vp-p) Vmax(inV) V min(inV) 𝑉𝑚𝑎𝗑−𝑉𝑚i𝑛 𝑉𝑚𝑎𝗑−𝑉𝑚i𝑛

µ= V=
m
𝑉𝑚𝑎𝗑+𝑉𝑚i𝑛 2

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Procedure:

Amplitude Modulation:

1. Before wiring the circuit, check all the components.

2. Connect signal generator to the IFT input and connect output of IFT to the CRO. By
varying signal generator frequency tune IFT. Set the frequency at which amplitude of
the signal on the CRO is maximum as carrier frequency C(t).
3. Set the modulating signal m(t) below20KHz with amplitude less than C(t).
4. Make connections as shown in amplitude modulation circuit diagram
5. Observe amplitude modulated signal on the CRO and measure Vmax and Vmin ,and
calculate modulation index.

Amplitude Demodulation:

1. Make connections as shown in amplitude demodulation circuit diagram.

2. Connect, AM output to the amplitude demodulation circuit.
3. Observe modulating signal on the CRO and note down peak to peak voltage.

Note: 1.Once the C(t)is set don‟t change frequency of signal generator till the experiment is
complete.
2. Don‟t turn off any device till the demodulation output is obtained.

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ExperimentNo3
FREQUENCYSHIFTKEYING
Aim : To conduct an experiment to generate FSK signal and also design a circuit to
demodulate the same.

Components Required: Op-amp (741), Diode(OA79), SL-100 transistor, Resistor,

Capacitor, function generator.

Theory: Frequency-shift keying (FSK) is a frequency modulation scheme in which digital

information is transmitted through discrete frequency changes of a carrier wave. The simplest
FSK is binary FSK (BFSK). As suggested by the name, BFSK uses two discrete frequencies
to transmit binary (O's and J's) information. In this scheme, binary 1 represents the frequency
of one carrier and 0 represents the frequency of the other carrier. Here frequency of the
carrier is switched between two values. A sinusoidal of amplitude' A' and frequency fc1 is
used to represent a binary '1' and frequency fc2 is used to represent binary '0'. FSK modulated
waveform can be represented as,

Procedure:

1. Before connection check all the components.

2. Make connections as shown in circuit diagram
3. Observe the wave-form pattern on the CRO.
4. Modulated FSK signal is obtained then give FSK signal as input to the demodulation
circuit..
5. Constructthecircuitfordemodulationandobtaintheoutputwhichissameasthemessagesign
al.

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Circuit Diagram:

Fig6: FSK modulator and Demodulator circuit

Design: Modulation:
VRE(max)=2.5v
R E=
VRE(max) 2.5
= =1kΩ
IE 2.5𝑚

RE=1kΩ
Assume IBsat =0.03IB
VB 0.3
RB= = =10kΩ
IBsat 0.03

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Demodulation:
1
fm = ;fm=300Hz , C = 0.1 µF,R =5.6 kΩ
2𝑅𝐶
1 1
tmin =0.6*0.2ms,fmax= = =8.333KHz
tmin 0.6*0.2
1 1
tmax=1.4* 0.5ms,fmin= = =1.428KHz
tmax 1.4*0.5ms

Demodulation=
3.7*1*10−3
=270.270KHz

Expected Waveform:

Fig7: FSK waveforms

RESULT: Frequency shift-keying circuits designed and demodulation of FSK is obtained.

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ExperimentNo4:
BPSK Generation and Detection
Aim:Design&demonstrateaBPSKsystemtotransmitdigitaldatausingasuitablecarrier.Demodula
tethe above signal with suitable circuit.

Components Required: Resistors, Capacitors, Op-amps, diodes, signal generators, CRO,

power Supply

Theory: Phase shift keying is also one of the simplest digital modulation technique. In this
system of modulation symbol 'l' is represented by phase 'Ǿ1' and symbol 'O' is represented by
phase' Ǿ2' DPSK is one of the digital modulation schemes like PSK. Alternative to P.SK,
instead of using the patterns to set the phase of the wave, it can instead be used to change it
by a specified amount. The demodulator then determines the changes in the phase of the
received signal rather than the Phase itself. Since this scheme depends on the difference
between successive phases, it. termed Differential phase-shift keying(DPSK).

Procedure:
1. Connections are made as shown in circuit diagram
2. Provide message signal m(t) and carrier signal c(t) using signal generator
3Observe the BPSK signal a the pin3 of ICCD405l and note down the readings(Voltage and
time period)
4. Connect the detection circuit as shown and supply the BPSK signal and c(t)
5. Verify carefully, observe the intermediate ASK signal and finally observe detected signal,
note down its voltage level and time period.
BPSK Modulator:

Fig8. BPSK Modulator Circuit

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Demodulator Circuit:

Fig9: BPSK demodulator circuit

Design: Modulation:
VCC−VCE Vin−Vbe
RC= =1kΩ, Rb = = 10 KΩ
IE Ib
Ib =0.025mA, Rb=Vbe=10KΩ
If
= Isat
hfe
Demodulation:
1>>Rc>>1
𝑓𝑚 𝑓𝑐

C = 0.1µF ,fm = 200Hz,fc = 10kHzR

=10kΩ

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Expected Waveforms:

Fig10.BPSKmodulator and demodulator waveforms

Result: BPSK circuit for modulation and demodulation circuit are studied and verified
through waveforms.

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EXPERIMENTNO: 05

FREQUENCY MODULATION USINGIC8038

Aim: To design and conduct an experiment to generateFMwaveusingIC8038.
Apparatus required:

Slno Components Range Quantity

1 resistor 10kΩ 3
22kΩ 1
82kΩ 1
2 capacitor 1µf 1
0.01µf 1
3 IC 8038 1
4 DC power supply 12V 1
5 CRO & probes
6 Signal generator Sine-wave 1

Theory: FM is one of the angle modulation in which the instantaneous frequency is varied
linearly with the message signal. The IC 8038 waveform generator is a monolithic integrated
circuit capable of producing high accuracy sine square, triangular, saw tooth and pulse
waveforms with a minimum number of external components.
BasisprincipleofIC8038
The operation of IC 8038 is based on charging and discharging of a grounded capacitor
C, whose charging and discharging rates are controlled by programmable current generators Ia
and Ib. When switch is at position A, the capacitor charges at a rate determined by current source
Ia . Once the capacitor voltage reaches Vut, the upper comparator (CMP 1) triggers and reset the
flip-flop output. This causes a switch position to change from position A to B. Now, capacitor
charge discharging at the rate determined by the current sink Ib .Once the capacitor reaches
lower threshold voltage, the lower comparator (CMP 2) triggers and set the flip-flop output. This
causes the switch position to change from position B to A. And this cycle repeats. As a result, we
get square wave at the output of Flip flop and triangular wave across capacitor. The triangular
wave is then passed through the on chip wave shaper to generate sign wave. To allow automatic
frequency controls, currents Ia and Ib are made programmable through an external control
voltage Bi. For equal magnitudes of Ia and Ib, output waveforms are symmetrical conversely,

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when two currents are unequal, output waveforms are asymmetrical. By making, one of
the

currents much larger than other we can get saw-tooth waveform across capacitor and
rectangular wave format the output of flip-flop.
Working:
The frequency of the waveform generator is direct function of the dc voltage at terminal
By altering this voltage, frequency modulation is performed. For small deviations, the
modulating signal can be applied to pins, merely providing dc-dc coupling with a capacitor. An
external resistor between pins 7and 8 is not necessary but it can be used to increase input
impedance from about8k. The sine wave has relatively high output impedance. The circuit may
use a simple op amp follower to provide a buffering gain and amplitude adjustments. The
IC8038 is fabricated with advanced monolithic technology, using Schottky-barrier diodes and
thin film resistors, and the output is stable over a wide range of temperatures and supply
variations.

1. Procedure:

1. Rig up the circuit as shown in the figure.

2. Apply+12,-12V from the supply.
3. Observe the sinusoidal wave form atpin2.Itshouldbesameasdesign carrier frequency.
4. Switch on signal generator and apply the signalamplitudeof0.5V
andfrequencyof1kHz.
5. Observetheoutputbetweenpin2andground.
6. Sketch the waveforms. Show the graph of message carrier and modulation signal.

Result:
The frequency modulation is seen and the transmission bandwidth was found to be
……………kHz.

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Calculation:
Frequency deviation(f)=Fmax-
Fmin
Modulation index= f / fm
Bandwidth=2(f+fm)

Pin DiagramofIC 8038:

Block diagramofIC 8038:

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Design:

fc=3.658KHz,
fc=0.3t/R C
Choose
R=82KΩ
Ct=0.001µF(or)1nF
Circuitdiagram: Frequency Modulation circuit

WaveForm:

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Experiment No:06(a)

PULSE SAMPLING MODULATION

Aim: To demonstrate pulse sampling modulation and demodulation.

Apparatus required:

SL COMPNENTS RANGE QUANTITY

NO
1 Resistors 10KΩ 2
22KΩ 2
2 Capacitor 0.1µF 2
3 Transistor SL100 1
4 Signal Generator 2
5 CRO & probes, connecting wires

Theory:
Pulse sampling or Pulse amplitude modulation in which the amplitude of carrier
signal which is train of pulses, is sampled according to the modulating signal at every
instant.

For Demodulation of the Pulse sampling, the modulated output is fed to the low pass
filter. The low pass filter eliminates high frequency ripples and generates the demodulated
signal which has its amplitude proportional to modulated signal at all-time instant.

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Procedure:

Modulation

1. Before wiring the circuit, verify all the components

2. Make the connections as per the circuit diagram.
3. Observe the modulated output S(t) wave form on CRO
4. Measure time period T and amplitude of output waveform.

Demodulation
1. Before wiring the circuit, verify all the components
2. Make the connections as per the circuit diagram.
3. Connect the modulated output S(t) as input
4. Observe the output waveform on CRO
5. Measure time period T and amplitude of output waveform.

Result: pulse-sampling modulation is demonstrated and reconstructed.

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Circuit Diagram: Pulse Sampling Modulation

Waveform:

Design:
fc<<1/RC
1/RC=10/fc
Let fc = 45 KHz and C = 0.1µF. than R = 22.22KΩ
Select R=22K

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Circuit Diagram:

Pulse Sampling Demodulation

Waveform:

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Experiment No:06(b):
FLAT-TOPSAMPLING

Aim: To demonstrate flat-top sampling modulation and demodulation.

Apparatus required:
SL COMPNENTS RANGE QUANTITY
NO
1 Resistors 1KΩ 1
10KΩ 1
10KΩ(pot) 1
2 Capacitor 0.1µF 2
3 Transistor SL100 1
SK100 1
4 Signal Generator 2
5 Op-amp µA741 2
6 Power supply +12V,-12V 1
7 CRO& probes, connecting wires

Theory:
During transmission, noise is introduced at top of the transmission pulse which can be
easily removed if the pulse is in the form of flat top. Here, the top of the samples are flat i.e.
they have constant amplitude. Hence, it is called as flat-top sampling or practical sampling.

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Procedure:

Modulation

1. Before wiring the circuit, verify all the components

2. Make the connections as per the circuit diagram.
3. Observe the modulated output S(t) wave form on CRO
4. Measure time period T and amplitude of output waveform.

Demodulation
1. Before wiring the circuit, verify all the components
2. Make the connections as per the circuit diagram.
3. Connect the modulate d output S(t) as input
4. Observe the output waveform on CRO
5. Measure time period T and amplitude of output waveform.

Result: Flat-top sampling modulation is demonstrated and reconstructed.

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Circuit Diagram: Flat Top Sampling Modulation

Waveform:

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Circuit Diagram: Flat Top Sampling Demodulation

Waveform:

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Experiment No 7.

Measurement of Frequency, Guide Wavelength, Power, Vswr and

Attenuation In A Microwave Test Bench
Aim :To conductanexperimenttoobtainguidewavelength,frequency,powerandattenuationin a
microwave test bench.

Components required: Attenuator, frequency meter, isolator, oscillator, detector, klystron

power supply, vswr meter and CRO.

Theory:
There flex klystron makes use of velocity modulation to transform a continuous electron
beam into microwave power. Electrons emitted from the cathode are accelerated and passed
through the positive resonator towards negative reflector, which retards and finally, reflects
the electrons and the electrons turn back through the resonator, suppose an rf field exist
between the resonators the electrons travelling forward will be accelerated electrons leave the
resonator at an the voltage at the Resonator changes in amplitude. The accelerated electrons
leave the resonator at an increased velocity and the retarded electrons leave at the reduced
velocity. The electrons leaving the resonator will need different time to return, due to change
in velocities. As a result, returning electrons group together in bunches. As the bunches pass-
through resonator, they interact with voltage at resonator grids. If the bunches pass the grid at
such a time that the electrons are slowed down by the voltage then energy will be delivered
totheresonatorandKlystronwilloscillate.Thedimensionsofresonantcavityprimarilydetermine
the frequency. Hence, by changing the volume of resonator, mechanical tuning of Klystron is
possible. Also a small frequency change can be obtained by adjusting the reflector voltage.
This is called Electronic Tuning.

For further details refer Microwave Devices and Circuits by Samuel Y. Liao

Fig11 :Experimental set up for Microwave test Bench

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To set the square wave and measurement of frequency, VSWR and attenuation:

Fig12 Set up for finding frequency, VSWR and attenuation

Measurement of Power and VSWR:

Fig13.Setupfor finding power and VSWR

Calculations:

Frequency:
Guided wavelength:

Tabular Column:

S.No Power MSR CVD R=MSR+(CVD*L.C)

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Calculations:

Result: Microwave test bench is set up to find the frequency, power, attenuation and
wavelength.

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ExperimentNo8:

Directivity and Gain of an Antenna

Aim: To measure the directivity and gain of antenna's standard dipole.

Components Required: Power supply, microwave source (VCO), 6dBattenuator,

Transmitting antenna, Rotatable Test Antenna, Detector, Active filter, VSWR meter, CRO.

Procedure:
1. Setup the system as shown in block for a standard dipole antenna
2. Keeping the voltage at minimum, switch ON the power supply.
3. Vary the power supply voltage and check the output for different VCO frequencies.
4. Keeping at the resonant frequency, calculate and keep the minimum distance for field
between the transmitting and receiving antenna using the formula: S = 2d0.0where cl is the
broader dimension of the antenna.
5. Keeping the line of sight properly (0° at the timetable). Tabulate the output obtained.
6. Rotate the tom table in clock wise and anti-clockwise for different angle of deflection and
tabulate the output for every angle (E~).
7. Plot a graph :angle Vs output
8 Find the half power beam with (HPBW) from the points where the power half (3dB
pointsor0.707\points)
9. Directivity of the antenna can be calculated using the formula 45253 I (HPBW)
4whereHPBW is the half power beam width in degrees. En and E <>> are the output
signals measured at the receiving antenna for 00and for different angles respectively.
10. Gain of the antenna can be calculated using the formula.

Gain measurement
1. Set as per the steps given in the previous procedure from 1-15.
2. Connect the RF output to detector without disturbing any setting of the transmitter .
3. observetheoutputofthedetectoronSWRmeterthatwillbethetransmittingpowerPt dB
4. Calculate the receiving power from the receiving antenna this will gives the Pr
5. Calculate this for two values.
6. Gain G=4∏S/ λo(Pt/Pr)1/2 .
7. S=distance between transmitter and receiver,
8. Λo is free space wavelength=12.5cm.

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Circuit Diagram

Fig14.Antenna set up for finding out directivity and gain.

RESULT: Directivity and gain of an antenna are measured.

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ExperimentNo9 (a)

Determination of Coupling and isolation characteristics of

micro strip directional coupler

Aim: Determination of coupling and Isolation characteristics of a strip line

Components Required: Power supply, Microwave source, attenuator, detector, active filter,
VSWR or CRO

Theory:
A Directional coupler is device with which it is possible to measure the incident and
reflectedwaveseparately.Itconsistsoftwotransmissionlinesthemainarmandauxiliaryarm,
electromagnetically coupled to each other. The power entering, in the main arm gets divided
between port2 and port3, and almost no power comes out in portr4. Power entering at port2 is
divided between port1and port4.

Fig15: Block diagram

Fig 16.: Types of couplers

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Procedure:
1. Set up the system as shown in figure
2. Keeping the voltage at minimum, Switch On the power supply.
3. insert a 50ohm transmission line and check for the output at the end of the system using a
CRO/ VSWR meter/ F power meter
4. Vary the power supply voltage and check the output for different VCO frequencies.
5. Keep the VCO frequency constant, note down the output. This value can be taken as the
input to the power divider.
6. Replace the 50ohmtransmission line with the Wilkinson power divider.
7. Tabulate the output atport2,3 and4.
8. Calculate insertion loss and coupling factor in each coupled arm.
9. Calculate the isolation between port 3 and 4 by feeding the input to port3 and measure
output at port by terminating port I and port 2.
10.Repeat the experiment for different VCO frequencies.

Fig17.Experimental set up to find coupling, Isolation and Directivity of Directional coupler

Observations:
P2out (dB)(P1 –input, P2- detector, P3& P4- matched load)
P3out(dB) (P1 –input, P3- detector, P2& P4- matched load)
P2out(dB) (P1 –input,P4-detector, P2&P3-matched load

Power at direct port-S21(dB)=Pin (dB)-

P2out(dB).Coupling(C)-S31(dB)=Pin(dB)-
P3out(dB).
Isolation-S 41(dB)=Pin (dB)-
P4out(dB).Directivity(D)-
S43(dB)=P3out(dB)-P4out(dB

Result: Coupling, directivity and isolation characteristics of directional coupler are obtained.

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Experiment No 9(b).

Determination of Resonance characteristics of micro strip

ring resonator and computation of dielectric constant of
the substrate.

AIM: To measure the resonance characteristics of a micro strip Ring Resonator and
Determination of Dielectric constant of the substrate.

APPARATUS: Power supply, attenuator, detector, active filter, CRO, metal Zig

PROCEDURE:
1. Connect 6dB attenuator to RF output in C-band solid state source with power supply order
to control noise.
2. Alsoconnectan6dBattenuatortodetectoralso.
3. In order to gain proper sine wave tune voltage and gain.
4. Once we get sine wave, place a ring resonator in metal zig. Then place metal zig
between supply and detector.
5. Now adjust voltage and gain in order to get a sine wave.
6. Now tabulate the values of voltage obtained from CRO and frequency which is obtained
from power supply.
7. This is the procedure for ring resonator in air. Now cover the ring resonator with a
material on metal zig and follow the same procedure to get dielectric.

Theory of Ring Resonator

The open-end effect encountered in a rectangular resonator at the feeding gaps can be
minimized by forming the resonator as a closed loop. Such a resonator is called a ring
resonator. Figure 7.4 shows the layout of a ring resonator along with the input and output
feed lines. As explained in the case of the rectangular resonator, the coupling can be loose or
tight depending on the gap width. Resonance is established when the mean circumference of
the ring is equal to integral multiples of guide wavelength.

2r0 n , for n =1, 2,3….. (.6)

f0 ef

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Fig..18 Layout of a micro strip ring resonator with input and output lines
In (.6), ro is the mean radius of the ring and n is the mode number. The other symbols are
defined in section .1. The ring has the lowest order resonance for n = 1. For this mode, the
field maxima occur at the two coupling gaps and nulls occur at 90 locations from the
coupling gaps.
Equation (.6) does not take into account the coupling effects at the gaps. As explained in
section .1 for the rectangular resonator, the resonance frequency of the ring is also affected by
the coupling gap. The deviation from the intrinsic resonant frequency, however, is much
smaller than in the case of a rectangular resonator.
Coupling can be increased up to some extent by making the feeding lines as curved shown in
fig..5.

Fig.19 Layout with curved input and output feed line.

Block Diagram:

Fig20: Experimental set up for studying the resonance characteristics of ring resonator

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Tabular Column

Ring Modulator in air Ring Modulator in dielectric

Sl.No Voltage(V) Frequency(Hz) Sl.No Voltage(V) Frequency(Hz)

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Result: Resonance characteristics of micro strip line are obtained

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Experiment No 9(c).

Power Division and Isolation characteristics of a micro strip 3dB

Power divider
Aim: To measure the power division and isolation characteristics of micro strip power
divider.

Apparatus: Power supply, attenuators, detector, active filter, CRO, metal zig, VSWR,
50ohm mismatch terminals.

Procedure:

1. First check only for sine wave without connecting the metal zig and set the frequency as 5
GHz.
2. Now remove the connection to CRO and connect It to VSWR.
3. Set the VSWR to 0.
4. Connect the metal zig also.
5. If p2 is considered as output then p3 is connected to 50ohm mismatch terminator and vice-
versa.
6. pI is always considered as input.
7. Calculate the power arm2 and 3and isolation which should be zero.

Theory:

Power divider is a 3 port device in which one input port and two output ports. When the
power is fed at input port 1,power will emerge from the other two ports 2 and 3.it is
impossible
tomatchalltheportsofpowerdivider.Inordertomatchallthethreeports,anisolationresistance of
2Z0 is added between ports 2 and 3.With this the proper isolation is provided between ports
2and 3.

Fig21:Block Diagram To check sine wave

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Fig22: Block Diagram to find at power arms of power divider

Calculation:

Power at arm2: V2= P1-

P2Power at arm3: V3= P1-

p3Poweratarm1:V1=P2-P3

Isolation:20

log(V3/V2)Insertion loss: 20

log(V3/V1)Couplingloss:20log(

V2/V1)

Result: Isolation, insertion loss and coupling loss of a power divider are measured.

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Part B

SOFTWARE EXPERIMENTS

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ExperimentNo.1
Simulation of NRZ, RZ Half Sinusoid and Raised Cosine Pulses
and generate eye diagram for binary polar signaling using
MATLAB:

Aim: To design, simulate a NRZ, RZ Half Sinusoid and Raised Cosine Pulses and generate
eye diagram for binary polar signaling using MATLAB. .
Software Tool Required MATLAB Version
Half sinusoid pulse:

t=0:0.2:2;
f=.5;% Input Signal Frequency
x=sin(2*pi*f*t);%Generate Sine Wave
x(x>0)=0; %Rectified Sine Wave
plot(t,
x);axis([x -11])
lim

Fig.1Half Sinusoid

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Line codes:
clc;

close all;
clear all;
x=[1 0 1 1 0 1];
nx=size(x,2);
sign=1;
i=1;
while i<nx+1
t=i: 0.001:i+1-0.001;
if
x(i)==1unipolar_code=square(t*2*pi,1
00);polar_code=square(t*2*pi,100);bip
olar_code=sign*square(t*2*pi,100);sig
n=sign*-1;
Manchester code=square (t*2*pi,50);

else
Unipolar code=0;
polar code=-square (t*2*pi,100);
Bipolar code=0;
Manchester_ code=square(t*2*pi,50);

end
subplot(4,1,1);
plot (t, unipolar code);
ylabel('unipolar
code');hold on;
grid on;
axis([110 -2 2]);

subplot(4,1,2);
plot(t,polar_code);
ylabel('polar
code');hold on;
grid on;
axis([110 -2 2]);

subplot(4,1,3);
plot(t, bipolar_ code);
ylabel('bipolar code');
hold on;
gridon;
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axis([110 -2 2]);

subplot(4,1,4);plot(t,
Manchester_ code);

label ('Manchester
code');hold on;
grid on;
axis([110 -2 2]);

i=i+1;
end

Fig2:Simulation result of line codes

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Filter Using Simu- link Raised Cosine Filter Blocks

The Raised Cosine Transmit Filter and Raised Cosine Receive Filter blocks are designed for
raised cosine filtering. Each block can apply a square-root raised cosine filter or a normal
raised cosine filter to a signal. You can vary the roll off factor and span of the filter.
The Raised Cosine Transmit Filter and Raised Cosine Receive Filter blocks are tailored for
use at the transmitter and receiver, respectively. The transmit filter outputs an up
sampled(interpolated)signal,while the receive filter expects its input signal to be up sampled.
The Receive filter lets you choose whether to have the block down sample (decimate) the
filtered signal be for sending it to the output port.
Both raised cosine filter blocks introduce a propagation delay, as described in Group Delay.
Combining Two Square-Root Raised Cosine Filters
This model shows how to split the filtering equally between the transmitter's filter and the
receiver's filter by using a pair of square root raised cosine filters.
The use of two matched square root raised cosine filter s is equivalent to a single normal
raised cosine filter. To see this illustrated, load the model doc_rrcfilter compare by typing the
following at the MATLAB command line.
doc_rrc filter compare

Fig3: Simulink Model for eye diagram and signal space diagram

The filters share the same span and use the same number samples per symbol but the filter s
on the upper path have a square root shape while the filter on the lower path has the normal
shape. Run the model and observe the eye and constellation diagrams. The performance is
nearly identical for the two methods. Note that the limited impulse response of practical
square root raised cosine filters causes a slight difference between the response of two
cascaded square root raised cosine filters and the response of one raised cosine filter.

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Fig4: Simulation results of model

RESULT: Thus NRZ, RZ

HalfSinusoidandRaisedCosinePulsesandeyediagramforbinarypolarsignallingweredesigned
using MATLAB and output was verified successfully.

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ExperimentNo2:
Simulate the Pulse code modulation and demodulation system
and display the waveforms.

Aim : To design, simulate the Pulse code modulation and demodulation system and display
the waveforms.

Software Tool Required: Mat lab

Program:
%PCMTRANSMITTER
%Analog Signal(Sinusoidal signal)
f=2; %Maximum frequency of the signal
fs=20*f; %Nyquist sampling freq rate
t=0:1/fs:1;
a=2;
%Amplitude
=a*sin (2*pi*f*t);
%level shifting
x1=x+ a;
%Quantization _
op=round(x1);
%Decimal Value in to binary value
enco=de2bi (q_op,'leftt- msb');
%PCM Receiver
deco=bi2de(enco,'left-msb');
%shifting the amplitude level to the original value
xr=deco-a;
%plotting
plot(t,x,'r- ',t,xr,'k+-');
xlabel('Amplitude');
ylabel('original Signal');
leg
end

('original signal‟, „Reconstructed Signal');

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Second Method
PCM Modulation & Demodulation:
clc;
close,allclear all;
n=input('Enter n value for n-bit PCM system
:');n1=input('Enter number of samples in a
period:');

L=2^n;
%%Signal Generation
%x=0:1/100:4*pi;
% y=8*sin(x); %AmplitudeOfsignalis8v
%subplot(2,2,1);
%plot(x,y);grid on;
%Sampling Operation
x=0:2*pi/n1:4*pi; % n1 number of samples have to be
selected s=8*sin(x);
subplot(3,1,1);
plot(s);
title ('Analog Signal');
ylabel('Amplitude--->');
xlabel('Time---
>');subplot(3,1,2);
stem(s);
grid on;
title('Sampled Signal');ylabel('Amplitude--->');xlabel ('Time--->');
%Quantization Process
vmax=8;
vmin=-vmax;
del=(vmax-vmin)/L;
part=vmin:del:
vmax; % level are between vmin and vmax with
difference of del
code=vmin-(del/2):del: vmax+(del/2); % Contaion Quantized valuses
[ind,q]=quantize (s, part, code); %Quantization process
%ind contain index number and q contain
quantizedvaluesl
1=length(ind);l2
=length(q);
for i=1:l1
if (ind(i)~=0) % To make index as binary decimal so started from 0
0 to N
ind(i)= ind(i)-
1;
end
i=i+1;
end
for
i=1:
l2

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if (q(i)==vmin-(del/2)) % To make quantize value in-between the level

sq(i)=vmin+(del/2);

end
end
subplot(3,1,3);
stem(q);grid on; % Display the Quantize values
title('Quantized Signal');
ylabel('Amplitude--->');
xlabel('Time--->');

%Encoding Process
figure

code=de2bi(ind,'left-msb'); % Convert the decimal to binary

k=1;
for
i=1:l1
for
j=1:n
coded(k)=code(i,j); % convert code matrix to a coded row vector
j=j+1;
k=k+1;
end

i=i+1;
end
subplot (2,1,1);grid on;
stairs(coded); % Display the encoded signal
axis([0100 -2 3]);title('Encoded Signal');
ylabel('Amplitude--->');
xlabel('Time--->');

%Demodulation Of PCM signal

qunt=reshape(coded,n,length(coded)/n);
index=bi2de(qunt','left-msb'); % Get back the index in decimal
formq=del*index+vmin+(del/2); % get back Quantized values
subplot(2,1,2);grid on;
plot(q); %Plot Demodulated signal
title('Demodulated
Signal');ylabel('Amplitude-
-->');
xlabel('Time--->');
Result:
Enter n value for n-bit PCM system:
4Enter number of samples in a period:8

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ExperimentNo.3
Simulation of QPSK transmitter and receiver &Plot the signals
and its constellation diagram:
AIM: To design, simulate QPSK transmitter and receiver & Plot the signals and its
constellation diagram
SOFTWARE TOOL REQUIRED: MATLAB & Simulink
Program:
QPSK Modulation & Demodulation:
clc;
Clear all;
close all;
data=[0101110011];%information
%Number_of_bit=1024;
%data=randint(Number_of_bit,1);figure
(1)
stem(data,'linewidth',3),grid on;
title('Information before Transmitting
');axis([01101.5]);
data_NZR=2*data-1; % Data Represented at NZR form for QPSK
modulation
s_p_data=reshape (data_NZR, 2, length(data)/2);% S/P
convertion of data
br=10.^6; %Let us transmission bit
rate1000000f=br;%minimum carrier frequency
T=1/br;%bit duration
t=T/99:T/99:T;% Time vector for one bit information
% XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX QPSK
modulatioXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX
y=[];
y_in=[];
y_qd=[];for(i=1:length(da
ta)/2)
y1=s_p_data(1,i)*cos(2*pi*f*t); % in phase component
y2=s_p_data(2,i)*sin(2*pi*f*t);
%Quadrature component
y_in=[y_in y1]; % in phase signal
vectory_qd=[y_qdy2];%quadrature signal vector
y=[yy1+y2];%modulated signal vector
end
Tx_sig=y; % transmitting signal after
modulationtt=T/99:T/99:(T*length(data))/2;
figure(2)subplot(3,1,
1);

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plot(tt,y_in,'linewidth',3),gridon;
title(' wave form for in phase component in QPSK modulation
');
xlabel('time(sec)');
ylabel('
amplitude(volt0');subplot(3,1,2);plot(tt
,y_qd,'linewidth',3),gridon;
title(' wave form for Quadrature component in QPSK
modulation');
xlabel('time(sec)');ylabel(
'
amplitude(volt0');subplot(3
,1,3);
plot(tt,Tx_sig,'r','linewidth',3),grid on;
title('QPSK modulated signal (sum of in phase and
Quadrature phase signal)');
xlabel('time(sec)');ylabel(
'amplitude(volt0');
% XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX QPSK
demodulationXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX
Rx_data=[];
Rx_sig=Tx_sig; % Received
signalfor(i=1:1:length(data)/2)
%%XXXXXX in phase coherent dector
XXXXXXXZ_in=Rx_sig((i-
1)*length(t)+1:i*length(t)).*cos(2*pi*f*t);
% above line indicat multiplication of received
&in phase carredsignal

Z_in_intg=(trapz(t,Z_in))*(2/T);% integration using

trapizodial rull
if(Z_in_intg>0) % Decision Maker
Rx_in_data=1;
elseRx_in_dat
a=0;end

%%XXXXXX Quadrature coherent dector

XXXXXXZ_qd=Rx_sig((i-
1)*length(t)+1:i*length(t)).*sin(2*pi*f*t);
%above line indicat multiplication
of received & Quad phase carred signal

Z_qd_intg=(trapz(t,Z_qd))*(2/T);%integration
usingtrapizodialrull
if (Z_qd_intg>0)% Decession
MakerRx_qd_data=1;
elseRx_qd_dat
a=0;end

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Rx_data=[Rx_dataRx_in_dataRx_qd_data];%Received Data vector

End
figure(3)
stem(Rx_data,'linewidth',3)title('Infor
mation after Receiving
');axis([01101.5]),gridon;
%XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX end of program
XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX

Result:

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N = 10^4 % number of bits or symbols

rand('state',100); % initializing the rand() function
randn('state',200);%initializing the randn()function
ip=rand(1,N)>0.5;%generating0,1withequalprobability
ipD = mod(filter(1,[1 -1],ip),2); % %differential encoding y[n]=y[n-
1]+x[n]s= 2*ipD-1;% BPSK modulation 0->-1; 1-> 0
n = 1/sqrt(2)*[randn(1,N) + j*randn(1,N)]; % white Gaussian noise,
0dBvariance
Eb_N0_dB = [-3:10]; % multiple Eb/N0 values
for I i= 1:length(Eb_N0_dB)
y = s + 10^(-Eb_N0_dB(ii)/20)*n; % additive white Gaussian
noiseipDHat_coh=real(y)>0; %coherent demodulation
ipHat_coh = mod(filter([1 -1],1,ipDHat_coh),2); %differential
decodingnErr_dbpsk_coh(ii) = size(find([ip - ipHat_coh]),2); % counting
the numberoferrors
end
sim Ber_dbpsk_coh=nErr_dbpsk_coh/N;
theory Ber_dbpsk_coh=erfc(sqrt(10.^(Eb_N0_dB/10))).*(1-
.5*erfc(sqrt(10.^(Eb_N0_dB/10))));closea
ll
Figure
semilogy(Eb_N0_dB,theoryBer_dbpsk_coh,'b.-
');holdon
semiology(Eb_N0_dB,simBer_dbpsk_coh,'mx-
');axis([-210 10^-60.5])
gridon
legend('theory',
'simulation');xlabel('Eb/No,dB'
)
ylabel('Bit Error Rate')
title ('Bit error probability curve for coherent demodulation of DBPSK')

Result:
N=10000

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Building Simulink Model of QPSK Modulator and Demodulator:

I. Standard QPSK Simulation
The Simulink model of QPSK modulator and demodulator is shown below

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Build the Simulink model shown in Figure1.

1. Double-click on the Random Integer Generator and adjust the set size to a proper value
(Remember that the input to the QPSK modulator should be either 0, 1, 2, or3).
2. In the Random Integer Generator block, set the Sample Time to 1e-6 (i.e. 1 µs) and the
Samples per frame parameter to 1024.
3. In the AWGN block, set the Symbol period parameter to 1e-6 (i.e. 1 µs) and the Number
of bits per symbol parameterto2 (since QPSK uses 2 bits per symbol).
4. For the Error Rate Calculation block, set the Output data field to “port” so you can
connect the Display block.
5. The Display Block will show you three values. The first value is the BER, the second
value is the number of incorrect bits, and the third value is the total number of bits
received. Set the simulation time to 10 seconds.
6. In both QPSK Modulator and Demodulator blocks, set the Constellation ordering to
Gray. Take a note of the constellation points.
7. In this experiment, you will adjust the value of the in the AWGN block, starting from 3,
incrementing by 1 every step, and ending at 15, and observe the error rate displayed in
the Display block. Make a table recording the value of and the corresponding BER.
8. Plot BER vs. and compare with the theoretical values. Comment on the results.
9. Repeat for Binary Constellation ordering in both QPSK modulator and demodulator
blocks and comment on the results

RESULT Thus QPSK transmitter, receiver constellation diagram we regenerated using

MATLAB and output was verified successfully.

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ExperimentNo4:
Test the performance of a binary differential phase shift keying
system by simulating the non-coherent detection of binary DPSK.

Aim: To design, simulate DBPSK modulation and Demodulation & Plot the signals and its
constellation diagram
Program: DBPSK Modulation & Demodulation: Simulink, developed by The Math Works,
is an environment for multi-domain simulation and Model-Based Design for dynamic and
embedded systems. It provides an interactive graphical environment and a customizable
setoff block libraries that helps to design, simulate, implement and test a variety of time-
varying systems, including communications, controls, signal processing, video processing,
and image processing. With Simulink, the models are built by dragging and dropping blocks
from the library browser onto the graphical editor and connecting them with lines that
establish mathematical relationships between blocks. Simulation parameters are set by double
clicking the various blocks as listed in Table 1.
Table1:Parameter Settings for the Various Blocks in the Models of DBPSK,
Name of the Block Name of the Parameter DBPSKP

Bernoulli Binary Generator Probability of a Zero 0.5

Initial Seed Initial Seed

Sample time 1

Frame based output checked

samples per frame 1000

Output data type Double

2.Modulator Baseband Phase Offset pi/2,pi/4,pi/8

Constellation ordering Binary

Input type Type Integer
Output Data Type double
3.AWGNChannel Initial Seed Any positive integer

Mode SNR(Eb/No) SNR(Eb/No )

Eb /No(dB) Constant or variable

No. Of Bit s per Symbol 1/2/3

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Input Signal power(watts)1 1

Symbol period(s)1 1
4.DemodulatorBaseband M-arynumber2/4/8 2/4/8
Phase offset(rad) 0,pi/4,pi/8

Constellation ordering Binary

Output type Integer
5.Errorratecalculation Receive Delay 0
Computation Delay 0
Computation Mode Entire frame
Output Data port
Reset Port unchecked
Stop simulation checked
Target No.of Errors 100
6.Display Format Short
Decimation 1
Floating display unchecked
7.SignaltoWorkspace Variable Name BER BER
Limit data point to last1

Decimation 1
Frames Concatenate frames (2-Darray

Log Fixed point data as a fi unchecked

object

The baseband simulation models designed of M-ary DPSK for M=2, 4, 8 i.e. for
DBPSK,DQPSK and 8-DPSK are given in Figure 4, 5 and 6. The Bernoulli Binary Generator
blockgeneratesrandombinarynumbersusingaBernoullidistribution.TheDisplayblockshowsthe
value of its input, the amount of data displayed and the display format can be control by
selecting a Format choice: short, which displays a 5-digit scaled value with fixed decimal
point. The Decimation parameter enables to display data at every nth sample, where n is the
decimation factor. The default decimation 1,displays

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BER Performance Analysis of M-ary DPSK Techniques Using Simulation Modeling

Data at every time step. The Sample time parameter enables to specify a sampling interval at
which to display points. In this simulation, a generic m file is used together with simulink to
simulate the BER vs. Eb/No graphs. This m file declares the parameters defined in the
Simulink‟s block diagram checkbox. First, the simulation is done by running the concerned
.mdl file of the designed model. Once the output values are stored in the workspace, the
associated .m file is typed under the command window and it is run. Finally, BER graph
vsEb/No(SNR) graphs are obtained once the simulation is complete.

Figure 7: BER Performance of DBPSK over AWGN Channel Using Simulink and its
Comparison with the Theoretical Output BER Curve
CONCLUSIONS
1. TheBERforallthedigitalModulationschemesdecreasemonotonicallywithincreasingvalu
es of Eb/No

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2. It is observed from the simulation curves and the mathematical analysis of the signals
that, as the number of signals or number of M increases, the error probability or more
clearly the probability of error rate is increased.
3. Both simulation using Simulink and .m files show that the performance of M-
arydifferentialmodulationtechniquesinAWGNchannelhasalmostsamebiterrorperforma
nce. So, the simulation of higher order modulation techniques can be done easily
using Simulink as compared to creating complex m files.
4. Simulation of DBPSK using Simulink gives the best results. This tool also simplifies
the process of passing from simulation to implementation, without the necessity of
being a specialized hardware engineer.

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SAMPLE VIVA QUESTIONS

1. What are the properties of Magic tee?

2. What are the applications of magic tee? Why it is called “magic tee”?

3. Give the scattering matrix of magic tee

4. Give the scattering matrix of directional coupler

5. Define: Coupling coefficient, directivity, insertion loss, isolation

6. Give the applications of directional coupler

7. How does oscillations take place in reflex klystron?

8. Why can‟t we use conventional vacuum tube set microwave frequencies?

9. Give the applications of reflex klystron

10. What is meant by ETR, ETS?

11. Define Gunn effect

12. What are the modes of operation of Gunn diode

13. Define transit time modes.

14. Define LSA mode

15. What are the applications of Gunn diode.

16. How does Gunn diode oscillate?

17. What are the advantages of Gunn diode?

18. Draw the Jv/sE characteristics of Gunn diode showing NDC region

19. How velocity modulation takes place in reflex

klystron20.Explainthe modes of reflex klystron?

21. What is the difference between transmission lines and coaxial lines

22. Why cylindrical cavity resonators are not used with klystrons?

23. What are the advantages of directional couplers

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24. What are waveguides?

25. What are cavity resonators? Mention its applications

26. By what method cavity resonators are tuned

27. What are the applications of circulators?

28. What is modulation? Mention different types of digital modulation techniques?

29. What is base band and band pass transmissions

30. Mention the two main resources available with communication channels

31. What are formatting blocks

32. What is sampling process?

33. State sampling theorem for low pass signals

34. Mention different types of sampling process?

35. What is aliasing? Mention the conditions for aliasing to occur?

36. How can aliasing be reduced?

37. What is aperture effect? How it is reduced?

38. What is the minimum transmission band width of transmission channel?

39. What are the requirements that a digital modulation scheme must satisfy

40. What is M-ary transmission?

41. What is demodulation and detection?

42. Define coherent and non-coherent detection?

43. What is the drawback of BPSK?

44. Mention the minimum transmission bandwidth of BPSK , DPSK, QPSK?

45. Mention the advantages of DPSK? Also what are its disadvantages?

46. What are the advantages and disadvantages of QPSK

47. Differentiate FSK, PSK

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48. Explain flat top sampling?

49. What is antenna?

50. What is radiation pattern

51. What is directivity?

52. Define antenna gain?

53. Explain effective aperture of antenna

54. Define bandwidth and beam width of antenna

55. What is near field and far field of antenna

56. What is polarization of antenna?

57. Explain structure of optical fiber?

58. What is refractive index?

59. What is numerical aperture?

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