Flavio Salvati

Fundamentals

of Astronomy

A guide for Olympiads

ii

Copyright c

2020 Flavio Salvati

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in

a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without the
prior permission in writing of the author, or as expressly permitted by law, or
under terms agreed with the appropriate reprographics rights organization.

Enquiries concerning reproduction outside the scope of the above should be

sent to the author. You must not circulate this book in any other binding or
cover and you must impose the same conditions on any buyer.

Experience suggests that it is close to impossible for the book to be error-

free.

If something looks amiss, please check the webpage www.astrolympiad.com

for a list of typos, updates and additional problems. If you have any
questions or suggestions, don’t hesitate to contact me at
astrolympiad@gmail.com.

ISBN: 979-8688791433

Published on the autumnal equinox, 2020.

To my parents

Contents
Preface

ix

Positional Astronomy

Celestial Coordinate Systems

1.1

Geographical Coordinate System

1.2

The Horizontal System

1.3

The Equatorial System

1.4

The Ecliptic System

8
1.5

The Galactic System

1.6

Exercises

1.7

Problems

10

Transformation of Coordinates

11

2.1

The Three Equations

11

2.2

From the Horizontal to the HA-dec System

14

Upper and Lower Culmination

15
Rising and Setting Times

17

Duration of day and night

17

2.3

From The Ecliptic to the RA-dec System

19

Declination of the Sun throughout the year

20

2.4

Exercises

21

2.5

Problems

22

Perturbation of Coordinates

23

3.1

Precession
23

3.2

Nutation

26

3.3

Aberration

26

3.4

Parallax

27

3.5

Refraction

27

3.6

Proper Motion

29

3.7

Other Cycles

30

iv
Contents

3.8

Exercises

30

3.9

Problems

31

Observation and Instruments

32

4.1

Angular Size

32

4.2

The Thin Lens Equation

33

4.3

Optical Telescopes

34
4.4

Angular Resolution

36

4.5

Magnification

38

Minimum Magnification

39

Maximum Magnification

39

4.6

Aperture Ratio

40

4.7

The Role of the Atmosphere

41

4.8

Exercises

41

4.9
Problems

43

Time systems

45

5.1

Sidereal and Solar Day

45

Estimating Sidereal Time

47

5.2

Equation of Time

48

5.3

Local Solar Time

51

5.4

Greenwich Mean Time

51

5.5
Time Zones

51

5.6

Daylight Saving Time

52

5.7

Measuring the Length of a Year

52

Sidereal Year

52

Tropical or Solar year

53

5.8

Calendars

53

5.9

Exercises

54

5.10 Problems

55
6

The Moon

56

6.1

Sidereal Month

57

6.2

Synodic Month

57

6.3

Draconic Month

58

6.4

Eclipses

59

Conditions for the Occurrence of Eclipses

59

Total Number of Eclipses in a Year

59

Lunar Eclipse
60

Solar Eclipse

62

Saros cycle

63

6.5

Libration

64

vi

Contents

6.6

Exercises

65

6.7

Problems

66

II

Radiation Mechanisms

67

7
Electromagnetic Radiation

68

7.1

Wave or particle?

68

7.2

Boltzmann Distribution Law

70

7.3

Maxwell Distribution Law

70

Planetary Atmospheres

71

7.4

Black Body

72

Wien’s Law

72

Stefan-Boltzmann Law

73
7.5

Types of Spectra

74

7.6

Doppler Effect

76

7.7

Harvard Stellar Classification

79

7.8

Yerkes Stellar Classification

80

7.9

Exercises

81

7.10 Problems

82

Flux and Magnitude

86
8.1

Flux

86

8.2

Albedo

86

8.3

Stellar magnitudes

87

Absolute Magnitude

89

Magnitude of a Composite System

90

Surface Magnitude

91

Magnitude Systems

91

8.4

Extinction and Optical Depth

92
8.5

Exercises

96

8.6

Problems

98

Cosmic Distance Ladder

99

9.1

Parallax

99

Diurnal Parallax

101

Annual Parallax

102

9.2

Spectroscopic Parallax

104

9.3
Standard Candles

105

9.4

Tully-Fisher Relation

106

9.5

Hubble’s Law

108

9.6

Exercises

110

Contents

vii

9.7

Problems

112

III

Celestial Mechanics

113

10 Gravitation and Kepler’s Laws

114

10.1 Newtonian Mechanics

114

10.2 Universal Law of Gravitation

114

10.3 Kepler’s Laws

118

10.4 Energy of an Orbiting Body

124

Closed Orbits

127

Open Orbits

128

10.5 Escape Velocity

128

Schwarzschild Radius

129

10.6 Virial Theorem

129

10.7 Exercises
130

10.8 Problems

133

11 Motion of the Planets

137

11.1 Apparent Motion of the Planets

137

11.2 Synodic Period

139

11.3 Exercises

141

11.4 Problems

141

12 Orbital Manoeuvres

142

12.1 The Rocket Equation

142

12.2 Oberth Effect

143

12.3 Hohmann Transfer Orbit

143

12.4 Exercises

145

12.5 Problems

146

13 Binary Stars

147

13.1 Distance Between Two Stars

148

13.2 Visual Binaries

148

13.3 Astrometric Binaries

149

13.4 Spectroscopic Binaries

150

13.5 Photometric Binaries

152

13.6 Exercises

154

IV
Solutions

155

14 Exercise Solutions

156

viii

Contents

15 Problem Solutions

219

Appendix A Mathematics

268

A.1 Vectors

268

A.2 Conic Sections

271

A.3 Plane Trigonometry

276

A.4 Spherical Trigonometry

281

A.5 Special Functions

283
A.6 Derivatives

285

A.7 Integrals

291

Appendix B Kepler’s Laws

297

B.1 Solving the equation of motion

297

B.2 The orbits

299

B.3 Proof of Kepler’s third law

301

Appendix C Virial Theorem

302

Appendix D Tables and constants

304

Suggested resources

306

Index

307
Preface

ix

Preface

Chances are you too have gazed in awe and wonder at the night sky, with
endless questions drifting through your mind: how did the universe begin,
how did life spark on Earth, are there any other intelligent beings in the
universe and, if so, why hasn’t anyone visited our planet? These are
questions one can hardly ignore and, while our chances of finding a
definitive answer within our lifetime are slim, we can make progress and
enable future generations to do so.

This book will teach you the fundamentals of astronomy, passing on the
discoveries of countless scientists who lived before us, giving you the tools
to continue along this endless journey. Maybe you will be writing the next
chapter.

I have tried to make this book accessible to a large audience, with the only
prerequisites being basic high school mathematics and physics. Slightly
more advanced mathematical tools are covered in the appendix, making the
book self-contained. At the same time, there are plenty of exercises and
problems which will help you become familiar with the concepts explained
throughout the theory. The book is specifically aimed at students preparing
for the regional and national phases of the Astronomy Olympiads, but will
still represent a valuable resource for those chosen to represent their
countries at the international competition (IOAA and IAO). While the book
contains a lot of information, you are encouraged to supplement it with
online resources and other textbooks that might cover some topics in more
detail.

The book has been divided into 4 parts. Part I (Positional Astronomy) covers
the celestial coordinate systems, the transformation and perturbation of
coordinates, observation and instruments, the time systems and the Moon.

Part II (Radiation Mechanisms) explains electromagnetic radiation, flux,

stellar magnitudes and the cosmological ladder. Part III (Celestial
mechanics) introduces gravitation and Kepler’s laws, the motion of the
planets, the rocket equation, orbital manoeuvres and binary systems. Finally,
Part IV (Solutions) presents detailed solutions to all the exercises and
problems.

I decided to distinguish between exercises, which require you to apply the

concepts learned throughout the theory (aimed at sharpening your problem
solving skills), and problems, which will guide you through the derivation of
entirely new concepts (targeting your creative thinking). The difficulty of the
exercises and problems is denoted by asterisks, from zero (easy) to four
(extremely challenging). Of course, you may disagree with my judgement of
difficulty, but I think that an arbitrary weighting scheme is better than none
at all. Some problems are extremely hard, so it is normal you will get stuck.
In this case, don’t be discouraged, just set the problem aside for some time
and get back to it later. You will find that thinking about the possible
solutions over and over again will strengthen what you learned and resolve
new doubts.

Preface

If you need some guidance, try reading the solution line-by-line (maybe
covering the rest of the page with a piece of paper), pausing where you think
you can continue by yourself. I have added interesting discussions at the end
of many solutions, so be sure to read them after you solve a question. In the
case of questions with 4 asterisks, my aim was to create an almost
insurmountable challenge, that will always give you something to think
about.

I have also included some exercises of various astronomy competitions,

from the national to the international level. The source is stated at the
beginning of each problem (see the next page for a list of references), so that
you can easily find it online.

At the end of the book there are four appendices. Appendix A (Mathematics)
covers the necessary concepts to understand the theory and solve most of the
exercises. My advice is that you start by studying this part, if you are not
familiar with high school mathematics. Appendix B (Kepler laws) contains a
proof of Kepler laws from Newton’s law of gravitation. I suggest you read
this only after having gone through Appendix A and Part III. Appendix C
(Virial theorem) contains a proof of the Virial theorem in its most general
form. Finally, Appendix D (Tables and constants) has been included to speed
up the process of finding known constants when solving exercises and
problems.

I want to thank everyone that helped proof-read the book: Alexandra Alexiu
and Amar Shah, who read the whole manuscript and made invaluable
suggestions, and Je Qin Chooi and Alisa Hathaway for the additional help in
the more challenging chapters. I also want to thank my parents, Lidwina and
Francesco, and my siblings, Fabiana and Federico, for reading the book and
encouraging me to finish this immense project. Despite scrupulous reviews
by myself and many other people, it is practically impossible for the book to
be error-free.

If something looks amiss, visit www.astrolympiad.com for a list of typos and

updates. On the website I will also publish many other problems that, for the
sake of brevity, I could not include in the book. If you discover an error that
has not yet been published, I would be very grateful if you could report it to
me either by filling out the form on the site or by writing to the email
address astrolympiad@gmail.com. If you have any questions or suggestions,
don’t hesitate to contact me. Finally, if you liked the book, I would be
grateful if you could leave a review.

— I hope you enjoy the book!

National Olympiads

xi

National Olympiads

Part of the exercises were selected from the following national competitions:

– ARAO, the All-Russian Astronomy Olympiad;

– ArmAO, the Armenian Astronomy Olympiad;

– BAAO, the British Astronomy and Astrophysics Olympiad;

– CAO, the Canadian Astronomy Olympiad;

– CzAO, the Czech Astronomy Olympiad;

– INAO, the Indian National Astronomy Olympiad;

– INT and NAZ, the Italian regional and national Astronomy Olympiads;

– MyAO, the Malaysian Astronomy Olympiad;

– SAO, the Singaporean Astronomy Olympiad;

– ONAA, the Romanian Astronomy and Astrophysics Olympiad;

– USAAAO, the U.S.A. Astronomy and Astrophysics Olympiad.

You will also find exercises from the following international competitions:

– IAO, the International Astronomy Olympiads.

– IOAA, the International Olympiads on Astronomy and Astrophysics;

xii

Contents

Part I

Positional Astronomy

Celestial Coordinate Systems

In this chapter we aim to study the commonly used astronomical reference

systems. In the past, man believed that the universe was confined within a
spherical shell and that the stars, fixed on this shell, were all equidistant
from the Earth, placed at the centre of the universe. Although we know
today that these assumptions are for the most part false, this simple model is
still useful today, in many aspects, as it was in the past. In fact, since most of
the measurements are taken from Earth, it is useful to place ourselves at the
centre of the universe. Furthermore, since the distance to the stars is very
large, we can neglect the orbital motion of the Earth around the Sun (which
would periodically change the coordinates of the stars) and assume that all
the stars are fixed on a sphere of infinite radius.

Under these hypotheses, for each coordinate system, only a fundamental

plane and the direction perpendicular to it remain to be defined. We begin
this chapter by defining the coordinates of a location on the surface of the
Earth, and then apply a similar reasoning to the celestial vault.

1.1

Geographical Coordinate System

It is important to define the position of an observer on Earth, as the visible

sky depends on the location from which it is observed. Unlike astronomical
coordinates, on Earth we must also define a third coordinate, that is, the
height relative to the surface.

In this coordinate system the fundamental direction is Earth’s rotation axis.

The fundamental plane, perpendicular to Earth’s axis, is called the equator.

The points where the axis of rotation meets the surface of the Earth are
called the north and south poles. Every plane parallel to the equator is called
a parallel ; every great circle passing through the poles is called a meridian.

2
1.1. Geographical Coordinate System

Figure 1.1: Geographic coordinates of a location X on Earth.

Let O be the centre of the Earth. Looking at Fig. 1.1,

the coordinates of a
location X on Earth are:

• latitude φ, i.e. the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line
passing through XO;

• longitude λ, i.e. the angle between the Greenwich meridian and the straight
line passing through XO;

• height h, i.e. the vertical distance of X with respect to the average sea level.

The prime meridian is the Greenwich meridian, which passes through

London.

The longitude of a place to the east or west of Greenwich is denoted by x˝ E

or x˝ W respectively, where x˝ is the angle in degrees (normalized to 180˝),
between the local meridian and Greenwich. The sky visible to an observer
depends on its geographical position. As we vary the longitude, the
culmination time of the stars (the instant they pass through the meridian)
also varies. On Earth, the sky appears to rotate from east to west (clockwise
for an observer in the northern hemisphere) with an angular velocity of 15˝
per hour. Therefore, if a star in Rome culminates at 11:00 local time, in
London it culminates about an hour later, as the location is further west by
just under 15˝. As we vary the latitude, the height of the stars on the horizon
also varies. As will be seen more in detail in the next chapter, some stars are
circumpolar (always visible), others rise and set at different times, while
others permanently stay below the horizon. At the equator, all the stars rise
and set over the course of a day; at the north pole, only half of the celestial
vault is visible and all stars are circumpolar. Finally, varying the altitude
modifies the apparent horizon, to be distinguished from the astronomical
horizon, which is the line perpendicular

Chapter 1. Celestial Coordinate Systems

Figure 1.2: At a height h it is possible to see an additional patch of sky of
angle θ “

pR{pR ` hqq. For this reason, the horizon appears to be farther away when
standing on a very tall building.

to the vertical at each location on Earth (Fig. 1.2).

Assuming for the moment
that there is no refraction, the apparent horizon coincides with the geometric
horizon. When standing on a very tall building, we can effectively see an
additional patch of sky of angle θ, and therefore the number of visible stars
is greater. This phenomenon is known as the dip of the horizon. In the
limiting case of an observer at infinite height, the Earth appears as a point,
i.e. in deep space all the stars are visible. Looking back at Fig. 1.2,
we see
that the following relationship holds:

pR ` hq cos θ “ R ,

Isolating θ, we find:

θ “ arccos

(1.1)

R`h

1.2

The Horizontal System

The first and most natural astronomical reference system is the one centred
on the observer. In the horizontal reference system, the fundamental
direction is the vertical line at the point of observation, i.e. the direction of
the plumb line coinciding with the direction of the acceleration of gravity.
The intersections of the vertical with the celestial sphere to the north and
south are called zenith and nadir, respectively. The plane passing through the
observer and tangent to the surface of the Earth is called horizontal plane.

The intersection of

the horizontal plane with the celestial sphere marks the astronomical
horizon.

1.2. The Horizontal System

Figure 1.3: Horizontal coordinates of a star X.

Instead, we call the true horizon the one that is actually visible, which
depends on the dip of the horizon and on the geographic landscape.
Evidently, the nadir and the whole hemisphere below the true horizon are not
observable. All the great circles passing through the zenith and nadir are
called verticals. The great circle passing through the zenith (Z) and the
celestial pole (P) is called the principal vertical. Its intersection with the
horizon defines the points north (N), on the same side of the celestial pole,
and south (S), at its antipode. The vertical circle at 90˝ from the principal
vertical is called the prime vertical.

Its intersections with the celestial horizon defines the points east (E) and
west (W). The points north, east, south and west are called cardinal points.
We call upper and lower culmination, respectively, the passage of a star on
the principal vertical, to the south, or on the anti-meridian, to the north.

Let X be a star on the celestial sphere and let X1 denote its projection on the
horizontal plane (Fig. 1.3).
Its horizontal coordinates are:

• altitude h, i.e. the angle XX1, counted in degrees starting from the horizon,
and ranging from 0˝ to 90˝ , if the object is above the horizon, and from 0˝ to
´90˝, if it is below the horizon;

• azimuth Az, i.e. the angle SX1, counted clockwise from 0˝ to 360˝.

In the horizontal system, each minor circle parallel to the horizon is called an
almucantar. The altitude of the celestial pole with respect to the horizon is
called astronomical latitude, because it is numerically equal to the
geographical latitude. The horizontal system offers the advantage of being
intuitive and easy to set up, but it can be impractical because both the
altitude h and the azimuth Az depend on the position and time of
observation. In the next section we will see how these issues can be
overcome.
6

Chapter 1. Celestial Coordinate Systems

1.3

The Equatorial System

There are two equatorial coordinate systems: HA-dec and RA-dec. Both use
the declination δ, which can be regarded as the equivalent to the altitude h
for the horizontal system. In the HA-dec equatorial system, the second
coordinate is the hour angle H, which increases linearly with time; in the
RA-dec system it is the right ascension α, independent of time.

The First Equatorial System, or HA-dec

Figure 1.4: HA-dec coordinates of a star X.

As the name suggests, in this coordinate system the fundamental plane is the
celestial equator, perpendicular to Earth’s rotation axis. The great circles
passing through the celestial north and south poles are called hour circles, as
they all have the same hour angle. Minor circles parallel to the celestial
equator are called parallels of declination. Fig. 1.4
shows what the sky looks
like to an observer at latitude φ who uses the first equatorial system. Let X
be a point on the celestial sphere and let X1 denote its projection on the
equator. In the first equatorial system, its coordinates are:

• declination δ, i.e. the angle XX1, counted in degrees starting from the
celestial equator, and ranging from 0˝ to 90˝ , if the object is above the
equator (in the direction of the celestial north pole), and from 0 ˝ to

´90 ˝, if it is below the equator;

• hour angle H, i.e. the angle MX1, counted clockwise from M and measured
in hours, from 0h to 24h.

The reason why the hour angle is counted in hours, instead of degrees, will
be clarified in the next section. In this coordinate system only the hour angle
H varies with time, increasing steadily because of Earth’s rotation. Instead,
the declination δ is constant to a first approximation, since each point on the
celestial sphere moves on a parallel, and therefore at a constant distance
from

1.3. The Equatorial System

the celestial equator. This is true only for fixed stars, while the declination of
the Sun, Moon, planets and comets is not constant.

The Second Equatorial System, or RA-dec

We now want to find a coordinate α that is completely independent of time,

at least to a first approximation. In the HA-dec system, the only time-
dependent coordinate was the hour angle. Since the rotation of the Earth is
solely responsible for the time variation of the hour angle, it is necessary for
the reference point from which we measure α to move in the sky with the
same direction and velocity as the (apparent) angular velocity of rotation of
the celestial sphere.

Let us consider the two points of intersection between the celestial equator
and the ecliptic (the projection in the sky of the plane of Earth’s orbit). For
an observer on Earth, the celestial equator is fixed while the ecliptic rotates
from east to west (in the same direction as the rotation of the celestial
sphere); hence their intersection points rotate from east to west, with the
same direction and velocity as the angular velocity of rotation of the celestial
sphere.

Thus, the distances between a fixed star and the intersection points remain
constant. One of these points is called vernal equinox or first point of Aries,
because it used to be in the constellation of Aries (see Sec. 3.1),
and is
denoted by the symbol P (the same symbol used for the constellation of
Aries). At the antipode of the vernal equinox, we find the autumnal equinox,
denoted by the symbol V (the same symbol used for the constellation of
Libra).

Let X be a point on the celestial sphere and let X1 denote its projection on
the celestial equator. Its second equatorial coordinates are:
• declination δ, defined as for the first equatorial system;

• right ascension α, i.e. the angle P X1, counted anti-clockwise from P and
measured in hours, from 0h to 24h.

By definition, the declination of the Sun is zero when it passes through the
points P and V. The Sun, however, only transits on the celestial equator
during the equinoxes. We can therefore define P and V as the points through
which the Sun transits during the vernal and autumnal equinoxes,
respectively (hence their names). At the vernal equinox, the declination of
the Sun increases daily (since it is approaching the summer solstice), while it
decreases at the autumnal equinox. For this reason, P and V are also called
ascending and descending nodes, respectively.

Looking at Fig. 1.5,

denoting with ST the hour angle of the vernal equinox,
and with H the hour angle of the object X under consideration, the following
relationship holds:

ST “ α ` H .

(1.2)

As will be seen in more detail in Sec. 5.1,

ST is called the sidereal time.
8

Chapter 1. Celestial Coordinate Systems

Figure 1.5: The sidereal time is equal to the sum of the hour angle and the
right ascension of any object

Because it is a unit of time, the sidereal time is measured in hours; therefore

it is convenient to measure H and α in hours as well. A star transiting on the
meridian has an hour angle of H “ 0h, therefore a clock calibrated in sidereal
time gives us the right ascension of every object on the meridian. To find the
object in question at any other time, we need its hour angle, but this can be
found from the sidereal time and the right ascension, using Eq. 1.2.

The coordinates α and δ are constant to the first order of approximation.

However, in the long run, perturbation phenomena (chapter 3),

in addition to
the proper motion of the stars, cause them to vary.

1.4
The Ecliptic System

In the ecliptic coordinate system the fundamental direction is the normal to

the plane of the ecliptic, that is, the normal to Earth’s plane of revolution
around the Sun. Let X be a point on the celestial sphere and let X1 be its
projection on the plane of the ecliptic. Its ecliptic coordinates are:

• ecliptic longitude λ, i.e. the angle P X1, counted anti-clockwise starting

from P and measured in degrees;

• ecliptic latitude β, i.e. the angle XX1, measured in degrees starting from
X1.

As will be seen in chapter 5,

the ecliptic system is useful in defining the
length of a tropical year.

1.5. The Galactic System

1.5

The Galactic System

The galactic coordinate system is of great importance in extragalactic stud-

ies. Unlike other reference systems which are centred on Earth, the
fundamental plane of the galactic system is the plane of the Milky Way,
defined as the region of maximum emission of the neutral hydrogen 21 cm
line. The galactic north pole is in the direction of the Coma galaxy cluster
(αnp “

12.8h, δnp “ 27.4˝). The two galactic coordinates are the galactic longitude l
and the galactic latitude b, defined in a similar way to the latitude and
longitude of the other systems. The origin of the galactic system is the
galactic centre (αgc “ 17h42.4m, δgc “ ´28 ˝551).

1.6

Exercises
1.

(INT 2014, Th.S, q.4) The first accurate measurement of the size of the
Earth was made by Eratosthenes of Cyrene and was obtained by measuring
the difference in the altitude of the Sun at the summer equinox in two
locations at a known distance. Assuming that the Earth is spherical, what is
the length of the arc between two locations at latitudè35˝ and

`45˝ (with equal longitude)?

2.*

What is the angle formed by the equator with the horizon for an observer at
latitude φ?

3.*

What is the condition whereby the altitude of a celestial object remains

unchanged over the course of a day?

4.

What is the right ascension and declination of the vernal equinox?

5.*

What is the angle formed by the ecliptic and the horizon for an observer at
the north pole?

6.*

What is the condition whereby the ecliptic north pole coincides with the
zenith of an observer?

7.*

At what latitudes are Mercury and Venus best seen in the evening or
morning?
8.*

Where is a star located, if its right ascension is equal to its ecliptic

longitude?

9.

Find the hour angle of Capella (α “ 5h14m28s) at ST“ 4h20m13s.

10.* The Burj Khalifa, in the United Arab Emirates, is over 829m tall. In the
absence of obstacles and absorption of light, from what distance would the
skyscraper be visible?

10

Chapter 1. Celestial Coordinate Systems

11.* In January 2019 Uranus had an ecliptic longitude of 43˝. What

longitude did the planet have in 1781, the year of its discovery, and which
constellation was it in?

1.7

Problems

1.** The Seasons

The hottest period in the northern hemisphere falls when the Earth is near
aphelion. Explain why the winter in the northern hemisphere is milder than
the winter in the southern hemisphere, while the summer in the southern
hemisphere is slightly warmer. Attempt a quantitative analysis (Hint: read
Ch. 8).

2.** Rotation of the Earth

An object dropped from an appreciable height does not land exactly on the
vertical, but its trajectory appears displaced in the direction of the Earth’s
rotation. This is due to the Coriolis force, or more intuitively to the fact that
the angular velocity at the launch point is the same as that at the surface of
the Earth, and therefore the tangential velocity of the body is greater than the
velocity of the surface. If the object is dropped from the Leaning Tower of
Pisa (h “ 57 m, φ “ 44˝), how far does it land from where it was dropped?

3.*

Foucault’s Pendulum

Because of Earth’s rotation, the plane of motion of a pendulum rotates

slowly. Prove that the precession period of Foucault’s pendulum is: Tsid

T“

(1.3)

sin φ

where Tsid is the time of rotation of the Earth and φ is the latitude.

4.*

Dip of the horizon with refraction

So far we have ignored refraction, and drawn the line of sight to the apparent
horizon as a straight line. However, in the real world, refraction is non-
negligible: this causes the line of sight to the apparent horizon to be curved,
not straight. Assuming we can regard the ray to the horizon as an arc of a
circle, with a curvature k times the Earth’s curvature, show that Eq. 1.1
still
holds if we replace R by Reff, and find an expression for Reff in terms of R
and k.

Transformation of Coordinates

In astronomy it is very useful to change from one coordinate system to

another. For example, it may be necessary to convert equatorial to horizontal
coordinates, to know where to find a star. This chapter may be more
challenging than others, however it is sufficient to keep in mind only those
equations which will be obtained in Sec. “Upper and Lower Culmination”.
These can also be derived more intuitively, as will be shown in Pr. 2.1.

2.1

The Three Equations

Since all astronomical coordinate systems measure angles on a sphere,

instead of the usual Cartesian system, in astronomy it is particularly
convenient to use spherical polar coordinates. In the Cartesian system, the
position of a point in space is determined solely by the three coordinates x, y
and z. In spherical polar coordinates, however, the position of a point P can
be written as a function of r, ψ and θ (see Fig. 2.1),
where:

• r is the distance of P from the origin O;

• ψ is the angle between the x axis and the projection of r on the xy plane;

• θ is the angle between r and the z axis.

Starting from the definition above, it is possible to write x, y, z as a function

of r, ψ, θ. Looking at Fig. 2.1,
we see that z “ OHz “ OP cos θ “ r cos θ. OH
is the projection of OP on the xy plane, therefore OH “ HzP “ OP sin θ “ r
sin θ.

Thus, x “ OHx “ OH cos ψ “ r cos ψ sin θ and y “ OHy “ OH sin ψ “

r sin ψ sin θ. To sum up:

$x “ r cos ψ sin θ

&

y “ r sin ψ sin θ
’

% z “ r cos θ

Let xyz and x1y1z1 be two Cartesian systems, where x1y1z1 is obtained
from xyz by a rotation of angle χ around its y axis.

11

12

Chapter 2. Transformation of Coordinates

Figure 2.1: Transforming Cartesian coordinates x, y, z to spherical polar
coordinates r, ψ, θ.

As can be seen in Fig. 2.2,

the two coordinate systems are related by the
following equations:

$x1 “ x cos χ ` z sin χ

(2.1a)

&

y1 “ y

(2.1b)

%z1 “ z cos χ ´ x sin χ .

(2.1c)

Writing xyz and x1y1z1 in spherical polar coordinates, setting r “ 1 for

simplicity: $x

“ cos ψ sin θ

x1 “ cos ψ1 sin θ1

&

&
y “ sin ψ sin θ

y1 “ sin ψ1 sin θ1

% z “ cos θ

% z1 “ cos θ1

Substituting the last two systems of equations in Eqs. 2.1,

we find: $ cos ψ1
sin θ1 “ cos ψ sin θ cos χ ` cos θ sin χ

(2.2a)

&

sin ψ1 sin θ1 “ sin ψ sin θ

(2.2b)

% cos θ1 “ cos θ cos χ ćos ψ sin θ sin χ .

(2.2c)

These three equations will be sufficient to determine all coordinate

transform-ations. With this in mind, in the next sections we will identify to
what angles χ, ψ, θ, ψ1 and θ1 correspond in the various celestial coordinate
systems, and then rewrite Eqs. 2.2
accordingly.
2.1. The Three Equations

13

Figure 2.2: Transformation between two Cartesian coordinate systems xyz

and x1y1z1, where the latter is obtained from xyz by a rotation of angle χ
around its y axis.
14

Chapter 2. Transformation of Coordinates

2.2

From the Horizontal to the HA-dec System

Figure 2.3: Transformation from the horizontal system to HA-dec.

We would now like to find a relationship between the angles ψ, ψ1, θ, θ1, χ
that appear in Eqs. 2.2
, and the angles φ, Az, H, h, δ in Fig. 2.3.
In the
horizontal and HA-dec systems, Az and H are measured clockwise, but in
the previous section we defined the angles ψ and ψ1 anti-clockwise.
Therefore ψ “ Áz and ψ1 “ ´H. The angles θ and θ1 are measured starting
from the z axis, while the coordinates h and δ are measured starting from the
fundamental planes, so it is necessary to consider the complementaries: θ “
90 ˝ ´ h and θ1 “
90˝ ´ δ. Finally, the angle between the two fundamental planes is χ “ 90 ˝ ´ φ.

Summarizing:

$ψ “ Áz

’ψ1 “ ´H

&

θ “ 90˝ ´ h

’θ1 “ 90˝ ´ δ

%χ “ 90˝ ´ φ .

Substituting the above equations in Eqs. 2.2

and using the reduction
formulae (Appendix A.3),
we find:

$ cos H cos δ “ cos Az cos h sin φ ` sin h cos φ

(2.3a)

&

sin H cos δ “ sin Az cos h

(2.3b)

% sin δ “ ćos Az cos h cos φ ` sin h sin φ .

(2.3c)

The above equations allow us to change from the horizontal to the HA-dec
system. To carry out the inverse transformation, we exchange the roles of
xyz

2.2. From the Horizontal to the HA-dec System 15

and x1y1z1. In doing so, we must remember to change the sign of χ: $ψ “ ´H

’ψ1 “ Áz

&

θ “ 90˝ ´ δ
’

’θ1 “ 90˝ ´ h

%χ “ ´p90˝ ´ φq .

We then obtain:

$ cos Az cos h “ cos H cos δ sin φ śin δ cos φ

(2.4a)

&

sin Az cos h “ sin H cos δ

(2.4b)

% sin h “ cos H cos δ cos φ ` sin δ sin φ .

(2.4c)

Since the altitude and declination are in the range [´90˝,90˝], it suffices to
know the sine of one of these angles to determine the other angle unambigu-
ously. Azimuth and right ascension, however, can take any value from 0˝ to
360˝ (or from 0h to 24h), so we need both their sines and cosines to
determine them completely.
Upper and Lower Culmination

For an observer in the northern hemisphere, the altitude of a celestial body is

maximum when it passes through the meridian, in the southern direction.

In this case, the body is said to be in upper culmination and its hour angle is
H “ 0h. The altitude is minimum when the object is passing through the anti-
meridian. Now, the body is said to be in lower culmination and its hour angle
is H “ 12h.

In the derivation that follows, we consider only the case of an observer in the
northern hemisphere, so φ ě 0 ˝. At the end of this section, we will generalize
the result for an observer in the southern hemisphere. When H “ 0h, using
Eq. 2.4c,
we find:

sin h “ cos δ cos φ ` sin δ sin φ “ cos pφ ´ δq “ sin p90˝ ´ φ ` δq , where we

used the cosine addition formula (Eq. A.16).
Therefore: sin h “ sin p90˝ ´ φ `
δq .

The previous equation has two solutions, since sin p180˝ ´ αq “ sin α.
Therefore, the altitude of upper culmination of an object with declination δ,
measured by an observed at a latitude φ ą 0˝, is:

#90˝ ´ φ ` δ, if the object culminates south of zenith; hu “

(2.5)

90˝ ` φ ´ δ,

if the object culminates north of zenith.

16

Chapter 2. Transformation of Coordinates

The above formulae give the altitude of the object as measured from the
nearest horizon (north or south). However, unless otherwise stated, the
altitude of upper culmination is measured from the southern horizon by
convention, therefore it is sufficient to use the first formula. When H “ 12h,
Eq. 2.4c
implies: sin h “ ćos δ cos φ ` sin δ sin φ “ ćos pδ ` φq “ sin pδ ` φ ´
90˝q Therefore:

sin h “ sin pδ ` φ ´ 90˝q

The altitude of lower culmination, measured by convention from the

northern horizon, is then:

hl “ δ ` φ ´ 90˝

(2.6)

Eqs. 2.5
and 2.6
can be obtained using only elementary geometry, as shown
in Pr. 2.1. Let us examine some special cases:

• when hl ą 0, i.e. δ ą 90˝ ´ φ, the object is circumpolar and it never sets;

• when hu ă 0, i.e. δ ă φ ´ 90˝, it is never visible;

• when φ ´ 90˝ ă δ ă 90˝ ´ φ, the object rises and sets.

For example, in Helsinki (φ “ 60˝), all stars with a declination greater than
30˝ never set and are therefore always visible. On the other hand, stars with a
declination less than ´30˝ can never be observed. Stars with a declination
between those two values rise and set. At the north pole, all stars with δ ą 0˝

are circumpolar, while those with δ ă 0˝ are never visible. At the equator, no
star is circumpolar, but all the stars rise and set. Atmospheric refraction
widens the visible horizon, making stars with declination close to δ “ 90˝ ´ φ

circumpolar and those with a declination close to δ “ φ ´ 90˝ visible.

Imagine we observe a circumpolar star and record its altitudes hu and hl

(measured from the southern and northern horizon) during upper and lower
culmination, respectively. Taking the average between the two altitudes, we
obtain the declination of the star:

1
δ“

phù hlq .

(2.7)

If, instead, we take the difference:

φ “ 90˝ ´ phu ´ hlq ,

(2.8)

we obtain the geographical latitude.

2.2. From the Horizontal to the HA-dec System 17

All the previous equations also apply to the southern hemisphere if we

substitute δ Ñ ´δ and φ Ñ ´φ. Indeed, by symmetry, the southern hemisphere
should be equivalent to the northern hemisphere under sign exchange (the
northern hemisphere has a positive sign by convention). Therefore, a star is
circumpolar in the southern hemisphere if δ ă p90˝ ` φq, while it never rises
if δ ą 90˝ ` φ. For example in Sydney (φ “ ´34˝), all stars with a declination
less than ´56˝ are circumpolar, while stars with a declination greater than 56˝

are never visible. At the south pole, all stars with δ ă 0˝ are circumpolar,
while stars with δ ą 0˝ are never visible.

Rising and Setting Times

We want to obtain the rising and setting times of an object, that is, the two
moments when its altitude is zero. Let’s assume we know its right ascension
is α. To calculate the sidereal time, with the equation ST “ α ` H, the only
information we are missing is its hour angle. Starting from Eq. 2.4c,
we
isolate cos H (for cos δ, cos φ ‰ 0˝):

sin h

cos H “ ´ tan δ tan φ `

cos δ cos φ

If we neglect atmospheric refraction, we can substitute h “ 0˝: cos H “ ´ tan δ

tan φ .

(2.9)

The previous equation allows us to obtain the hour angle at the moment of
rising and setting, knowing the latitude of the observer and the declination of
the object. Knowing its right ascension, it is then possible to obtain the
sidereal time using Eq. 1.2,
and therefore also the local time (see Ch. 5).

Atmospheric refraction increases the visible horizon by about ´341. In the

case of extended bodies like the Sun and the Moon, we must also consider
their angular radii.

Duration of Day and Night

During the vernal and autumnal equinoxes the declination of the Sun is δ@ “

0˝, therefore, from Eq. 2.9,

we find that the hour angles of rising and setting
are H “ ´90˝ and H “ `90˝, which are the coordinates of east and west,
respectively. Hence, during the equinoxes, the Sun rises exactly in the east
and sets exactly in the west, and the day lasts 12h everywhere on Earth.
From Eq. 2.9,
we see that at the equator, the Sun rises exactly in the east and
sets exactly in the west every day of the year, thus the durations of day and
night are always the same. At the north pole, the altitude of the Sun is
always equal to its declination, hence the Sun is circumpolar and the day
lasts 24h when its declination is positive, whereas the Sun never rises and it
is permanently night
18

Chapter 2. Transformation of Coordinates

when its declination is negative.

Using Eq. 2.9,

we can obtain the duration of the day for a location at a
latitude φ, when the Sun’s declination is δ@. The Sun is visible for an hour
angle of 2 arccos p´ tan δ tan φq, or converted into hours:

tday “ 24h ¨ 1 árccos ptan δ

(2.10)

180˝

@ tan φq

where we used arccos p´xq “ 180˝ árccos x, since cos p180˝ ´ xq “ ćos x. In
the case when | tan δ@ tan φ| ą 1, the last identity cannot be used since
arccos x is not defined for arguments greater than unity. In practice, this
means that there is no point of rising and setting, i.e. the Sun is either
circumpolar or never visible. Let us prove this statement.

If tan δ@ tan φ ą 1, then tan δ@ ą 1{ tan φ and, using 1{ tan φ “ tan p90˝ ´
φq, we find tan δ@ ą tan p90˝ ´ φq. In turn, this implies that δ@ ą 90˝ ´ φ,
which is the condition for the Sun to be circumpolar in the northern
hemisphere.

Thus, if tan δ@ tan φ ą 1, the Sun is circumpolar and the day lasts 24h.
Similarly, if tan δ@ tan φ ă ´1, then tan δ@ ă ´1{ tan φ and, using ´1{ tan φ “

tan pφ ´ 90˝q, we have tan δ@ ă tan pφ ´ 90˝q. This implies that δ@ ă φ ´

90˝, hence the Sun never rises.

Therefore, if tan δ@ tan φ ă ´1, the Sun

never rises and the duration of the day is 0h. To sum up, in the northern
hemisphere:

’24h ¨

1 árccos ptan δ

if

φ ´ 90˝ ď δ

@ tan φq

@ ď 90˝ ´ φ

&

180˝

tday “

24h
if

δ@ ą 90˝ ´ φ

%0h

if

δ@ ă φ ´ 90˝ .

Similarly, for the southern hemisphere, tan δ@ tan φ ą 1 implies δ ą 90˝ ` φ,

which is the condition for a star to never rise. Instead, if tan δ@ tan φ ă ´1,
then δ@ ă ´p90˝ ` φq, so the Sun is circumpolar. Therefore, in the southern
hemisphere:

’24h ¨

1 árccos ptan δ

if

´ p90˝ ` φq ď δ

@ tan φq

@ ď 90˝ ` φ
&

180˝

tday “

24h

if

δ@ ă ´p90˝ ` φq

%0h

if

δ@ ą 90˝ ` φ .
2.3. From The Ecliptic to the RA-dec System

19

2.3

From The Ecliptic to the RA-dec System

Figure 2.4: Transformation from the ecliptic system to RA-dec.

The equations for changing between the ecliptic and the RA-dec coordinate
systems can be derived in a similar way to the equations converting
horizontal to HA-dec coordinates. From Fig. 2.4,
we see that: $ψ “ α ´ 90˝

’ψ1 “ λ ´ 90˝

&

θ “ 90˝ ´ δ

’θ1 “ 90˝ ´ β

’
’

%χ “ .

Substituting in Eqs. 2.2,

we find: $ sin λ cos β “ sin δ sin ` cos δ cos sin α

(2.11a)

&

cos λ cos β “ cos δ cos α

(2.11b)

% sin β “ sin δ cos ćos δ sin sin α .

(2.11c)

To obtain the inverse transformation, we exchange the coordinates: $ψ “ λ ´

90˝

’ψ1 “ α ´ 90˝

&

θ “ 90˝ ´ β
’

’θ1 “ 90˝ ´ δ

%χ “ ´ .

20

Chapter 2. Transformation of Coordinates

Hence, we obtain:

$ sin α cos δ “ śin β sin ` cos β cos sin λ

(2.12a)

’
&

cos α cos δ “ cos λ cos β

(2.12b)

% sin δ “ sin β cos ` cos β sin sin λ .

(2.12c)

Declination of the Sun throughout the year

Figure 2.5: Declination of the Sun throughout the year starting from the day
of vernal equinox, in the approximation that the Earth’s orbit is circular.

The Sun lies on the ecliptic, hence β@ is constantly equal to zero.

Furthermore, neglecting the eccentricity of the Earth’s orbit, its ecliptic
longitude is equal to λ@ “ p2π{Ttqt, where Tt is the duration of the tropical
year (see Ch. 5)

and t is the time elapsed since the last vernal equinox (when λ@ is zero by
definition). Then, using Eq. 2.12c
with β@ “ 0˝, we find:

´ 2π ¯ı

sin δ@ “ sin sin λ@ ñ δ@ “ arcsin sin sin

(2.13)

Tt
This equation allows us to compute the declination of the Sun at any given
time of the year, in the approximation that the Earth’s orbit is circular (Fig.

2.5).
In particular, we can verify that Eq. 2.13
gives the correct result in the
following cases:

• vernal equinox (t “ 0), sin p2π{Tt ¨ tq “ 0 and δ@ “ 0˝;

• summer solstice (t “ Tt{4), sin p2π{Tt ¨ tq “ 1 and δ@ “ ;

• autumn equinox (t “ Tt{2), sin p2π{Tt ¨ tq “ 0 and δ@ “ 0˝;

• winter solstice (t “ 3{4Tt), sin p2π{Tt ¨ tq “ ´1 e δ@ “ ´.

2.4. Exercises

21

2.4

Exercises

1.

What is the condition required for a star with declination δ to pass through
the zenith of an observer at latitude φ?

2.

At what latitude can you see Sirius (δ “ ´16˝421582) graze the horizon
during lower culmination?

3.*

What can the maximum and minimum altitudes of the Sun be, in a city at
latitude φ?

4.
You are given the upper (hu “ 53 ˝541452) and lower (hl “ 34 ˝341232)
altitudes of culmination of a star. Find the latitude of the observer and the
declination of the star.

5.

At what latitudes is the Sun circumpolar at least once a year?

6.

(CAO 2018, Th., q.6) On a sunny afternoon on the 22nd of June, an observer
standing upright on a flat surface found that his shadow had a length equal to
his height. At what latitude was the observer located?

7.*

(IOAA 2016, Th., q.4) An observer in the northern hemisphere noticed that
the length of the shortest shadow of a 1.000 m vertical stick on a day was
lmin “ 1.732 m. On the same day, the length of the longest shadow of the
same vertical stick was measured to be lmax “ 5.671m. Find the latitude φ of
the observer and the declination of the Sun δ@ on that day.

Assume the Sun to be a point source and ignore atmospheric refraction.

8.*

What must the declination of a star be and where should it be observed so

that its azimuth does not change for at least half a day?

9.*

What are the ecliptic coordinates of a star with right ascension α “ 6h and
declination δ “ 10 ˝?

10.

What are the hour coordinates of the four cardinal points and the zenith for
an observer located in the northern hemisphere? What about an observer in
the southern hemisphere?
11.

Where do stars which stay above the horizon for more than 12 hours a day
rise?

12.

(INT 2011, Th.S, q.1) Marco and Gianna are two young astronomy enthu-
siasts from Rome. Gianna, who is visiting an important foreign capital, calls
Marco to greet him. At one point Gianna remarks “It is a beautiful evening,
the Moon is rising right now!”. Marco then replies: “Great!

Here the Moon is passing exactly on the meridian, so I know precisely at

what longitude you are!”. If Marco’s longitude in Italy is 12 ˝301 E, what

22

Chapter 2. Transformation of Coordinates

is the longitude of Gianna? Can you tell which city she is in? Neglect the
effect due to the finite distance of the Moon from the Earth (lunar parallax).

13.* Estimate the declination of the Sun on the 21st of April. At what
latitudes is the Sun circumpolar?

14.* A star passes through the zenith at 0h10m of sidereal time, whereas its
altitude on the horizon is 78˝121 at 9h2m of sidereal time. Calculate the
latitude of the observer.

15.* You want to spend a romantic evening with your partner, so you take
them to the beach to see the sunset with a mechanical lift. The elevator can
be raised to a height of 6 m, at a speed of v. What is the minimum v so that
the sunset can be observed twice, once at sea level, and the second time at 6
m?

2.5

Problems
1.*

Upper and Lower Culmination

Obtain the formulae for the upper and lower culmination of a star in two
different ways using only elementary geometry.

In the first case, consider an inertial frame in two instants separated by 12h.
The direction of the star and of the Earth’s axis are fixed, but the observation
point has rotated by 180˝.

In the second case, consider the frame of the observer. Now the observer is
fixed, while the star appears to be moving in a circle around the direction of
the Earth’s axis.

Perturbation of Coordinates

Even though a star can appear to be stationary with respect to the Solar
System, its coordinates change over time due to various perturbation effects.
Of course, the altitude and the azimuth are constantly changing, but the
declination and the right ascension are also slowly varying.

3.1

Precession

The Sun and Moon, as well as the other planets in the Solar System, orbit
very close to the ecliptic plane and tend to pull Earth’s equatorial bulge
towards this plane. The Earth reacts to this effect by rotating like a top
around the axis perpendicular to the ecliptic. As a consequence, the Earth’s
axis traces out a pair of cones, with a period of 25765 years. This motion is
called precession of the equinoxes since the vernal equinox, moving
clockwise along the ecliptic by 50” per year, anticipates the date of the next
equinox. As a result, the ecliptic longitude of all bodies on the celestial
sphere increases by 50” each year.
In our century, Earth’s rotation axis points very close to Polaris (α Ursae
Minoris), about a degree away. In 3000 BC, Earth’s axis pointed towards the
fainter Thuban, in the constellation of Draco. In about 12, 000 years, it will
point in the direction of Vega, which will then become the new pole star.
Instead, the celestial south pole currently sits in a region of sky particularly
clear of bright stars.

The equatorial coordinates are also affected by precession.

To adjust for

this variation, stellar catalogues must be updated every century. Currently,

most maps and catalogues give the coordinates of stars at the time (or epoch)
J 2000.0, which corresponds to January 1, 2000.

We now derive the expressions that relate the change in declination and right
ascension to the annual variation of ecliptic longitude of a celestial object,
which is stationary with respect to the Solar System. We assume that only λ,
δ and α vary over time (β is fixed because it is perpendicular to λ, the
direction along which the precession proceeds). This is a good
approximation, since

changes much more slowly than the other factors involved (see Sec. 3.7).

23

24

Chapter 3. Perturbation of Coordinates

Consider Eq. 2.12c:

sin δ “ sin β cos ` cos β sin sin λ .

Differentiating both sides:

cos δ dδ “ cos β sin cos λ dλ .

Substituting cos β cos λ “ cos α cos δ (Eq. 2.12b),

we find: dδ “ dλ sin cos α .
(3.1)

This equation relates the variation dδ in declination to the variation dλ in

ecliptic longitude. If, instead, we differentiate Eq. 2.12b:

śin α cos δ dα ćos α sin δ dδ “ ćos β sin λ dλ .

Substituting dδ “ dλ sin cos α (Eq. 3.1),

it follows that: sin α cos δ dα “ dλ
pcos β sin λ śin cos2 α sin δq , which, according to Eq. 2.11a,
can also be
written as: sin α cos δ dα “ dλ psin δ sin ` cos δ cos sin α śin cos2 α sin δq .

Substituting cos2 α “ 1 śin2 α (Eq. A.12,

Appendix A.3)
and simplifying: dα
“ dλ psin α sin tan δ ` cos q .

(3.2)

This equation relates the variation dα in right ascension to the variation dλ

in ecliptic longitude. Thus, given that dλ{dt “ 502{year, the annual changes
dδ{dt and dα{dt for an object with declination δ and right ascension α are
given by the equations:

$ dδ

dλ

sin cos α

(3.3a)

& dt

dt
dα

dλ

psin α sin tan δ ` cos q .

(3.3b)

% dt

dt

The International Astronomical Union (IAU) divides the sky into 88 official
constellations with precise boundaries, so that each point on the celestial
sphere belongs to one and only one constellation. The constellations visible
from northern latitudes mainly draw their origins from the Greek culture,
and their names recall various mythological figures. During the vernal and
autumnal equinoxes, the Sun passes through the points P and V, respectively.
At the

3.1. Precession

25

time of the ancient Greeks this happened when the Sun was in the
constellation of Aries and Libra, respectively (hence the use of these
symbols). Today however, due to the precession of the equinoxes, the Sun
passes through the zodiac constellations with a delay of about a month
(corresponding to one constellation), compared to the convention adopted at
the time of the Greeks.
Hence, the points P and V have now moved to the adjacent constellations of
Pisces and Virgo, respectively. To be precise, we should be using the
symbols f and ` for the vernal and autumnal equinoxes, but convention stuck
with the tradition of the ancient Greeks. It might amuse you that astrology
makes an error of about a month in associating your zodiac sign with the
actual passage of the Sun through your constellation. In Tab. 3.1,
the current
dates of the Sun’s passage through the zodiacal constellations are listed.

Capricornus d

20 January Ñ 16 February

Aquarius e

16 February Ñ 11 March

Pisces f

11 March Ñ 18 April

Aries P

18 April Ñ 13 May

Taurus ]

13 May Ñ 21 June

Gemini ^

21 June Ñ 20 July

Cancer _

20 July Ñ 10 August

Leo

10 August Ñ 16 September
Virgò

16 September Ñ 30 October

Libra V

30 October Ñ 23 November

Scorpius b

23 November Ñ 29 November

Ophiuchus

29 November Ñ 17 December

Sagittarius c

17 December Ñ 20 January

Table 3.1
26

Chapter 3. Perturbation of Coordinates

3.2

Nutation

Nutation is the oscillatory motion of Earth’s rotation axis in the direction

perpendicular to precession. Nutation is due to the fact that the precession
angular momentum is added to that of the rotation and, consequently, the
resulting angular momentum is not exactly directed along the axis of
symmetry of the rotating object. The main component of nutation is
associated to the regression of the Moon’s nodal line and has the same
period of 18.6 years. The amplitude of this motion is very small and in the
order of 9.2 ”.

3.3

Aberration

Figure 3.1: a) The angle of aberration is equal to the ratio of the tangential
component of the velocity of the observer (v sin θ) to the velocity of light
(c). b) Due to aberration, stars appear to be moving on ellipses whose
eccentricity increases with decreasing ecliptic latitude.

Due to the finite speed of light, all stars appear slightly displaced in the
direction of the observer’s motion. Therefore, as a consequence of Earth’s
orbital motion, we see a periodic change in the apparent position of the stars,
called aberration. In the framework of special relativity, it can be shown that,
for small velocities (v ! c), the aberration angle is approximately: v

A“

sin θ ,

(3.4)

c
where A is measured in radians and θ is the angle between the true position
of the body and the direction of the observer’s velocity. On Earth, the largest
value of aberration is v{c “ 202, called the constant of aberration. Aberration
associated with the rotation of the Earth is called diurnal aberration, but is
usually negligible (only 0.32 in amplitude) compared to annual aberration.

3.4. Parallax

27

Looking at Fig. 3.1

a), one can intuitively justify Eq. 3.4.
Imagine a light ray
propagating to a telescope. The projection of the velocity of the telescope
along the direction perpendicular to the ray is v sin θ, whereas the velocity of
the ray is c. Hence, stars appear displaced by an angle equal to the ratio of
these velocities. Fig. 3.1
b) shows that, due to aberration, stars move on
ellipses whose eccentricity increases with decreasing ecliptic latitude. Stars
on the ecliptic poles describe a circle; those on the ecliptic, a segment.

3.4

Parallax

When looking at an object from different angles, we see it in different

directions. This phenomenon, known as parallax, leads to a periodic
variation of the coordinates of celestial objects during the year. The angle of
parallax is related to the object’s distance from Earth, therefore by measuring
the angle of parallax we can obtain its distance. Parallax will be discussed in
more detail in Ch. 9.

3.5

Refraction

Light is refracted by the atmosphere, therefore the apparent position of

celestial objects differs from the true one. Even though refraction varies
significantly with temperature and pressure, we can assume that conditions
are roughly constant at the same height, i.e. that the refractive index of air
depends only on the height above ground. Near the zenith, Earth’s curvature
is negligible and we can therefore divide the atmosphere into infinitesimal
layers of air parallel to each other. Let α be the angle at which the ray enters
the atmosphere and β the angle at which we observe it (measured from the
zenith). The refractive index of a medium is defined as the ratio of the speed
of light in vacuum to the speed of light in the medium. The refractive index
of space (effectively a vacuum) is ns “ 1, whereas the refractive index of
Earth’s atmosphere at sea level is about n0 “ 1.0003. The refractive index is
always greater than unity. A ray of light that travels through a medium of
refractive index ni and is incident on a surface of refractive index nr, with
angle αi measured relative to the normal, is refracted by an angle αr, such
that: sin αr

ni

(3.5)

sin αi

nr

This equation is called Snell’s law. Looking at Fig. 3.2,

we apply Eq. 3.5
to a
light ray entering the atmosphere:
28

Chapter 3. Perturbation of Coordinates

Figure 3.2: Refraction of a light ray passing through the atmosphere.

ns sin α “ nk sin βk ,

nk sin βk “ nk´1 sin βk´1 ,

... ,

n1 sin β1 “ n0 sin β .

Or, equivalently:

sin α “ n0 sin β ,
where we have used ns “ 1. Let R “ α ´ β be the angle of deviation. Close to
the zenith, R ! 1 rad, therefore sin R « R and cos R « 1, giving: α “ R ` β

ñ sin α “ sin pR ` βq “ sin R cos β ` cos R sin β

« R cos β ` sin β .

Substituting sin α “ n0 sin β in the last equation, we find: R “ pn0 ´ 1q tan β .

(3.6)

The above equation is only valid close to the zenith, where Earth’s curvature
can be neglected. At the horizon R « 341, slightly larger than the angular
diameter of the Sun. When the lower part of the Sun grazes the apparent
horizon, the Sun has already set on the astronomical horizon.

3.6. Proper Motion

29

3.6

Proper Motion

Figure 3.3: The proper motion changes the shape of the constellations. a) Big
dipper today, b) in 30000 years and c) in 60000 years.

Many stars move in directions that seem to be constant in time. This effect is
due to the relative motion between the Sun and the star, and is therefore
called proper motion.

Due to this motion, the shape of the constellations

changes slowly with time, as shown in Fig. 3.3.

The speed of a star relative to the Sun can be divided into two components,
one radial and one tangential. The tangential component is responsible for
the proper motion, which can be measured by taking pictures of the star at
different moments in time. The tangential motion can be further divided into
the component that changes the right ascension (uα cos δ), and the
component that changes the declination (uδ). The factor cos δ appears
because a star with declination δ moves on a parallel of declination, which
has a radius of cos δ.

Therefore, if the rate of change of the right ascension measured on the

celestial equator is uα, the velocity on the parallel of declination is actually
uα cos δ.

To sum up, the total angular velocity of a star is:

u“

u2α cos2 δ ù2 .

(3.7)

The tangential velocity is equal to the angular velocity multiplied by the

distance of the star:

vt “ u ¨ r .

(3.8)

Barnard’s star, with an angular velocity of about 10.32 per year, is the star
with the largest proper motion observed so far. While it is usually necessary
to observe a star for a few years to measure its proper motion, the radial
motion can be easily determined with a single observation, taking advantage
of the Doppler effect (Sec. 7.6)
. The radial velocity can be determined from
the displacement of the spectral lines z “ ∆λ{λ, according to Eq. 7.20:

p1 ` zq2 ´ 1

vr “

c,

(3.9)

p1 ` zq2 ` 1

or, in the non-relativistic limit:

vr “ c z .

(3.10)

30

Chapter 3. Perturbation of Coordinates

Hence, the total linear velocity of the star is:

v“

v2r ` v2 .

(3.11)

3.7

Other Cycles
In addition to the relatively fast motions described above, there are other
slower ones. Among these, the most important are the variation of the
inclination of Earth’s axis and the cycle of eccentricity.

The axis of the Earth is inclined by 23˝271, on average, with respect to the
ecliptic, but this varies from a minimum of 22.1˝, to a maximum of 24.5˝,
with a periodicity of 41,000 years. This effect therefore adds to that of
nutation, which instead has a much shorter period of 18.6 years. Currently,
the inclination of the Earth’s axis relative to the ecliptic is decreasing at a
rate of 472 per century. Finally, the eccentricity of Earth’s orbit varies from
essentially zero (0.000055) to mildly eccentric (0.0679). The components of
this cycle combine into a 100,000-year period. The present eccentricity is
0.0167 and is decreasing.

The eccentricity varies primarily due to the gravitational attraction exerted

by Jupiter and Saturn; however, the semi-major axis remains unchanged.

3.8

Exercises

1.

How long does it take the Barnard to travel a distance in the sky equal to the
angular diameter of the Moon?

2.

Aldebaran’s proper motion is u “ 202{yr and its parallax is πp “ 0.0482.

The spectral line of iron λ “ 440.5 nm is shifted by 0.079 nm towards red.

What are the radial and tangential velocities of the star? (Hint: use Eq. 9.3).

3.** The coordinates of Sirius at the epoch J 1900.0 were α “ 6h40m45s, δ “

´16˝351, and its proper motion had components uα “ ´0.037 s/a, uδ “
´1.122/a. Find its coordinates at the epoch J2000.0. Take into account the
precession of Earth’s axis.

4.*
The parallax of Sirius is πp “ 0.3752 and its radial velocity is ´8 km/s (i.e.
directed towards the Earth). By using the data from the previous exercise,
find its tangential velocity. How long will it take Sirius to reach the closest
point to the Sun? What will the values of its tangential and radial velocities
be at that time? What about its parallax?

5.*

(ArmAO 2019, Th., q.1) The atmospheric refractive index of a planet

3.9. Problems

31

varies with the height from the surface according to: n0

nphq “

1`h

where n0 and are constants. A ray emitted in the horizontal direction

indefinitely circles the planet at any height (if we neglect absorption by the
atmosphere). What is the radius of the planet?

6.** (IAO 2014, Th.α, β, q.4) Hydroplanet consists of a rocky “core” of

radius R and a thick layer of water surrounding it from all sides. Local
humans live at the bottom of this world’s ocean (i.e. on the surface of the
“core”), and the hydrosphere is an analogue of our atmosphere for them.
Local scientists observe astronomical objects from the bottom of the ocean.

Like on Earth, the duration of the day-night period on Hydroplanet is 24h.

• Find the minimum depth h of the ocean, for which celestial bodies will be
visible at the horizon.

• What will the duration of the day be for inhabitants of the planet’s equator?
The disk of the central star can be considered as a point source of light.
• Calculate the value of “atmospheric” refraction at the horizon on such a
planet. The outer surface of the ocean is smooth, with no waves or ripples.

3.9

Problems

1.**** Precession of the Equinoxes

Assuming the Earth to be an ellipsoid of revolution with moment of inertia

along its axis Ip and equator Ie, such that Ie{pIp Íeq « 300, estimate the
period of precession of the equinoxes. Also prove that the influence of the
Moon is approximately double that of the Sun.

Observation and Instruments

Until the end of the Middle Ages, the eye was the most important instrument
for the observation of the sky. With the aid of different devices it was
possible to record the position of celestial bodies. The telescope was
invented in the Netherlands at the beginning of the 17th century, but only in
1609 was it first used, by Galileo Galilei, to conduct astronomical
observations. Since then, great strides have been made in both the quantity
and quality of observations. While, initially, observation was limited to
within the Solar System, the telescope now allowed observations of celestial
objects hundreds of parsecs away. Since Galileo, we have enjoyed 400 years
of exponential improvement and growing sophistication of the tools at our
disposal. In 1800, William Her-schel discovered that visible light is only a
small part of the electromagnetic spectrum. Soon enough, a variety of new
tools were developed that would extend the study of the night sky to
previously inaccessible regions of the electromagnetic spectrum.

4.1

Angular Size

Since all celestial objects appear infinitely far away for an observer on Earth,
their first distinctive feature is the angular size. Let h0 be the diameter of the
object and d its distance from the observer. Its angular size is then: h0

tan α0 “

(4.1)

For small α0 (which is always the case when observing celestial objects), we
can use the approximation tan α0 « α0,rad, so that:

h0

α0,rad “

(4.2)

where α0,rad is measured in radians. To convert this angle to degrees, we

simply multiply by 360˝{2π (Eq. A.11,
Appendix A.3).
Hence: 180˝ h0

α0,deg “

(4.3)

32
4.2. The Thin Lens Equation

33

4.2

The Thin Lens Equation

Figure 4.1: An object is placed at a distance p from a lens with refractive

index n, and surfaces with radii of curvature of R1 and R2. The image is
formed at a distance q (the thickness of the lens is exaggerated). In this case,
the curvature has opposite direction on either side of the lens, hence R1 is
positive and R2 is negative.

Let us place an object at a distance p from a lens with refractive index n, and
surfaces with radii of curvature of R1 and R2 (Fig. 4.1).
We would like to
know at what distance q its image is formed. By applying Snell’s law (Eq.
3.5)
to a ray leaving the object and refracting through the first and second
surfaces of the lens; it is possible to prove that (pr. 4.2), in the limit where
the thickness of the lens tends to zero:

1
´

1¯

“ pn ´ 1q

(4.4)

R1

R2

If we define the focal length f as:

1¯

“ pn ´ 1q

,
(4.5)

R1

R2

we obtain the thin lens equation:

(4.6)

Eq. 4.5
is called the lens maker equation, because it can be used to determine
the values of R1 and R2 needed for a given refractive index and a desired
focal length f . Taking p Ñ 8, i.e. 1{p Ñ 0, Eq. 4.6
reduces to: 1

ñq“f.
(4.7)

Therefore, the image of a distant object is formed in the focal plane of the
lens.

34

Chapter 4. Observation and Instruments

Ray Diagrams for Thin Lenses

Figure 4.2: Rays are drawn to understand the type of image that is formed. In
a) the image is real and inverted, in b) it is virtual and upright.

Ray diagrams are very convenient for locating images formed by thin lenses
or systems of lenses. The general procedure is to draw three rays, whose
paths are particularly simple to sketch (Fig. 4.2):

• ray 1 is drawn parallel to the principal axis. After being refracted by the
lens, this ray passes through the focal point on the back side of the lens;

• ray 2 is drawn through the focal point on the front side of the lens and
emerges parallel to the principal axis;
• ray 3 is drawn through the centre of the lens and continues in a straight
line.

Properties or rays 1 and 2 follow from Eq. 4.7,

since an object at infinity
(whose light rays are incident on the lens parallel to the principal axis) has
its image in the focal point. Property of ray 3 follows from symmetry, since
both sides of the lens are identical. An example of application of this
principle is shown in Fig. 4.2.
In a), the image is real and inverted because it
forms on the back side of the lens and it is upside-down. In b) instead, the
rays would diverge. It is therefore necessary to consider their continuation
(dashed lines) on the same side of the object. In this case the image is called
virtual, since it cannot be captured on a screen.

4.3

Optical Telescopes

The term telescope usually refers to the optical telescope, operating in the
visible region of the electromagnetic spectrum.

However, there are many

other telescopes that detect different wavelengths, from gamma rays to radio
waves.
4.3. Optical Telescopes

35

Figure 4.3: Galileo’s refracting telescope.

Figure 4.4: Newton’s reflecting telescope.

In general, every telescope has two important functions in astrophysics:

• it collects a greater amount of light by using a larger surface than the naked
eye, making it possible to observe fainter objects;

• it increases the angular size of the object and the angular resolution.

Two fundamentally different types of optical telescopes exist: the refracting

or Galilean telescope and the reflector or Newtonian telescope. In order to
focus the image of a celestial object, the former uses a set of lenses (Fig.
4.3),
taking advantage of the phenomenon of refraction. The latter uses a set
of mirrors, according to the phenomenon of total reflection (Fig. 4.4).

The operation of a Galilean telescope is shown in Fig. 4.5

(overleaf). Light
from a distant object is incident on the first lens, called the objective, and is
focused at a distance fo, equal to the focal length of the objective (the object
is essentially at infinity). The objective forms a real and inverted image close
to the second lens, called the eyepiece. To provide the largest possible
magnification, the rays leaving the eyepiece must be parallel, hence the
image created by the objective must be located at the focal point of the
eyepiece, at a distance fe from the eyepiece. Thus, the distance between the
lenses must be exactly d “ fò fe. This is the length of the telescope tube.

The main parameters of a telescope are:

• D, diameter of the objective;

• fo, focal length of the objective;

• fe, focal length of the eyepiece.

36

Chapter 4. Observation and Instruments

Figure 4.5: The object has angular size α0. When viewed from the eyepiece
of a telescope, its image has an angular size of α1.

Let α0 be the angular size of a celestial object. The linear dimension h1 of its
image formed on the focal plane of the objective is:

h1

tan α0 “

ñ h1 “ fo ¨ tan α0 .
fo

In the approximation α0 ! 1, then:

h1 “ fo ¨ α0, rad .

(4.8)

For example, the angular size of the Sun is approximately α0 “ 301 « 0.0087
rad.

Its linear size on the focal plane of a telescope with focal length fo “ 15 m is
h1 “ 0.0087 ¨ 15 m“ 13 cm. If we are given the distance d and dimension h0

of an object, we know its angular size α0,rad « h0{d. Substituting in Eq. 4.8:

h1

h0

(4.9)

fo

4.4

Angular Resolution

An important feature of a telescope is its angular resolution. To understand

the physical mechanism that constrains the resolution of a telescope, let us
consider in detail the image of a point source formed by a telescope.

When two light rays of equal amplitude interfere in phase with each other,
the resulting ray has twice the amplitude of the original rays. However, when
two rays interfere out of phase, the resulting amplitude is zero. Clearly,
intermediate cases are also possible, so that the resultant amplitude can be
any number between zero and two times the amplitude of the original rays.
Because of the periodic nature of a wave, we expect two light rays to
interfere constructively if the difference in their path lengths is any integer
number of wavelengths (which corresponds to being completely in phase);
destructively if the difference

4.4. Angular Resolution

37

in their path lengths is any half integer (completely out of phase). Because of
its wavelike property, light is diffracted by the circular aperture of a
telescope, giving rise to a visible diffraction pattern (Fig. 4.6).
At the centre
of this pattern, all light rays have travelled the same distance from the
aperture, and are therefore in phase with each other. They interfere
constructively, giving rise to a bright spot. Moving to the side in any
direction, light rays need to travel slightly different paths, and therefore
reach the new point with slightly different phases. Hence, light intensity is
reduced at the sides.

Figure 4.6: a) Image of a star as viewed with a telescope (often only the
inner circle is visible). b) Intensity of the diffraction pattern.
At some particular distance from the centre, all light rays are out of phase,
hence the intensity is zero. Moving further away from the centre, the phase
difference will again be an integer wavelength at some other distance,
leading to constructive interference and to a bright circular annulus. For this
reason, point sources (like stars) produce, on the focal plane of a telescope, a
diffraction pattern of alternating dark and bright zones, called Airy disks. In
fact, this is the same phenomenon observed by Thomas Young in his double
slit experiment. The general physical theory that predicts the shape of the
pattern is called Fraunhofer diffraction. The effect of this diffraction depends
on the ratio between the wavelength of light and the diameter of the
telescope.

In order for two objects to be resolved, the central bright spots of their
images must not overlap. In more general terms, according to Rayleigh’s
criterion, the distance between the two central maxima must be greater than
the distance between the first maximum and first minimum of either image.
The cross-section of the diffraction pattern of two point sources is shown in
Fig.

4.7
(overleaf). In particular, in a) the two sources cannot be resolved (they
appear as a single source), since the distance d between their first maxima is
less than the distance dmin. On the contrary, in b) the sources can be just
resolved, since d is equal to dmin. It can be shown (pr. 4.3) that the angular
distance between the central bright spot and the first minimum is 1.22λ{D,
where D is the diameter of the objective and λ the wavelength. It then
follows

38
Chapter 4. Observation and Instruments

Figure 4.7: According to Rayleigh’s criterion, two sources are resolved when
the distance between the two central maxima is greater than the distance
between the first maximum and first minimum of either image. Hence, a)
cannot be resolved, whilst b) can be just resolved.

that the angular resolution is given by:

R « 1.22

(4.10)

where R is measured in radians. This formula is valid for all light across the
electromagnetic spectrum. Often, the resolution of Earth-based telescopes is
limited by the conditions of the atmosphere, rather than by the instrument
itself. This effect is called seeing and generally does not allow for a better
resolution than a few arcseconds. If the telescope collects images on
photographic plates, the resolution is further reduced by the finite size of the
emulsion grains.

These typically range between 10 to 30 micrometers. For a focal length of 1

m, the scale is 1 mm “ 2062, so 0.01 mm corresponds to about 2” The size of

a pixel in CCDs (charge-coupled devices) can be as low as 3 ´ 5
micrometers, which corresponds to around one arcsecond. Therefore, the
CCD is not usually the limiting factor in the resolution of an Earth-based
telescope.

4.5

Magnification
The angular magnification (ω) is defined as the ratio between the angular
size of the image formed by the eyepiece and the angular size of the object.
Looking at Fig. 4.5:

h1

tan α0 “

« α0,rad ,

fo

h1

tan α1 “

« α1,rad .

fe

4.5. Magnification

39

Hence the magnification is:

α1,rad
fo

ω“

(4.11)

α0,rad

fe

For example, if the objective has focal length fo “ 100 cm and we use an
eyepiece with a focal length of fe “ 2 cm, the magnification is ω “ 100{2 “
50x.

The magnification is not a fundamental property of a telescope, since it

depends on the eyepiece, which can easily be changed.

Minimum Magnification

Figure 4.8: If we were to use a magnification lower than the minimum, the
diameter of the outgoing light would be larger than the diameter of our pupil,
which means losing photons.

The minimum magnification is obtained from the condition that the diameter
of the outgoing light from the eyepiece is less than or equal to the diameter
of our pupil (Fig.4.8).
Thus:

fe

děD¨

.
fo

Hence, the minimum magnification is:

ωmin “

(4.12)

where D and d are the diameters of the objective and of our pupil,
respectively.

At night, the diameter of the pupil is typically 8 mm, therefore the minimum
magnification of a telescope with diameter 100 mm is approximately 13x.

Maximum Magnification

The maximum magnification ωmax is the largest magnification that is worth

using with a telescope of diameter D. Its value is equal to the ratio of the
angular resolution of the human eye (e « 21 “ 5.8 ¨ 10´4 rad) and the angular
resolution (R) of the telescope:

eD

ωmax “

«
.

1 mm

40

Chapter 4. Observation and Instruments

Thus:

ωmax “

(4.13)

1 mm

For example, the maximum magnification of a telescope with aperture 100

mm is 100x. There is no point in using a magnification greater than the
maximum, since the resolution of the image would then be worse than the
resolution of our eyes.

4.6

Aperture Ratio

Consider an object with angular size α0, viewed with a telescope of diameter
D and focal length fo. As we saw in Sec. 4.3,
the linear size of its image on
the focal plane of the telescope is:

h1 “ fo tan α0 .
Assuming the image is circular, the area it covers is: A “ πh21 “ πf2otan2 α0
.

Let F be the incoming light flux from the object. The power collected by the
telescope is:

D2

P“F¨

Therefore, the intensity of the image is:

D2

I“

4 tan2 α0

f2

For a given object, the intensity depends only on D and fo: D2

I9

f2

We define the aperture ratio Rf as:

fo

Rf “

(4.14)

Hence, the perceived brightness of an object is directly proportional to the

reciprocal of the aperture ratio squared:

I9

(4.15)

R2

4.7. The Role of the Atmosphere

41
Telescopes with a long focal length and a small diameter are therefore
slower than telescopes with a short focal length and a large diameter. The
lower the speed of the telescope, the longer the exposure time required to
obtain an image of equal brightness on a CCD. For this reason, telescopes
with a lower aperture ratio are preferred in photography. The aperture ratio is
usually denoted by f {Rf . Therefore, a telescope with an aperture ratio of Rf
“ 8 is written as f {8. For fast telescopes, the focal ratio can be as low as f {1
´ f {3, but is usually smaller and around f {8 ´ f {15.

4.7

The Role of the Atmosphere

Astronomical observation from the surface of the Earth has to deal with the
atmosphere. Not only is light subject to dispersion, absorption and re-
emission, but the effect of the atmosphere is strongly dependent on the
wavelength, as well as the time and local conditions. The atmosphere
reduces the brightness of an object (Sec. 8.4)
and the maximum possible
resolution. In the best conditions, the maximum possible resolution is a few
arcseconds. Without any modifications, a 10 m telescope would have the
same angular resolution as a 20 cm amateur telescope. Actually, the
resolution of the former would be worse, because of the distortion caused by
the mirror’s own weight. Active optics are used to correct the distortion of
the mirror; adaptive optics are used to correct atmospheric turbulence. In
both cases, a thin deformable rubber layer with tens or hundreds of
thousands of piezoelectric crystals is positioned under the mirror. They
behave like small actuators, expanding or contracting when a potential
difference is applied to their ends. To correct the effect of the atmosphere,
these crystals make adjustments on the order of micrometers, a few hundred
times per second. To determine the necessary corrections, the telescope
automatically observes a reference star near the object to be observed.

In the event that a sufficiently bright star does not exist near the object of
interest, a carefully calibrated laser can be used to excite sodium atoms at an
altitude of 90 km, thus allowing the required calibration.

4.8
Exercises

1.

What is the smallest angle that can be resolved at a wavelength of 500 nm by

the Keck telescope, which has a mirror with a diameter of 10 m? What
should be the size of a radio telescope, observing at the wavelength of 20
cm, if its resolution is the same?

2.

A spiral galaxy at a distance of D “ 55 ¨ 106 ly, is observed perpendicular to

its galactic plane and has an angular diameter of α “ 4002. What is the
diameter of the galaxy in light years? How large is its image on the focal
plane of a telescope with a focal length of f “ 1 m?

42

Chapter 4. Observation and Instruments

3.*

Calculate the apparent maximum and minimum angular sizes of the Sun
from Mars. Suppose Mars has a satellite with the same orbital characteristics
as the Moon. What should the minimum diameter of this satellite be in order
for solar eclipses to be visible from Mars?

4.

Compute the ratio of the angular diameters of Mars when seen in opposition
and quadrature.

5.

A telescope is pointed at a coin of diameter 16.25 mm, which is at a distance

of 15.1 ˘ 0.1 m. The diameter of the image of the coin formed on the focal
plane of the telescope is 1.35 mm. Find the focal length fo.

6.*
(NAZ 2016, Th. S, q.3) On the evening of the 20th of April 2016, in Milan,
it is possible to observe three stars of equal apparent magnitudes, with
coordinates: Star 1 (α2016 “ 6h30m, δ2016 “ `35˝201), Star 2 (α2016 “

6h30m, δ2016 “ 34˝401) and Star 3 (α2016 “ 6h24m, δ2016 “ `35˝201).

The stars are observed with a telescope of diameter D “ 200 mm and an

aperture ratio of f/10. A camera is placed on the focal plane of the telescope
with a CCD of dimension 4096x4096 pixels. Each pixel is a square with
sides lpix “ 6.4µm. Is it possible to obtain an image in which Star 1 and 2
appear together? What about Star 1 and 3 ?

7.*

(CAO 2018, Th., q.4) Amateur astronomers use following method to

estimate the field of view (FOV) of their telescopes: they locate a star with
known declination, adjust the telescope so that the star crosses the field of
view along its diameter, measure the time taken for the star to cross the FOV
and, hence, estimate the FOV. For a telescope (d“

400 mm, f“ 4000 mm) the crossing time of αAur (δ “ 46˝0114.42) is 2.5

minutes. Can the Moon be seen in full through this telescope?

8.*

(USAAAO 2020, Th.3, q.1) An astronomer used his f/5 telescope with a
diameter of 130 mm to observe a binary system. He is using an eyepiece
with a field of view of 45˝ and a focal length of 25 mm. In this system, star
A and B have masses of 18.9 and 16.2 solar masses, and apparent
magnitudes of 9.14 and 9.60, respectively. The period of the system is 108
days, and its distance from the Solar System is 2.29 kpc. The binary system
has an edge-on orbit relative to the Solar System. Find the FOV

of the telescope, its limiting magnitude, its angular resolution and the
angular separation between the stars. Will the astronomer be able to observe
both stars as distinct points in the telescope? (Hint: read Chs.

8 and 10).
9.*

(SAO 2019, Th.1, q.3) An achromatic lens is used to ensure that light of
different wavelengths have the same focal lengths, i.e. to correct chromatic
aberration. An achromatic lens was made by combining plano-

4.9. Problems

43

convex (one side flat and one side convex) and plano-concave (one side flat
and one side concave) lenses, made from two different types of glasses, A
and B. These two glasses have the following refractive indices: nA,red “

1.48, nA,blue “ 1.50, nB,red “ 1.66, nB,blue “ 1.70. Find the radii of
curvature RA, RB necessary to produce a combination equivalent to a
converging lens with focal length of 600 mm (Hint: use Eq. 4.5,
taking into
account that A and B have different refraction indices).

4.9

Problems

1.*

Combination of thin lenses

Show that if two lenses with focal lengths f1 and f2 are combined, they
behave like a single lens with an effective focal length of: 1

.
(4.16)

feff

f1

f2

2.** Lens maker’s equation

Consider two transparent media having indices of refraction n1 and n2,

where the boundary between the two media is a spherical surface of radius
R1 and index of refraction n2. When an object is placed at a distance p from
the boundary (inside n1), an image is formed at a distance q (inside n2). By
applying Snell’s law, show that:

n1

n2

n2 ń1

(4.17)

R1

Now, imagine that the other side of the lens has a curvature of R2. The
image formed by the first boundary acts as the object for the second
boundary. In the approximation that the thickness of the lens is much smaller
than the radii of curvature, prove Eq. 4.4.
3.**** Airy Disk

Show that the amplitude dψp of a wavelet reaching the diffraction screen at
P“ px0, y0q, which is a distance r away from the aperture element (x, y), is
proportional to:

eikr

dψp 9 hpx, yq

dxdy ,

where hpx, yq is the aperture function, which is equal to unity if px, yq

belongs to the aperture and zero otherwise; and k “ 2π{λ. In the
approximation that L " x0, y0, x, y (Fig. 4.9
on the next page), show that the
total amplitude at P is approximately;

x0x`y0y

ψp 9

hpx, yqeík

dxdy ,

(4.18)
44

Chapter 4. Observation and Instruments

Figure 4.9: Fraunhofer diffraction

where R2 “ L2 ` x2

. Now consider a circular aperture of diameter

0 ` y2

D. Using the identities:

ż 2π

eíqρ cos φdφ “ 2πJ0pqρq ,

(4.19)
0

and

ż qD{2

qD

´ qD ¯

qρJ0pqρq dpqρq “

J1

(4.20)

where J1 and J0 are the first and zero-order Bessel functions of the first kind
respectively, show that:

J1pπD{λ

sin2 θ ` sin2 ψq

ψp 9

(4.21)

πD{λ

sin2 θ ` sin2 ψ
where sin θ “ y0{L and sin ξ “ x0{L. Knowing that the first zero of J1pxq is
at x “ 3.8317, prove Eq. 4.10.
What is the diffraction pattern of an elliptical
aperture, with major axes 2a and 2b?

Time systems

There are two essentially different ways to measure time. The first is based
on the Sun, and is therefore called solar time. The second is based on the
rotation of the Earth, and is called sidereal time. They each have their own
advantages. Solar time is best adopted for day-to-day time-keeping, as our
lives are heavily based on the day-night cycle. In the next section we will
show that the sidereal day is approximately 4 minutes shorter than the solar
day. If calendars were to adopt sidereal time, after about half a year, clocks
would lag behind the Sun by 12 hours: we would be working at night and
sleeping during the day (as if this doesn’t already happen). On the other
hand, sidereal time is particularly useful in astronomy. As explained in Sec.
1.3,
sidereal time allows us to find the position of any celestial object whose
right ascension is known.

What this also means is that the celestial vault appears to rotate clockwise
(in the same direction as the apparent motion of the Sun) by about 4 minutes
(or 1˝) every day. This is why most stars are only visible at certain times
during the year, and every season is characterized by different stars. For
instance, for an observer in the northern hemisphere, the most distinctive
feature of the summer sky is the Summer Triangle, whose defining vertices
are Altair, Deneb, and Vega (in the constellations of Aquila, Cygnus, and
Lyra, respectively).

Instead, in winter, you should immediately recognize the constellation of

Orion, or alternatively, the winter triangle, formed by Sirius, Procyon and
Betelgeuse (in Canis Major, Canis Minor and Orion, respectively).

5.1

Sidereal and Solar Day

The solar day is the time it takes the Sun to return to the same meridian. The
length of the day measured in this way is called true solar day. The duration
of the true solar day is equal to 86400 s on average, varying from a
minimum of 86378 s (mid-September), to a maximum of 86430 s (end-
December).

The sidereal day is the time it takes a fixed star to return to the same
meridian, which is also equal to the period of rotation of the Earth about its
axis. In Sec. 1.3,
the sidereal time was defined as the hour angle of the
vernal equinox.

45

46

Chapter 5. Time systems

Figure 5.1: The solar day is longer than the sidereal day: after completing a
revolution about its axis, the Earth needs to rotate by an additional degree
(i.e. by the same amount it covered in its orbit around the Sun), in order to
see the Sun at the same meridian. This additional rotation takes 4 minutes,
which is the difference between the solar and sidereal day.

Since P is fixed with respect to the stars, the sidereal day can also be defined
as the time between two consecutive passages of the vernal equinox on the
same meridian.

The lengths of the solar and sidereal days are different. After a sidereal day,
the Earth has covered about one degree of its orbit around the Sun (or, more
precisely, 360 ˝{365.25 “ 0.986˝). Therefore, after completing a rotation
about its axis, the Sun does not appear exactly at the meridian, but the Earth
needs to rotate an additional degree (Fig. 5.1).
This takes around 4 minutes
(24h{360), therefore the solar day is about 4 minutes longer than the sidereal
day. However, the difference between a solar and a sidereal day is not
constant. It depends on the eccentricity of the Earth’s orbit and on the
declination of the Sun. In any case, the solar day is always longer than the
sidereal day, since the orbital and rotational motions proceed in the same
direction.

Now, let us carry out a more rigorous analysis. Let ω be the angular velocity
of the Earth about its own axis and Ω the angular velocity of revolution
around the Sun. Since the orbital and rotational motions proceed in the same
direction, an observer on Earth sees the Sun moving clockwise with angular
velocity ωr “

ω´Ω. Let tsol be the duration of the mean solar day, tsid the length of the
sidereal day and trev the period of Earth’s orbit around the Sun (equal to a
year).

Since ωr “ 2π{tsol, ω “ 2π{tsid and Ω “ 2π{trev, we have: 1

´
.

(5.1)

tsol

tsid

trev

5.1. Sidereal and Solar Day

47

Isolating tsid, substituting trev “ 365.25 tsol and tsol “ 86400 s, we find: tsol
¨ trev

tsid “

« 86164.1 s “ 23h56m 4.1s of mean solar time .

tsol ` trev

The mean solar day is therefore 3m 56s longer than the sidereal day. The
sidereal day can be taken as a constant to a very good approximation, but in
the long term it also varies, mainly due to the tidal force exerted by the
Moon. As a consequence, the Moon gains energy, moving away from the
Earth (at a current rate of 3.8 cm each year), whilst the Earth’s rotation is
slowed down. If the Earth–Moon system continued its motion undisturbed,
after a sufficiently long time, the Earth would always show the same side to
the Moon, i.e. the rotation and the orbital motions would be synchronised.
There are a few examples of celestial bodies in the Solar System in which
perfect synchrony has already been established. One of the most widely
known examples is the dwarf planet Pluto and its largest moon, Charon.

Earlier we showed that one sidereal day, i.e. 24h “ 86400s of sidereal time, is
equal to 23h56m 4.1s “ 86164.1s of mean solar time. We can then write two
equations to convert from sidereal to solar time and vice-versa: 86164.1
tsol “

tsid

tsol « 0.99727 tsid ,

(5.2)

86400

and:

86400

tsid “

tsol

tsid « 1.002738 tsol .

(5.3)

86164.1

Indeed, using Eq. 5.2,

we see that a sidereal day (tsid “ 24h “ 86400 s of
sidereal time) is equal to 86164.1 s of solar time. Conversely, using Eq. 5.3
we find that a solar day (tsol “ 24h “ 86400 s of solar time) is equal to
86636.5 s of sidereal time.

Estimating Sidereal Time

Since the sidereal time is defined as the hour angle of the vernal equinox, it
follows that ST“ 0h when P passes through the meridian. During the vernal
equinox, the Sun coincides with P, therefore they culminate at the same time.
Since the Sun culminates at 12 : 00 of local time, it follows that: ST “ Tt `
12h ,

where Tt is the true local solar time. This equation has the accuracy of a few
minutes. Since the sidereal day is shorter than the solar day by 3m56s, after
n solar days from the vernal equinox, the sidereal time will be: ST “ Tt ` 12h
` p3m56sq ¨ n .

48

Chapter 5. Time systems

Often we only know the value of Tm, i.e. the mean local solar time.
Measuring Tt would require a sundial or a similar instrument, which I bet
you don’t carry in your pocket. In this case we can use the equation of time
Tt “ Tm È.T.

(Sec. 5.2),
knowing that, during the vernal equinox, E.T. “ ´7m: ST “ Tm `
11h53m ` p3m56sq ¨ n .

(5.4)

The vernal equinox usually falls on the 21st of March, but it can vary in
either direction by about two days. For this reason, unless we are given the
day of vernal equinox, it is not possible to compute the sidereal time with an
accuracy greater than 5 minutes. When talking about the time at a given
place, we usually refer to the (mean solar) local time, therefore it is more
likely you will use Eq. 5.4.

5.2

Equation of Time

The length of the solar day varies throughout the year. Due to the
eccentricity of its orbit, Earth’s velocity varies from a maximum at
perihelion to a minimum at aphelion. Since the daily angle covered by the
Earth around the Sun is proportional to the Earth’s velocity, the true solar
time is longer at perihelion and shorter at aphelion. Another factor that
periodically changes the length of the true solar day is the obliquity of the
ecliptic. Since Earth’s rotation axis is perpendicular to the celestial equator,
we are only interested in the projection of the Sun’s motion along this plane.
Let dλ@{dt be the daily angle covered by the Sun, when its declination is
δ@, as viewed by an observer on Earth. First, let us work out the projection
of the Sun’s motion on the parallel of declination δ@. This is just pcos { cos
δ@q dλ@{dt: indeed, it is dλ@{dt during a solstice (locally the Sun moves
along the parallel), and cos dλ@{dt during an equinox (when the Sun’s path
forms an angle with respect to the parallel, which is the equator in this case).
We now need to project this motion on the celestial equator. This adds a
factor of 1{ cos δ@, i.e. the ratio of the circumference of the celestial
equator to that of the parallel (see Sec. 3.6).
Therefore, the projection of the
Sun’s motion on the equator is proportional to cos { cos2 δ@.

The eccentricity gives a maximum deviation of around 5 s per day, while the
obliquity of the ecliptic is the dominant factor and gives rise to a maximum
deviation of around 20 s per day.

Our clocks are based on the mean solar time, that is, on a fictitious Sun that
moves on the celestial equator at a constant angular speed. By definition, the
average solar time Tm is equal to the hour angle Hm of the fictitious Sun
plus 12 hours (so that every day starts at midnight):

Tm “ Hm ` 12h .

(5.5)
5.2. Equation of Time
49

Figure 5.2: The equation of time (E.T.) gives the difference between the
mean solar time and the true solar time. The value of E.T. varies throughout
the year, due to the eccentricity of the Earth’s orbit and the obliquity of the
ecliptic.

50

Chapter 5. Time systems

Figure 5.3: The analemma on the local meridian, as seen by an observer at

an intermediate latitude in the northern hemisphere.

We can also write the same equation for Tv and Hv. The equation of time,
denoted by E.T., is the difference between the mean solar time Tm and the
true solar time Tt:

E.T. “ Tt ´ Tm .

(5.6)
During a year, the small differences between each true and mean solar day
sum up to significant values of E.T.: from a maximum of 16 minutes on the
2nd of November, to a minimum of -14 minutes on the 11th of February. The
equation of time is zero four times per year: on the 15th of April,14th of
June, 1st of September and 24th of December.

If we take a picture of the Sun every day throughout the year, at the same
mean solar time, and superpose these images, we see that the Sun follows a
long and slender figure-of-eight path, with one lobe much larger than the
other, called the analemma (Fig. 5.3).
The vertical component of this motion
is easy to explain: since the declination of the Sun changes during the year,
its height on the horizon varies accordingly, being lower in winter and higher
in summer.

What about the horizontal component? At the same mean solar time, the
hour angle of the true Sun changes during the year in accordance with the
equation of time (Eq. 5.6),
therefore its horizontal position varies
accordingly. For an observer in the northern hemisphere, the Sun is located
in the highest part of the analemma during the summer solstice, in the lowest
part during the winter solstice and in the part halfway in between (which
does not correspond to the point where the lobes meet) during the vernal and
autumnal equinoxes.

The easternmost and westernmost points are occupied by the Sun when the
equation of time is minimum and maximum, respectively. The Sun passes
through the four points halfway in between the horizontal extrema when the
equation of time is zero.

5.3. Local Solar Time

51

5.3

Local Solar Time

Both the average and true solar times are local times, i.e. they depend on the
hour angle of the Sun, either real or artificial. The time on our watch is likely
to be different from the true solar time (measured, for example, by a
sundial).

For centuries, the length of the day was directly related to the Sun’s passage
on the meridian. This meant that each place had its own local solar time,
which could vary significantly within the same country. Clearly, our clocks
must be based on a different time, one that does not vary throughout the year
and that is possibly the same within the same region or country.

5.4

Greenwich Mean Time

As railways progressed across each country, the time difference between

cities became problematic. The United Kingdom, the most industrialized
European nation at that time, decided to standardize time within its country
according to the time marked by the clock in Greenwich, central London.
This time standard became known as the Greenwich Mean Time (GMT).

The Greenwich Mean Time was formally replaced by the Universal Time
(UT) in 1928 (although the title has not yet entered common usage), but was
essentially the same as GMT until 1967, when the definition of the second
was changed. At the beginning, the universal time was obtained directly
from observations (UT0).

After correcting for the perturbation motions of the

Earth’s rotation axis (precession, nutation, motion of the poles), we obtain

UT1. This system also suffers some irregularities, caused by small variations
in the Earth’s rotation speed. These disturbances have at least two periods,
one year and half a year. By removing these effects we obtain UT2, with a
precision of about 10´7 s. UT2 is also not exact, due to the decrease in the
Earth’s velocity of rotation, caused by the tidal force with the Moon.

For this reason, astronomers have abandoned the rotation of the Earth as a
method of measuring time. In 1967, the one-second duration was defined as
9192631770 times the period of oscillation of Caesium 133 that transits from
the hyperfine level F “ 4 to F “ 3. Later, this definition was modified to
include small relativistic effects due to the Earth’s gravitational field.
The precision of atomic time is approximately 10´12 s.

5.5

Time Zones

In 1884, the time zone system was proposed, according to which time is
determined only for the 24 main meridians, separated in longitude by 15˝. A
time zone is defined as the sector on the Earth’s surface delimited by the two
great circles at a distance of 7.5˝ from a main meridian. However, the bound-

52

Chapter 5. Time systems

aries of each time zone coincide with the theoretical ones only in the open
sea, while, within continents, they are modelled by borders. As a
consequence of the rotation of the Earth from west to east, every time zone
to the west of Greenwich is an hour of GMT earlier; to the east, an hour
later. Imagine we leave Greenwich at 12:00 GMT on the 1st of January, and
travel west at an arbitrarily large speed. Since we travel through 24 time
zones before finally landing back in Greenwich, it looks like we need to turn
our watch back by 24h.

In this case, our watch would then read 12:00 GMT, 31st of December,
which is clearly a paradox, since no time has actually elapsed. To avoid this,
the time zone system requires a date change at a specific meridian.
Furthermore, when crossing this meridian from east to west, we need to
decrease the date by one; if crossing from west to east (as in the previous
example), increase it by one.

By convention, this line roughly follows the Greenwich anti-meridian (the

main meridian 180˝ from it), and is called the International Date Line (IDL).
If you will, the IDL is a branch cut that makes time continuous. In many
places, the Date Line follows exactly the Greenwich anti-meridian, in others
it deviates to avoid crossing inhabited areas. The islands of the republic of
Kiribati, in the archipelago of the equatorial Sporades, is the place with the
farthest time zone from Greenwich (GMT + 14:00).
5.6

Daylight Saving Time

The Daylight Saving Time was introduced for the purpose of reducing
electricity consumption, by taking advantage of daylight during summer. It is
generally adopted from 2:00 a.m. on the first Sunday of spring and involves
setting the clocks forward by one hour, compared to standard time. It returns
to standard time at 2:00 a.m. on the first Sunday of autumn.

5.7

Measuring the Length of a Year

Sidereal Year

The sidereal year is the time it takes the Sun to return to the same position
with respect to the fixed stars. It is equal to Earth’s orbital period, given by
Kepler’s third law (Sec. 10.3)
. The duration of the sidereal year is 365.2564
average solar days (365 days, 6 hours, 9 minutes and 10 seconds). The
sidereal year is not based on the relative position of the Earth and Sun;
therefore, if we were to use the sidereal year in our calendars, after a
sufficiently long time the seasons would no longer fall in the same months of
the year, but would shift by about twenty minutes per year due to the
precession of the equinoxes. The period of revolution of a celestial body is
usually expressed in sidereal years.

5.8. Calendars

53

Tropical or Solar year

The tropical year or solar year is the time it takes the Sun to return to the
same position relative to the Earth. In other words, the tropical year is the
time interval between two consecutive passages of the Sun through the
vernal equinox. Because it is based on the motion of the Sun, the tropical
year is adopted by calendars. The tropical year is equal to 365.2422 average
solar days (365 days, 5 hours, 48 minutes and 46 seconds), but is subject to
small perturbations, the most significant of which is due to the Moon (pr.
6.5).

The length of the tropical year can be obtained from the length of the
sidereal year (which we simply call year) and the precession period of the
equinoxes (Tpr “ 25765 years). Since the orbital and precessional motions
proceed in opposite directions, the angular velocity of the Sun with respect
to the vernal equinox is given by ωr “ ωyr ` ωpr. Hence:

Ttr

Tyr

Tpr

Tpr,yr

Ttr “

« 0.9999612 Tsid “ 365.2422 mean solar days .

1 ` Tpr,yr

5.8

Calendars
Our calendar is the result of a long evolution. In general, a calendar must
have two properties:

• the number of days in a year must be an integer, since it would be

inconvenient for some years to start at night, others during the day;

• the average duration of a year must be close to that of the tropical year, so
that the seasons always fall in the same period of the year.

The main problem calendars have to deal with is the incompatibility between
the units of the day, month and year, since the number of days and months in
a year are not integers. Our calendar draws its origins from the Roman
calendar which, in its original form, was based on the phases of the moon.

Around 700 BC, the calendar was based on the apparent motion of the Sun
around the Earth and had a duration of twelve months. However, each month
was equal to a lunar cycle, so the duration of the year was 354 days and the
calendar was out of phase with the seasons. Then, under Julius Caesar, the
duration of the year was extended to 365 days. To better synchronize the
year with the seasons, it was also decided to add one day to every fourth year
(leap year ). Therefore, in the Julian calendar, the average duration of the
year was 365 days and 6 hours. Even this calendar was not perfect: the
tropical year is shorter by about 11 minutes and 14 seconds, so that, after
128 years,

54

Chapter 5. Time systems

the Julian calendar was already lagging behind by one day. The difference
already amounted to 10 days in 1582, when Pope Gregory XIII proposed a
new calendar. In the Gregorian calendar, every fourth year is a leap year.

However, years divisible by 100 are never leap years except when they are
also divisible by 400. For example, 1900 was not a leap year, but 2000 was.

The Gregorian calendar was adopted slowly, at different times by different

countries, and the transition period continued until the twentieth century. As
you might have guessed by now, even the Gregorian calendar is not perfect:
the difference with the tropical year accumulates every year and, in about
3300

years, it will amount to one day.

5.9

Exercises

1.

Is the difference in longitude between two places equal to the difference in

sidereal or solar time?

2.

Find the local time in Rome (λ “ 12˝28154.482 E) at 12:00 GMT. What is

the difference with the time shown by a clock?

3.*

When in Greenwich the local time is 10h17m14s, in Naples it is 11h14m15s.

What longitude is Naples located at?

4.** Compute the hour angle of the true Sun Ht for an observer at a place
with longitude 128˝151 W on the 10th of February 2003, at 08h46m22.0s
GMT, knowing that the equation of time that day was E.T. “ ´14m13s.

5.

On what day of the year are the solar and sidereal times the same?

6.

This evening, a star rises at 22:00. At what time will it rise in a month?

7.*
The sidereal time in Greenwich on the 18th of February 2003, at 0h GMT,
was 9h 50m 12s. At what time of GMT did a star with right ascension 18h
transit the meridian that day?

8.*

What is the best month of the year to observe (around midnight) a star with
right ascension α “ 10h?

9.*

What is the sidereal time in Rome (λ “ 12˝28154.482 E) at 12:00, on the

13th of April 2000? That year, the vernal equinox occurred at 7 : 35

GMT on the 20th of March.

10.* The coordinates of Arcturus are α “ 14h15.7m and δ “ 19˝1.11. Find the
sidereal time when the star sets in Boston (φ “ 42˝191, λ “ 71˝). At what
(meridian) time does Arcturus set on the 10th of January?

11.

What would the relation between solar and sidereal time be if the Earth
rotated about its axis in the opposite direction?

5.10. Problems

55

12.* What is the accumulated error in the Gregorian calender after 100, 500

and 1000 years?

13.** (IAO 2012, Th.α, β, q.1) Recently, on the 6th of June 2012, an
infrequent astronomical phenomenon, the transit of Venus across the solar
disc, took place. The next transit of Venus will take place only in 2117.
Calculate the date of that transit (Hint: read Ch. 11
first).

5.10
Problems

1.*

Effect of ecliptic obliquity on the equation of time

Using the equations obtained in Ch. 2,

prove that: dα

cos dλ@

(5.7)

dt

cos2 δ@ dt

2.*** Equation of time

Knowing that the equation of an ellipse in plane polar coordinates with

centre in the rightmost focus is (see Pr. 10.12):

ap1 é2q

rpθq “

(5.8)

1 è cos θ

applying conservation of energy and angular momentum, find the tangential

velocity of the Earth at each point in its orbit. Hence, prove that the daily
angle covered by the Earth around the Sun is: c

dθ
GM p1 è cos θq2

(5.9)

dt

a3

p1 é2q3{2

Therefore, compute the daily change in the Sun’s right ascension dα@{dt, in
terms of θ, γ, , e, where γ is the angle of the vernal equinox measured from
the direction of perihelion, is the obliquity of the ecliptic and e is the
eccentricity of Earth’s orbit. Finally, using Mathematica/Matlab or similar,
compute the equation of time. Sketch the analemma, observed at a mean
solar time Tm, from a place at latitude φ (Hint: read Ch. 10).

The Moon

The Moon is Earth’s only natural satellite. It orbits the Earth anti-clockwise
(as seen from the north pole) in a slightly elliptical orbit with eccentricity e “
0.055 and semi-major axis a “ 384400 km. Its orbital plane is inclined by
5˝91 with respect to the ecliptic, which it intersects along the node line. The
period of revolution of the Moon around the Earth is the same as the period
of rotation about its axis, hence the Moon always shows the Earth its same
side. However, due to its orbital inclination and eccentricity, it is possible to
see 59% of its surface at one time or another. This effect is called libration,
and will be discussed in detail in Sec. 6.5.

The Moon reflects only 8% of the light incident upon it (comparable to a

lump of coal), making it one of the least reflective objects in the Solar
System. Even with the naked eye, one can clearly see two distinct regions on
the visible side of the Moon (the near side, as opposed to the far side): light
areas, called terrae (or highlands), and darker areas, called maria. The maria
were once thought to be seas and oceans, and were given beautiful names
such as Oceanus Pro-cellarum, Mare Tranquillitatis and Sinus Iridum (the
Ocean of Storms, the Sea of Tranquillity and the Bay of Rainbows). When
the far side of the Moon was first photographed by the Soviet probe Luna 3
in 1959, a surprising feature was its almost complete lack of maria. Today
we know that the maria are made up of basaltic rocks, formed by volcanic
activity, which seems to be prevalent on the near side. The surface of the
Moon is covered in lunar regolith. It has a thickness of about 3–5 m in the
maria regions and 10–20 m in the terrae.

The Moon has been studied more than any other body in the Solar System; it
has been imaged from above by lunar orbiters, and its surface studied by a
number of landers – the first being Lunar 9 in 1965, followed by the Russian
lunar rovers and the NASA Surveyor craft. Lunar exploration culminated in
the NASA Apollo programme, when six spacecraft landed men on the
Moon.

56

6.1. Sidereal Month

57

6.1

Sidereal Month

The sidereal month is the time interval it takes the Moon to return to the
same position with respect to the fixed stars. The duration of this period is
27.32166d, i.e. 27d 7h 43m 12s. The most evident lunar period is, however,
the synodic month, related to the so-called lunation.

6.2

Synodic Month

The synodic month is the time interval it takes the Moon to return to the
same position relative to the Sun. After a synodic month the Earth has
travelled about 27˝ in its orbit around the Sun, therefore the Moon must
travel that same (additional) angle around the Earth, before being aligned
again with the Earth and the Sun. Since the Moon covers about 13˝ every
day, the synodic period is about two days longer than the sidereal one.

Following the same strategy adopted in Sec.

5.1,
to compute the relation

between sidereal and solar days, let us consider the relative angular velocity
between the Moon and the Sun. Denoting with ω$ and ω@ the angular
velocities of the Moon and the Sun, respectively, their relative angular
velocity is ωr “ ω$ ´ ω@. Substituting ω$ “ 2π{Tsid, ω@ “ 2π{Tyr and ωr “
2π{Tsyn:

Tsyn

Tsid

Tyr

Solving for Tsyn:

TsidTyr

365.2564 ¨ 27.32166

Tsyn “
“

« 29.53059d “ 29d12h44m3s .

Tyr ´ Tsid

365.2564 ´ 27.32166

This is the mean duration of the synodic month.

Due to the eccentricity

of Earth’s orbit, the synodic month varies from a minimum of 29.27d, near
summer solstice, to a maximum of 29.84d, near winter solstice. A lunar year
comprises 12 mean synodic months, and has a duration of 354d 8h 48m. In
the lunar calendar, for convenience, the year is assigned an integer number
of days.

To better approximate the real period, one day is added every third year, so
that 2 years with 354 days are followed by one with 355 days. The error is
about 48 minutes every year.

Lunar Phases

The lunar phases result from the different positions occupied by the Moon,
relative to the Sun, in its rotation around the Earth. Every lunation is
characterized by four important moments: new moon, first quarter, full moon
and last quarter.

58

Chapter 6. The Moon

New moon occurs when the Moon is in between the Earth and the Sun.
During new moon, the Moon appears completely dark and it rises and sets
together with the Sun. Approximately seven days after new moon, the Moon
is in quadrature with the Earth and the Sun; this moment is called first
quarter. Only the western part of the Moon is illuminated — the part to the
east being completely dark. The Moon rises around noon and sets around
midnight, lagging behind the Sun by six hours. Another seven days later, the
Moon is aligned with the Sun and the Earth, on the same side of the Earth,
and appears completely illuminated. During a full moon, the Moon rises at
18:00 (sunset), and sets at 6:00 (sunrise), therefore it precedes the Sun by 12
hours. Finally, in the last quarter, the Moon is again in quadrature, appearing
bright to the east and dark to the west. The Moon now rises at midnight and
sets at noon, making it 6 hours ahead of the Sun. The entire cycle lasts one
synodic month.

6.3

Draconic Month

The draconic month is the time interval it takes the Moon to complete a full
revolution with respect to the node line. This period is slightly shorter than
the synodic month due to the precessional motion of the node line, which is
in the opposite direction to the orbital motion of the Moon. The value of the
draconic month (Tdra) can be calculated from the precessional period (Tpr “
18.61 years) and from the sidereal period (Tsid): 1

Tdra

Tsid

Tpr

Tpr Tsid

ñ Tdra “
« 27.2122d “ 27d5h5m34s .

Tpr ` Tsid

Instead, the draconic year is useful for calculating eclipses. It is defined as

the time between two consecutive passages of the Sun through the same
lunar node.

This period can be determined from the relative angular velocity between the
Sun and the node line. Let Ttr be the duration of the tropical year, and Tpr
the period of the precession of the lunar nodes. Then: 1

Tyr, dra

Ttr

Tpr

Tpr Ttr

ñ Tyr, dra “

« 346.6201d “ 346d14h53m .

Tpr ` Ttr

6.4. Eclipses

59
6.4

Eclipses

Conditions for the Occurrence of Eclipses

If the orbital plane of the Moon coincided with the plane of the ecliptic,
there would be one solar and one lunar eclipse every synodic month.
However, the plane is tilted by 5˝91; therefore, for an eclipse to occur, the
Moon must be close to the node line during full or new moon. In the next
sections we will show that, for a (partial or total) lunar eclipse to occur, the
Sun-node distance must be smaller than 10˝ and, only in exceptional cases,
can it reach 12˝. For a total lunar eclipse this distance must be less than 4.5˝.
In order for a (partial or total) solar eclipse to occur, the distance of the Sun
from the node must be less than 15˝, therefore solar eclipses are more
frequent than lunar eclipses.

Since it takes the Sun six months to travel from one node to the other, the
eclipses are distributed in two groups, the so-called eclipse seasons.

Total Number of Eclipses in a Year

During a synodic period, the Sun moves by about 30˝ along the ecliptic.
Imagine there is a new moon at the beginning of a synodic month. Half a
month later, the Moon has covered half of its orbit, so there is a full moon,
while the Sun has moved by 15˝. At the end of the month, there will be a
new moon again, and the Sun will have moved by 30˝ relative to the starting
position. Taking into account the position of the node line, it is then possible
to determine the types of eclipses that can occur in a synodic month: 1. 2
solar and 1 lunar. This happens when the Sun is initially at ´15˝ from the
node line. At the beginning of the month, a solar eclipse occurs. Half a
month later there is a full moon, and the distance of the Sun from the node is
around 0˝, therefore a lunar eclipse occurs. At the end of the month, the Sun
will be at 15˝ from the node line, and a second solar eclipse will occur.

2. 1 solar and 1 lunar. In this case, the initial distance of the Sun from the
node must be between ´15˝ and ´5˝. After half a month, the Sun-node
distance is just right (0˝ ´ 10˝) for a lunar eclipse to occur. At the end of the
month, this distance will be greater than 15˝, therefore no other solar eclipse
occurs.

3. 1 solar. The initial distance of the Sun from the node line must be less than
5˝. The first solar eclipse occurs at the beginning of the month.

However, at the next full moon, the Sun’s distance from the node line is
greater than 10˝, so no lunar eclipse occurs. Likewise, at the end of the
month, no other solar eclipse will occur.

In any case, we see that the number of solar eclipses must be greater than or

60

Chapter 6. The Moon

equal to the number of lunar eclipses. The maximum number of eclipses that
can occur in a year is 7: 5 solar and 2 lunar, or 4 solar and 3 lunar. In the first
case, at the beginning of the year there are two solar eclipses, the first one
towards the beginning of January and the second during the next new moon,
with a lunar eclipse between them (case 1). After half a year, in the second
eclipse season, there are again two solar eclipses with a lunar eclipse in
between. At the end of the year, after 354 days (or 12 synodic months) from
the first eclipse, the last solar eclipse occurs.

In the second case, a lunar eclipse occurs shortly after the beginning of
January, and is followed by a solar eclipse (case 2). In the second eclipse
season, there are two solar eclipses with a lunar eclipse between them (case
1). Then, at the end of the year, there will be the fourth solar eclipse and the
third lunar eclipse (case 2), 354 days after the first lunar eclipse. However,
observing seven eclipses in a year is very rare. The most frequent event is
that of 2 solar and 2 lunar eclipses in a year. The minimum number of
eclipses in a year is 2: one solar eclipse (case 3), in each of the two eclipse
seasons.

Lunar Eclipse

Figure 6.1: Lunar Eclipse.

Assume that the Earth, Moon and Sun are spherical bodies. Due to illumin-
ation by the Sun, the Earth casts a large cone of shadow (umbra) into space.

Let V be the vertex of this cone and l “ VE, its length (Fig. 6.1).
The
quantities SE “ dC, STs “ R@ and ETe “ RC are the Earth-Sun distance, the
radius of the Sun and the radius of the Earth, respectively. Consider the
similar triangles TsSV and TeEV, then:

l ` dC

RCdC

ñl“

R@

RC

R@ ŔC

Since R@ “ 695510 km, RC “ 6378 km and dC “ 149.6 ¨ 106 km, we get l “

1.383 ¨ 106 km. Hence, the length of the umbra is 3.5 times the Earth-Moon
distance.

6.4. Eclipses

61

In addition to the umbra, the Earth projects a larger penumbra into space.

When the Moon crosses the umbra, a total lunar eclipse is observed. If,
instead, the Moon only crosses the penumbra, a partial eclipse is observed,
and the brightness of the Moon is only slightly attenuated.

Let us now calculate the radius of the umbra at the distance of the Moon
(EM “ d$, in Fig. 6.1).
Assuming that the angle in V is small, the following
relation holds:

RC

l ´ d$

Isolating r and substituting l found earlier:

“ RC ´

pR
d

@ ŔCq .

(6.1)

Evaluating the above equation, we find r “ 4560 km, i.e. around 2.65 times
the radius of the Moon. In fact, due to the eccentric orbits of the Moon and
the Earth, this value can range from 2.6 to 2.8. The Moon covers a distance
equal to its diameter every hour (see Ex. 6.6), therefore the totality of a lunar
eclipse can last up to two hours.

A total lunar eclipse takes place as follows: when the Moon first enters the
penumbra cone, its brightness decreases slightly. At the moment of first
contact, the Moon enters Earth’s umbra. As the eclipse continues, Earth’s
shadow progressively covers a greater portion of the Moon until, at the
moment of totality, it is completely obscured. Subsequently, the Moon
emerges again, its brightness slowly increasing. The moment when the
Moon leaves the umbra is called last contact, and marks the end of the
eclipse. Partial eclipses, in which the Moon only crosses the penumbra of the
Earth, are very difficult to observe, because of the slight, almost
imperceptible, decrease in brightness.

Let us now calculate the maximum distance between the Sun and the node
line, for which a partial lunar eclipse can take place. In the limiting case, the
Moon barely grazes Earth’s umbra, therefore it is at a maximum distance of r
` R$ from the node line. The angle from the node line is then: r ` R

tan α

« αrad “

ñ α “ 0.94˝ ,

d$
where r is given by Eq. 6.1.
Now, the maximum distance of the Sun from the
node line is exactly equal to this angle, since only the relative positions of
the Sun, Earth and Moon matter. However, the Moon’s orbit is inclined by
5.145˝

relative to the plane of the ecliptic, so the maximum distance of the Sun, in
ecliptic longitude, is:

∆λ “

“ 10.5˝

sin 5.145˝

62

Chapter 6. The Moon

which is approximately the angle quoted at the beginning of this section.

The limit for a total eclipse is obtained by taking r Ŕ$ as the maximum

distance of the Moon from the node line. In this case, we get α “ 0.42˝ and
∆λ “ 4.7˝. Since the orbits of the Earth and the Moon are elliptical, these
limits vary depending on the positions of the celestial bodies (Ex. 6.10).

Solar Eclipse

Figure 6.2: Solar eclipse: unlike lunar eclipses, visible from the entire
hemisphere on Earth facing the Moon, total solar eclipses can be observed
only in a region of 200 km. The penumbra is much larger, its radius being
around twice that of the Moon.

When the Moon covers the disk of the Sun, a solar eclipse takes place. For a
solar eclipse to be observed, there must be a new moon, and both the Moon
and the Sun must be close to the node line. Since both the orbits of the Earth
and the Moon are elliptical, the Moon can appear larger or smaller than the
Sun. If the angular diameter of the Moon is greater than that of the Sun, a
total solar eclipse occurs. If, instead, the angular diameter of the Moon is
smaller, a very thin portion of the Sun’s disk is left uncovered: in this case,
an annular solar eclipse is observed. On average, the angular diameter of the
Sun is slightly larger, hence, for a total solar eclipse to occur, either the
Moon must be close to perigee, or the Earth close to aphelion.

Although solar eclipses occur more often than lunar eclipses, the former are
much more difficult to observe. In fact, during a solar eclipse, the length of
the umbra on the surface of the Earth is just 200 km (Ex. 6.12), which makes
it visible only in very few places. On the contrary, a total lunar eclipse can
be seen from the entire hemisphere on Earth facing the Moon.

What is the maximum distance of the Sun from the node line, for a (partial
or total) solar eclipse to be observed? In this case, the Moon must be at point
M in Fig. 6.3.
The distance EV « TeV is just l, computed in the previous
section. Also, ETe “ RC and ME “ d$ are the radius of the Earth and the
distance Moon-Earth, respectively. Since α is small, we can approximate
6.4. Eclipses

63

Figure 6.3: For a (partial or total) solar eclipse to occur, the distance of the
Moon from the node line must be less than α.

MH « d$ αrad and HE « d$. The triangles EVTe and HVM are similar,
therefore:

d$ αrad

RC

ñ αrad “
1`

(6.2)

l ` d$

d$

giving α « 1.21˝. Adding to this the angular radius of the Moon, the total
angle is then 1.47˝. The maximum distance of the Sun from the node line is:
1.47˝

∆λ “

« 16˝

sin 5.145˝

which is an overestimation of the limit stated at the beginning of this section.

Saros cycle

At the time of the Chaldeans it was already known that the eclipses repeated
periodically every 18 years and 11.3 days, the so-called Saros cycle. Indeed,
eclipses repeat in the same order, when the same phase of the Moon repeats
itself at a distance from the node line equal to the distance at which the first
eclipse occurred.

It follows that the Saros cycle is equal to the time

interval necessary for the synodic month, draconic month and draconic year
(29.53, 27.21 and 346.62 days, respectively) to return in phase with each
other.
In particular, 242 draconic months correspond approximately to 223 synodic
months and 19 draconic years. More exactly:

• 242 draconic months = 6585.36 mean solar days

• 223 synodic month = 6585.32 mean solar days

• 19 draconic years = 6585.78 mean solar days

However, 223 synodic months are 0.04 days shorter than 242 draconic
months, after 6585 days the Moon will return to a slightly different position
(the cycle is not exact). Since the Saros cycle is an integer number of days
plus approximately 1/3, the eclipses will be visible from locations shifted by
around 120˝

64

Chapter 6. The Moon

in longitude, compared to the previous cycle. For this reason, the Greeks had
defined another period, known as the exeligmos, equal to three Saros cycles.

Each Saros cycle comprises 70 eclipses: 41 solar and 29 lunar.

6.5

Libration

In addition to the motions of revolution around the Earth and precession of

the node line, the Moon is subject to a rotational motion around its axis
which is synchronous with the orbital motion around the Earth. As a
consequence, the Moon always shows the Earth its same side
(approximately). In fact, the Moon is also subject to an apparent motion,
called libration. As a result of this motion, it is possible to see 59 % of the
lunar surface at one time or another, instead of the 50 % that we would have
expected.

Longitudinal Libration
While the rotation of the Moon around its axis is uniform (to a good
approximation), its orbital velocity is not. For example, if the Moon is close
to perigee, its speed is higher than average, and it is possible to see a thin
area towards west, that wouldn’t have been visible otherwise. This
longitudinal motion has a period equal to the anomalistic month (the time it
takes the Moon to return to the same position with respect to the line passing
through perigee and apogee, called the apse line), with a length of
27d13h18.6m (see Pr. 6.2). The maximum amplitude of longitudinal
libration is 7˝541 (Pr. 6.6).

Latitudinal Libration

The rotation axis of the Moon is inclined by 6˝411 with respect to the
perpendicular to its orbital plane. Since the direction of its axis stays
unchanged (because of the conservation of angular momentum), every
draconic month the Moon periodically shows the Earth its north and south
poles. The amplitude of this motion is equal to the inclination of the Moon’s
axis.

Diurnal Libration

Diurnal libration is a secondary effect compared to the previous ones and is

caused by parallax. Observers at different locations on Earth see the Moon at
slightly different angles. As a result, they see different portions of it. The
amplitude of diurnal libration is about 1˝.

6.6. Exercises

65

6.6

Exercises

1.

What planets can be eclipsed by the full moon?

2.
Is the full Moon higher in summer or in winter?

3.

For what range of latitudes is it possible to see the Moon at the zenith?

4.

At what latitudes is the Moon circumpolar at least once a year?

5.

When is the Moon closest to you: at the zenith or at the horizon?

6.

How long does it take for the Moon to cover a distance equal to its diameter?
(Hint: use Eq. 10.18).

7.

(INT 2012, Th.S, q.2) In the morning, you look out the window of your
home (in Italy) and see the moon half illuminated. Is it a first or last quarter
moon? At what time does it set?

8.** (NAZ 2015, Th.S, q.5) A small outer planet travels around the Sun in a
circular orbit that lies exactly on the plane of the ecliptic. It has a peculiarity:
the Moon can never eclipse it. Find the radius of its orbit (Hint: use Kepler’s
law, Eq. 10.13).

9.

On the 1st of January there was a new moon. What will be the position of
the Moon, the same day of the following year?

10.* Compute again the maximum distance of the Sun from the node line for
a lunar eclipse to occur. Take into account the eccentricities of the orbits.

11.* The same question as in the previous exercise, but for a solar eclipse.
12.* Compute the maximum lengths of the umbra and penumbra on Earth,
during a solar eclipse. Take into account the eccentricities of the orbits.

66

Chapter 6. The Moon

6.7

Problems

1.*

Meton cycle

In the fifth century BC, the Athenian astronomer Meton calculated how
many years it would take the Moon to return to the same phase on the same
day of the year. Find the length of this cycle, knowing the duration of the
synodic month (29.53d) and of the tropical year (365.24d).

2.

Anomalistic month

The apse line of the Moon completes a full rotation every 8.8504 years.

Find the duration of the anomalistic month, defined as the time it takes the
Moon to return to the same position with respect to the apse line.

3.*

Measuring the distance of the Moon

When the Moon passes through the zenith, its angular diameter is αz “
3113611. When it is on the horizon, its angular diameter is 31142.

Calculate the distance of the Moon from Earth. (The effects of atmospheric
refraction have already been accounted for).

4.** Distance of the Moon, another method

The Moon is observed from a place of latitude φ “ 41˝551. When the Moon
transits on the meridian and has maximum declination, its distance from the
zenith is zu “ 13˝331; when it has minimum declination, its distance is zl “
71˝251. Find the distance of the Moon from Earth.

Knowing that the inclination of the ecliptic is 23˝271, find the inclination of
the Moon’s orbit. (You will need to solve an equation numerically.) 5.*

Lunar influence

Among the numerous factors that affect the duration of the tropical year, we
want to estimate the contribution of the Moon. Assume that the centre of
mass of the Earth-Moon system moves in a circular orbit around the Sun and
that the Moon moves in a circular orbit around the Earth, on the plane of the
ecliptic, completing (approximately) 12 and a half revolutions every year.
Show that the year is longer than average if there is a first quarter moon
during the spring equinox. Evaluate the difference in minutes between that
year and the following year.

6.** Longitudinal libration

Estimate the amplitude of longitudinal libration. (Hint: read Ch. 10

first, and use Eq. 5.9).

Part II

Radiation Mechanisms

67

Electromagnetic Radiation

What we generally call light is only a small part of the electromagnetic

spectrum, in particular the visible region between 400 and 700 nanometers in
wavelength. By studying the radiation emitted by a body, it is possible to
obtain a large amount of information, including its temperature,
composition, surface gravity, electric and magnetic fields. In this chapter we
illustrate how this can be achieved. We start by discussing the properties of
electromagnetic radiation, moving on to introduce some concepts of
statistical physics, which will come in handy in the study of the black body
spectrum. Only a brief summary of the essential results, without delving too
much into derivations, can be given here. However, some proofs will be
presented in the problems. In case you wish to gain a deeper insight in this
topic, you might want to con-sult some statistical physics and quantum
mechanics textbooks (see “Suggested Resources”).

7.1

Wave or particle?

Electromagnetic waves can be defined by three physical parameters:

• the period T , i.e. the time interval it takes a crest to reach the position
previously occupied by the preceding crest;

• the frequency f , i.e. the number of crests that pass through a given point
every second. The frequency is the reciprocal of the period, that is: f “ 1{T ;

• the wavelength λ, i.e. the distance between two adjacent crests or troughs,
equal to the distance covered by the wave in a period.

In vacuum, the velocity of all electromagnetic radiation is equal to the speed

of light, c. Since velocity is equal to space (λ) divided by time (T ), it
follows that:

c“

“ λf .

(7.1)

T
68

7.1. Wave or particle?

69

When taking into consideration phenomena involving energy exchange

between electromagnetic radiation and matter, the wave model becomes
inadequate and unable to justify some experimental observations. In this
case, a corpuscular model is used instead. According to this model, radiation
is made up of energy packets, called photons. The energy carried by each
photon is directly proportional to its frequency, and the constant of
proportionality is called Planck’s constant, equal to h “ 6.626 ¨ 10´32 J s.
The energy of a photon is: E “ hf .

(7.2)

Since f “ c{λ, we also have E “ hc{λ. What distinguishes different

electromagnetic waves is their energy, i.e. their frequency. High-frequency
(short-wavelength) radiation is composed of high-energy photons, whereas
low-frequency (long-wavelength) radiation is composed of low-energy
photons. The set of all electromagnetic waves is called the electromagnetic
spectrum.

According to de Broglie’s law, each photon carries a momentum of: h

p“

(7.3)

Since λ “ c{f , we can also write p “ hf {c “ E{c. A body illuminated with

light is subject to radiation pressure, due to the exchange of momentum
between the object and the electromagnetic field. Since force equals rate of
change in momentum, p “ E{c implies that the force is equal to the power
incident on the surface, divided by the speed of light. But pressure is force
divided by area, therefore, defining the flux (F ) as the power per unit area
(and therefore energy per unit area, per unit time), it follows that: F

Prad “

(7.4)

This expression makes the implicit assumption that the body absorbs all of
the incident (collimated) light. If, instead, the body is completely reflecting,
the radiation pressure is double the value given by Eq. 7.4.
Indeed, the
photons bounce back with the same initial momentum, hence the change in
momentum of the body is twice the initial momentum of the photons. The
radiation force is generally too small to be noticed under everyday
circumstances. However, in outer space, it is usually the main force acting
on an object, besides gravity.

The discovery that light carries momentum has led to the development of
new propulsion methods, such as spaceships capable of deploying huge solar
sails or small probes propelled by reflecting the collimated light of powerful
laser beams (see Ex. 7.5).

70

Chapter 7. Electromagnetic Radiation

7.2

Boltzmann Distribution Law

Boltzmann’s law describes the most likely energy distribution of a system. In

this and the next section, we will consider the probability distribution
function gpEq, defined so that gpEq dE equals the probability that the
system’s energy is in the range [E, È dE]. From statistical arguments, it can
be shown that the most probable distribution is:
gpEq 9 eÉ{pkBT q ,

(7.5)

where E is the energy of the state, T is the temperature and kB is the

Boltzmann constant, equal to kB “ R{Na “ 1.381 ¨ 10´23 J/K.

7.3

Maxwell Distribution Law

The Maxwell distribution law describes the most likely velocity distribution
of particles within a system. We define f pvq, called the Maxwell
distribution function, such that f pvq dv is equal to the probability of finding
a particle with velocity in the range [v, v ` dv]. This function can be derived
from the Boltzmann distribution (Pr. 7.2):

¯3{2

f pvq “ 4π

v2e´mv2{2kBT ,

(7.6)

2πkBT

where m is the mass of a particle. Note the occurrence of the Boltzmann

factor eÉ{pkBT q, where E is the kinetic energy mv2{2.

The most probable velocity corresponds to the maximum of f pvq. Equating

the derivative of f pvq to zero, it can be shown (Ex. 7.8) that: c 2kBT

vmp “

.
(7.7)

The root mean square (rms) velocity, as the name suggests, is the square root
a

of the average velocity squared, i.e.

xv2y. It is given by (Ex. 7.12):

c 3kBT

vrms “

(7.8)

It is useful for calculating the kinetic energy of a system:

´1

xKy “

m xv2y ¨ N “

mN vrms “

nRT .
2

where we used kB “ R{Na and n “ N {Na, with n denoting the number of

moles. Therefore:

xKy “

nRT ,

(7.9)

7.3. Maxwell Distribution Law

71

This formula is valid for a gas composed of monoatomic particles. The

equipartition theorem states that each (quadratic) degree of freedom
contributes equally to the total kinetic energy. A monoatomic gas has three
degrees of freedom, one for each of the three spatial dimensions. Therefore,
each degree must contribute an energy of p1{2 qnRT . A diatomic gas has
two additional degrees of freedom.

These correspond to the rotation around the two axes perpendicular to the
line joining the centres of the atoms (the energy associated with the rotation
about the axis joining the atoms is negligible, since the atoms are very
small). Hence, the kinetic energy of a diatomic gas is p5{2q nRT . Therefore,
at the same temperature, a diatomic gas stores more energy than a
monoatomic gas.

Planetary Atmospheres
The atmosphere of a planet is made up of several molecules: some lighter,
like helium and hydrogen, others heavier, like carbon dioxide, ammonia and
methane. Since the average kinetic energy of molecules in a gas is
proportional to the temperature (Eq. 7.9),
it follows that molecules move
faster in a warmer atmosphere. At a given temperature, the average velocity
of a molecule is inversely proportional to the square root of its mass.
Therefore, hydrogen molecules (m “ 2 u) move four times faster than oxygen
molecules (m “ 32 u).

If a molecule located in the upper atmosphere moves at a sufficiently high

speed, it can exceed the escape velocity of the planet. Therefore, small and
hot planets may have easily lost all of their lighter molecules, while massive
and cold planets could still retain their primordial atmosphere.

However, the situation is not that simple: Maxwell’s curve (Eq. 7.6)
shows
that there are molecules with much higher velocities than the average. In
fact, about one molecule in a million has a velocity three times higher than
the rms velocity, while one molecule in 1016 has a velocity five times
higher. It can be shown that, if the rms velocity of a molecule is less than 1/6
of the escape velocity from a planet, this molecule does not escape from the
planet’s atmosphere in significant quantities during the lifetime of the Solar
System. For example, the mean square velocities of molecular nitrogen (506
km/s) and oxygen (473 km/s) in the Earth’s atmosphere are well below 1/6
of the escape velocity from Earth (11.2 km/s). Assuming the Moon had an
atmosphere with approximately the same temperature as the Earth’s, the rms
velocities of oxygen and nitrogen would have been only 1/5 of the escape
velocity from the Moon (2.4 km/s).

Therefore, no trace of such an atmosphere would remain today. The same

arguments apply to the hydrogen in the Earth’s atmosphere, which has a
mean square velocity of 2 km/s, just under 1{6 of Earth’s escape velocity.
Hydrogen has had sufficient to escape, and indeed today only constitutes
0.000055 % of the Earth’s atmosphere. On the other hand, the average speed
of hydrogen is 1{60 of the escape velocity from Jupiter. This explains why
Jupiter has been able to maintain hydrogen, which is its major constituent.
72

Chapter 7. Electromagnetic Radiation

7.4

Black Body

Figure 7.1: The power emitted by a black body as a function of the

wavelength. With increasing temperature, the wavelength of maximum
emission shifts to the left and, at the same time, the maximum power
increases.

The term black body, first introduced by Gustav Kirchhoff in 1860, describes
a theoretical body that absorbs all incident electromagnetic radiation. In
equilibrium, because of energy conservation, a black body must re-emit all
of the absorbed energy into space, in the form of black body radiation. The
curve obtained by recording the amount of energy emitted by the black body
as a function of the wavelength is called black body curve or continuous
spectrum curve (Fig. 7.1).
Continuous spectra are produced by all bodies above absolute zero (0 K) and
do not depend on the composition of the emitting body, but are a function of
its temperature only. In Fig. 7.1,
we see that, for long wavelengths, the
power emitted by a black body increases initially, reaches a maximum at a
certain wavelength λmax, then decreases again, going to zero at infinity. As
the temperature is decreased, λmax moves towards longer wavelengths and,
at the same time, the maximum power decreases. Instead, as the temperature
is increased, λmax moves towards shorter wavelengths and the maximum
power increases.

Indeed, the area enclosed by the curve is equal to the total power emitted by
the black body, which decreases with decreasing temperature. These
observations are summarized in Wien’s and Stefan-Boltzmann laws,
respectively.

Wien’s Law

The relationship between the colour of a hot body and its temperature was
first noticed in 1792, by porcelain manufacturer Thomas Wedgewood. All
his ovens, regardless of size, shape or construction, turned red when heated
above

7.4. Black Body

73

a certain temperature. It looked like their colour was exclusively related to

their temperature. Using purely thermodynamic arguments, in 1893,
Wilhelm Wien showed that the wavelength (λmax) at which the emission of
energy is maximum is related to the temperature (T ) according to: λmaxT “
k,

(7.10)

where k is Wien’s constant:

k “ 2.897 ¨ 10´3 m K .

(7.11)
As the temperature is raised, a body turns first red (620 ´ 750 nm), then
orange (590 ´ 620 nm), then yellow (570 ´ 590 nm) and finally blue-white
(450 ´ 475 nm). In the same way, colder stars appear red and orange,
whereas warmer ones appear yellow and white-blue. This does not mean that
a star emits only at the wavelength corresponding to its perceived colour, but
that the other wavelengths are surpassed by that of maximum emission.

For example, the surface temperature of the Sun is T@ “ 5778 K. The

maximum emission wavelength is then:

2.898 ¨ 10´3 m K

λmax “

“ 501 ¨ 10´9 m .

T@

5778 K

Surprisingly, 501 nm corresponds to green, although it is very close to

yellow 560 nm. The wavelength of maximum emission does not always
correspond to the colour perceived by our eyes. This is due to the fact that
the atmosphere disperses smaller wavelengths more effectively (see Sec.
8.4),
and our eyes are the most sensitive to yellow.

Stefan-Boltzmann Law

The second black body law is the Stefan-Boltzmann law, experimentally

obtained by Josef Stefan in 1879 and theoretically derived by Ludwig
Boltzmann in 1884, using only thermodynamic arguments. The law states
that the power emitted by a black body, per unit area, is directly proportional
to the fourth power of its absolute temperature. The proportionality constant
σ is called the Stefan-Boltzmann constant:
σ “ 5.67 ¨ 10´8 W/m2K4 .

Therefore, the power emitted by a spherical body with radius R on the entire
electromagnetic spectrum is:

L “ 4πR2σT 4 .

(7.12)

74

Chapter 7. Electromagnetic Radiation

In general, a body can deviate significantly from the black body model. To
improve the theoretical prediction, the emissivity e is introduced.
Quantitatively, the emissivity is equal to the ratio of the radiation emitted by
the body to the radiation emitted by a black body at the same temperature;
therefore, the emissivity can also be interpreted as the ability of a body to
absorb incident light. An ideal black body absorbs all incident light, so e “ 1.
On the contrary, a mirror reflects most of the incident radiation (at least the
visible radiation), therefore e is close to 0. In any case, e can range from 0 to
1. In a more general form then, the Stefan-Boltzmann law can be written as:
L “ 4πR2e σT 4 .

(7.13)

If an object is at temperature T and the space surrounding it is at temperature

T0, the body absorbs energy from the surroundings at a rate of P

in “ 4πR2 e σT0

and emits energy at a rate of Pout “ 4πR2 e σT 4. Therefore, the total rate of
exchanged energy is:

4
tot “ 4πR2e σpT 4 ´ T0 q .

If an object is in equilibrium (i.e. constant temperature) with the

surroundings, it radiates and absorbs the same power, so that T “ T0. If an
object is warmer than the environment, it radiates more energy than it
absorbs and, in the absence of other mechanisms, its temperature decreases.
The temperature of empty space, associated with the cosmic background
radiation, is about T0 “ 2.725 K.

7.5

Types of Spectra

There are three different kinds of spectra: continuous, absorption and

emission.

The spectrum of a star can be regarded as the superposition of a continuous

spectrum, also called black body spectrum (as it depends only on the
temperature of the star), and an absorption spectrum (or, more rarely, an
emission spectrum) due to the absorption (or emission) of radiation by the
gas in the photosphere. The continuous component of the spectrum gives
information about the temperature of the photosphere, while the absorption
(or emission) lines make it possible to determine the chemical composition
of the star, its surface gravity and the electric and magnetic fields.

The continuous spectrum originates from a process called bremmstrahlung,

from the German bremsen “to brake, decelerate” and strahlung “radiation”,
which literally translates to braking or deceleration radiation. Because of the
very high temperature, matter is in the plasma state at the centre of stars, and
electrons move chaotically amongst ionized atoms. An electron approaching
a charged atom is scattered and accelerates away from it, consequently

7.5. Types of Spectra

75

emitting radiation in the form of electromagnetic waves (Pr.

7.1).
Since

the electron-atom distance and the electron velocity can vary continuously
within a star, the resulting electromagnetic radiation is distributed
continuously over all wavelengths, therefore the spectrum it produces is also
continuous. Bremmstrahlung is thus characterized by a continuous radiation
distribution that becomes more intense (and moves towards higher
frequencies) with increasing velocity (thermal energy) of the electrons, i.e.
with increasing temperature. Bremmstrahlung is sometimes referred to as
free-free radiation: it is created by charged particles that are not bound to any
ion, atom or molecule, and are therefore free, both before and after the
deflection.

Another phenomenon that contributes to the continuous spectrum is the

recombination of an electron with an ion. As before, the initial energy of an
electron is free to take any value, therefore, even though the final energy
must be quantized (i.e. bound to have the same energy as a given orbital in
the atom), the energy emitted in the form of electromagnetic radiation can
take any value, giving rise to a continuous spectrum. The recombination of
an electron with an ion is referred to as free-bound radiation. As long as
there is a free component, the total energy is not quantized and the resulting
spectrum is continuous.

The emission spectrum is produced by the emission of energy from excited

atoms. Normally, the electrons inside an atom occupy the orbitals which
correspond to the lowest overall energy (ground state) but, when excited,
they move to higher-energy orbitals. Returning to the ground state, the atom
emits a photon whose energy is equal to the energy difference between the
excited and the ground state. Since the energy of an electron in an atom is
quant-ised, and the electron does not leave the atom after the transition, it
follows that the energy (and therefore the wavelength) of the emitted photon
must be quantized. Because the energy levels vary from atom to atom (they
depend on nuclear charge and degree of ionization), each element leads to
different emission lines. Therefore, the emission (and absorption) spectrum
of each element is unique. In this sense, it can be regarded as the fingerprint
of an element: by examining the emission spectrum of an unknown object
and comparing it with other previously recorded spectra, it is possible to
determine the chemical composition of the source.
The absorption spectrum is the opposite of the emission spectrum. Electrons
within an atom can absorb the incident radiation and move to higher-energy
orbitals, then returning to the ground state by emitting exactly the same
energy.

Therefore, each atom absorbs the same wavelengths that it emits. At these
wavelengths, the continuous spectrum appears darker, since light is absorbed
and then re-emitted in a random direction (which rarely coincides with the
direction of the observer). The analysis of absorption lines, called
Fraunhofer lines, provides information on the chemical composition of stars.

76

Chapter 7. Electromagnetic Radiation

7.6

Doppler Effect

Figure 7.2: A spectrum is “blueshifted” when all the absorption (or

emission) lines are shifted towards shorter wavelengths (compared to the
spectrum at rest); “redshifted” when they are shifted towards longer
wavelengths.
As seen in the previous section, the emission and absorption lines of atoms
and molecules can be recorded in the laboratory. By comparing these with
the spectra of celestial bodies, it is possible to determine their chemical
composition. We often notice a shift of all these emission (or absorption)
lines by a few nanometers towards longer (red) or shorter (blue)
wavelengths, as in Fig. 7.2.

This is due to the relative motion between the source and the observer. The
law that relates the relative velocity to the shift of the spectral lines is called
Doppler effect. From the discovery of exoplanets and spectroscopic binaries,
to the expansion of the universe, this law has permanently changed the way
we think of our place in the universe.

If you already studied the Doppler effect, it was probably applied to a wave
that propagates in a medium, such as sound in air. You should have then
learnt two different formulae, depending on whether the observer or source
are in motion. However, light shows a different behaviour. Electromagnetic
radiation propagates in vacuum, therefore there is no absolute reference
system (such as air, for sound) against which to measure velocity. The only
information we can possibly have is the relative velocity between two
bodies. Therefore, we expect the Doppler effect for electromagnetic
radiation to depend only on the relative velocity between source and
observer; hence there must be only one formula that describes this effect.
The hypotheses just mentioned are actually the pos-tulates of special
relativity, therefore the equation we are looking for can only be obtained
within this theory. We first derive an approximate formula, using classical
mechanics, and then the exact one, using special relativity.

In the classical approximation, let us only consider the case of a moving

source and a stationary observer, the proof for the other case being very
similar. The
7.6. Doppler Effect

77

Figure 7.3: Doppler effect for a source in motion with velocity v, which
emits light with wavelength λ.

After a period, the source will have moved vT away from the observer,
therefore the observer perceives that light is emitted with a wavelength λ1 “
λ ` vT .

source moves with velocity v away from the observer. Light has wavelength
λ, period T and velocity c, thus λ “ cT . After a period T , the source has
moved away by a distance vT , hence the next crest is emitted at a distance
vT

farther away from the observer. Therefore, as shown in Fig. 7.3,

the
perceived wavelength is slightly longer: λ1 “ λ ` vT “ pc ` vq{f . Since light
propagates with velocity c in both cases, we find c “ λ1f 1 “ pc ` vqf 1{f , so
that: 1

´
v¯

f1“

f«1´

f,

(7.14)

1 ` v{c

where we have assumed v{c to be small and used the approximation p1 `

xqα «

1 ` αx for x ! 1 (Appendix A.6),

since classical physics is only valid for v ! c.

In the derivation that follows, we will make use of the fact that, given two
inertial reference systems K and K1, moving with relative velocity v, the
time

∆t measured by an observer in K is related to the time ∆t1 measured by an

observer in K1 by the following equation:

∆t1 “ γ∆t where γ “

(7.15)

a1 ´ pv{cq2

This relation is called time dilation. Indeed, since 1 ´ pv{cq2 is always less
than unity, it follows that γ ě 1. Therefore, the time measured in K1 is longer
than the time in K.
Let ∆t “ 1{f be the emission time in the reference system of the source. The
time perceived by the observer is ∆t1 “ γ∆t, because of time dilation. In the
observer’s reference system, after a period ∆t1, the photons have travelled a
distance equal to c∆t1 “ c γ∆t, while the source has travelled away by v∆t1 “

78

Chapter 7. Electromagnetic Radiation

v γ∆t. Therefore, the perceived wavelength is slightly longer: λ1 “ pc `

vqγ∆t.

Then, from f 1 “ c{λ1, we find:

ap1 ´ v2{c2q 1

f1“c

c`v

∆t

ap1 ´ v{cqp1 ` v{cq

1 ` v{c

1 ´ v{c

f.

1 ` v{c
Setting β “ v{c:

1´β

f1“

f.

(7.16)

1`β

If β ă 0, i.e. if the source is moving closer to the observer, Eq. 7.16

tells us
that f 1 ą f . In this case, we say that light is blueshifted, since blue is the
colour with the highest frequency. If, instead, β ą 0, i.e. the source is moving
away from the observer, it follows that f 1 ă f . In this case, we say that light
is redshifted, since red is the colour with the lowest frequency. The energy of
a photon is proportional to its frequency, therefore redshifted light carries
less energy.

Conversely, blueshifed light carries more energy. Let Le be the luminosity

emitted by a star in its reference system. The observed luminosity is: f 1

Lo “ Le ¨

(7.17)

In the classical limit (β ! 1), Eq. 7.16

reduces to:

v ¯´

v¯
v

f1«1´

1´

f«1´

2c

2c

where we have used the approximation p1 ` xqα « 1 ` αx for x “ v{c ! 1.

This agrees with the classical result found earlier (Eq. 7.14).
Eq. 7.16
can
also be written as a function of the wavelength:

1`β

λ1 “

λ.

1´β

From this, we can then compute the wavelength shift ∆λ “ λ1 ´ λ: d

`β
∆λ “

´1λ.

(7.18)

1´β

7.7. Harvard Stellar Classification

79

In the non-relativistic limit, this reduces to:

∆λ “ βλ .

(7.19)

The term ∆λ{λ is usually denoted by z, called the redshift parameter. If z is

known, β can be found from Eq. 7.18:

p1 ` zq2 ´ 1

β“

(7.20)

p1 ` zq2 ` 1

which, in the non-relativistic limit (z ! 1), becomes: β “ z .

(7.21)

7.7

Harvard Stellar Classification

A star can be classified based on its surface temperature, which can be
estimated from the wavelength of maximum emission, using Wien’s law.
Another way to estimate the temperature is by studying the ionized elements
in the photosphere, since the type and degree of ionization depends on the
temperature. According to the Harvard stellar classification system, the stars
can be divided into 7 classes: O, B, A, F, G, K and M (there are several
mnemonics used to remember this sequence, the most famous one being:
“Oh Be A Fine Girl/Guy, Kiss Me”).

Class

Temperature / K

Colour

Luminosity / L@

Mass / M@

ě 33000

blue

ě 30000

ě 16

10000 – 33000

light blue

25 – 30000

2.1 – 16

A
7500 – 10000

white

5 – 25

1.4 – 2.1

6000 – 7500

white-yellow

1.5 – 5

1.04 – 1.4

5200 – 6000

yellow

0.6 – 1.5

0.8 – 1.04

3700 – 5200

orange

0.08 – 0.6

0.45 – 0.8

M
ď 3700

red

ď 0.08

0.08 – 0.45

Table 7.1

However, stellar classification is not that simple. Every class is further

divided into 10 subclasses, numbered from 0 to 9. In the Harvard
classification system, the Sun is a G2 star. More recently, the classes L and T
have been added.

These correspond to brown dwarfs. Tab. 7.1

gives the range of temperatures,
luminosities and masses for the 7 classes O – M.

80

Chapter 7. Electromagnetic Radiation

7.8

Yerkes Stellar Classification

The Harvard scheme specifies only the surface temperature and some
spectral features of the star. A more precise classification would also include
the luminosity of the star, since two stars with similar temperatures, but
different radii, can have very different luminosities. It is possible to obtain
the luminosity by examining the spectrum of the star. The mass of giant and
dwarf stars is of the same order of magnitude, but their radii are very
different. Therefore, the gravitational acceleration on the surface of a giant
star is much lower than the acceleration on a dwarf star, since g “ GM {R2.
Given the lower gravity, gas pressures and densities are much lower in giant
stars than in dwarf stars. It can be shown that the width of spectral lines is
proportional to the pressure (Pr.
7.4), therefore measuring this width ultimately allows us to find the radius of
the star. By estimating the temperature of a star using Wien’s law, it is then
possible to find its luminosity using Stefan-Boltzmann’s equation. The
Yerkes scheme divides the stars into six luminosity classes:

• Ia : Most luminous supergiants

• Ib : Less luminous supergiants

• II : Luminous giants

• III: Normal giants

• IV: Subgiants

• V : Main sequence stars (dwarfs)

For example, the Sun belongs to the luminosity class “V”. Thus, the Sun
would be more fully specified as a G2V-type star.

7.9. Exercises

81

7.9

Exercises

1.

At what wavelength does a star with surface temperature T “ 4000 K

emit the most energy?

2.

Compute the total brightness of a star with surface temperature T “ 6800 K

and radius R “ 2.5R@. Write your answer in terms of the solar luminosity
L@.
3.*

Assuming that dust particles (ρ « 103 kg/m3) behave like black bodies,
determine the diameter of a spherical particle that is in equilibrium (at rest)
at a distance of one astronomical unit from the Sun.

4.

Estimate the number of neutrinos, produced by the Sun, that arrive on Earth.
Each nuclear reaction produces 26.8 MeV of energy and 2 electron
neutrinos. On Earth, early experiments detected only 1{3 of the expected
number of neutrinos. This was known as the solar neutrino problem, and was
finally solved by realizing that an electron neutrino can oscillate into the
other two types of neutrinos (muon and tau).

5.*

(ARAO 2019, Th.X/XI, q.1) A future project aims to propel small

spaceships with a powerful laser beam, sending them over long distances.

What speed can a spaceship be propelled at, if its perfectly reflecting base
has a diameter of 1 mm, its total mass is 1 mg, and the optical laser has a
power of 1 MW and divergence of 52? Assume that the base of the
spaceship is oriented perpendicularly to the laser beam, that the beam itself
is very thin when exiting the laser, and neglect the gravitational action of all
the bodies surrounding the spaceship.

6.*

At sea level, the Earth’s atmosphere has an average temperature of T “ 14˝C.

Compute:

• vrms for molecular hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen;

• the percentage of each of these molecules with velocities greater than the
escape velocity from the Earth at sea level (you will need to solve an integral
numerically).
7.** Prove that the probability of finding a molecule with 3 and 5 times the
root mean square velocity of the gas is 5.88 ¨ 10´6 and 3.62 ¨ 10´16,
respectively (you will need to solve an integral numerically).

8.*

Prove that the most probable speed of molecules in a gas is a

vmp “

2kBT {m.

9.** Assume that the atmosphere has a uniform composition with an

effective molar mass of u “ 28.9 g/mol and a constant temperature of T “
14˝C.

Find the ratio of atmospheric pressure at height h and at sea level.

82

Chapter 7. Electromagnetic Radiation

10.** A space station is in the shape of a cylinder with radius R0 and is

filled with air. The cylinder rotates around its axis of symmetry, providing an
acceleration equal to g at the outer edge. If the temperature inside the space
station is constant and equal to T , what is the ratio of the pressure P0 at the
outer edge of the station, to Pc, the pressure at the centre?

11.** Consider a spaceship with internal pressure P0 “ 1 atm, constant

temperature T0 “ 285 K and volume V0 “ 100 m3. Let µ “ 28.9 g/mol be the
effective molar mass of air. Suddenly, the spaceship is struck by an object
that makes a hole of area A “ 1 cm2. Find the pressure of air inside the
spaceship as a function of time. How long does it take for the pressure to
halve?

12.** Prove the formula for the root mean square speed of a molecule in a
gas.
You may want to use the fact that the average of v2, for the distribution f
pvq, is given by the integral:

ż8

xv2y “

v2f pvq dv

(7.22)

7.10

Problems

1.*

Radiation emitted by accelerated charge

The energy emitted by an accelerated charge depends exclusively on the

vacuum permittivity 0, the speed of light c, the electric charge q and the
acceleration a. Using dimensional analysis, derive a formula for Ep0, c, q,
aq. It can be shown that the numerical factor is 1{6π.

2.** Maxwell distribution

Let gpvxq be the velocity distribution in the x direction, so that gpvxq dvx is
equal to the fraction of particles with velocities in the interval [vx,vx `

dvx]. Using the fact that gpvxq must be proportional to the Boltzmann
factor, where E “ mv2x{2, and normalizing gpvxq, show that: c

gpvxq “

e´mv2x{2kBT
(7.23)

2πkBT

Applying a similar reasoning to vy and vz, find an expression for the fraction
of particles with velocities in the interval [pvx, vy, vzq, pvx ` dvx, vy `

dvy, vz ` dvzq]. Thus, determine the velocity distribution f pvq, where b

v“

v2x ` v2y ` v2z, proving the Maxwell distribution.

3.** Natural width of emission lines

Excited atoms spontaneously emit photons when relaxing back to the

7.10. Problems

83

ground state. Consider a hydrogen atom that emits visible light. By equating
the difference in energy between two energy levels with the energy radiated
by an accelerated electron (Pr. 7.1), estimate the time ∆t necessary for the
transition. Using the Heisenberg uncertainty principle applied to energy and
time (∆E∆t ě ¯
h{2), find the uncertainty in the

energy ∆E. This is the natural thickness of the emission lines for a hydrogen
atom that emits visible light.

4.*

Doppler broadening

Figure 7.4: Emission lines from stellar spectra are widened because of the
(thermal) motion of atoms on the surface.

In addition to the natural width of emission lines, the random motion of

atoms on the surface of a star causes, due to the Doppler effect, a further
increase in width (Fig. 7.4).
Let x be the axis of observation. Starting from
the Boltzmann distribution law, show that the fraction of atoms with mass m,
emitting between λ and λ ` dλ, is:

"

mc2

pλ ´ λ0q

Ipλq9 exp ´

(7.24)

2kBT λ20

where λ0 is the wavelength of emission at rest. Therefore, show that the

width for which the intensity is at least half the maximum value (Ipλq ą
Ipλqmax{2) is:

c
∆λ

kBT

“2

2 ln 2

(7.25)

mc2

5.*

Wien and Stefan-Boltzmann laws

The blackbody distribution law can be obtained from the Boltzmann

distribution, where the energy is that of a quantum harmonic oscillator

84

Chapter 7. Electromagnetic Radiation

E “ p 1 ` nq¯

hω, since electromagnetic waves inside the body form stand-2

ing waves. It is then possible to obtain the following expression for the
power emitted in the frequency interval [f , f ` df ]: 2πh

f3

Pf df “

df .
(7.26)

c2

hf

e kBT ´ 1

Compute the expression for Pλ dλ, defined as the energy emitted in the
interval [λ, λ`dλ]. Prove that the maximum of Pλ is at λT “ 0.0029 K m
(Wien’s law). Also prove that the maximum of Pf is at f T “ 0.0051 K/s.

By integrating over all frequencies, prove that P “ σT 4 (Stefan-Boltzmann

law), where σ is given by:

2π5k4

σ“

B.

(7.27)

15c2h3

You can use the following integral:

ż8

x3

π4

dx “

ex ´ 1
15

6.

Ultraviolet catastrophe

Obtain an approximate expression for Pλ, in the limiting case of long

wavelengths. Show that, in this approximation:

2πckBT

Pλ “

(7.28)

λ4

This is the Rayleigh-Jeans law. It is possible to derive this equation using

only classical physics (in fact, Planck’s constant does not appear in Eq.
7.28).
Before quantum mechanics, this was believed to be the distribution
law governing black body radiation. Explain why people talked about the
“ultraviolet catastrophe”.

7.** Why do stars emit energy?

Understanding the physical process that allows stars to emit energy is

essential for estimating their lifetime. Over time, numerous models have
been proposed. Explain, with reasoning supported by calculations, why the
first two proposals cannot be correct, while the third is believable.

• 1841, Mayer’s hypothesis. The Sun takes energy from the impact of
asteroids on its surface. (Hint: first solve Ex. 10.13)

• 1854, Kelvin-Helmholtz hypothesis. According to the so-called contraction

theory, the Sun emits energy at the expense of its gravitational potential
energy. Over time, the star contracts, until all of its potential energy is
exhausted (Hint: first solve Pr. 10.4).
7.10. Problems

85

• In the nucleus of the star, mass is converted directly into energy through a
process known as nuclear fusion, according to E “ mc2.

Furthermore, only 10 % of the initial mass of hydrogen in the star can be

transformed into helium. In the hydrogen-helium conversion, 0.72 % of the
hydrogen mass is converted into energy.

8.*

Inside a star

It is possible to describe the interior of a star with four differential equations

that govern the distribution of pressure, mass, energy production and
temperature gradient. Assume throughout that the star is spherically
symmetric.

• The equation of hydrostatic equilibrium governs the pressure inside a star.

Assuming that the star is in equilibrium with its internal pressure P prq and
gravitational force, prove that:

dP

Gmprqρprq

“´

(7.29)

dr

r2
where ρprq is the density at a distance r from the centre of the star and mprq
is the mass contained within that distance (Hint: first solve Pr. 10.2).

• The second equation governs the mass distribution. Prove that: dmprq “
4πr2ρ .

(7.30)

dr

• The third equation governs the production of energy. Let be the coefficient
of energy production per unit mass and unit time, and let Lr the luminosity
produced at a distance r from the centre of the star. Prove that:

dLr “ 4πr2ρ .

(7.31)

dr

• The fourth equation governs the temperature gradient inside the star. Let
kprq be the coefficient of energy absorption, such that k ρ dr is equal to the
energy absorbed by a layer dr of the star, with density ρ. Given that the
radiation pressure of a photon gas is Prad “ 1{3 aT 4, where a is the radiation
constant, show that: dT

3 kρ Lr

(7.32)

dr

4ac T 3 4πr2

It can be proven that a “ 4σ{c.

8

Flux and Magnitude

In this chapter we introduce the basic concepts that characterize

electromagnetic radiation.

8.1

Flux

The flux is the amount of energy incident on a surface per unit time and unit
area. Assuming that a star radiates isotropically with power L (intrinsic
brightness), at a distance d from the star its energy is distributed on a sphere
of radius d, with surface area 4πd2. Therefore, the flux at this distance is: L

F“

(8.1)

4πd2

The flux is directly proportional to the intrinsic brightness and inversely

proportional to the square of the distance. Consider, for example, the Sun
observed from Earth.

Its brightness is L@ “ 3.828 ¨ 1026 W, while the Sun-

Earth distance is dC “ 149.6 ¨ 109 m. Hence, the solar flux on Earth is k “

L@{p4πd2 q “ 1367 W. This is known as the solar constant.

If we know the radius and the temperature of a star, we can replace L in Eq.
8.1
with the expression given by the Stefan-Boltzmann law. The previous
equation then becomes:
σeR2T 4

F“

(8.2)

d2

8.2

Albedo

The albedo (A) of a body is the ratio of the reflected (Lr) to the incident (Li)
power:

Lr

A“

Li

Only a part of the radiation incident on a body is again reflected into space,
while the rest is absorbed. As a result, the body warms up, emitting the 86

8.3. Stellar magnitudes

87

absorbed energy as thermal radiation. The difference between the incident

and the reflected power represents the absorbed power: Li Ĺr “ Lip1 Áq.

A body that reflects most of the incident radiation has a high albedo, while a
darker body is characterized by a low albedo. Snow has an albedo of 0.9, the
oceans — 0.06. On land, the albedo varies from 0.1, in forests, to 0.4, in
deserts. Because the Earth is mainly covered by water, the average albedo of
its surface is about As “ 0.08. The albedo of the atmosphere is instead Aatm
“ 0.24, due to the high reflectivity of the clouds. The average albedo of the
Earth is about AC “ 0.31 (a little less than the sum of As and Aatm).

8.3

Stellar magnitudes

Since ancient times astronomers have recorded the positions of stars on the
celestial sphere and measured their brightnesses. The first stellar catalogue
was compiled in 160 BC by the Greek astronomer Hipparchus. He divided
the stars into six classes of brightness, from the first magnitude, formed by
the brightest stars, to the sixth, formed by the stars barely visible to the
naked eye.

However, when more sensitive instruments became available, it was clear

that two stars with a magnitude difference of one had a flux ratio of
approximately 2.5. In 1854, Norman Pogson replaced the Hipparchus scale
with a more precise one, while remaining as faithful as possible to the old
classification method.

According to this new scale, it was established that the ratio between the
fluxes of a first and sixth magnitude star should be 100. Therefore, two stars
with a

magnitude difference of one would have a flux ratio of 5 100 “ 2.512.

Adopting the convention used by Hipparchus, we can write:

“p
100q´∆m ,

(8.3)

F0

where ∆m represents the difference in magnitude between an object with

flux Fx and another with flux F0. The minus sign in front of ∆m signifies
that higher magnitudes correspond to lower fluxes.

In the following derivation, we will use the properties of the logarithm given
in Appendix A.5.
In Eq. 8.3,
we take the logarithm of both sides, isolating
∆m: Fx

log

“ log 100´ ∆m

F0

“ log 10´ 2∆m

“ ´ ∆m ,

Fx

ñ ∆m “ ´2.5 log

F0
88

Chapter 8. Flux and Magnitude

In general, for two stars with magnitudes m1 and m2:

F1

m1 ´ m2 “ ´2.5 log

(8.4)

F2

While the inverse formula is:

F1 “ 10´0.4pm1´m2q .

(8.5)

F2

Sirius, the brightest star in the night sky, has an apparent magnitude of -1.5.

The full Moon has a magnitude of -12.74; the Sun of -26.74. If we know the
radii, temperatures and distances of two stars from Earth, we can substitute
Eq. 8.2
for the fluxes:

R2

1 T1 d2

m1 ´ m2 “ ´2.5 log
,

R2

2 T2 d1

which simplifies to:

1T1 d2

m1 ´ m2 “ ´5 log

(8.6)

2T2 d1

If the stars share some parameters, a simpler equation can be obtained. Note
that Eq. 8.6
compares the bolometric magnitudes (mbol), that is, the fluxes
integrated over the whole spectrum. Since our eyes record light in a small
window of the electromagnetic spectrum, the bolometric magnitude is, in
general, different from the visual magnitude mv (see “Magnitude Systems”).

The flux, recorded by light-sensitive devices, is proportional to the

brightness of the body. Our eyes perceive brightness in a slightly different
way, and it is for this reason that we use the magnitude scale. The magnitude
is directly proportional to the logarithm of the brightness (i.e. to the
logarithm of the flux).

The fact that the human eyes perceive light in a logarithmic way can be
clarified with the following argument. Let us imagine we have a large
number of light bulbs, all of the same brightness. At first we only turn on
one, then another, and compare the overall brightnesses in the two cases.
You will agree that the perceived brightness doubles. Now, let us turn on 100
light bulbs, and see how the brightness changes by adding another one. For a
photosensitive device, the increase in brightness is the same as it was in
going from one to two bulbs. However, for the human eye, the brightness
does not noticeably change. We would perhaps need to turn on another 100
bulbs to notice the same increase in brightness. In other words, what our
eyes perceive is not the absolute change in flux ∆F , but rather the relative
change ∆F {F . Hence the logarithmic relation, which is just the integral of ş
dF {F .

8.3. Stellar magnitudes

89

Absolute Magnitude

The flux of a star depends on both its intrinsic brightness and on its distance
from Earth. Therefore, an intrinsically brighter star, placed at a greater
distance than an intrinsically fainter star, may appear less luminous. Let us
imagine moving both stars to the same distance from Earth. If we now find
that the first star is brighter than the second, we conclude that the former is
also intrinsically brighter. For this reason, it is convenient to introduce the
quantity called absolute magnitude, equal to the magnitude that a star would
have if it were placed at the conventional distance of 10 parsec. Therefore,
by comparing the absolute magnitudes, we are effectively comparing the
intrinsic luminosities of the stars, rather than their fluxes.

Starting from this definition, let us derive the formula that relates the
absolute magnitude of a star to its apparent magnitude and distance from
Earth. If a star was placed at a distance of 10 pc, its flux would be: L
FM “

4πp10 pcq2

However, the actual distance of the star (in parsec) is d, therefore the flux is:
L

Fm “

4πd2

Denoting with M the absolute magnitude of the star, and applying Eq. 8.4:

L{p4π ¨ 10 pcq2

M ´ m “ ´2.5 log

L{p4πd2q

´d¯

“ ´2.5 log

10

“ ´5 log d ` 5 .

Therefore, the absolute magnitude is:

M “ m ´ 5 log d ` 5 ,

(8.7)
where d is measured in parsec. If, instead of the distance, we know the
parallax of the star, it is possible to use the formula d “ 1{π 2

(Eq. 9.5):

M “ m ´ 5 log

`5.

π2

Using the logarithm property log 1{x “ ĺog x, the last equation becomes: M “
m ` 5 log π 2

`5.

(8.8)

90

Chapter 8. Flux and Magnitude

Magnitude of a Composite System

We want to find the overall magnitude of multiple light sources that appear
to the observer as a single, brighter object. Since the magnitude scale is
logarithmic, to obtain the magnitude of a composite system we cannot
simply add up the magnitudes of each source. We can, however, add up their
fluxes, which are proportional to their luminosities. Using Eq. 8.5
for each
source: F1 “ 10´0.4pm1´m0q ¨ F0 ,

F2 “ 10´0.4pm2´m0q ¨ F0 ,
... ,

Fn “ 10´0.4pmn´m0q ¨ F0 ;

where m0 and F0 are the magnitude and the flux of a reference object
(introduced for convenience, but will simplify at the end). The flux of the
system is obtained by summing the fluxes of the components. Therefore,
applying Eq.

8.4
to the composite system and to the reference object: F1 ` F2 ` ... ` Fn

msys ´ m0 “ ´2.5 log

F0

Substituting the fluxes as a function of the magnitudes:

” 10´0.4pm1´m0q ` 10´0.4pm2´m0q ` ... ` 10´0.4pmn´m0q ı

msys´m0 “ ´2.5 log

F0 .

F0

Simplifying F0:

msys ´ m0 “ ´2.5 log r10´0.4pm1´m0q ` 10´0.4pm2´m0q ` ... ` 10´0.4pmn

´m0qs .

Dividing by the factor 100.4 m0 :

msys ´ m0 “ ´2.5 log r100.4 m0 ¨ p10´0.4 m1 ` 10´0.4 m2 ` ... ` 10´0.4 mnqs

.

Finally, using the logarithm property log px ¨ yq “ log x ` log y: msys ´ m0 “

´2.5 log 100.4 m0 ´ 2.5 logr10´0.4 m1 ` 10´0.4 m2 ` ... ` 10´0.4 mns .
But ´2.5 log 100.4 m0 “ ´m0, therefore the last equation simplifies to: msys “
´2.5 logr10´0.4 m1 ` 10´0.4 m2 ` ... ` 10´0.4 mns .

(8.9)

8.3. Stellar magnitudes

91

Integrated Magnitude

The relationships given above refer to point objects, such as stars and
planets.

The total brightness of an extended source, such as a galaxy or a star cluster,

can be expressed in terms of the integrated magnitude, equal to the
magnitude that the object would have if all of its light were concentrated into
a point source. The integrated magnitude can be obtained from the surface
brightness and the area of the object under consideration. The surface
brightness, with units of mag/arcsec2, is a measure of the brightness of a
portion of the surface with an area equal to one arcsecond squared.

Let Fs be the flux from one arcsecond squared of the object and A its total
area (expressed in arcsecond squared). Let mint and ms be the integrated
magnitude and surface brightness respectively. From Eq. 8.4,
it follows that:
Fint

mint ´ ms “ ´2.5 log

Fs

Since Fint “ A ¨ Fs, the last equation can be written as: mint “ msup ´ 2.5 log
A.

(8.10)
The apparent magnitude of an astronomical object is generally quoted as an
integrated value. Therefore, if a galaxy has a magnitude of 12.5, it means we
receive the same total amount of light from the galaxy as we would from a
star with magnitude 12.5. However, the star is so small that it can be
effectively considered as a point source (the largest angular diameter, that of
R Doradus, is 0.057 ˘ 0.005 arcsec), whereas the galaxy may extend over
several arcseconds or arcminutes. Therefore, the galaxy will be more
difficult to see than the star. Surface brightness can be useful to understand
the visibility of a certain object. It can be compared to the surface brightness
of the night sky, which is 21.9 mag/arcsec2 at the zenith, in the V band.

Magnitude Systems

Usually, when talking about brightness, we refer to the bolometric

brightness, i.e. the brightness of the object summed over all wavelengths.
However, practically speaking, the bolometric brightness cannot be
measured directly, since each measurement only records light in a narrow
region of the electromagnetic spectrum. For this reason, it is customary to
specify the brightness of an object in a particular region of the
electromagnetic spectrum. The sensitivity of the human eye varies with the
wavelength. In daylight, it has a maximum at the wavelength of 550 nm
(yellow), while it decreases towards red and violet.

The magnitude that corresponds to the part of the electromagnetic spectrum

visible to the naked eye is called visual magnitude, and is denoted by mv.

Photographic plates are usually more sensitive to blue and violet and can
also

92

Chapter 8. Flux and Magnitude

record radiation not visible to the naked eye. The photographic magnitude is
usually denoted by mpg, and is generally slightly different from the visual
magnitude. However, the sensitivity of the eye can be simulated using a
yellow filter and plates sensitive to yellow and green light. If, ideally, we
were able to measure the magnitude of the star over its entire spectrum, we
would obtain the bolometric magnitude, denoted by mbol. In practice, this is
difficult since a large part of the electromagnetic spectrum is absorbed by the
atmosphere, and different wavelengths require different sensors. Bolometric
magnitude and visual magnitude are related by:

mbol “ mv ´ BC ,

(8.11)

where BC is called the bolometric correction. By definition, the bolometric

correction is zero for Sun-type stars (G2V spectral class). In all other cases,
for both warmer and colder stars, the bolometric magnitude is greater than
the visual magnitude, therefore BC is always negative.

One of the most common systems used to classify the magnitude of stars, in
the region of the spectrum close to visible light, is the UBV system,
developed by Harold L. Johnson and William W. Morgan in 1950. In this
system, magnitudes are measured using three different filters: U“Ultraviolet,
B“Blue and V“Visual, hence the name UBV. In the UBV system it is usual
to give the visual magnitude of the star, together with the quantities U´B and
B´V, called the colour indices. The colour indices were chosen to be zero for
an A0-type star (like Vega). Therefore, Vega has V“ 0.03, B´V“U´B“0.
Instead, the Sun has V“ ´26.8, B´V“ 0.62 and U´B“ 0.10. Later, this system
was expanded to UBVRI, in order to include the red R and infrared I.

8.4

Extinction and Optical Depth

All the above equations are valid if the space between the source and the
observer is completely empty, i.e. in the absence of a medium (such as
interstellar dust or the atmosphere), which absorbs and scatters light. The
interstellar dust is composed of grains of various sizes, the smallest of which
are planar molecules, such as aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), formed by a
few dozen atoms.

Then, there are small three-dimensional grains (SG, between 100 ´ 2000 nm)
and big grains (BG, over 2000 nm) mostly composed of silicates and
graphite.
If the wavelength is less than or comparable to the grain size, light is mostly
absorbed. If, instead, the wavelength is significantly greater, it can pass
through the interstellar medium without appreciable absorption. Therefore,
PAHs absorb ultraviolet radiation, while BG can also absorb light emitted in
the red band by relatively old stars. Since the interstellar medium alters the
colour of the stars, it is usually possible to trace back the value of the
extinction (absorption and scattering), by comparing the observed colour
with the expected

8.4. Extinction and Optical Depth

93

one (from the spectral class of the star). Since blue light is scattered more
than red light, the B´V difference increases in the presence of an interstellar
medium.

Additionally, light is scattered and absorbed by the atmosphere. The most

important wavelength range for which the atmosphere is transparent is the
so-called optical window, as it corresponds to the sensitivity range of the
human eyes (400 ´ 700 nm). In the visible region, light is mainly absorbed
and scattered by fine dust particles. At wavelengths below 300 nm, ozone is
the main absorber, and it prevents ultraviolet light from reaching Earth’s
surface.

Ozone is concentrated in a small band at a height of about 20 ´ 30 km,

protect-ing the Earth from harmful, high-energy radiation. At shorter
wavelengths, the molecules mostly responsible for absorption are molecular
oxygen and nitrogen. Almost all radiation below 300 nm is absorbed by the
atmosphere. At wavelengths greater than visible light, however, the
atmosphere is quite transparent up to 1.3 µm. At this wavelength,
electromagnetic radiation reaches the Earth in only a few thin windows.
Wavelengths between 20 µm-1 mm are completely absorbed by the
atmosphere. The radio window corresponds to the range 1 mm-20 m.
Beyond 20 m (actually the upper limit depends on the daily conditions of the
atmosphere), the ionosphere absorbs all radiation.
Light scattering by air molecules is inversely proportional to the fourth
power of the wavelength (Rayleigh scattering). Therefore, the sky appears
blue during the day because this is the colour with the shortest wavelength
(and, hence, the most scattered by the atmosphere). At sunset, light from the
Sun has to travel a greater distance through the atmosphere before reaching
our eyes. In this case, both blue and red light are highly scattered, but blue
light is scattered too early to be observed this far, therefore the intensity of
red light reaching our eyes is greater.

Let us now derive a relationship between the extinction of light and the
distance it travels through an opaque medium. It is reasonable to assume
that, in a small interval rr, r ` drs, the extinction is proportional to the
incident brightness L and to the distance dr. Therefore:

dL “ ´κL dr ,

where κ is called the opacity, and is a measure of the amount of radiation

absorbed by the medium per unit length. The opacity of vacuum is zero,
while it is greater when the medium is more opaque or turbid. If the opacity
is constant along the line of sight, it is possible to integrate both sides of the
previous equation, while bringing κ outside the integral: ż Lprq dL

żr

“ ´κ

dr ,

94

Chapter 8. Flux and Magnitude

Lprq

ln

“ ´κr .

L0

We then obtain:

L “ L0e´κr .

(8.12)

The above equation gives the brightness of a star at a distance r, in the

presence of a medium with opacity κ. The ratio L{L0 is called the
transmittance, and is often denoted by the letter e, followed by the
wavelength at which it is measured. For instance, the transmittance of the
Earth’s atmosphere for yellow light is approximately 0.8, and it is smaller for
ultraviolet and infrared.

The plot of the transmittance as a function of wavelength is just the

absorption spectrum of the gas constituting the medium. The quantity κr is
called the optical depth, and is often denoted by the Greek letter τ .

In order to determine the effective magnitude of a star in the presence of an

opaque medium, it is necessary to add a correction factor to the equations in
the previous sections. Let F0 be the light flux on the surface of the star (with
radius R) and Fd the flux at a distance d. Isolating the luminosity in Eq. 8.1:

Ld “ 4πd2Fd ,

L0 “ 4πR2F0 .

Using Eq. 8.12

to write Ld{L0, taking the ratio of the above equations: R2

Fd “ F0

e´κd .
d2

To compute the absolute magnitude, we need the flux (measured without

extinction) at a distance of 10 pc:

R2

F10 pc “ F0

p10 pcq2

Therefore, measuring d in parsecs:

F10 pc

M ´ m “ ´2.5 log Fd

F0R2{p10 pcq2

“ ´2.5 log F0R2e´κd{d2

“ ´5 log

´ 2.5 log eκd

10

“ ´5 log d ` 5 ´ 2.5 log eκd .

Taking extinction into account, the equation that relates the apparent and
absolute magnitudes is:

M “ m ´ 5 log d ` 5 ´ 2.5 log eκd .

(8.13)
8.4. Extinction and Optical Depth

95

Compared to the formula without extinction, we note the additional factor

Apdq “ ´2.5 log eκd. Let us examine some limiting cases. For κ equal to
zero, the term eκd is equal to unity, therefore the logarithm and the
correction term are zero. This situation corresponds to the absence of an
interstellar medium, in which case Eq. 8.13
reduces to Eq. 8.7.
For κ that
tends to infinity, eκd tends to infinity, therefore the correction factor is minus
infinity. Now, consider two possibilities. If we fix the absolute magnitude of
the star, it follows that the apparent magnitude is infinite, i.e. the apparent
brightness is zero. On the other hand, if we fix the apparent magnitude, we
find an absolute magnitude of minus infinity. Indeed, the intrinsic brightness
of the object must be infinite to give a finite apparent magnitude in the
presence of a medium that lets no light through.

Let us now compute the variation of the luminosity of a star as a function of

its altitude. Let RC be the radius of the Earth, h the height of the atmosphere
and 90˝ ź the altitude of the star (where z is the zenith distance). Since most
of the air is concentrated in the first 10 km of the atmosphere, h « 10 km !
RC.

From Fig. 8.1,

it can be seen that, for stars close to the horizon, the distance
which light travels through the atmosphere is h{ sin z. Therefore: mspace “
msurface ´ 2.5 log eκatmh{ sin z .

Taking into account extinction by the interstellar medium and the

atmosphere, we obtain the most general formula:

M “ msurface ´ 5 log d ` 5 ´ 2.5 log eκintd ´ 2.5 log eκatmh{ sin z .

(8.14)

Figure 8.1: For small zenith distances (z), the distance which light travels
through the atmosphere is h{ sin θ, where h « 10 km is the height of the
atmosphere with significant density.

96

Chapter 8. Flux and Magnitude

8.5

Exercises

1.

(NAZ 2015, Th.S, q.4) Approximating the Sun as a blackbody, with a

temperature of Te “ 5778 K, compute its luminosity L@, the light flux on
Earth and the fraction of energy that is incident on the Earth.

2.*

(ONAA 2019, Th.S2, q.10) The decay of radioactive elements inside the
Earth gives rise to an average heat flux of 5 ¨ 10´2 W/m2 on the surface of
the Earth. Express this flux as a fraction of the thermal radiation absorbed
from the Sun, corresponding to a temperature of 300 K. If these radioactive
decays were the only source of energy, what would the temperature of the
Earth be?

3.
From what distance do we need to observe a 100 W lamp so that it appears
as bright as the Sun?

4.

With a magnitude of ma “ ´1.43, Sirius is the brightest star in the night sky.
Actually, Sirius has a small companion star (a white dwarf), with an apparent
magnitude of mb “ 8.68. How many times is Sirius brighter that its
companion?

5.

The magnitude of the faintest star that can be observed with the naked eye is
mb “ 6, that of the brightest, mt “ ´1.5. What is the ratio of the fluxes of the
two stars?

6.

The apparent magnitude of the Sun, as seen from Earth, is ´26.8. Compute
the apparent magnitudes of the Sun as seen from Mercury, Venus, Mars,
Jupiter and Saturn.

7.*

(NAZ 2015, Th.S, q.3) After a geomagnetic storm, the Sun’s brightness
temporarily increases by 10 %. At this moment, Jupiter is in opposition.

Find the apparent magnitudes of the Sun and Jupiter. What are the time
intervals between the occurrence of the storm and the increase in brightness
of the Sun, and between the observed increase in brightness of the Sun and
the increase in brightness of Jupiter? Assume that the orbits of Earth and
Jupiter are circular.

8.

The difference in apparent magnitudes of two identical stars is ∆m “ 3.5.

Compute the ratio of their distances from Earth.

9.

A star of magnitude m “ ´1.45 is d “ 8.6 ly away from Earth. What is its

absolute magnitude? Express its luminosity in terms of L@.

10.

Arcturus (α Bootes) has apparent and absolute magnitudes of m “ ´0.05

and M “ ´0.3, respectively. Compute its distance from Earth. What is its
parallax?

8.5. Exercises

97

11.

The absolute magnitudes of the Sun and Sirius are M@ “ 4.83 and Ms “ 1.4,
respectively. At what distance from the Earth should Sirius be, to appear as
bright as the Sun?

12.* Estimate the number of photons that reach your eyes every second,
having been emitted by a star with apparent magnitude m “ 6. Assume that
the star only emits energy at the wavelength of λ “ 550 nm.

13.* Find the albedo of the Moon. You are given the apparent magnitudes of
the full moon m$ “ ´12.74 and the Sun m@ “ ´26.74, and the angular
diameter of the Moon α “ 321. Assume the Moon only reflects light coming
from the Sun.

14.* (IAO 2019, Th.β, q.3) Supergiant UY Scuti is the largest and one of the
fastest burning stars currently known, with a volume of around 5 bilion
times that of the Sun. The mass lost per unit time, due to radiation, is only
0.04% of the total mass lost over the same time, and only 0.5% of the light
passes through the upper layers of the star (that is, reaches the observer).
Estimate the absolute magnitude, the temperature, and the remaining life
time of UY Scuti.
15.* (IAO 2013, Th.β, q.2) Gliese 581g is the most Earth-like planet found
outside the Solar System, and the exoplanet with the greatest recognized
potential for harbouring life. The parallax of Gliese 581 is πp “ 0.132, its
magnitude m “ 8.0 and its mass M “ 0.31M@. Estimate the orbital period of
the planet.

16.** Altair is a main sequence star with mass M “ 1.7M@, magnitude m “

0.77 and parallax πp “ 0.1952. Estimate its density.

17.

A system is composed of three stars with apparent magnitudes of 3.67, 4.65

and 5.12. What is the magnitude of the composite system?

18.

A spectroscopic binary is comprised of two stars which periodically eclipse

each other: one is large and cold, the other is small and hot. If the maximum
and minimum magnitudes of the system are mmax “ 3.70 and mmin “ 4.85,
respectively, what are the magnitudes of the two stars?

What is the ratio of the maximum and minimum fluxes on Earth?

19.* (IAO 2015, Th.β, q.4) According to an ancient legend of the Middle
Volga there was a constellation called White Leopard (Pardus Album) in the
sky in the very distant past, in which the number of stars was exactly equal
to the number of letters in the Greek alphabet, and the stars had magnitudes
mαPaA “ 0.10, mβPaA “ 0.20, mγPaA “ 0.30, mδPaA “ 0.40 and so on,
adding 0.1 every time until ωPaA. Calculate the total magnitude of the stars
of this constellation.

98

Chapter 8. Flux and Magnitude

20.
Two stars of magnitudes 3 and 8 are observed with a telescope. A picture is
taken of the first star, with an exposure time of 10 seconds. What should the
exposure time for the second star be, if we want it to appear as bright as the
first star?

21.

On an especially foggy day, the Sun appears as bright as the full moon
(observed on a clear day). Compute the optical thickness τ .

22.** (INAO 2017, Th., q.3) Human life can survive on Earth only if the
equilibrium temperature remains below 333 K. Assume that the Milky Way
contains 1011 stars uniformly distributed across the galaxy, with and average
number density of 0.14 pc´3, and that there is a supernova every 30 years,
with luminosity 1011 L@. What is the probability that a supernova wipes
out life on Earth, in the total life span of the Sun?

8.6

Problems

1.*

Olbert’s paradox

Assuming that the stars are uniformly distributed in the universe, show that
the amount of energy which arrives on Earth from a spherical shell (of
universe) of radius r and thickness dr is the same as that from a spherical
shell of radius R and thickness dr, with r ‰ R. What is the total brightness of
the sky, as observed from the Earth? How can you explain this result?

2.*

Earth’s temperature

Compute the mean temperature on Earth, as a function of the solar radius

(R@) and temperature (T@), the Earth-Sun distance (dC) and the albedo of
the Earth (AC). Compute the numerical value for AC “ 0.31, neglecting the
greenhouse effect of the atmosphere.
3.*** Earth’s temperature, another model

As can be seen from the previous problem, the greenhouse effect is non-
negligible. Let ev and ei be the transmittances of the atmosphere for the solar
(visible) and terrestrial (infra-red) radiations, and let Aatm and As be the
albedos of the atmosphere and of the surface of the Earth, respectively.
Assume that the atmosphere is a thin envelope surrounding the Earth, with
radius RC and uniform temperature Tatm. Compute, as a function of R@,
T@, dC, As, Aatm, ev, and ei, the new value for the Earth’s temperature.
Estimate the temperature for As “ 0.08, Aatm “

0.24, ev “ 0.8, ei “ 0.20.

Cosmic Distance Ladder

In this chapter we will examine the techniques that astronomers use to

measure the distances of celestial bodies. Many different methods exist,
however each of them is only applicable to a specific length scale. In fact, a
direct distance measurement is only possible for up to a few hundred
parsecs, using the method of diurnal parallax, for objects within our Solar
System, and annual parallax, for the closest stars. At greater distances,
several methods rely on standard candles (i.e. objects of known intrinsic
brightness), such as Cepheid variables or Type Ia supernovae. Even binary
systems, where the orbital characteristics can be used to calculate the masses
of the component stars (and hence their luminosities), can be used as
standard candles. At even greater distances, it becomes impossible to resolve
each star, therefore it is necessary to estimate the intrinsic brightness of
whole galaxies. For example, the Tully-Fisher relation links the luminosity
of a spiral galaxy with its rotational velocity, while the Faber-Jackson
method relates the luminosity of an elliptical galaxy to the dispersion of the
velocities of stars around its centre. At extremely large scales, we can
measure the redshift of a galaxy to obtain its recession velocity, and
therefore its distance, from Hubble’s law. The cosmic distance ladder is the
succession of these, and many other methods. The ladder analogy arises
because no single technique can measure distances at all ranges encountered
in astronomy. Each rung of the ladder provides information that can be used
to determine the distances at the next, higher, rung.

9.1

Parallax

Parallax is a very common phenomenon that manifests itself as the change in

the angular position of an object as seen by an observer, due to the relative
motion between them. Try placing one of your fingers in front of your eyes:
first, look at it with your right eye only, then with your left eye only. Your
finger will appear in different directions, with respect to the background. In
this example, the distance between your eyes is the parallax baseline. The
closer your finger is to your eyes, or the greater the parallax baseline (for
instance, you 99

100

Chapter 9. Cosmic Distance Ladder

Figure 9.1: Triangulation method: the distance of an object (such as a ship)

from the baseline, can be obtained by recording the angles φ1 and φ2 it
forms with the baseline at points P1 and P2, which are a distance b apart.

could move your head sideways before observing the second time), the
farther apart the two images appear. It is clear that the parallax angle must
depend on the ratio between the parallax baseline and the distance of the
object.

This simple concept proves immediately useful. The parallax baseline and
the parallax angle are quantities easily measurable from our position,
therefore the distance of the object can be easily obtained. In addition to
being an essential tool in astronomy, the parallax method is also used in
terrestrial triangulation.

Let P1H “ x and HP2 “ b ´ x in Fig. 9.1.

Then: $

“ tan φ

(9.1a)

&

b´x

(9.1b)

%
“ tan φ1

Dividing the first equation by the second:

tan φ2

b´x

tan φ1

tan φ2 ¯

tan φ2

x1`

“b

tan φ1

tan φ1

tan φ2

ñx“b

tan φ1 ` tan φ2

Substituting x in Eq. 9.1b,

we get d: tan φ1 ¨ tan φ2
d“b

(9.2)

tan φ1 ` tan φ2

9.1. Parallax

101

This equation can be used to find the distance of an object from the baseline,
given the angles φ1 and φ2 that it forms with the parallax baseline at points
P1

and P2, which are a distance b apart. In astronomy, usually P1H “ HP2 “
b{2, therefore φ “ φ1 “ φ2. Eq. 9.2
then simplifies to: b

d“

tan φ .
2

For celestial objects d " b, therefore φ « 90˝. Since the position of a star is
measured with respect to the background of fixed stars, it is useful to define
the parallax angle πp as the complementary of φ: πp “ 90˝ ´ φ, where πp ! 1

(hence, the parallax angle is just the angle subtended by the baseline). Since
tan p90˝ ´ πpq “ 1{ tan πp « 1{πp,rad, we find:

b{2

d“

(9.3)

πp,rad

In the next sections, we will look at two different choices for the parallax
baseline: Earth’s diameter, and the diameter of the Earth’s orbit around the
Sun. These give the diurnal and annual parallaxes, respectively.

Diurnal Parallax

Figure 9.2: In order to measure the distance to a celestial object using the
method of diurnal parallax, we record the angles φ1 and φ2 between the
object under consideration and the reference object, for two observation sites
P1 and P2 on the equator, at a distance α in longitude.

From the parallax angle πp “ pφ1 ´ φ2q{2, it is then possible to obtain the
distance, using Eq. 9.4.

The diurnal parallax of an object (within the Solar System) can be measured
by simply performing two observations 12h apart, or by observing the same

102

Chapter 9. Cosmic Distance Ladder

object from two different locations on Earth at the same time. In the first
case, after twelve hours, the Earth has completed half a rotation, and the
observation site (preferably at the equator) has moved by a distance equal to
the Earth’s diameter. Either way, if the observation site is at the equator, the
parallax baseline is Earth’s diameter. Half of the angle between the two
images of the object is called the diurnal parallax. This method allows us to
determine the distances of most bodies in the Solar System, but the diurnal
parallax is too small to measure the distances of stars, which appear fixed.

To find the diurnal parallax, we take a fixed star, and measure the angles φ1

and φ2 it forms with the object under consideration, at two observation sites
on the equator separated in longitude by α (Fig. 9.2).
The angle of diurnal
parallax πp is then πp “ pφ1 ´ φ2q{2. Using Eq. 9.3,
where b{2 “ RC sin
pα{2q: R

C sin pα{2q

(9.4)

πp,rad

Since the Moon is the celestial body closest to us, lunar parallax
measurements began rather early compared to those for the Sun and the
planets. One of the most famous measurements was the one conducted by
Hipparchus. This was carried out during a total solar eclipse in Syene and
during a partial solar eclipse in Alexandria. At the same time, an observer in
Syene saw the solar disk completely eclipsed by the Moon, while one in
Alexandria was able to observe 1{5 of the solar disk, that is, 1{5 of 30
arcminutes. Assuming the Sun to be at an infinite distance, Hipparchus
estimated the Earth-Moon distance to be in the range of 59 to 67 Earth radii:
an impressive result, considering that the accepted value today is 60.2. The
reason for this uncertainty lies in the fact that Hipparchus had not been able
to determine the parallax of the Sun. In fact, the solar parallax was more
difficult to measure, since the Sun is so bright that it is impossible to record
its position relative to the stars. One of the first methods used to calculate the
distance of the Sun was the transit of Venus on the solar disk. An alternative
way is estimating the parallax of Venus at the moment of maximum
elongation (Pr. 9.1), or estimating the parallax of Mars in opposition.

Annual Parallax

Calculating the distances of celestial objects outside the Solar System

requires a larger baseline than the Earth’s diameter. The widest basis we can
use is the diameter of the Earth’s orbit, which can be calculated using the
diurnal parallax, as described in the previous section (in this sense, the
diurnal parallax allows us to climb one rung up the ladder). In this case, we
can simply carry out two observations of an object 6 months apart (Fig. 9.3).
The annual parallax is then half of the angle between the two images of the
object against
9.1. Parallax

103

the background of fixed stars. This method allows us to record parallax

angles for stars at most a few hundred parsecs away. Distant stars appear
fixed and constitute the background on which we observe the succession of
all celestial phenomena.

Figure 9.3: With the method of annual parallax, the distance to a celestial
object can be obtained by carrying out two observations six months apart.
The parallax baseline is the diameter of Earth’s orbit.

Looking at Fig. 9.3,

we see that b{2 “ dC. From Eq. 9.3,
it follows that: dC “
πp,rad .
d

Since πp is a small angle, it is best to measure it in arcseconds. In a radian

there are p180{πq¨60¨60 “ 206264.8062 « 206265 arcseconds. Therefore: d

π2

206265

“ π2

p.

{p206265 ¨ dCq

What prevents us from defining a new unit? Since we are dealing with the
par allax of an arcsecond, why not call it parsec! To get rid of that annoying
numerical factor, we then decide that 1 pc“ 206265 au (where au is the
astronomical unit, equal to the Earth-Sun distance, dC).

Therefore, d{p206265 ¨ dCq is equal to the distance d expressed in parsec:

104

Chapter 9. Cosmic Distance Ladder

1

π2

(9.5)

dpc

The parsec is therefore defined as the distance of a star with an annual

parallax of one arcsecond. We also note that 1 pc“ 3.262 ly. Proxima
Centauri, the closest star to the Solar System, has a parallax of 0.768
arcseconds. Applying Eq. 9.5,
we see that its distance from Earth is about
1.3 pc, or 4.23 ly.

The annual parallax is a tiny effect and was only measured in 1838, by
Friedrich Wilhelm Bessel. With the Hipparcos satellite (1989 – 1993), the
European Space Agency (ESA), was able to measure the parallax of 118,000
stars with an accuracy of 0.001”, significantly better than the resolution
allowed by telescopes on Earth.

Despite the impressive precision of the Hipparcos satellite, the distances it

can measure are still small compared to the distance of the galactic centre,
about 8kpc away from the Solar System. A more recent satellite, Gaia,
measured the parallax of 1 billion stars with a precision of 10 µarcsec.

9.2

Spectroscopic Parallax

The spectroscopic parallax does not have much in common with the
trigonometric parallax, but the use of the term “parallax” refers to the fact
that this method is also used to measure the distances to celestial bodies.
Consider Eq. 8.13:

m ´ M “ 5 log d ´ 5 Àpdq ,

where d is the distance measured in parsec and Apdq is the correction term
for extinction. If we know m ´ M , we can obtain d, in principle.

While m can be directly calculated from observation, finding M is a much

harder task. The absolute magnitude can be estimated from the spectral class
of the star, but the relation that links spectral class and intrinsic brightness is
only a rough approximation. Indeed, the intrinsic brightness depends on
several factors, such as the percentage of heavy elements, which can vary
slightly within the same spectral class. At the same time, this relation is not
perfect because the main sequence is not a thin line, but it extends by one
magnitude in either direction. Then, there is the matter of estimating the term
Apdq. Usually, it can be found by comparing the theoretical colour of the
star (based on its spectral class) with the one observed. While the colours
would be the same with no extinction, the interstellar medium primary
absorbs shorter wavelengths, therefore making the star appear redder (see
Sec. 8.4).
An estimate of the extinction can therefore be obtained from the
colour indices (B´V, U´B) of the star.

9.3. Standard Candles

105

9.3

Standard Candles

A standard candle is an astronomical object whose intrinsic brightness can

be accurately calculated from measurements conducted on Earth. Examples
of standard candles are Cepheid variables and supernovae.

Cepheid variables are a particular type of variable stars, whose brightness

varies in a predictable and regular way due to the instability of their surface.
In fact, even a small increase in pressure tends to expand the surface of the
star and lower its temperature, thus making it appear fainter (Pr. 9.2). In turn,
the initial increase in volume causes a decrease in pressure, which then leads
the star to compress, increasing its temperature and, therefore, its brightness.

By modelling Cepheid variables as thermodynamic engines, Eddington was

the first to explain how this periodic cycle sustains itself. Imagine a
combustion engine, where a spark triggers the combustion when the gas is
maximally compressed by the piston. In the same way, the upper layers of
the star become more opaque during the expansion phase, therefore
absorbing more energy and being pushed outwards. Then, during the
compression phase, they become more transparent, absorbing less energy
and being pushed inwards by gravity. This cycle is called κ mechanism,
since “κ” is the Greek letter which conventionally denotes the opacity of a
medium.

The name of this class of stars comes from δ Cephei, discovered in 1784 by
John Goodricke. The relationship between period and luminosity was first
discovered in 1912 by Henrietta Swan Leavitt. After studying thousands of
variable stars in the Magellanic Clouds, she understood that the period of
variation of brightness was only a function of the intrinsic brightness of the
Cepheid, given that all of the stars she was observing were approximately at
the same distance from Earth. For Cepheid variables, the logarithm of the
period of variation of brightness is proportional to the logarithm of the
average brightness (Fig. 9.4,
overleaf). Owing to this relationship, and to the
great precision with which the pulsation period can be measured, Cepheid
variables can be used as standard candles in determining the distance of
globular clusters and galaxies in which they are contained. The period-
luminosity relationship for classic Cepheid variables is:

xLy

log

“ 1.15 log Pd ` 2.47 ,

(9.6)

L@
where xLy denotes the average luminosity and Pd is the period of pulsation,
measured in days.

Edwin Hubble was the first to identify a Cepheid variable in the Andromeda
galaxy. He estimated its distance at 9 ¨ 105 light years, thus proving it had to
be located outside our galaxy. This discovery showed that the Milky Way is
just one of countless galaxies in the universe.

106

Chapter 9. Cosmic Distance Ladder

Today Cepheid variables are divided into two types: Type I Cepheids (or
Classical Cepheids) and Type II Cepheids. While the former belong to the
(younger) population I stars, the latter belong to (older) population II stars,
usually poor in heavy metals, and hence fainter. Because Type I Cepheids
are brighter, they can be used to measure greater distances compared to Type
II Cepheids. There is also another class of variable stars, called RR Lyrae.

However, these are fainter than both types of Cepheids.

Figure 9.4: Period-luminosity relationship for three types of variables.

9.4

Tully-Fisher Relation

All spiral galaxies rotate around their centre. This rotation gives rise to a
blueshifted spectrum in the part of the galaxy that is rotating towards us, and
a redshifted spectrum in the part that is rotating away from us. Let vc be the
radial velocity of the centre of the galaxy, vrot the maximum velocity of
rotation of the stars around the centre and i the angle between the line of
sight and the perpendicular to the plane of the galaxy. To an observer on
Earth, the extremes appear to be moving at radial velocities v1 “ vc ´ vrot sin
i and v2 “ vc ` vrot sin i (Fig. 9.5).
The displacements in the spectral lines

∆λ1 “ λ1v1{c and ∆λ2 “ λ2v2{c are:

$ ∆λ

c ´ vrot sin i

(9.7)

&

∆λ
v

c ` vrot sin i

(9.8)

Subtracting the two equations:

vrot “

p∆λ2 ´ ∆λ1q .

(9.9)

λ sin i
9.4. Tully-Fisher Relation

107

Figure 9.5: Consider a galaxy whose plane forms an angle 90˝ í with the line
of sight, and in which the maximum velocity of stars is vrot. To an observer
on Earth, the extremes appear to be moving at radial velocities vc ´ vrot sin i
and vc ` vrot sin i, where vc is the velocity of the centre of the galaxy.

The above equation allows us to find the rotational velocity of the galaxy
from quantities measurable on Earth.

The faster the galaxy rotates, the greater ∆λ1 and ∆λ2. A galaxy rotates
because of its own gravity, therefore, the greater its mass, the greater its
rotational velocity. The rotational velocity is related to the mass (Eq. 10.18)
by: GM

v2

v2
rotR

rot “

ñM“

The greater the mass, the larger the number of stars, and therefore the
brighter the galaxy. Hence, galaxies rotating faster are brighter. Assuming
spiral galaxies to be comprised (on average) of Sun-like stars, the
luminosity-to-mass ratio must be a constant for all galaxies, hence CLM “
L{M . Then: v2

rotR

“ CLM

Assuming that all galaxies have approximately the same surface luminosity,
we substitute CLR “ L{R2 for R:

C2

v4

rot

“
LM

“ Cv4

rot ,

LR G2

where C “ C2LM{CLR. Hence, we obtain the Tully-Fisher relation: L “

Cv4rot .

(9.10)

108

Chapter 9. Cosmic Distance Ladder

An alternative form relates the magnitude to the rotational velocity. Taking

as a reference a galaxy with rotational velocity vrot,0 and absolute
magnitude M0, we use Eq. 8.4:

M “ M0 ´ 2.5 log L0

v4rot

vrot

“ M0 ´ 2.5 log

“ M0 ´ 10 log

v4

v
rot,0

rot,0

Hence, the Tully-Fisher relation can also be written as: vrot,1

M1 ´ M2 “ ´10 log

(9.11)

vrot2

It is therefore possible to compute the absolute magnitude of a galaxy from

the absolute magnitude of another galaxy and the ratio of their rotational
velocities, which can in turn be determined from Eq. 9.9.
However, Eq. 9.11

is not exact, and the constant in front of the logarithm (10, in this case)
actually varies according to the type of spiral galaxy under consideration.
We can divide spiral galaxies into at least three classes (Sa, Sb, Sc),
depending on their surface luminosity CLR and luminosity-to-mass ratio
CLM . We then obtain three equations:

$M “ ´9.95 ¨ log vrot ` 3.15 for Sa galaxies

(9.12a)

&

M “ ´10.2 ¨ log vrot ` 2.71 for Sb galaxies

(9.12b)

%M “ ´11.0 ¨ log vrot ` 3.31 for Sc galaxies .

(9.12c)

Although not exact, the theoretical model described in this section gives a
reasonable estimate for the absolute magnitude of a spiral galaxy.

The spectral line that is often used to measure the Doppler shift is the
hydrogen line at 21 cm. Being very narrow, this line allows the measurement
of the smallest displacements. At the same time, because of its long
wavelength, it is not significantly absorbed by the interstellar medium. This
method allows us to measure distances up to 200 Mpc, beyond which the
displacement in the spectral lines becomes too tiny to observe.

9.5

Hubble’s Law

In 1929, cosmology achieved one of its most important discoveries when

Edwin Hubble found a relationship that linked the velocities of galaxies to
their distances from Earth, thus showing that the universe is expanding. It
was the first experimental verification that confirmed what had already been
predicted by Georges Lemaître, in 1927. The linear relationship obtained at
that time is
9.5. Hubble’s Law

109

Figure 9.6: An observer on Earth sees A and B receding with velocities ~

va “ H0 ~

ra and

vb “ H0 ~

rb, respectively. Therefore, an observer in A sees B moving away with a

velocity of

vb ´ ~

va “ H0p ~

rb ´ ~

raq (directed radially outwards from A). Hence, also A can be regarded as
the centre of expansion of the universe.

actually valid only at relatively small distances from Earth, where the
acceleration of the expansion of the universe is negligible. Hubble’s law
states that: v “ H0 d ,

(9.13)

where H0 is Hubble’s constant and d is the distance. According to the latest

measurements, H0 “ 68 ˘ 5.5 km s´1 Mpc´1. In the case of small velocities,
the redshift z “ ∆λ{λ is given by:

v
H0 d

z“

In the more general case, when special relativity is taken into account, we
can use Eq. 7.20
to obtain:

0d

z“

´1.

0d
c

We now want to show that every point in the universe can be regarded as the
centre of this expansion, described by the same Hubble’s law. Let us place
the Earth at the centre of a Cartesian system and consider two galaxies A and
B, with distances ~

ra and ~

rb from Earth (Fig. 9.6).

According to Hubble’s law, the magnitudes of the
recession velocities of A and B are va “ H0 ra and vb “ H0 rb, respectively.
Since the recession velocities are directed along the radial direction (Earth-
galaxy, in both cases), they can be written in vector form as:

va “ H0 ~

ra

vb “ H0 ~

rb .

110

Chapter 9. Cosmic Distance Ladder

The recession velocity of galaxy B, observed from A, is then:

vb ´ ~

va “ H0 ~

rb ´ H0 ~
ra “ H0p~

rb ´ ~

raq .

But ~

rb ´ ~

ra is the distance of B from A, and is directed radially outwards from A.

Hence, also A can be regarded as the centre of expansion of the universe,
with the same Hubble’s law.

9.6

Exercises

1.

(NAZ 2015, Th.J, q.4) Compute the distance to Procyon (α CMi) in parsecs
and in light years, given its parallax πp “ 0.2862. Procyon has an apparent
magnitude of m “ 0.34. If its distance were 10 times greater, would it still be
visible to the naked eye?

2.

A spiral galaxy in the Virgo Cluster rotates around its centre with a
maximum velocity of vrot,1 “ 175 km/s, and its apparent magnitude is mv,1
“

11.87. Another spiral galaxy, in the Coma Cluster, has vrot,2 “ 245 km/s and
mv,2 “ 14.63. Find the ratio of the distances to the galaxies.

3.

If the uncertainty in the measurement of the absolute magnitude of a

Cepheid variable is ∆M “ 0.5, what is the uncertainty in its distance?
4.*

The observed rotational velocity of a spiral galaxy around its centre is vobs “
300 km/s. The ratio between its semi-major and semi-minor axes is a{b “
1.74, and the apparent magnitude is m “ 18 (H band). The redshift is z “
0.20. Obtain the value of Hubble’s constant. You are given the Tully-Fisher
relation in the H-band:

MH “ ´9.5 log vrot ` 2.08

5.

(CAO 2018, Th., q.5) A given elliptical galaxy has an apparent magnitude of
m “ 18 and redshift of z “ 0.1. Estimate the mass of the galaxy. Interstellar
absorption is neglected.

6.

(MyAO 2018, Th., q.10) Estimate the age of the Universe from Hubble’s
constant.

7.*

(CzAO 2018, Th.AB, q.C) Suppose that the universe contains only matter
that interacts only by gravity. Modelling the universe as a sphere of radius R
that expands radially due to Hubble’s law, assuming it has a constant density
of ρ, determine the total energy of a spherical shell with radius r and
thickness dr. What is the critical density for which the energy of the universe
is zero? (Hint: use Eq. 10.22).

9.6. Exercises

111

8.*

(USAAAO 2020, Th.2, q.3) The Lyman-break galaxy selection technique

makes use of the fact that any light from galaxies with wavelength shorter
than the Lyman limit (the shortest wavelength in the Lyman series) is
essentially totally absorbed by neutral gas surrounding the galaxies. The
ionization energy of hydrogen is 13.6 eV. Suppose that we are observing
galaxies in the V band, whose effective midpoint is 551 nm and bandwidth is
99 nm.

• At what range of redshifts would we begin to see galaxies “disappear”

(break) from images in the V band?

• What range of recessional velocities (km/s) and distances (Mpc) does this
correspond to? Assume only Hubble expansion contributes to the radial
velocity and redshift.

9.** (IAO 2012, Th.α, β, q.6) Astronomers have discovered a distant galaxy
that appears to have the same colour as Eridani, but which is 1000

times fainter. It appears, however, that this galaxy is only composed of stars
similar to the Sun in physical characteristics. Find the number of stars in the
galaxy. You know the following about Eridani: temperature T “ 4900 K,
magnitude m “ 3.74, parallax πp “ 0.3112 and mass M “

0.82M@.

10.* (IOAA 1016, Th., q.6) The star β-Doradus is a Cepheid variable star
with a pulsation period of 9.84 days. We make a simplifying assumption that
the star is brightest when it is most contracted (radius being R1) and it is
faintest when it is most expanded (radius being R2). For simplicity, assume
that the star maintains its spherical shape and behaves as a perfect black
body at every instant during the entire cycle. The bolometric magnitude of
the star varies from 3.46 to 4.08. From Doppler measurements, we know that
during pulsation the stellar surface expands or contracts at an average radial
speed of 12.8km/s. Over the period of pulsation, the peak of (intrinsic)
thermal radiation of the star varies from 531.0 nm to 649.1 nm. Find:

• the ratio of radii of the star in its most contracted and most expanded states;

• the radii of the star (in metres) in its most contracted and most expanded
states;

• the flux of the star when it is in its most expanded state.

112

Chapter 9. Cosmic Distance Ladder

9.7

Problems

1.*

The Astronomical Unit

Determining the astronomical unit (au) was one of the biggest problems in
celestial mechanics. Although the ratios between the distances of the planets
from the Sun had already been obtained, a solution had not yet been found to
measure one of the distances involved. By observing the apparent motion of
Venus with a telescope, it was possible to measure a maximum elongation of
“ 46.3˝. Limiting ourselves, for simplicity, to the plane of the orbits, consider
two stations P1 and P2 on the equator, separated by a longitude difference of
120 ˝. From these stations, we observe Venus (at maximum elongation) and a
star at a much greater distance.

From station P1, the angle between the star and Venus is φ1 “ 0 ˝371152 ˘
32; from station P2 it is φ2 “ 0 ˝361522 ˘ 32. Determine the value of the
astronomical unit, estimating the relative error, given that the Earth’s radius
is RC “ 6380 km. (Hint: read Ch. 11
first).

2.*

Luminosity-radius relationship

By differentiating the Stefan-Boltzmann law, derive a relationship between

the infinitesimal variations of brightness, radius and temperature.

Assuming that the star compresses adiabatically (T V γ´1 is constant), find a

relationship between the infinitesimal variations of brightness and radius
only. Hence, show that its brightness increases when the star compresses
(Hint: assume γ “ 5{3).
3.** Period-density relationship

The radial oscillations within a star are the result of sound waves that
propagate within it.

An estimate of the period of oscillation can be

obtained by considering the time that a wave takes to cross the star.

Knowing that the speed of the waves is:

γP

v“

where γ is the adiabatic expansion coefficient, P the pressure and ρ the

density; using for P the expression of hydrostatic equilibrium (Eq. 7.29),

compute the period of oscillation as a function of density.

Part III

Celestial Mechanics

113

10

Gravitation and Kepler’s Laws

The primary task of celestial mechanics is to explain and predict the motions
of the planets and their satellites. In the past, several empirical models, such
as the epicycles and Kepler’s laws, were employed to describe these
motions, but none were based on a firm theoretical ground. In 1687, Newton
came up with a simple explanation: the law of universal gravitation. We
begin the chapter with a summary of Newtonian mechanics and the universal
law of gravitation, from which Kepler’s laws can be derived. Although the
exact proof of Kepler’s laws is given in Appendix B,
in this chapter we
show, when possible, some simple derivations.

10.1

Newtonian Mechanics

Newtonian mechanics accurately describes nature for most of the

phenomena we are familiar with. It is based on the following four principles,
of which the first is attributed to Galileo (which we will call law zero), and
the other three to Newton:

0. The laws of physics are the same in all inertial reference systems, i.e.

systems moving at a constant velocity with respect to one another.

1. In an inertial reference system, every object in a state of uniform motion

remains in that state of motion unless acted upon by an external force.

2. The resultant force acting on a body is equal to its mass times its
acceleration: ~

F “ m~a.

3. If A exerts a force ~

F on B, then B exerts a force ´ ~

F on A (same mag-

nitude, opposite direction).

10.2

Universal Law of Gravitation

In 1687, Newton published the “Philosophiae Naturalis Principia

Mathematica”, in which, for the first time, he described the law of universal
gravitation. According to this law, each point mass m1 attracts every other
point mass m2

114

10.2. Universal Law of Gravitation

115

Figure 10.1: Left: gravitational field created by a spherically symmetric

body. Right: the same field is produced by a point mass, of the same mass as
the body, placed at its centre.

with a force F which is directly proportional to the product of the masses and
inversely proportional to the square of their distance r: Gm1m2

F“

(10.1)

r2

where F is directed along the radius vector connecting the two bodies and is
always attractive, and G is the universal gravitational constant, first
calculated by Cavendish in 1798, with a value of:

G “ 6.674 ¨ 10´11 Nm2 kg´2 .

Two important points, which you can prove in Pr. 10.1, are: 1. the
gravitational field created outside a spherically symmetric body is the same
as that created by a point mass, of the same mass, placed at its centre (Fig.
10.1);

2. if the system has particular symmetries, we can consider a surface (usually

a sphere or a cylinder) such that only the mass inside it contributes to the
gravitational field, while the mass outside gives a net zero contribution (Fig.
10.2,
overleaf).

From the first point, it follows that the gravitational force created by a
spherically symmetric planet is equal to that created by a point mass, of the
same mass, placed at its centre, which can be calculated using Eq. 10.1.
Therefore, the gravitational force acting on a body of mass m0 on the surface
of a planet of mass M and radius R can be obtained by substituting m1 “ M ,
m2 “ m0

and r “ R in Eq. 10.1.

According to Newton’s second law, the gravitational
force is also equal to F “ m0 g, where g is the acceleration of the body.
Hence,
116

Chapter 10. Gravitation and Kepler’s Laws

Figure 10.2: At a distance r from the centre of a spherical symmetric body,

only the mass mr inside a sphere of radius r contributes to the gravitational
field. Outside, part of the mass attracts the body to the left and part of it to
the right. As it turns out, these two contributions cancel each other.

the gravitational acceleration on the surface of the planet is: GM

g“

(10.2)

R2

Note that the acceleration does not depend on the mass of the body m0.

Therefore, it is possible to define a vector field, called the gravitational field,

equal at each point in space to the acceleration that a hypothetical body
would have if it were placed at that point. On Earth, MC “ 5.972 ¨ 1024 kg
and RC “ 6378 km, hence:

g “ 9.81 m/s2 ,

which is the mean value of the gravitational acceleration on Earth.

The second point can greatly simplify a problem if particular symmetries are
present. Let us find, as an example, the gravitational field at a distance r
from the centre of a spherically symmetric planet, of mass M and radius R.
For r ě R, the answer is given by Eq. 10.2,
with R replaced by r. However,
inside the body, at distance r from the centre, the only contribution to the
gravitational field is given by the mass mr inside a sphere of radius r (Fig.
10.2).
Assuming constant density, mass is proportional to volume, which in
turn is proportional to the radius cubed, i.e. mr “ pr{Rq3M . Using Eq. 10.2
(with M replaced by mr and R by r), we finally obtain:
GM

g“

r for

răR.

R3

Let us now discuss an extension of the second point. It is possible to divide

any closed surface into many infinitesimal elements having surface area ~

∆A,

with magnitude equal to the area of that element, direction perpendicular to

10.2. Universal Law of Gravitation

117

Figure 10.3: It is possible to divide a spherical surface into many

infinitesimal elements with surface area ~
∆A, so that ~

g¨~

∆A is constant for every element.

the surface (which, at that point, is effectively planar) and pointing outwards.

We then define the flux of a vector field ~

g on the surface S, as the sum of the

scalar product ~

g¨∆~

A, for ∆A that tends to zero on the whole surface. In this limit, the sum
becomes an integral:

Φ “ lim

g¨∆~

A“

g¨d~

A,

(10.3)

∆~
AÑ0

where ş denotes the integral over the entire (not necessarily closed) surface
S.

Now, from the second point, it follows that the flux of the gravitational field
on a closed surface S depends only on the mass inside the surface. The form
of this dependence can be found by considering the simple case of a point
mass placed at the centre of a spherical surface (Fig. 10.3).
In this case, the
flux is:

GM

int

GMint

GMint

g¨d~

A“
´

r¨d~

A“´

dA “ ´

4πR2˘ “ ´4πGM ,

R2

R2

R2

where we have taken the constant GMint{R2 outside the integral, and
equated the integral over the closed surface (ű dA) to the area of the sphere
(4πR2).

The negative sign arises because ˆ

r and ~

g have opposite directions, i.e. because

gravity is attractive. Therefore, in general:

Φ“

g¨d~

A “ ´4πGMint .
(10.4)

To use the above equation, it is necessary to find a surface with the right
symmetry (otherwise the integral cannot be easily solved). If working with a
spherical distribution, take a sphere; for a cylindrical distribution (for
instance, a cylinder or a plane), take a cylinder (Ex. 10.18).

118

Chapter 10. Gravitation and Kepler’s Laws

10.3

Kepler’s Laws

Based on the observations made by the Danish astronomer Tycho Brahe,

after 16 years of work, Kepler was able to calculate the parameters of the
orbit of Mars and, subsequently, those of the Earth. The transition from
observations to the derivation of an empirical law required a great deal of
work, as the orbit of the planet is observed from the Earth, which, in turn,
orbits the Sun. In what Kepler himself called a flash of genius, he realized
that every 687 days (the orbital period of Mars), Mars returned to exactly the
same position in the Solar System. Kepler’s analysis of the planetary motion
can be summarized in three laws, which bear his name:

1. All planets move in elliptical orbits, with the Sun at one focus.

2. The radius vector joining any planet to the Sun sweeps out equal areas in
equal times.

3. The square of the orbital period of any planet is directly proportional to

the cube of the semi-major axis of its orbit.

First Law

Kepler’s first law states that each planet moves in an elliptical orbit around
the Sun. The Sun is in one focus of the ellipse, with nothing in the other
focus. In Appendix B
we prove this statement, starting from Newton’s law of
gravitation.
Here, we briefly discuss the properties of the ellipse which are useful in
astronomy, while you should refer to Appendix A.2
for a more mathematical
treatment.

In astronomy, the points of the ellipse closest and farthest from the focus in
which the Sun is located are called perihelion and aphelion, respectively. For
bodies orbiting the Earth, these points are instead called perigee and apogee.

By convention, a is the semi-major axis, b the semi-minor axis, c the semi-

focal distance and e the eccentricity, defined as e “ c{a (Fig. 10.4).
If the Sun
is at F1, the distances of the planet to the Sun in perihelion and aphelion are,
respectively:

dp “ AF1 “ AO ´ F1O “ a ć ,

da “ F1B “ OB ` F1O “ à c .

In astronomy we rarely know b, while it is more common to be given some

combination of a, e, da and dp. If we know a and e, then we can find dp and
da using the formulae:

dp “ a ć “ ap1 éq ,

da “ à c “ ap1 èq .

10.3. Kepler’s Laws

119

Figure 10.4: a is the semi-major axis, b the semi-minor axis and c the semi-
focal distance.

The Sun can be in either F1 or F2.

If, instead, we know da and dp, we can then find a and e by taking the sum
and difference of the above equations:

dà dp

a“

(10.5)

da ´ dp

c“

(10.6)

Hence, the eccentricity e can be written as:

da ´ dp

e“

“
.

(10.7)

dà dp

In the case e Ñ 1, the orbit becomes a line. Therefore, Kepler’s laws can also
be used to study the motion of a body that falls vertically in the gravitational
potential (Ex. 10.10).

The Second Law

With regard to Kepler’s second law, it is important to define the angular

momentum of a body, i.e. the vector product of its position vector and the
linear momentum:

L “ m~r ˆ ~v .

(10.8)

Let θ be the angle between the position and velocity vectors. Then, the
magnitude of the angular momentum is L “ m r v sin θ (see Appendix A.1).
In a circular orbit, the position vector is always perpendicular to the velocity,
therefore θ “ π{2, hence L “ m r v. In an elliptical orbit, the position vector is
perpendicular to the velocity only at aphelion and perihelion.

We define the torque, with respect to a fixed origin, as the vector product of
the position vector (lever arm) and the force:

τ “ ~r ˆ ~

F.
(10.9)

120

Chapter 10. Gravitation and Kepler’s Laws

Figure 10.5: It can be proven that the rate at which the radius vector ~

r sweeps out area is

equal to L{2m, where L is the angular momentum. Since L is constant, it

follows that the radius vector sweeps out equal areas in equal times, which is
Kepler’s second law.

As before, the magnitude of torque is τ “ F r sin θ. Note that, if a body is

only subject to a central force (i.e. directed radially inwards, such as
gravity), θ “ 0, hence τ “ 0.

The principal equation of rotational mechanics relates ~

L and ~

τ:

d~
L “ ~τ ,

(10.10)

dt

which follows from the definition of the force as the rate of change of
momentum. But why consider angular momentum? In an isolated system in
which the only force is gravity, the torque acting on a body is zero, as
previously shown. Then, from Eq. 10.10,
it follows that the rate of change of
angular momentum is zero: the angular momentum is constant. In physics,
we are especially interested in all the quantities that are constant in time, and
angular momentum, like energy, is one of those.

Could it be that the constant rate at which the radius vector sweeps out area
(Kepler’s second law) is a consequence of the angular momentum being
constant? After an infinitesimal time dt, the planet covers a distance of ds “ v
dt along its orbit (Fig. 10.5).
Since ds is small compared to r, it follows that

=ABS « θ, where θ is the angle between the radius vector and the velocity.

The area swept by the radius vector joining the planet to the Sun is equal to
the area of triangle ABS, which in turn is equal to half its base ds times its
height r sinp=ABSq:

dA “

ds r sinp=ABSq “

r v sin θ dt “

dt .
2

2m

Dividing both sides by dt, we find:

dA

dt

2m

10.3. Kepler’s Laws

121

Since L is constant, it follows that dA{dt is constant, thus proving Kepler’s

second law.

Kepler’s second law can then be used to compute the time t that it takes a
planet to cover an area of As. Let T be the period of revolution and A “ πa b
the total area of the orbit. We then have the relation: t

As

As

ñt“T¨

.
(10.11)

Because of the conservation of angular momentum, we expect the velocity

of a planet to be maximum at perihelion and minimum at aphelion. Indeed,
since the velocity is perpendicular to the radius vector at those two points:
dava “ dpvp ,

(10.12)

where da, dp and va, vp are the distances and velocities at aphelion and
perihelion, respectively. In Ex. 10.9 you will use Eq. 10.12,
together with the
conservation of energy, to compute va and vp, given only a and e.

The Third Law

Kepler’s third law states that, for every body in the Solar System, the ratio of
the square of the orbital period (T ) and the cube of the semi-major axis (a) is
constant:

T2“k.

(10.13)

a3

Writing the previous equation for a generic planet and for the Earth: T 2

T2

C,

a3
a3C

or, equivalently:

´T¯

á ¯3

TC

aC

But T {TC is just the period T measured in years, whilst a{aC is the semi-
major axis of the planet measured in astronomical units. Hence: T 2

yr

“ aau

(10.14)

In the following section, we derive Kepler’s third law from Newton’s law of
gravitation. We will only consider the case of circular orbits, while the
general case is treated in Appendix B.
We will also assume that the mass of
the planet is much smaller than the mass of the Sun. This is a good
approximation for the Solar System, but it is not strictly valid for binary
systems, in which the orbiting bodies can have similar masses.
122

Chapter 10. Gravitation and Kepler’s Laws

Proof of Kepler’s Third Law

The derivation of Kepler’s third law in the case of circular orbits is a good
opportunity to look at an application of Newton’s law of gravitation, and to
define some recurring quantities.

It is useful to define the instantaneous angular velocity, equal to the angle

travelled per unit of time:

∆θ

dθ

ω “ lim

(10.15)

∆tÑ0 ∆t
dt

In uniform circular motion, ω is constant and equal to ω “ 2π{T , since the

body covers an angle of 360˝ or 2π rad every period T .

It is possible to write ω as a function of the instantaneous tangential velocity

and the radius vector. After the body covers an infinitesimal angle dθ, the
distance dst covered in the tangential direction is:

dst “ R dθ .

Dividing both sides by dt, and recognizing vt “ dst{dt, ω “ dθ{dt: vt “ ωR .

(10.16)

In general, vt “ v sin θ, where θ is the angle between the velocity and the
radius vector. In the special case of circular motion, v “ vt, since the path
(and therefore the velocity) is always tangent to the radius vector. The
velocity is then equal to the ratio of the circumference and the period of
rotation, i.e.

v “ 2πR{T , which gives ω “ 2π{T , as before. Let us now find an expression

for the force necessary to keep a body moving in a curved orbit.

After a time dt, the body covers an angle of

dθ, and its velocity changes by dv “ vt dθ

(see Fig. 10.6).

Therefore, its acceleration is:

dv

vt dθ

dθ

ac “

“
“ vt

“ vt ω .

dt

dt

dt

Using Eq. 10.16,

the previous formula can be written as:

v2

c“

“ ω2R .

(10.17)

Figure 10.6: After the body covers an

angle of dθ, its velocity changes by dv “

Eq. 10.17
gives the required acceleration as vt dθ.

a function of the instantaneous tangential

10.3. Kepler’s Laws

123

velocity (or angular velocity) and the radius of curvature. This is known as
the centripetal acceleration, since it is directed radially towards the centre of
rotation. The centripetal force is then given by Newton’s second law, i.e.

Fc “ mac. If a planet is found to rotate in a circular orbit, the necessary

centripetal force is provided by the force of gravity: GmM “ mac .

R2

Using Eq. 10.17

to substitute ac in terms of the velocity: c GM

v“

(10.18)

Since the circumference is 2πR, the time (period of revolution) taken to

cover it is T “ 2πR{v. Substituting for v, given by Eq. 10.18:

4π2

T2“

R3 .

(10.19)

GM

This is the canonical form of Kepler’s third law. Eq. 10.19

implies: T 2

4π2

“k,

R3
GM

which is what we wanted to show. Eq. 10.19

is also valid for elliptical orbits,
but R must be replaced with the semi-major axis a.

Let us now derive Kepler’s third law without neglecting the gravitational
field created by the planet itself. Let m1,m2 be the masses of the two bodies
and r1, r2 the radii of their circular orbits. The bodies rotate around their
common centre of mass with the same angular velocity ω, being
diametrically opposite and at a constant distance r1 ` r2 from each other at
all times.

In the Solar System, even if all planets aligned, the centre of mass would still
be below the surface of the Sun.

For the Earth-Moon

system however, this phenomenon is of such importance that it gives rise to

two tides every day.

In accordance with Newton’s law of gravitation,

the force that the bodies exert on each other is:

Gm1m2

Fg,1 “ Fg,2 “

pr1 ` r2q

For the bodies to remain in a circular orbit, the centripetal force must have
the constant magnitude of:

Fc,1 “ m1ω2 ¨ r1 ,
Fc,2 “ m2ω2 ¨ r2 .

124

Chapter 10. Gravitation and Kepler’s Laws

But the centripetal force is the gravitational force, hence: Gm2

“ ω2 ¨ r

1,

pr1 ` r2q

Gm1

“ ω2 ¨ r

2.

pr1 ` r2q

Adding the above equations:

Gpm1 ` m2q “ ω2 ¨ pr

1 ` r2q

pr1 ` r2q

ñ Gpm1 ` m2q “ ω2 ¨ pr1 ` r2q .

Let r1 ` r2 “ a be the distance between the bodies. Since ω “ 2π{T , we find:
4π2

T2“

a3 .

(10.20)

Gpm1 ` m2q

In the case of the Solar System, the mass of the Sun is much greater than the
mass of any planet, therefore the sum of the two masses at the denominator
reduces to the mass of the Sun only, and we recover Kepler’s third law.

Eq. 10.20
is also valid for elliptical orbits, but in this case a must be
interpreted as the sum of the semi-major axes a1 and a2. We require the
centre of mass to be fixed, hence a1m1 “ a2m2, and substituting either a1 or
a2 in a “ a1 à2, we get a “ p1 ` m1{m2qa1 “ p1 ` m2{m1qa2.

Kepler’s third law brings with it a great application: by measuring the orbital
period of the planets, it is possible to obtain the ratios of their semi-major
axes to that of the Earth. However, unless we measure one of the distances
involved, it is as if we had a map with no scale. Try solving Pr. 9.1, for an
example of how one of these distances can be measured.

10.4

Energy of an Orbiting Body

The total energy of an orbiting body is equal to the sum of its potential and
kinetic energy. Imagine two bodies, at a distance r from each other. The
gravitational potential energy of this configuration is equal to the work
required to bring one of them to a distance r from the other (which remains
fixed), starting from infinity. During this process, we must apply a force
equal and opposite to that of gravity, so that the speed remains constant, and
the change in kinetic energy is zero (we want to isolate the contribution of
the potential energy). Therefore, the potential energy is the opposite of the
work done by the force of gravity to bring one of the two bodies at a distance
r from the other, starting from infinity:

∆U “ ´∆W .

(10.21)

10.4. Energy of an Orbiting Body

125

Eq. 10.21
is valid for any conservative force (i.e. a force for which the work
done is independent of the path taken, such as gravity). Work is defined as
the scalar product of force and displacement, hence, considering an
infinitesimal displacement dx towards the fixed body, the work done by the
force of gravity is dWg “ Fg dx. The total work ∆Wg is given by the sum
(integral) of all these infinitesimal contributions dWg. Since gravity is a
conservative force, to evaluate ∆Wg, we can chose a path that is a straight
line: ż

żr

ż 8 Gm

ż8

1m2

dx

∆Wg “

dWg “ ´

Fg dx “

dx “ Gm1m2

x2
x2

1 ı8

”1

Gm1m2

“ Gm1m2 ´

“ Gm1m2

´0“

xr

As expected, ∆Wg is positive, since the force of gravity and the

displacement both point towards the body. Therefore, the potential energy is:
Gm1m2

U“´

.
(10.22)

If the body only moves in a small region of space, we can regard the
gravitational field ~

g as a constant. Therefore:

∆U “ ´∆W “ ´ ~

F ¨ ~h “ mgh

ñ U phq “ mgh ` const. ,

where h is the projection of the distance covered by the body in the direction
of the gravitational field (positive if moving away from it), and U phq is
defined within an arbitrary constant, which depends on the choice of zero-
height. In Eq. 10.22,
the arbitrary constant is zero, since, by convention, an
object at infinity has zero potential.

The kinetic energy is defined as the work done by a force to increase the
velocity of a body from zero to v, while at constant potential:

∆K “ ∆W ,

(10.23)

where:

żv

dv1

żv
”1

ıv

∆W “

F dx “

ma dx “

v1dt “

mv1 dv1 “

mv12

mv2 .

dt

In the above derivation, we used v1 as a variable of integration, to

distinguish it from the upper limit v. Hence:

1
K“

mv2 .

126

Chapter 10. Gravitation and Kepler’s Laws

Figure 10.7: The dashed lines represent the gravitational and centrifugal
potentials; the solid line their sum, known as the effective potential. The
horizontal lines E1, E2, E3, E4 are the energies of an hyperbolic, parabolic,
elliptic and circular orbit, respectively, and their intersections with the
effective potential give the turning points of the orbits.

Therefore, the total energy of a body of mass m, orbiting at a distance r from

a body of mass M (with m ! M ), is:

GmM
1

E“ÙK“´

mv2 .

(10.24)

The total energy is conserved if the system is isolated, i.e. if no dissipative

forces are present. Indeed, a conservative force changes U and K by ∆U “

´∆W (Eq. 10.21)

and ∆K “ ∆W (Eq. 10.23).
Hence ∆Ù ∆K “ 0, i.e.

the energy is conserved. Decomposing the velocity into radial and tangential
components (v2 “ v 2

` vt ), and substituting vt as a function of the angular momentum (vt “

L{mr), we finally obtain:

Ĺ2

GmM ¯

“
´

mvr .

(10.25)

2mr2

In the above equation, the terms in brackets depend only on the variable r,
therefore they can be regarded as an effective potential: L2

GmM

Ueff “

2mr2

The effective potential is plotted in Fig. 10.7.

The dashed lines represent the
gravitational (´GmM {r) and centrifugal (L2{2mr2) potential terms; the solid
line their sum, the effective potential. The horizontal lines show the different
energies an orbiting body may have. Since the kinetic energy must always be
positive, the body can never be found in regions where the effective

10.4. Energy of an Orbiting Body

127
potential is greater than the total energy. The intersection points between the
horizontal lines and the effective potential are therefore known as turning
points, since the body must invert its (radial) motion at those points. Looking
at Fig.

10.7,
when E ă 0 (E3), the horizontal line always intersects the effective
potential at two points, which (from left to right) are the minimum and
maximum distances. When E has the smallest possible value (E4), the two
intersection points coincide: this is the case of a circular orbit. When E “ 0
(E2) or E ą 0 (E1), there is only one turning point and the orbit is unbound: it
reaches a minimum distance from the centre, but moves infinitely far away
afterwards. Hence, we essentially have four types of orbits: $

’E ą 0 ,

hyperbola ;

&E “ 0 ,

parabola ;

ă0,

ellipse ;

’
’

%E min ,

circle .

Closed Orbits

As the name suggests, a body in a closed orbit periodically rotates around

the centre of attraction. Closed orbits can be either circular or elliptical.

In the case of circular orbits, the potential energy is constant and equal to:
GM m

Uc “ ´

According to Eq. 10.18,

the velocity is: c GM

vc “

Hence the kinetic energy is:

GM

GmM

Kc “
mv2

c“2

2R

The total energy is the sum of the potential and kinetic energies: GmM

GmM

Ec “ Uc ` Kc “ ´

2R

GmM

ñ Ec “ ´

2R

The equation above is also valid for an elliptical orbit, if R is replaced by the
semi-major axis a:

GmM
E“´

(10.26)

2a

128

Chapter 10. Gravitation and Kepler’s Laws

Hence, it follows that the total energy of circular and elliptical orbits is
always negative. As a tends to infinity, the energy goes to zero; for small a, it
grows increasingly negative. Eq. 10.26,
used in conjunction with the
conservation of angular momentum, should allow you to solve (almost all)
problems in Celestial Mechanics.

Open Orbits

In the Solar System, the planets are gravitationally bound to the Sun,
travelling in elliptical, almost circular orbits.

If a body does not rotate periodically

around the centre of attraction, we say that its orbit is unbound, and it can be
either parabolic or hyperbolic. In this case, the body first approaches the
centre, reaches a minimum distance, and then moves infinitely far away.
Since the body can reach arbitrarily large distances from the centre of
attraction, for some point infinitely far away its potential energy must be
zero. If the body is at rest when it is at an infinite distance, then its total
energy is E “ 0, and it can be shown that it travels in a parabolic orbit. Of
course, the body is never exactly at infinity, and the velocity is never exactly
zero (therefore it is actually able to cover the orbit). The situation is
reversible, so that the minimum amount of energy that a body needs in order
to escape from a system is E “ 0. If, on the other hand, the velocity of the
body at an infinite distance is non-zero, then the total energy is E ą 0, and it
can be shown that the body follows a hyperbolic orbit (Appendix B).
An
object in a parabolic or hyperbolic orbit must come from outside the Solar
System.

10.5

Escape Velocity

The escape velocity is the minimum velocity required to move indefinitely

far away from the centre of attraction. If the initial velocity of a body is
exactly equal to the escape velocity, as it moves away from the centre, the
velocity decreases until, asymptotically, it tends to zero. Therefore, the final
kinetic and potential energies are zero, hence the total energy is zero as well.
Because energy is conserved:

GmM

mv2

esc “ 0 ,

where m ! M and R is the initial distance between the body and the centre of
attraction. Solving for vesc, we find:

c 2GM

vesc “

(10.27)
R

If a body has a velocity lower than the escape velocity, it follows a circular
or an elliptical orbit, being gravitationally bound to the centre of attraction.
If

10.6. Virial Theorem

129

the velocity is exactly equal to the escape velocity, the orbit is parabolic, if it
is greater, the orbit is hyperbolic. In general, the escape velocity is greater
for planets with a larger mass. This aspect is important in the discussion of
planetary atmospheres, covered in Sec. 7.3.

Schwarzschild Radius

The Schwarzschild radius is the size of the event horizon of a black hole, i.e.

the distance from the singularity within which the escape velocity from the
black hole is greater than the speed of light. At a distance from the
singularity equal to the Schwarzschild radius (Rs), the escape velocity is
exactly equal to c:

c 2GM

vesc “ c “

Rs

2GM

ñ Rs “

(10.28)

c2
Although this equation was obtained in the framework of classical physics, it
turns out that this is the same result predicted by the theory of general
relativity. The above derivation is given to facilitate the memorization of Eq.
10.28.

10.6

Virial Theorem

For an inverse square force law, such as gravity, the Virial theorem relates
the average potential and kinetic energies:

U “ ´2K .

(10.29)

The total energy, as usual, is the sum of the potential and kinetic energies: U

E“ÙK“U´

(10.30)

For example, for a body in circular orbit, the potential and kinetic energies
are constant. Since U “ Uc “ ´GmM {a, it follows that the energy is also
constant and equal to:

GmM
Ec “

Uc ñ Ec “ ´

2a

which is the result given in Eq. 10.26.

In Appendix C,
we prove the Virial
theorem for a general potential of the from U “ ´αrń, in which case: n

K“Ú.

(10.31)

For the gravitational potential, n “ 1, hence we recover Eq. 10.29.

130

Chapter 10. Gravitation and Kepler’s Laws

10.7

Exercises

1.

Compute the ratio between the gravitational acceleration on the surface of

the Sun and the Earth.

2.

(INT 2015, Th.S, q.3) The commander of the interstellar mission Kout-Iz-
Paut wants to attempt a descent on the planet Sweets-3 and it is essential for
him to know the gravitational acceleration gSW3 on the surface of the
planet. The only data he is given is the density (ρSW3 “ 4ρE) of the planet
Sweets-3, and its radius (RSW3 “ RE{4). Compare the value of gSW3 with
the gravitational acceleration on Jupiter gE.

3.*

(IOAA 2012, Th., q.5) Compute the ratio between the mean densities of the
Earth and Sun, using only the following data:

• mean angular diameter of the Sun (θ@ “ 321), as seen from Earth;

• gravitational acceleration on the surface of the Earth (g “ 9.80 m/s2);

• length of the sidereal year (Tsid “ 365.2564d);

• the fact that one degree in longitude corresponds to s “ 111 km on the

surface of the Earth.

4.

The Hubble Space Telescope rotates around the Earth, in a circular orbit, at
an average distance of H “ 560 km from the surface. Calculate the average
velocity vc and the orbital period T of HST.

5.

Determine the distance d of a geostationary satellite from the surface of the

Earth, and its velocity v.

6.

(NAZ 2015, Th.S, q.2) Consider a satellite that orbits the Earth along the
equatorial plane, in the same direction as Earth’s rotation. At what minimum
height (hmin) from the Earth’s surface should the satellite be, in order for an
observer to see it move in the sky from east to west?

7.

CoRoT-7b is the closest exoplanet to its star that has ever been discovered.
The semi-major axis of its orbit is just 0.0172 au, while its period of
revolution is only 0.8536 days. Estimate the mass of the star CoRoT-7,
assuming that the mass of the planet is negligible compared to the mass of
the star.

8.

In its orbit around the Sun, a comet reaches a maximum distance of 31.5 au,
and a minimum of 0.5 au. What is its orbital period? At what rate does the
radius vector joining the comet to the Sun sweep out area, in square
kilometres per year?

9.*

A planet is in an elliptical orbit around the Sun, with semi-major axis a and
eccentricity e. Compute its velocities at perihelion and aphelion.

10.7. Exercises

131

10.* Two asteroids of masses M1 and M2 (negligible compared to that of the

Earth) are on a collision course with Earth, at a distance of 1.2 ¨ 106 km and
106 km, respectively. Assuming their initial velocities are zero, find:

• the time it takes the first asteroid to impact the Earth;

• the time between the two impacts;

• if the impacts happen on the equator, what is the distance (measured along
the Earth’s surface) between the two craters?

11.* (IOAA 2011, Th., q.8) A spaceship orbits very close to the asteroid
Seneca, transmitting data on Earth. Due to the relative motion between the
asteroid and the Earth, the time taken by a signal transmitted by the
spaceship to arrive on Earth varies between 2 and 39 minutes. Assuming that
the Earth moves around the Sun in a circular orbit that does not intersect the
orbit of Seneca, calculate:

• the semi-major axis as and the eccentricity es of Seneca’s orbit;

• the period Ts of Seneca’s orbit.

12.* (IAO 2015, Th.α, q.5) A satellite moves around the Earth in a slightly
elliptical, equatorial, orbit and passes through the perigee point at a height of
dp “ 428.0 km above sea level, with a speed 0.6 % greater than that of a
circular orbit at the same height. Estimate the time taken for the satellite to
reach a height of d “ 498.0 km.

13.* (BAAO, 2019, Th., q.1, adapted) Calculate the time the Parker Solar
Probe (PSP) spends at a distance from the Sun less than the length of the
latus rectum of its orbit (i.e. the point where the angle between the radius
vector and the semi-major axis, known as the true anomaly, is 90˝). First,
solve this exercise using Kepler’s second law and Eq. A.7

(Appendix A.2);
then using the equations given in Pr. 10.12.

14.** (IOAA 2014, Th., q.2) In a gravitational catastrophe, the mass of the
Sun suddenly halves. Find the new orbital period if, at that time, the Earth
was at aphelion or perihelion.

15.

What should the radius of a planet be, if it has the same density as the Earth
and if a human can escape from it with a simple jump?

16.

Estimate the number of stars in a globular cluster of diameter 40 pc, if the

escape velocity from its outer edge is 6 km/s. Assume that, on average, the
cluster is composed of Sun-like stars.

17.

If the Sun collapsed to form a non-rotating black hole, what would the radius
of its event horizon be? Calculate the average density.

132

Chapter 10. Gravitation and Kepler’s Laws

18.* A planet is shaped as a long cylinder.

Its mean density, radius and

rotational period are the same as on Earth.

• Compute the first cosmic velocity vc,1 (i.e. the orbital velocity on the
surface of the planet).

• What is the height of a geostationary satellite, measured from the surface?

• What can you say regarding the second cosmic velocity (i.e. the escape
velocity)?

19.* A homogeneous sphere of radius a contains a cavity of radius a{4,

whose centre is 3a{8 from the surface. The diameter passing through the
centre of the sphere and the cavity meets the surface at points A and B.
Calculate the ratio of the gravitational acceleration at these two points.

20.** A projectile is launched from the surface of the Earth with the first
cosmic velocity, at an angle θ “ 30˝ with respect to the local horizon.

Neglecting friction with air, find:

• the semi-major axis a of the orbit;

• the maximum height of the projectile with respect to the Earth’s surface, in
units of RC;

• the range of the projectile, i.e. the distance, along the Earth’s surface,
between the launch and landing points;

• the time of flight.

21.** A probe is launched from the north pole of the Earth with the first
cosmic velocity, in such a way that it lands at the equator. Neglecting friction
with air, find:

• the semi-major axis a of the orbit;

• the maximum height of the probe, with respect to the Earth’s surface, in
units of RC;

• the time of flight.

22.** In the absence of atmosphere on Earth, what are the maximum and
minimum velocities of Sun-orbiting asteroids that impact our planet?

23.*** Find the maximum time a comet, following a parabolic trajectory

around the Sun, can spend within the orbit of the Earth. Assume that the
Earth’s orbit is circular and in the same plane as that of the comet.

24.*** What should the shape of a planet be (of fixed volume and density),
such that it produces the maximum possible gravitational acceleration

10.8. Problems

133

at a certain point in space? How much greater is the gravitational

acceleration in this case, compared to that of a spherical planet with the same
mass and density?

25.*** Two comets with identical masses and speeds are found to be
approaching the Sun along parabolic trajectories that lie in the same plane.

The comets collide at their common perihelion P, and break into many pieces
that then travel in all directions, but with identical initial speeds.

What shape is the envelope of the subsequent trajectories of the pieces of

debris?

10.8

Problems

1.** Planets as point masses

For a spherical shell, show that:

• at its exterior, the gravitational field is the same as that produced by a point
mass, of the same mass, placed at its centre;

• at its interior, the gravitational field is zero.

Hence, prove the two points stated in Sec. 10.2.

2.*

Using Gauss’ theorem

Compute the gravitational acceleration at a distance r from the centre of the

Earth, assuming its density is constant.

3.*

Deep tunnels

On a future lunar base, one wonders what the fastest way is to transport a
load from a place on the surface of the Moon to its antipode. Two solutions
have been proposed:

• introducing the load into a circular orbit;

• dropping the load into a straight tunnel connecting the two places.

Which method enables a faster transport? Assume the density of the Moon is
constant.

4.** Potential energy of a spherical body

Compute the gravitational potential energy of a star with mass M and radius
R. You can imagine assembling the star in spherical shells, brought from
infinity.

5.** Escape velocity

Obtain an expression for the escape velocity in the case that the masses of
the two bodies are comparable.
134

Chapter 10. Gravitation and Kepler’s Laws

6.** Roche limit

Obtain an expression for the Roche limit, defined as the minimum distance
from the centre of a celestial body such that a secondary body (held together
only by the force of gravity) does not disintegrate due to tidal forces. Your
answer must be a function of the density of the two bodies and the radius of
the central body. Give a numerical value for the Roche limit in the case of
the Sun-Earth and Earth-Moon systems.

7.** Jeans limit

Obtain an equation for the Jeans limit, i.e. the critical mass above which a
nebula collapses to form a star. Write the result as a function of the
temperature T , the molar mass µ of the gas that constitutes the nebula and
its density ρ.

8.** Hill sphere and Lagrangian points L1, L2

Calculate the distance to the Sun of the Lagrangian points L1 and L2, i.e.

those points on the line joining the Earth and the Sun, placed in between the
Sun and the Earth and beyond the Earth, respectively, having the same
orbital period as the Earth. Hence, find the radius of the Hill sphere, defined
as the distance within which a secondary body can retain satellites while
orbiting around a central body. Give a numerical value for the radius of
Earth’s Hill sphere.

9.*** Position of Lagrangian point L3

Find the position of the Lagrangian point L3, i.e. that point on the line
joining the Earth and the Sun, on the opposite side of the Earth relative to the
Sun, having the same orbital period as the Earth.

10.*** The three-body problem and Lagrangian points L4, L5

A system consists of three bodies with masses m1, m2 and m3 placed at
distances r1,2, r1,3 and r2,3. Find a relationship between their distances so
that the triangle formed by the three masses always maintains a constant
shape. Hence, calculate the orbital period of the system. Explain how this
problem is related to the calculation of the Lagrangian points L4

and L5, positioned (on Earth’s orbit) 60 ˝ before and after the Earth, and
having the same orbital period.

11.** The fate of abandoned satellites

At the end of their useful lives, satellites lose energy in the upper layers of
the atmosphere, before finally burning up when they reach the denser, lower,
layers. It can be shown that satellites originally moving along circular
trajectories will continue to travel in approximately circular orbits, with their
orbital radii slowly decreasing. Consider a satellite with mass m “ 500 kg, in
an approximately circular orbit, when it is abandoned.

10.8. Problems

135

The friction force on the satellite is approximately Fa “ c ρ v2, where c “

0.23 m2, ρ is the density of air at the height of the satellite and v is its
instantaneous velocity.
• Does the satellite decelerate or accelerate as a result of the air drag?

Explain your answer from the point of view of dynamics.

• Find a (simple) equation that relates the drag force to the tangential
acceleration of the satellite.

• What is the density of air at an altitude of 200 km, if the orbital radius of
the satellite decreases by 100 m during a single revolution?

12.*** Kepler’s equation

Figure 10.8: True (θ), eccentric (E) and mean (M ) anomalies.

Let O be the centre of an elliptical orbit, F the focus around which the body
orbits and P the position of the body (see Fig. 10.8).

The true anomaly (θ) is defined as the angle between the direction of
perihelion and the position of the body, as seen from F . Prove that the
distance r of P from F is related to the true anomaly by: ap1 é2q

rpθq “

(10.32)

1 è cos θ

Let E be the intersection between the perpendicular to the major axis passing
through P and the circle. The eccentric anomaly (E) is defined as the angle
between the line OE and the direction of perihelion. Prove that the distance r
is related to the eccentric anomaly by: r “ ap1 é cos Eq .

(10.33)

The mean anomaly (M ) is defined as the angle corresponding to the fraction

of the period of an elliptical orbit that has elapsed since the body
136

Chapter 10. Gravitation and Kepler’s Laws

passed through perihelion. Hence, M “ ωpt ´ t0q, where ω “

GM {a3

is the mean angular velocity of revolution and t0 is the time at perihelion.

Prove that the mean anomaly is related to the eccentric anomaly by: M “ E é
sin E ,

(10.34)

this is known as Kepler’s equation (Hint: use Eqs. 10.32, 10.33

and 5.9).

13.**** Relaxation time

Consider a system of stars, such as a galaxy or a cluster. In these systems,

collisions between stars are very rare, since the average distance between
them is much greater than their size. A physical model can approximate the
system with a continuous distribution of matter, thus neglecting its
granularity. However, the real force acting on each star is slightly different
from the force obtained using the physical model. We want to estimate the
time scale for which the deviation from the continuous distribution model
becomes significant. Systems for which this deviation is small are called
“collision-free”, and the time scale, called relaxation time, is usually larger
than the age of the universe.

You can use the following model: a star of mass m and velocity v
approaches a stationary star (of the same mass m) with impact parameter b.
If the distance between the two stars is large, their interaction is small and
the star moves approximately on a straight line at a distance b, undergoing a
small deviation in the direction perpendicular to its velocity.
Find the variation of the square of the velocity in the perpendicular direction
as a function of the impact parameter b. Then, integrating over all the values
of b, estimate the relaxation time, i.e. the time necessary for the variation in
the mean square speed to be equal to the square of the velocity of the star:
dv2

« v2.

Ktot

11

Motion of the Planets

The Sun and the Moon always rise in the east and set in the west. However,
over the course of a year, they describe great circles on the celestial sphere in
the opposite direction to the apparent daily rotation of the sky, with a
variable but almost constant velocity. The trajectory described by the planets
on the celestial sphere is, instead, more complex: it contains knots and loops,
that is, points in which the motion reverses, from direct (same direction as
the Sun, from west to east) to retrograde, or vice-versa.

11.1

Apparent Motion of the Planets

According to their apparent motion, we distinguish inferior planets (such as

Mercury and Venus) from superior planets (all others, excluding Earth).

Inferior planets always appear to be moving close to the Sun, their angular
separation never exceeding the maximum elongation (max). Considering the
triangle SEwT in Fig. 11.1,
we see that: sin max “ d{dC ,

(11.1)

where d and dC are the Sun-planet and Sun-Earth distances, respectively.

Because of the eccentricity of the orbits, max varies according to the
position of the Earth and the planet, taking the values max “ 18˝ ´ 28˝ for
Mercury and
max “ 45˝ ´ 48˝ for Venus.

At the point of maximum eastern elongation Ee, the planet is visible in the
evening, shortly after sunset. In fact, since the sky rotates from east to west,
the Sun, further west, sets earlier than the planet, which is therefore visible
for a brief period of time during twilight. Subsequently, the planet moves
closer to the Sun until, at the moment of inferior conjunction Ci, it is aligned
with the Sun and the Earth. If the alignment is perfect, the planet appears
completely dark, eclipsing the portion of the Sun it passes through. If,
instead, the planet does not transit on the solar disk, it is still possible to see
a small illuminated portion of it. The planet then moves away from the Sun,
with a retrograde motion towards the west, and is now visible just before
dawn. Its apparent 137

138

Chapter 11. Motion of the Planets

Figure 11.1: Positions occupied by an inferior planet. The angular distance

between the Sun and the planet never exceed the maximum elongation max.
The planet appears to be stationary, as viewed from Earth (E), at the points
of maximum eastern and western elongation (Ee and Ew, respectively),
while it appears to have the greatest velocity in superior and inferior
conjunction (Cs and Ci, respectively).

velocity decreases, until it appears stationary at the point of maximum

(western) elongation Ew. Here, the planet reverses its motion, now
approaching the Sun at an increasing velocity. The moment when the planet
is on the opposite side of the Earth, relative to the Sun, is called upper
conjunction Cs. If the alignment is perfect, the planet disappears behind the
solar disk. The planet continues its motion in the direct direction, moving
away from the Sun. Then, at the point of maximum (eastern) elongation, it
reverses its motion again, and the cycle starts over.

The motion of the superior planets on the celestial sphere is somewhat

different, since their elongation can take any value. Now, the moment when
the planet is on the opposite side of the Earth relative to the Sun is called
conjunction, denoted by C in Fig. 11.2.
When in conjunction, the planet is
difficult to observe, since it rises and sets very close to the Sun. It then
proceeds in the direct direction, moving with a decreasing velocity away
from the Sun, until it becomes stationary at the point of eastern quadrature
Qe. Now the motion is retrograde, and the planet moves away at an
increasing velocity. The velocity of the planet is maximum when it is aligned
with the Sun and the Earth, on the same side of the Earth. This is the point of
opposition O. Thereafter, the planet moves at a decreasing velocity until it
stops, at the point of western quadrature Qw. It then moves with direct
motion again, until reaching the point of conjunction, where the cycle
repeats itself.

Explaining the change in direction of the motion of a planet is relatively

simple if we assume that the Earth orbits around the Sun. In the past,
however, it was believed that the Earth sat motionless at the centre of the
universe (geo-
11.2. Synodic Period

139

Figure 11.2: Positions occupied by a superior planet. Unlike inferior planets,

whose angular distance from the Sun cannot exceed the maximum
elongation, superior planets can have any elongation. The planet appears
stationary, as viewed from Earth (E), at the points of eastern and western
quadrature (Qe and Qw, respectively), while its apparent velocity reaches a
local maximum in conjunction and opposition (C and O, respectively).

centric model). The Ptolemaic system (the best known geocentric model)
tried to explain direct and retrograde motions by assuming that planets rotate
on circles called epicycles, which in turn move on greater circles, called
deferentials. Moreover, to explain the difference in the length of the seasons,
the centre of the Sun’s deferential was assumed to be at some distance from
the Earth, on a point called the eccentric. Often, the simplest explanation
(i.e.

the heliocentric model) is the right one.

11.2
Synodic Period

The synodic period is the interval of time between two successive

conjunctions or oppositions of a planet. After a sidereal period, the planet
has completed an orbit around the Sun, returning to the same position within
the Solar System.

However, during that time, the Earth has moved around the Sun, therefore
the position of the planet as seen from Earth will, in general, be different.

All planets orbit the Sun anti-clockwise when viewed from the north pole of
the Earth. Hence, to calculate the relative angular velocity, we take the
difference between the angular velocities of the Earth (ωe) and the planet
(ωp). For inferior planets ωp ą ωe, therefore:

ωr “ ωp ´ ωe ,

while, for superior planets ωp ă ωe, thus:

ωr “ ωe ´ ωp .

140

Chapter 11. Motion of the Planets

Since ω “ 2π{Tsyn, ωp “ 2π{Tp and ωe “ 2π{Tyr, we find, for inferior and

superior planets, respectively:

,
Tsyn

Tp

Tyr

Tsyn

Tyr

Tp

For inferior planets:

TpTyr

Tsyn “

(11.2)

Tyr ´ Tp

For superior planets:

TpTyr
Tsyn “

(11.3)

Tp ´ Tyr

These formulas can be applied to any pair of bodies in orbit around a

common centre, if we substitute for Tp and Tyr the periods of their orbits. If
they travel in opposite directions, the relative angular velocity is the sum of
the angular velocities, hence the minus sign at the denominator in Eqs. 11.2
and 11.3

becomes a plus sign, and we are left with one equation only.

We can express Tsyn directly in years by dividing both sides of the previous
equations by Tyr. For inferior planets then:

Tsyn

Tp{Tyr

Tp,yr

ñ Tsyn, yr “

Tyr

1 ´ Tp{Tyr

1 ´ Tp,yr

While, for superior planets:

Tsyn
Tp{Tyr

Tp,yr

ñ Tsyn, yr “

Tyr

Tp{Tyr ´ 1

Tp,yr ´ 1

11.3. Exercises

141

11.3

Exercises

1.

(INT 2014, Th.S, q.1) Two consecutive oppositions of an external planet

have been observed. The time interval between the two events is 398.85

days. Which planet is it?

2.

A planet has a synodic period of 584 days. What is its distance from the Sun
and what planet is it?

3.

(INT 2013, Th. S, q.3) Two space stations are in circular polar orbit around
the Earth, travelling in the same direction. Stations A and B are located at
heights h “ 200 km and H “ 400 km. Determine the time between two
consecutive alignments of the two stations.

4.

The elongation of a planet is 150˝. Is it an inferior or superior planet?

5.

In the evening, which planets rise in the east?

6.

The synodic period of a planet is equal to its sidereal period. What is its
sidereal period?

7.

Calculate the time it takes Mars to move from opposition to quadrature.

You may assume the orbits to be circular.

8.*

The largest and smallest maximum elongations of Mercury are emax,1 “

28˝ and emax,2 “ 18˝, respectively. Find the eccentricity of its orbit.

9.*

(CAO 2019, Th., q.3) An observer on earth measured the apparent

magnitude of an asteroid at every opposition. The asteroid’s period is 3.9

years. Estimate the eccentricity of its orbit, if the difference between the
highest and lowest apparent magnitudes is ∆m “ 2.5. Assume the Earth’s
orbit is circular.

10.* (INAO 2020, Th., q.1) On the evening of the autumnal equinox,
Siddhant noticed that Mars was exactly along the north-south meridian at the
moment when the sun was setting. If the orbital radius of Mars is 1.52 au, at
what time will Mars rise on the next autumnal equinox?

11.4

Problems

1.*

Great opposition

The orbit of Mars is more eccentric than Earth’s orbit. Of the various
oppositions, some occur when Mars is at perihelion. These (great)
oppositions are very favourable for observing the planet. How often do they
occur?

12

Orbital Manoeuvres

In this chapter we present a simplified approach for placing into orbit and
changing the orbits of satellites. Most of the time the limiting factor is the
available fuel, which is related, through the rocket equation, to a quantity
called ∆v.
12.1

The Rocket Equation

Figure 12.1: After the exhaustion of mass ´dm at velocity ve ´ v, the mass of
the rocket will be m ` dm and its velocity v ` dv.

Let us assume that, in the reference system of the rocket, the exhaustion
speed of the fuel is constant and equal to ve. This velocity depends on the
amount of energy generated by chemical reactions in the fuel. For an inertial
observer, the instantaneous velocity of the rocket is v (Fig. 12.1).
The rocket
then expels a mass of fuel ´dm with velocity v ´ ve, and consequently its
velocity and mass increase by dv and dm, respectively (note that we will be
integrating from the initial to the final mass, hence the increment dm is
negative). Requiring momentum to be conserved:

mv “ pm ` dmqpv ` dvq ´ p´dmqpve ´ vq .

Simplifying:

dm

dv “ ´ve

142

12.2. Oberth Effect

143

Integrating both sides:

ż vf

ż mf dm
dv “ ´ve

mi

Hence:

mi

∆v “ vf ´ vi “ ve ln

(12.1)

mf

An important result, which we will use to justify the Oberth effect, is that ∆v
does not depend on the initial speed of the rocket, but only on the exhaustion
speed and the amount of fuel burned.

12.2

Oberth Effect

The Oberth manoeuvre consists in firing the rocket when the velocity is
maximum, for example at perihelion. In some cases, it may be convenient to
bring the rocket closer to a celestial body to take advantage of this effect.

As shown in Sec. 12.1,

∆v depends only on the amount of fuel burned. For
sufficiently small ∆v, the change in the energy of the rocket is:

∆K “ Kf ´ Ki « mv∆v .
Therefore, for a fixed ∆v, the energy gained is directly proportional to the
velocity of the spaceship. Note that m remains fixed, since we are only
interested in the kinetic energy of the rocket (and not in that carried by the
fuel).

12.3

Hohmann Transfer Orbit

Hohmann’s manoeuvre describes the most efficient way of transferring a

satellite between two circular orbits, around the same centre of force and
coplanar to each other. It consists of two stages (Fig. 12.2):

• at point P the probe is given an impulse to bring it into an intermediate

elliptical orbit, tangent to the final circular orbit;

• at point A the probe is given a second impulse, to introduce it into the final
circular orbit.

Let R1 and R2 be the radii of the initial and final circular orbits, respectively.

We want to find the two ∆v-s that the probe must be given in P and A.

After the first impulse, the probe travels on an ellipse with semi-major axis
2a “ R1 ` R2. The energy of this orbit is given by Eq. 10.26:

GmM

E“´

R1 ` R2

The kinetic energy of the probe in P is then:

GmM

GmM
GmM ´

K“EÚ“´

1´

R1 ` R2

R1

R1

1 ` R2{R1

144

Chapter 12. Orbital Manoeuvres

which corresponds to a velocity of:

2GM ´
1

2R2{R1

vP “

K“

1´

“ v0

R1

1 ` R2{R1

1 ` R2{R1

where v0 is the velocity of the circular orbit with radius R1. The ∆v in P is: d

2R

2{R1

∆vP “ v0

´1

.
(12.2)

1 ` R2{R1

The velocity of the probe in A can be obtained applying conservation of

angular momentum at perihelion and aphelion (Eq. 10.12):

R1

mvPR1 “ mvAR2 ñ vA “

vP .

R2

The final velocity is that of a circular orbit with radius R2, i.e. vf “

GM {R2.

Hence, the ∆v that must be applied in A is:

∆vA “ vf ´ vA “ vf 1 ´

1 ` R2{R1

Since vf “
R1{R2 v0, the last equation can be rewritten in terms of v0: d

cRˆ

∆vA “ v0

1´

(12.3)

R2

1 ` R2{R1

Assuming that both impulses are instantaneous and using Kepler’s third law,
we find the time required to enter the new circular orbit: π2

T2

pR1 ` R2q

(12.4)

8GMC
The Hohmann transfer orbit requires the starting and arrival points to be in
specific positions, therefore the probe can be launched only in certain
windows of time. For example, the required alignment for space missions
between Earth and Mars occurs every 26 months. An even more favourable
time is during great oppositions (Pr. 11.1), when the Earth-Mars distance is
minimum. Often, Hohmann’s manoeuvre is not the fastest way to achieve a
transfer, but it does allow the rocket to carry the largest payload. Due to its
reversible nature, this manoeuvre can also be used to bring a satellite from a
higher to a lower orbit. In this case, the impulses must be directed opposite
to the velocity.

12.4. Exercises

145

Figure 12.2: Hohmann transfer between two circular orbits of radii R1 and
R2

12.4

Exercises
1.

Calculate the velocity increments ∆vP and ∆v that a probe must be A

given, to be transferred from a circular orbit of radius R1 “ 1 au around the

Sun, to another circular orbit of radius R2 “ 5.2 au (Jupiter’s orbit) and
coplanar with the first. Determine the transfer time T .

2.*

The sum of the positive speed increments necessary to transfer a probe

around the Sun from a circular orbit of radius R1 to another circular orbit of
radius R2 and coplanar to the first is 84.73 km/s. Determine the radii of the
two orbits if the transfer time is 8h3m10s. You will need to solve an equation
numerically.

3.*

A probe is intended to leave Earth’s gravitational field but the fuel in the
main engine is a little less than necessary. The probe is also equipped with
an auxiliary engine, capable of operating for a short period of time.

When is it convenient to operate the auxiliary engine: at take-off, or when

the probe is almost stationary, or is it not important?

4.** A construction project for a space lift requires it to remain fixed relative
to some point on Earth and suspended in equilibrium, without falling
towards the Earth or moving away into space. What should the length of the
lift be? What is the maximum tension in the rope?

5.*

(ARAO 2018, Th.X, q.2) A probe was launched to another planet in the
Solar System along an energetically optimal trajectory. After flying close to
the planet, the probe immediately set off on its way back to Earth.

Throughout the mission, the probe (with no engines) made one revolution
around the Sun and returned to our planet, at exactly the same starting
146

Chapter 12. Orbital Manoeuvres

position. For which planet closest to the Sun is this possible?

6.*

(BAAO 2018, Th., q.4, adapted) The most energetic chemical reaction we
can use in a rocket is hydrogen-oxygen, which gives ve = 4.46 km/s, and
engineering limits us to a rocket design with a maximum of 96 % of launch
mass being fuel. Assuming that the density of rocky planets is: Rp

ρ “ 2.32 ` 3.18

g/cm3 ,

RC

derive the maximum Rp above which any alien civilization would be unable
to escape their planet’s gravity using simple propulsion systems.

12.5

Problems

1.*

Circular orbits

What is the minimum velocity required to place a satellite into a circular

orbit around the Earth? How much faster should the satellite be, if it is to be
placed in a polar orbit? Where should the satellites be launched from, in the
two cases? What is the minimum speed required to escape the Earth’s
gravitational field?

2.*

Changing the plane of the orbit

Find the minimum ∆v required to change the inclination of the circular orbit
of a satellite, moving with velocity v0, by an angle i. Estimate the additional
mass of fuel required, at launch, to change the inclination of the circular
orbit of a 1000 kg satellite by 1˝. Assume the satellite orbits the Earth 200
km above the surface, and that ve “ 4.5 km/s.

3.** Third cosmic velocity

What is the minimum ∆v required for a probe, launched from Earth, to

escape the Solar System? The gravitational field of the Earth is not
negligible compared to that of the Sun. What requires more energy: leaving
the Solar System or reaching the Sun?

4.** Rocket in a gravitational field

Find the rocket equation in a constant gravitational field of magnitude g, if

the (constant) rate at which fuel is expelled is r.

5.** Reaching the centre

For what n does the potential U “ αrń allow a body to reach the centre of
attraction (r Ñ 0), if the angular momentum is non-zero?

6.*** Gravitational slingshot

What is the best planet to use as a gravitational slingshot?

Taking

advantage of this planet, what is the minimum ∆v required to escape the

Solar System, if launching from Earth?

13

Binary Stars

Often, stars appear very close to each other, and one might wonder whether
their proximity is only apparent, or if they really do form a binary system.
If the linear distance between the stars is large (the limit depends on the
mass of the components, but is rarely greater than a few light years), they do
not orbit each other and we call them optical binaries. In fact, just under half
of all stars are in isolated systems, thus you are more likely to observe a
system of two or more stars, rather than a single star.

Based on the method of their discovery, binary systems fall into different
categories. Two stars form a visual binary if their angular distance is greater
than the minimum resolution of a telescope on Earth. Even if the system
cannot be directly resolved, other methods can still be used to identify the
binary.

In a binary system, the stars orbit around their common centre of mass. This
motion gives rise, as a result of the Doppler effect, to an observable shift in
the emission or absorption lines in their spectra. Binary systems that are
discovered on the basis of the Doppler shift are known as spectroscopic
binaries. By analysing the spectra of both stars, we can obtain the minimum
mass of each component, as well as their mutual distance. However, if one
of the stars is much brighter than its companion, the spectrum of the system
can be completely dominated by that of the brightest star. In this case, the
system is called an astrometric binary. Unless the mass of the brightest star
can be estimated from its spectral type, it is not possible to compute the mass
of its companion. If the orbital plane of the system coincides with the plane
of observation, the stars periodically eclipse each other and are called
photometric binaries. From the variation in brightness of the system, it is
possible to infer the period of rotation and the relative sizes of the stars. We
can then analyse their spectrum to obtain more information.

Binary systems can also be classified according to the distance between the
components. If the two stars are very far apart, we call them distant binaries,
with a typical period of revolution of around tens or thousands of years.

If, instead, the stars are at a distance on the order of one astronomical unit,
they are called close binaries. In this case, tidal forces may be strong enough
147

148
Chapter 13. Binary Stars

to deform the stars significantly, giving rise to an anisotropic emission of

energy from their surface, which can be observed as a periodic variation in
their brightnesses. Finally, if the stars of a close binary system come into
contact, we call them contact binaries. In the following sections, we will
study in more detail each of the cases listed above.

13.1

Distance Between Two Stars

Let S1 and S2 be two stars, at distances d1, d2 from Earth, with declinations
δ1, δ2 and right ascensions α1, α2, respectively. Considering a spherical
polar coordinate system centred on Earth, their positions can be written as:
S1 “ pd1 cos δ1 cos α1, d1 cos δ1 sin α1, d1 sin δ1q , S2 “ pd2 cos δ2 cos
α2, d2 cos δ2 sin α2, d2 sin δ2q .

Then, the distance between S1 and S2 is:

d2

“ p∆xq ` p∆yq ` p∆zq

“ d21 ` d22 ´ 2d1d2 cos δ1 cos δ2 cos α1 cos α2 ´ 2d1d2 cos δ1 cos δ2 sin α1
sin α2

´ 2d1d2 sin δ1 sin δ2

Applying the cosine addition formula (Eq. A.16),

we find: d2 “ d21 ` d22 ´
2d1d2rcos δ1 cos δ2 cos pα2 ´ α1q ` sin δ1 sin δ2s .

(13.1)
When analysing possible candidates for binary systems, we usually take into
consideration stars with very similar right ascensions and declinations. Let
δ1 “ δ, δ2 “ δ`∆δ and α2´α1 “ ∆α, with ∆α, ∆δ ! 1. In this approximation, Eq.
13.1
becomes (see Ex. 13.1):

∆δ2

∆α2

d2 “ d21 ` d22 ´ 2d1d2 1 ´

ćos2 δ .

(13.2)

If ∆δ “ ∆α “ 0, the stars are on the same line of sight, hence Eq. 13.1
reduces
to d “ |d1 ´ d2|, as expected. If d is less than a few light years, there is a good
chance that the stars do form a binary system. It is then possible to observe
the relative motion of the visual binary to obtain the shape of the orbits.

13.2

Visual Binaries

The motion of visual binaries can be studied using the generalized version of
Kepler’s law (Eq. 10.20):

4π2

T2“

a3 ,
Gpm1 ` m2q

13.3. Astrometric Binaries

149

where m1 and m2 are the masses of the two stars and a “ a1 à2 is the sum of
the semi-major axes of their orbits. The stars orbit around the common
centre of mass, placed in one of the two foci of their elliptical orbits (Fig.
13.1).
The semi-major axes obey the relationship:

a1

m2

m1a1 “ m2a2 ñ

a2

m1
By observing the system, it is possible to obtain the period T , while a1 and
a2

can be estimated only if we know the distance of the system from Earth. In
this case, it is possible to determine the mass of both components: 4π2

1“

pa1 à2q a2 ,

GT 2

4π2

2“

pa1 à2q a1 .

GT 2

13.3

Astrometric Binaries

The stars that form this type of binary system have a significant difference in
brightness, therefore the spectrum of the faintest star is completely
dominated by that of the brightest. If the mass of the brightest star can be
estimated from its spectral class, then the mass of the faintest can also be
determined.

If not, there is no way to determine the mass of the system. Sirius was the
first star to be classified as an astrometric binary, following the observation
of its periodic motion, which indicated the presence of a smaller companion
—

the first example of a white dwarf. This was later directly observed thanks to
more powerful telescopes.

Figure 13.1: Orbits of two stars in a visual binary.

150

Chapter 13. Binary Stars

13.4

Spectroscopic Binaries

Spectroscopic variables appear as a single star even to the most powerful

telescopes, but their spectra reveal a periodic displacement of the absorption
or emission lines. Unlike astrometric binaries, in this case it is possible to
observe the spectra of both stars.

As seen in Sec.

7.6,
for small velocities, the displacement of the spectral lines is directly
proportional to the radial velocity, according to the equation

∆λ “ λpv{cq. Therefore, the displacement is maximum when the stars are

directly approaching or moving away from the observer. Let us assume that
the perpendicular to the orbital plane of the binary system forms an angle i
with the direction of observation. Let v be the velocity obtained from the
shift

∆λ of the spectral lines. The velocity measured in this way is actually the
projection along the line of sight of the velocities of the two stars (see Sec.
9.4,

for a similar reasoning). Therefore, the observed velocity (v) is related to the
orbital velocity (v0) by:
v “ v0 sin i .

(13.3)

From the periodic shift of the spectral lines, we can obtain the orbital period
T

of the system. Let us assume that the orbits of the stars are circular, with
radii a1 and a2, respectively. The maximum orbital velocity of the first star
is: 2πa1

v0,1 “

The observed velocity is given by Eq. 13.3:

2πa1 sin i

v1 “

(13.4)

In the case of spectroscopic binaries, we cannot directly observe the two

components, therefore the empirical determination of a1 and a2 is precluded.
Let a “ a1 à2 be the distance between the two bodies. Considering the centre
of mass frame, we find:

m1

m1a1 “ m2a2 ñ a2 “

a1 .
(13.5)

m2

We want to express a1 as a function of m1, m2 and a only:

m1 ¯

m2

a “ a1 à2 “ a1 1 `

ñ a1 “ a

m2

m1 ` m2

From Kepler’s third law (Eq. 10.20):

4π2

T2“

a3

Gpm1 ` m2q

” GT 2pm1 ` m2q ı1{3

ña“

4π2
13.4. Spectroscopic Binaries

151

Hence:

m2

” GT 2pm1 ` m2q ı1{3

GT 2

ı1{3

a1 “

“ m2

m1 ` m2

4π2

4π2pm1 ` m2q2

Substituting a1 in Eq. 13.4

2πG

ı1{3

v1 “ m2

sin i .
(13.6)

pm1 ` m2q T

Hence, we find:

m3

2 sin3 i

v1 T

(13.7)

pm1 ` m2q2

2πG

If the spectrum of the system is dominated by that of the brightest star

(astrometric binaries), only T and v1 can be empirically determined,
therefore it is not possible to compute the total mass or the mass of the
individual components. If, however, it is possible to record the spectral lines
of both stars, then v1, v2 and T can be obtained, and the mass of both stars
can be determined, as long as we know i. Indeed, since the stars are always
diametrically opposite, their angular velocities are the same:

v1

a1

ω “ v1{a1 “ v2{a2 ñ
“

(13.8)

v2

a2

Using Eq. 13.5,

we can write a1{a2 “ m2{m1, hence: v2

m1 “ m2

(13.9)

v1

Substituting m1 in Eq. 13.7,

we find: m2 sin3 i

v1T

(13.10)

pv1 ` v2q2

2πG

If we know the inclination i, it is straightforward to find m2 and, hence, m1.

If the two stars eclipse each other (eclipsing binaries), it is possible to
determine the inclination, which is close to i « 90˝. In all other cases, we can
only state a lower limit for the mass of the two stars. Isolating m1 and m2: T

2
1“

v2pv1 ` v2q ,

2πG sin3 i

2“

v1pv1 ` v2q .

2πG sin3 i

The minimum values for m1 and m2 are obtained by setting i “ 90˝: T

1,min “

v2pv1 ` v2q ,

2πG

2,min “

v1pv1 ` v2q .
2πG

152

Chapter 13. Binary Stars

This reasoning is only valid for circular orbits, whereas for increasing values
of eccentricity the behaviour of the system deviates from the circular case. In
fact, most of the spectroscopic binaries have nearly circular orbits, since
tidal forces tend to reduce the eccentricity on a time scale which is short
compared to the lifetime of the system.

13.5

Photometric Binaries

In photometric binaries, the presence of the secondary star can be inferred by

analysing the light curve of the system. The brightness of the binary system
can change over time for several reasons. If the stars periodically eclipse
each other, we call them eclipsing binaries. It is possible to observe a
variation in brightness even if the two stars do not eclipse each other. In
these systems, called ellipsoidal binaries, at least one component has been
significantly deformed by the gravity of the other, so that, at different
moments in time, the projection of the surface area of the star in the
direction of the observer is different. This effect, together with the fact that
the temperature, and therefore the energy radiated per unit area, is lower for
parts of the surface farther from the centre, produces a periodic variation in
the amount of energy that reaches the observer. Ellipsoidal binaries are often
close or contact binaries.

Based on the characteristics of its light curve, it is possible to determine the

mechanism underlying the change in brightness of a system. Eclipsing
binaries are also called Algol stars (β Persei), named after the first observed
system of this type. Ellipsoidal binaries are instead divided into β Lyrae,
which are mainly close binaries, and WUMa, mainly contact binaries.

Eclipsing binaries usually consist of stars with very different brightnesses

(for example, a giant and a dwarf star). For the stars to eclipse each other,
the angle i between the perpendicular to the plane of the system and the line
of sight must be close to 90˝. The light curve is roughly constant during most
of the period, when the stars are far from each other and both are visible
from Earth. The light curve (Fig. 13.2)
is characterized by two minima of
very different depths: the deeper corresponds to the large and cold star
totally eclipsing the small and hot star; the shallower corresponds to the
small and hot star partially eclipsing the large and cold one. In fact,
according to the Stefan-Boltzmann law, the hotter star emits more energy per
unit area compared to the colder star, whilst the area of the eclipsed region,
equal to the cross-section of the smaller star, is the same in both cases. The
shape of the minimum is different depending on whether the eclipses are
partial or total. In a partial eclipse, the light curve varies gently; in a total
eclipse, the minimum is flat and constant throughout the time when one of
the two stars is completely eclipsed.

Consider an eclipsing binary system, at a distance d from Earth, consisting

of stars having temperatures T1, T2 and radii R1, R2, with R1 ą R2. When
both

13.5. Photometric Binaries

153
Figure 13.2: Periodic variation in the brightness of an eclipsing binary.

stars are visible, the total flux reaching the Earth is: σ

0 “ F1 ` F2 “

pR1 T1 ` R2 T2 q .

4d2

The first minimum corresponds to the first star covering the second
completely.

If T2 ą T1, this is the deeper minimum, otherwise, if T2 ă T1, this is the

shallower minimum. The flux is:

min,1 “

pR1 T1 q .

4d2
The second minimum corresponds to the second star partially eclipsing the
first. The area of the eclipsed portion is πR 2

2 , hence light from the first star

only reaches the observer from a portion of area πpR 2

Ŕ2 q:

4‰

min,2 “

pR1 Ŕ2 qT1 ` R2 T2

4d2

The ratios of the minima to the average luminosities are thus: F

2
4

min,1

R1 T1

(13.11)

R1 T1 ` R2 T2

min,2
pR1 Ŕ2 qT1 ` R2 T2

(13.12)

R1 T1 ` R2 T2

154

Chapter 13. Binary Stars

13.6

Exercises

1.

Prove Eq. 13.2

from Eq. 13.1.

2.

Mizar and Alcor have parallaxes of 0.039362, 0.039912, and their

coordinates are αm “ 13h23m56s, δm “ `54˝551312 and αa “ 13h25m14s, δa
“
54˝591172. What is the distance between them in parsecs?

3.

An eclipsing binary consists of two stars of radii R1 and R2, with R1 “ 4R2
and T1 “ 3T2. Compute the ratio between the maximum and minimum
fluxes. Hence, find the maximum magnitude difference.

4.

By what percentage does the luminosity of a Sun-like star decrease during

the transit of a gas giant (i.e. a planet similar to Jupiter) and an Earth-like
planet? What about a red dwarf?

5.*

In an eclipsing binary, the difference between the two lowest magnitudes of

the system is ∆1 “ 1.5, whilst the difference between the maximum and
minimum magnitudes is ∆2 “ 2.3. The system is made up of a large, cold
star, and a small, warm star. Find the ratios of their radii and temperatures.

6.*

Two stars with masses m and 2m orbit around their common centre of mass.
If the orbits are circular, they do not intersect. What is the smallest value of
the eccentricity for which they intersect?

7.*

The presence of a planet orbiting a star can be revealed by a small periodic

shift in its absorption or emission lines. What is the order of magnitude of
the frequency shift that an optimally positioned observer, outside the Solar
System, should be able to measure, if the presence of Jupiter is to be inferred
in this way? Assume that the frequency of observation is f « 6 ¨ 1014 Hz.

8.** (ARAO 2018, Th.XI, q.6) Suppose that, in our galaxy, there is a special
class of binaries, whose components are identical to the Sun, and rotate in
circular orbits, separated by 1 au. The concentration of such systems in space
is constant (in particular, does not depend on the distance from the disk of
the Galaxy) and is equal to 0.001 pc´3. There are observatories at your
disposal in the northern and southern hemispheres on Earth. Each of them
has a photometer that can observe stars up to a magnitude of 15 , with an
accuracy of 0.001 magnitudes, a spectrograph with a resolution λ{∆λ “ 105
and limiting magnitude 12 , and an astrograph with an angular resolution of
0.12 and limiting magnitude 20. How many such pairs will be discovered as
optical, eclipsing and spectroscopic binaries, respectively? Neglect the
interstellar absorption of light.

Part IV

Solutions

155

14

Exercise Solutions

1. Celestial Coordinate Systems

1.1
Assuming the Earth to be perfectly spherical, the length (l) of the arc that
subtends an angle α “ φ2 ´ φ1 “ 10˝ is:

2πRC

ñl“

RC « 1, 113 km .

10˝

360˝

18

1.2

Figure 14.1: Height of the celestial equator on the (astronomical) horizon.

As you can see in Fig. 14.1,

the height of the equator on the (astronomical)
horizon is: he “ 90 ˝ ´ φ .

1.3

Stars move on minor circles parallel to the celestial equator (i.e. their
declination is constant), hence the altitude of a star is constant only if the
horizon and the equator coincide. This only happens at the poles, therefore
the condition is φ “ ˘90˝.

156
157

1.4

The vernal equinox (P) is one of the two points of intersection between the
celestial equator and the ecliptic. The declination is defined as the angle to
the celestial equator, hence the declination of P is zero. By definition, the
right ascension is the angle to the vernal equinox, therefore the right
ascension of P is also zero. To sum up, δγ “ αγ “ 0.

1.5

At the north pole, the celestial equator coincides with the horizon. Since the
ecliptic is inclined by an angle of “ 23˝271 (ecliptic obliquity) to the celestial
equator, this is also the angle between the ecliptic and the horizon, at the
north pole.

1.6

The north ecliptic pole is inclined by an angle of “ 23 ˝271 with respect to

the axis of the Earth. Hence, the observer must be located at a distance from
the north pole, i.e. at a latitude of φ “ 90 ˝ ´ “ 66 ˝331 (Fig. 14.2).
Figure 14.2: The north ecliptic pole appears at the zenith for an observer at a
latitude of φ “ 90 ˝ ´ “ 66 ˝331.

1.7

The best viewing conditions are obtained for objects at the zenith, since the
distance which light travels through the atmosphere is the smallest. The
planets orbit the Sun very close to the ecliptic, hence we require the ecliptic
to appear at the zenith. This happens at latitudes in the interval ´ ď φ ď ,
where “ 23 ˝271, i.e. for places in between the tropics.

1.8

Both the ecliptic longitude and right ascension are taken anti-clockwise from
the vernal equinox, however, the former is measured along the ecliptic, the
latter along the celestial equator. Therefore, when λ “ α “ ˘90 ˝, the two
coordinates have the same value (Fig. 14.3,
overleaf). This is the great circle
that passes through the celestial and ecliptic poles (P, EP) and the summer
and winter solstices (Ss, Sw), and is called the solstitial colure. On the other
hand, the great circle passing through the poles and the equinoxes is the
equinoctial colure.
158

Chapter 14. Exercise Solutions

Figure 14.3: The solstitial colure is the great circle passing through the
celestial and ecliptic poles (P, EP), and the summer and winter solstices (Ss,
Sw).

1.9

Using Eq. 1.2,

to compute H from α and ST: H “ TS ´ α “ 4h20m13s ´
5h14m28s

“ ´p4h74m28s ´ 4h20m13sq “ ´p54m15sq

1.10

By symmetry, the problem is equivalent to finding the distance of the

horizon for an observer on top of the skyscraper. Looking at Fig. 1.2,
we are
interested in finding the length of the segment PT:

d“

pR ` hq2 Ŕ2

2Rh ` h2

2Rh « 103 km ,

which is approximately the distance from Dubai to the Iranian sea coast.
1.11

The orbital period of Uranus is 84 years. Its orbit is inclined by only 0.7˝
relative to the ecliptic, so it is reasonable to assume that its orbital plane
coincides with that of the Earth.

In 238 years, Uranus completes 238{84 “2.833 orbits, hence its longitude
must have been 43˝ ´ 2.833 ¨ 360˝ “ ´977˝. Normalizing to 360˝, we get λ “
103˝. Therefore, Uranus was in the constellation of Gemini.

2. Transformation of Coordinates

2.1

For the star to appear at the zenith, its altitude during upper culmination
must be hu “ 90˝.

Then, from Eq. 2.5:

hu “ 90˝ ` δ ´ φ ñ δ “ φ .

Hence, the latitude must be equal to the declination of the star.

159

2.2

Setting hl “ 0 ˝ in Eq. 2.6:

hl “ δ ` φ ´ 90˝

ñ φ “ 90˝ ´ δ “ 90˝ ´ p16˝421582q “ 89˝591602 ´ p16˝421582q “ 73˝17122 .

2.3

For an observer in the northern hemisphere, the altitude of the Sun is

maximum when its declination is maximum. This happens during the
summer solstice, when the declination is equal to the ecliptic obliquity
(δmax “ 23˝271). Conversely, the altitude of the Sun is minimum during
winter solstice, when δmin “ ´p23˝271q. Using Eq. 2.5,
we find the
maximum and minimum altitudes of the Sun, measured from the southern
horizon: hmax “ 90˝ ` 23 ˝271 ´ φ “ 113˝271 ´ φ ,

hmin “ 90˝ ´ p23 ˝271q ´ φ “ 66˝331 ´ φ .

Whenever hmax ą 90˝, i.e. for φ ă 23˝271, the maximum altitude of the Sun
is 90˝. In this case, the Sun passes through the zenith twice a year, before
and after the summer solstice.

For an observer in the southern hemisphere, we replace φ, δ with ´φ, ´δ,

obtaining: hmax “ 90˝ ` 23 ˝271 ` φ “ 113˝271 ` φ ,

hmin “ 90˝ ´ p23 ˝271q ` φ “ 66˝331 ` φ .

The altitude is maximum when the declination of the Sun is minimum, i.e.
during winter solstice. If hmax ą 90˝, i.e. for φ ą ´p23˝271q, the maximum
altitude of the Sun is 90˝. In this case, the Sun passes through the zenith
twice a year, before and after winter solstice.

2.4

From Eq. 2.7,

we find the declination of the star: hl ` hu

34˝341232 ` 53˝541452

δ“

“ 43.5˝441342 .

The latitude can be obtained from the altitude of upper culmination, using
Eq. 2.5:
φ “ 90˝ ` δ ´ hu “ 90˝ ` 43.5˝441342 ´ p53˝541452q “ 80˝191492 .

Alternatively, we can use Eq. 2.8:

hu ´ hl

53˝541452 ´ p34˝341232q

φ “ 90˝ ´

“ 90˝ ´

19˝201222

“ 90˝ ´

“ 90˝ ´ p9˝401112q “ 80˝191492 .

2.5

In the northern hemisphere, the Sun is circumpolar when δ ą 90˝ ´ φ, hence φ

ą 90˝ ´ δ.

Since the maximum declination of the Sun is equal to the ecliptic obliquity “
27˝271, the Sun is circumpolar at least once a year for φ ą 90˝ ´ 23˝271 “
66˝331. The solution is similar for the southern hemisphere, thus in general |
φ| ą 66˝331.

160

Chapter 14. Exercise Solutions

2.6
Since the height of the observer is equal to the length of their shadow, it
follows that the altitude of the Sun is h “ 45˝. If the Sun is in upper
culmination at this moment, its altitude can be related to φ and δ through:

hs “ 90˝ ´ φ ` δ ,

hn “ 90˝ ` φ ´ δ ,

if the Sun culminates to the south or to the north of the observer,

respectively.

Using

δ “ “ 23˝271 since it is summer solstice, we finally find: φ “ ˘ p90˝ ´ hq .

Hence, the latitude can be either 68.4˝ or ´21.6˝.

2.7

If the Sun were to set, its minimum altitude would be zero, and the length of
the shade projected by the vertical stick would be infinite. Since lmax is
finite, we deduce that the Sun is circumpolar at the place of observation.
Therefore, it is indeed possible to find its maximum and minimum altitudes:

hmax “ 90˝ ` δ@ ´ φ ,

hmin “ δ@ ` φ ´ 90˝ .

The length of the shade is related to the length of the stick and the altitude of
the Sun: l

ĺ¯

“ tanphmaxq ñ 90˝ ` δ@ ´ φ “ arctan

lmin

lmin
l

“ tanphminq ñ δ@ ` φ ´ 90˝ “ arctan

lmax

lmax

Summing and subtracting the two equations, we obtain, respectively: 1 ”

ĺ¯

¯ı

δ@ “

arctan

àrctan

“ 20˝ ,

lmin

lmax

1”

ĺ¯
ĺ

¯ı

φ “ 90˝ árctan

árctan

“ 80˝ .

lmin

lmax

As we can verify, the Sun is indeed circumpolar (δ@ ą 90˝ ´ φ).

2.8

For an observer at latitude φ, all stars rotate around the celestial north pole,
which is inclined by an angle φ to the northern horizon. The stars describe
circles on the celestial sphere with radii |90˝ ´ δ| and inclinations 90˝ ´ φ
relative to the horizon. Hence, a star with declination δ “ ˘90˝ appears
stationary wherever it is observed from, and its azimuth is always constant.
At the equator (φ “ 0˝), all stars travel in circles perpendicular to the horizon.
Then, a star with Az “ 6h has constant azimuth until its passage on the
meridian, when its azimuth changes to Az “ ´6h. To sum up, the azimuth is
constant for at least half a day if: δ “ ˘90˝ and the observer is located
anywhere on Earth, or Az “ ˘6h, and the observer is at the equator.

It is also possible to solve the problem using Eq. 2.3b

to isolate cos h and
substituting in Eq.

2.3c.
If we then require all terms containing the hour angle H to be zero, we
find a system of four equations, whose solutions give the desired result.

161
2.9

This case is simple enough that we do not need to use the equations to
convert from ecliptic to equatorial coordinates. As we saw in Ex. 1.8, the
point α “ 6h is at λ “ 90˝. At this point, the ecliptic is above the celestial
equator by an angle of “ 23˝271, while the star is δ “ 10˝ above the celestial
equator. Hence, the ecliptic latitude of the star is β “ δ ´ “

10˝ ´ p23˝271q “ ´p13˝271q.

2.10

In the northern hemisphere:

In the southern hemisphere:

• S: H “ 0h, δ “ ´p90˝ ´ φq ;

• S: H “ 12h, δ “ ´p90˝ ` φq ;

• W: H “ 6h, δ “ 0˝ ;

• W: H “ 6h, δ “ 0˝ ;

• N: H “ 12h, δ “ 90˝ ´ φ ;

• N: H “ 0h, δ “ 90˝ ` φ ;

• E: H “ 18h, δ “ 0˝ ;

• E: H “ 18h, δ “ 0˝ ;

• Z: H “ 0h, δ “ φ .

• Z: H “ 0h, δ “ φ .

2.11

A star that rises exactly in the east and sets exactly in the west stays above
the horizon for 12h. As the points of rising and setting shift north, the star is
visible for longer, because more of its path will be above the horizon.
Therefore, stars that are visible for more than 12h rise in the north-east
direction.

2.12

Neglecting refraction and parallax, assuming the Moon has zero declination,
Gianna will observe the Moon at the meridian once the Earth has rotated by
90 ˝, that is, after 1/4 of a sidereal day. Therefore, Gianna’s longitude is λ “
´p12˝301q ` 90˝ “ 77 ˝301 E. The only capital city with this longitude is
Washington.

2.13

On the 21st of April, on average 30 days have passed since the vernal
equinox. Applying Eq. 2.13:

2π

¯ı

δ@ “ arcsin sin sin

30

“ 11˝191 « 11˝ .

365.25

The Sun is circumpolar at:

φ ě 90 ˝ ´ δ@ “ 90 ˝ ´ 11˝ “ 79˝ .

2.14
A star can pass through the zenith only if its declination is equal to the
latitude, hence δ “ φ. In this case, the passage happens during upper
culmination, when Hc “ 0. When the sidereal time is 9h2m, the hour angle of
the star is H “ 0h ` p9h2m ´ 10mq “ 8h52m.

Setting δ “ φ in Eq. 2.4c:

sin h “ cos H cos2 φ śin2 φ ñ 1 śin h “ cos Hp1 ćos φq .

Isolating φ and substituting h “ 78˝121:

c 1 śin h

φ“

“ 83˝34m .

1 ćos H

162

Chapter 14. Exercise Solutions

2.15

During the equinoxes, the path of the Sun is perpendicular to the horizon,
hence its velocity relative to the horizon is maximum. By examining this
case, we obtain the minimum velocity that guarantees a successful
observation at any other time of the year. The apparent angular velocity of
the Sun is:

360˝

ω“

“ 4.178 ¨ 10´3 ˝{s .

86164.1s

At the height of h “ 6 m, the dip of the horizon is:

Ŕ

“ arccos

“ 0.0786˝ .

RC ` h

The Sun covers this angle in a time ∆t “ θ{ω “ 18.81 s. Hence, the velocity
must be greater than vc “ 6 m{∆t “ 0.32 m/s. If the velocity is exactly vc,
during the equinoxes, the sunset is prolonged by approximately 20 s.

3. Perturbation of Coordinates

3.1

The Barnard star has an angular velocity of ub “ 10.32/yr. The angular

diameter of the Moon is approximately θ$ “ 301, i.e. 30 ¨ 602 “ 18002.
Hence, the time taken is: θ

1800

∆t

« 174.8 years .

ub
10.3

3.2

Aldebaran’s distance from Earth is d “ 1{π2p “ 20.83 pc, hence its tangential
velocity is: vt “ u ¨ d “ 4.167 pc ärcsec/yr .

By definition, pc ärcsec “ 1 au, therefore:

vt “ 4.167 au/yr « 20 km/s .

The redshift parameter is z “ ∆λ{λ “ 1.79 ¨ 10´4. Since z ! 1, we use Eq.

7.21:

vr “ c ¨ ∆λ{λ « 54 km/s .

The total velocity is then:

vt “

v2r ` v2t « 58 km/s .

3.3

Let upr “ dλ{dt “ 502/yr. From Eqs. 3.3:

dδpr “ upr sin cos α ,

dt

dαpr “ uprpsin α sin tan δ ` cos q .

dt

The total rates of change of the coordinates, dαtot{dt and dδtot{dt, are equal
to the sum of the perturbations due to the proper motion of the star and to the
precession of Earth’s axis: $ dαtot
’

“ uα ùprpsin α sin tan δ ` cos q

&

dt

(14.1)

’ dδtot

“ uδ ùpr sin cos α .

dt

163
In principle, it is possible to solve this system of coupled differential
equations. First, using both equations, solve for α and dαtot{dt as a function
of δ and dδtot{dt only. Then, take the derivative of the second equation with
respect to time, and substitute your previous expressions for α and dαtot{dt.
You will be left with a second order differential equation, with the only
variable being δ and its time derivatives. Although not pretty, it can be
solved.

In this case however, the period under consideration is short enough so that
we may regard dδtot{dt and dαtot{dt as being constant. The approximate
solution is thus: dαtot

αJ2000.0 “ αJ1900.0 `

∆t « 6h46m26s ,

dt

dδtot

δJ2000.0 “ δJ1900.0 `

∆t « 16˝381422 .

dt

3.4

Figure 14.4: I and F are the initial and final positions of Sirius, E is the
observer on Earth.

Sirius’ distance is d “ 1{π2p “ 2.667 pc. The tangential velocity is given by

Eqs. 3.8
and 3.7:

vt “ u ¨ d “ d

u2α cos2 δ ù2δ “ 1.603 ¨ 10´6 pc/yr .

The radial velocity is vr “ 8.182 ¨ 10´6 pc/yr. The total velocity is then: b

v“

v2r ` v2t “ 8.337 ¨ 10´6 pc/yr .

Looking at Fig. 14.4,

the distance Sirius has to travel to be the closest to the
Sun is: vr

∆d “ d cos θ “ d ¨

The time taken is therefore:

∆d

vr

8.182

∆t “

“d¨

“ 2.667 ¨

¨ 106 years “ 3.14 ¨ 106 years .

v2

8.3372

At the point of closest approach, the radial velocity is zero. Indeed, if it were
negative, the star would be getting closer to the Sun, but this is absurd since
we already chose the point of closest approach. If it were positive, because
the velocity was initially negative, some time earlier the velocity must have
been zero, but then the body was closer at that time.

Hence, the velocity must be entirely tangential, i.e. vr,f “ 0, vt,f “ v. The final
distance is df “ d sin θ “ dvt{v, thus π2p,f “ 1{df “ v{pvt ¨ dq “ 8.337{p1.603
¨ 2.667q “ 1.952.

164

Chapter 14. Exercise Solutions

3.5

As seen in Sec. 3.5,

we can write Snell’s law between the layer at h “ 0 and
that at h: nphq

sin αi

.
nph “ 0q

sin αr

Since the ray circles the Earth at a height h, the refraction angle is αr “ 90˝.
Instead, the incident angle is sin αi “ R{pR ` hq. Substituting nphq in the
previous equation: n0

“ sin αi “

1`h

n0

R`h

Taking the reciprocal of both sides:

1`h“1`

ñ R “ 1{ .

3.6

Figure 14.5: Refraction of light on Hydroplanet.

As can be seen in Fig. 14.5,

for an object seen on the horizon, Snell’s law
gives: sin αr
nw

sin αi

ns

where nw “ 1.33 « 4{3 and ns “ 1 are the refractive indices of water and
space, respectively.

If the ray joining P and A is totally reflected, then it is not possible to see
any object on the horizon. This happens when αr ą 90˝, hence the stars are
visible on the horizon only if: sin αi

ñ sin αi ď

sin 90˝

4
Considering triangle OPA in Fig. 14.5,
we see that sin αi “ R{pR ` hq, hence
the condition on the height is:

1`

ñhě

From now on we will consider the case h “ R{3, for which αr “ 90˝. Now, the
outgoing

165

ray (PA) coincides with the apparent horizon, which forms an angle of αr ´ αi
with the astronomical horizon. As long as the star is above the apparent
horizon, which covers an angle of 180 ` 2pαr ´ αiq “ 360 ´ 2αi, it is day on
Hydroplanet. Denoting with T the period of rotation, the length of the day is:

360 ´ 2 arcsin p3{4q

t“

¨ T “ 0.73 ¨ T “ 17h31m12s .

360
The value of atmospheric refraction at the horizon is:

´3¯

R “ αr ´ αi “ 90˝ árcsin

“ 41.4˝ ,

much larger than 341, on Earth.

4. Observation and Instruments

4.1

From Eq. 4.10,

we obtain the angular resolution: λv

500 ¨ 10´9

R « 1.22

“ 1.22

“ 6.1 ¨ 10´8 rad .

Dv

10

If a radio telescope observes at λr “ 20 cm, with the same resolution, its

diameter is: λr

λr

0.2

Dr « 1.22

“
Dv “

¨ 10 m “ 4 ¨ 106 m .

λv

500 ¨ 10´9

This shows that a single radio telescope cannot achieve the same resolution
of an optical telescope, but other strategies, such as interferometry, need to
be used.

4.2

Using Eq. 4.2:

h0

400

αrad “

ñ h0 “ d ¨ αrad “ 55 ¨ 106 ly ¨

“ 1.06 ¨ 105 ly .

206264.8

From Eq. 4.8,

we then have:

400

h1 “ αrad ¨ fo “

m “ 1.94 mm .
206264.8

4.3

The maximum and minimum distances of Mars from the Sun are,
respectively: da “ ap1 èq “ 1.5237 ¨ p1 ` 0.0934q au “ 2.492 ¨ 1011 m , dp “
ap1 éq “ 1.5237 ¨ p1 ´ 0.0934q au “ 2.067 ¨ 1011 m .

The radius of the Sun is R@ “ 695475 km, hence its maximum and
minimum angular diameters are, respectively:

αmax “ 2R@{dp “ 6.74 ¨ 10´3 rad ,

αmin “ 2R@{da “ 5.59 ¨ 10´3 rad .

The distance to the Moon is d$ “ 384.4¨106 m. If a solar eclipse is just

visible, αmin is equal to the angular size of the satellite, as seen from Mars.
Therefore, the diameter is: d “ αmin ¨ d$ « 2150 km .

166

Chapter 14. Exercise Solutions

The angular sizes of the Sun observed from Mars and from Earth are in the
same ratio as the Mars-Sun and Earth-Sun distances. When Mars is in
aphelion, this ratio is equal to 1.5237p1 ` 0.0934q “ 1.666, hence the satellite
can be 1.666 times smaller than the Moon, i.e it can have a minimum
diameter of 2R${1.666 « 2085 km; which is approximately the same result
we obtained earlier. This result is actually more accurate, since it makes no
reference to the Earth-Moon distance and the radius of the Sun. The reason
for the discrepancy is that total solar eclipses on Earth only occur when the
Moon is close to aphelion, or the Earth is close to perihelion (hence d$ is
actually a bit smaller than 2150 km).

4.4

The ratio of the angular diameters is equal to the ratio of the distances from
which Mars is a
observed. During quadrature, the Earth-Mars distance is dQ “

d2 ´ d2 , during opposition

dO “ dD ´ dC. Hence, the ratio of the angular diameters is: dD ´ dC “ 0.46 .

ad2 ´ d2

4.5

Using 4.9,
we have:

h1

fo

h1

ñ fo “

d “ p1254 ˘ 10q mm .

h0

h0

4.6
As explained in Sec. 3.6,
the angle ∆α on the celestial equator corresponds to
the angle

∆α cos δ on the parallel of declination δ, since the radius (hence, the arc
length) of the parallel is smaller by a factor of cos α. In this case the
computation is easy, because both pairs of stars have one common
coordinate. Otherwise, we would need to use the spherical law of cosines
(Appendix A.4).
The angular distances are:

∆1,2 “ δ1 ´ δ2 “ 401 “ 24002 ,

360˝

∆1,3 “

pα1 ´ α2q cos δ1 “ 1.224˝ “ 44052 .

24h

The focal length of the telescope is fo “ 10 ¨ 200 mm “ 200 cm. The CCD is
a square, with

length L “ 4096 ¨ lpix “ 2.62 m and diagonal D “

2L “ 3.71 cm. To capture the widest

possible angle, we use its diagonal:

“ tan ∆max ñ ∆max “ arctan

“ 1.06˝ « 38162 .

fo
fo

Hence, it is possible to capture Star 1 and 2 together, but not Star 1 and 3.

4.7

The field of view is:

360

θFOV “

p2.5 ¨ 60q ¨ cos p46˝0114.42q “ 261 ,

86164.1

where we have used the fact that the angular velocity of a star with
declination δ is ωsid cos δ

(see Sec. 3.6).

The angular diameter of the Moon is approximately 301,
hence we cannot see the full Moon using this set up.

167

4.8

To find an approximation to the FOV of the telescope, we divide the FOV of

the eyepiece by the magnification:

FOVeyepiece

FOVeyepiece

45˝

FOVtelescope “

“
“ 1.7˝ .

ftelescope{feyepiece

130 ¨ 5{25

The faintest star that is observable with the naked eye has an apparent
magnitude of meye “

6, and the diameter of the pupil at night is approximately d “ 8 mm. On the

other hand, the telescope has a diameter of D “ 130 mm, hence a star viewed
with the telescope can be D2{d2 fainter, and barely visible. According to Eq.
8.4:

D2

meye ´ mtelescope “ ´2.5 log

“ ´5 log

d2

130

ñ mtelescope “ meyè 5 log

“ 6 ` 5 log

« 12 .

d
8

To calculate the angular resolution, we use Eq. 4.10:

1.22λ

θ“

« 5 ¨ 10´6 rad ,

where λ “ 550 nm has been taken as the average wavelength for visible light.
Using Eq. 10.14,

taking into account that the total mass of the system is Mtot “ p18.9 `
16.2qM@ “ 35.1M@, we compute the separation between the stars in
astronomical units: T 2

yr

1{3

ñ a “ pT 2

« 1.45 au .

a3

yr ¨ Mtot, in M@

au

Mtot, in M@
Therefore, the angular separation is:

1.45

α“

“ 3.1 ¨ 10´9 rad .

(14.2)

2.29 ¨ 103 pc ¨ 206265au/pc

The angular separation between the stars is smaller than the angular
resolution, therefore the astronomer will observe both stars as a single point
in his telescope.

4.9

The curvature on either side of the system of lenses is in the same direction,
hence RA and RB

are both positive. Taking into account the different indices of refraction in
Eq. 4.5:

pnA ´ 1q

pnB ´ 1q

´
.

RA

RB

Considering red and blue light, respectively:

nA,r ´ 1

nB,r ´ 1

fr

RA

RB

nA,b ´ 1

nB,b ´ 1

.
fb

RA

RB

Since fr “ fb “ f , equating both sides:

nA,b ńA,r

nB,b ńB,r

nB,b ńB,r

ñ RB “

RA .

RA

RB

nA,b ńA,r

Inserting the numerical values, we get RB “ 2RA. Using this condition in the
equation for fr: 1

1”

2nA,r ńB,r ´ 1

2pnA,r ´ 1q ´ pnB,r ´ 1q “

.
f

2RA

2RA

Hence:

f {2

RA “

“1m.

2nA,r ńB,r ´ 1

Therefore, RB “ 2RA “ 2 m.

168

Chapter 14. Exercise Solutions

5. Time Systems

5.1

The difference in longitude is equal to the difference in sidereal time.

Indeed, the (fixed) stars return to the same position with respect to the
meridian every complete rotation of the Earth, that is, every sidereal period.
Hence, the time difference between two locations with a difference in
longitude of ∆λ is:

∆λ

∆Tsid “

¨ 86400s .

360˝
Using Eq. 5.2,
this can be converted in solar time: 86164.1

∆λ

∆Tsol “

¨ ∆Tsid “

¨ 86164.1s .

86400

360˝

5.2

The difference in longitude between Rome and Greenwich is ∆λ “ 12

˝28154.482, which corresponds to a difference in sidereal time of
49m55.63s, or p86164.1{86400q ¨ p49m55.63sq “

49m47.45s of solar time. Since Rome is to the east of Greenwich, the time in
Rome is greater by 49m47.45s. When the time in Greenwich is 12 : 00
GMT, in Rome the local time is 12h49m47.45s. Since Rome belongs to the
time zone GMT+1, when in Greenwich the time is 12 : 00 GMT, in Rome
the meridian time is 13 : 00 GMT+1. The difference between GMT+1 and
the local time in Rome is therefore 10m12.55s.

5.3

The difference in local time is ∆t “ 11h14m15s´10h17m14s “ 57m1s. Local

time is measured in solar time, but the difference in longitude is equal to the
difference in sidereal time. By converting in sidereal time, using Eq. 5.3,
we
find ∆λ “ ∆t ¨ p86400{86164.1q « 3431s “

57m11s. The longitude of Naples is therefore ∆λ “ 14˝171392.

5.4
The 24 principal meridians corresponding to the time zones are separated in
longitude by 15˝, starting from Greenwich at λ “ 0˝. The meridian closest to
the place under consideration is the one at 135 ˝ W. The difference in
longitude between the place and the meridian is thus

∆λ “ 6˝451 “ 27m. This corresponds to a difference in solar time of

p86164.1{86400q ¨ 27m “

26m55.5s. Hence, the local time is Tm “ 8h46m22.0s ` 26m55.5s “

9h13m17.5s. From the equation of time, we can then determine the true solar
time: E.T. “ Tt ´ Tm ñ Tt “ E.T. ` Tm “ ´p14m13sq ` 9h13m17.5s “
8h59m4.5s .

Hence, the hour angle of the Sun is:

Ht “ Tt ´ 12h “ ´p3h0m55.5sq .

5.5

Solar and sidereal time are equal during the autumnal equinox, when P
culminates at midnight.

5.6

Each solar day the stars move west by 3m56s. Hence, they rise 3m56s earlier
every day, or 1h58m earlier after one month. Therefore, a month later, the
time of rising will be 20 : 58.

169

5.7

A star transits the meridian when its hour angle is zero. At this moment, the
sidereal time is equal to the right ascension of the star (Eq.

1.2),
i.e.

ST“ α “ 18h. There-

fore, we need to wait 18h ´ p9h50m12sq “ 8h9m48s of sidereal time, which
corresponds to p86164.1{86400q ¨ p8h9m48sq “ 8h8m27.8s of solar time.
Hence, the star transits the meridian at 0h ` 8h8m27.8s “ 8h8m27.8s GMT.

5.8

We want the star to be in upper culmination, so that the path which light
travels through the atmosphere is the shortest possible. At the moment of
upper culmination, the star is on the meridian, hence the sidereal time is
equal to the right ascension: ST “ α “ 10h. Since we want to observe the star
at midnight, we require the sidereal time at 12:00 on that day to be 10h ´
p86400{86164.1q ¨ 12h “ ´2.03h “ 21.97h (normalized to 24h). Starting from
the 21st of March, when ST“ 0, the sidereal time increases by about 2h each
month. Therefore, ST “ 21.97h corresponds to the end of February.

5.9

When the time in Rome is 12:00 GMT+1, in Greenwich the time is 11:00
GMT. The time elapsed between the vernal equinox and 11:00 GMT on the
13th of April is 24d3h25m “

24.1424d. Using Eq. 5.4,

we find the sidereal time in Greenwich: ST “ Tm `
11h53m ` 24.1424 ¨ p3m56sq “ Tm ` 1h34m58s .

In Rome, the local time is 11h ` p12˝28154.482q{15˝ “ 11h49m56s. Hence,

the sidereal time in Rome, at 12 : 00 GMT+1 on the 13th of April 2000, was:
ST “ 11h49m56s ` 1h34m58s “ 13h24m54s .

5.10

Neglecting atmospheric refraction, the hour angle of rising and setting can
be computed from Eq. 2.9:

cos H “ ´ tan δ tan φ ñ H “ ˘108.47˝ “ ˘7h14m .

Stars rise to the east of the meridian, hence the hour angle of rising must be
negative. Therefore, the hour angles of rising and setting are Hr “ ´7h14m
and Hs “ 7h14m, respectively.
The sidereal times of the two events are then:

STr “ Hr ` α “ ´p7h14mq ` 14h16m “ 7h2m ,

STs “ Hs ` α “ 14h16m ` 7h14m “ 21h30m .

Note that the answer is independent of the date, indeed a star rises and sets at
the same sidereal time every day. Between the 10th of January and the vernal
equinox, there are around 70 days, therefore the sidereal time on the 10th of
January is (Eq. 5.4):

ST “ Tm ` 11h53m ´ 70 ¨ p3m56sq “ Tm ` 7h18m ,

Isolating the mean solar time, we find:

Tm,r “ STr ´ 7h18m “ 7h2m ´ p7h18mq “ 23h44m ,

Tm,s “ STs ´ 7h18m “ 21h30m ´ p7h18mq “ 14h12m .

The closest main meridian to Boston is the one at 75˝ W, hence the meridian
time is smaller by 4˝{15˝ “ 16m than the local time in Boston (actually
86164{86400 ¨ 16m “ 15m57s).

Therefore, the times of rising and setting are 23 : 30 and 14 : 00 GMT+5

respectively, with a precision of 10m.

170

Chapter 14. Exercise Solutions

5.11

If the Earth rotated in the opposite direction, the velocity of the Sun relative
to the celestial sphere would be ωr “ ω ` Ω, where ω and Ω are the angular
velocities of rotation and revolution, respectively. Therefore:

1
1

tsol triv

365.2564

ñ tsid “

“ 1.002745d “ 1d3m57.2s .

tsol

tsid

triv

triv ´ tsol

365.2564 ´ 1

Hence, the sidereal day would be 3m57s longer than a solar day.

5.12

The length of a year is 365 days. Every fourth year is a leap year, the years
divisible by 100

are not leap years, except the ones that are also divisible by 400. Considering
an interval of time of 400 years, starting from 0 until 399, we see that year 0
is a leap year, but years 100, 200, 300 are not. Hence, compared to the Julian
calendar, there are three less leap years every 400 years. Therefore, the
average length of a year in the Gregorian calendar is: 1

3
T “ 365 `

“ 365.2425d .

400

The length of the tropical year is 365.2422d, so the difference between the
true and mean year is 3 ¨ 10´4 days, every year. Hence, after 100, 500 and
1000 years, the error in the Gregorian calendar will be, respectively:

∆t100 “ 100 ¨ 3 ¨ 10´4 “ 0.03 days ,

∆t500 “ 500 ¨ 3 ¨ 10´4 “ 0.15 days ,

∆t1000 “ 1000 ¨ 3 ¨ 10´4 “ 0.3 days .

5.13

The orbital period of Venus is tsid “ 0.61519 years. From Eq. 11.2,
the
synodic period is: tsid

Tsyn “

« 1.59869 years

1 ´ tsid

Between 2012 and 2117 there are 105 years.

Of these, tp2117 ´ 2012q{4u ´ 1 “ 25 are

leap years, since 2100 is not a leap year. Let x be the number of days
between the 1st of January 2117 and the day when Venus transits the Sun
that same year. Since the last transit happened on the 6th of June 2012, i.e.
157 days after the 1st of January, the difference in days between the two
eclipses is 365 ¨ 105 ` 25 ` px ´ 157q “ 38193 ` x. The period of a planet is
measured in sidereal years, therefore the synodic period is 1.59869 ¨
365.2564 “ 583.9317d.

The transit happens again when the Earth and the Sun return to the same
relative position, hence the number of synodic years between the two transits
must be an integer. Then, p38193 ` xq{583.9317 “ n, with n integer. Since 0
ď x ď 365, the only possible value is n “ 66, and we obtain x “ 66 ¨ 583.9317
´ 38193 “ 346.49. Hence, the next transit will be in 2117, 346 days after the
1st of January, i.e. on the 12th of December. Furthermore, the eclipse will
occur approximately 12h later than the previous one.

6. The Moon

6.1

The angular distance of the full moon from the Sun (also called elongation)
is 180˝.

Bodies that orbit the Sun at a distance smaller than the Earth-Sun distance,
cannot have an

171
elongation greater than 90˝. For example, the maximum elongations of
Mercury and Venus are 28˝ and 48˝, respectively (see Ch. 11).
Therefore,
Mercury and Venus can never be eclipsed by the full moon. On the other
hand, superior planets (all the others, except the Earth) can have any
elongation, and can therefore be eclipsed by the full moon.

6.2

During summer, the declination of the Sun is close to the maximum value of
“ 23˝271; during winter, it is close to the minimum of ´. The full moon is on
the opposite side of the Earth relative to the Sun. Hence, if the ecliptic is δ@
above the celestial equator in the direction of the Sun, it is δ@ below the
equator in the direction of the full moon. Since the orbit of the Moon is
inclined by an angle i “ 5˝91 to the ecliptic, it follows that the declination of
the Moon during summer and winter is close to ´ ˘ i and ˘ i, respectively.
Hence, for an observer in the northern hemisphere, the full moon is higher in
winter than in summer.

Similarly, the new moon, as well as the Sun, are higher in summer than
winter.

6.3

Since the orbit of the Moon is inclined by i “ 5˝91 to the ecliptic, and the
ecliptic is inclined by 23˝271 to the celestial equator, it follows that the
declination of the Moon can take any value between δmax “ 28˝351 and
δmin “ ´28˝351. The condition for a body with declination δ to appear at the
zenith is hu “ 90˝ “ 90˝ ´ φ ` δ, i.e. φ “ δ. Hence, the Moon can be seen at the
zenith from places with latitude:

´p28˝351q ă φ ă 28˝351 ñ |φ| ă 28˝351 .

6.4

The Moon is circumpolar if φ ą 90˝ ´ δ. Since the maximum declination of

the Moon is δmax “ 28˝351 (see Ex. 6.3), we find φ ą 61˝251. By symmetry,
in the southern hemisphere, φ ă ´p61˝251q. Hence, in general |φ| ą 61˝251.

6.5
Figure 14.6: Distance of the Moon at the zenith and horizon.

Looking at Fig. 14.6,

when the Moon is at the zenith, its distance from Earth
is: dz “ d$ ŔC “ 377629 km .

172

Chapter 14. Exercise Solutions

When it is on the horizon:

dh “

d2$ Ŕ2 “ 383947 km .

Hence, the Moon is closer when at the zenith.

6.6

Using Eq. 10.18,

we find the orbital velocity of the Moon: d GM

“ 1017 m/s .

d$

Since 2R$ “ 3474.2 km, the time taken to cover a distance equal to its
diameter is: 2R

∆t
$

“ 3416 s « 1h .

6.7

As explained in Sec. “Lunar Phases”, the Moon is visible in the morning

either if it rises at 6 : 00 and sets at 18 : 00 (new moon), or if it rises at 0 : 00
and sets at 12 : 00 (last quarter).

We are told that only half of the Moon is visible, hence there must be a last
quarter moon.

In this case, the side to the east is illuminated.

6.8

For a planet to be eclipsed by the full moon, it must orbit the Sun close to the
plane of the ecliptic, at a distance to the Sun greater than the Sun-Earth
distance (see Ex. 6.1). Then, the eclipse occurs when both the full moon and
the planet are close to the node line. Since the node line precesses with a
retrograde motion of period 18.61 years, the sidereal period of the planet
must be exactly 18.61 years, if it is not to be eclipsed by the full moon.
Then, from Kepler’s third law (Eq. 10.14):

pr, yr

“ a3au ñ a “ 18.612{3 au “ 7.022 au .

6.9
The length of the tropical year is 365d5h48m46s, that of the lunar year is
354d8h48m. Hence, the lunar year is shorter than the tropical year by
10d21h46s. Since the synodic period of the Moon is 29d12h44m33s “
29.5309d, after 10d21h46s “ 10.8755d, the Moon forms an angle of
10.8755{29.5309 ¨ 360˝ “ 132.6˝ with the Earth and the Sun. Therefore, the
Moon will be in between the first quarter (90˝) and full moon (180˝).

6.10

From Eq. 6.1,

we see that the radius of the umbra projected by the Earth at
the position of the Moon is:

“ RC ´

pR@ ŔCq .

dC

Hence, the maximum distance of the Sun from the node line can be: r ` R

ŔC ` R

∆λ

$
$

@ ŔC

ñ ∆λ “

d$ sin 5.145˝

sin 5.145˝

d$

dC

Now, ∆λmax is obtained when d$ is minimum and dC is maximum, whilst

∆λmin is obtained when d$ is maximum and dC is minimum. Let eC, e$ be
the eccentricities of the orbits of

173

the Earth and Moon, respectively. Then, dC,max “ p1 èCqdC, dC,min “ p1

éCqdC, while d$,max “ p1 è$qdC, d$,max “ p1 é$qd$. Hence:

RC ` R

∆λ
$

@ ŔC

max “

« 11.38˝ ,

sin 5.145˝ p1 é$qd$

p1 èCqdC

RC ` R

∆λ

@ ŔC

min “

« 9.79˝ .

sin 5.145˝ p1 è$qd$

p1 éCqdC
6.11

We can solve the exercise both from scratch, using a similar approach to that
described in Sec. “Solar Eclipse”, or by using Eq. 6.1
with the substitution
d$ Ñ ´d$, since, during a solar eclipse, the Moon is on the opposite side of
the Earth compared to a lunar eclipse.

Adopting the second strategy:

ŔC ` R

@ ŔC

“ RC `

pR@ ŔCq ñ ∆λ “

dC

sin 5.145˝

d$
dC

Following a similar reasoning to Ex. 6.10:

RC ` R

∆λ

@ ŔC

max “

« 17.3˝ ,

sin 5.145˝ p1 é$qd$

p1 éCqdC

RC ` R

ı
∆λ

@ ŔC

min “

« 15.7˝ .

sin 5.145˝ p1 è$qd$

p1 èCqdC

6.12

The distance from the Moon to the surface of the Earth is d$ ŔC, whereas
the Sun-Moon distance during a solar eclipse is dC ´ d$. To compute the
radius of the umbra on the surface of the Earth, it is possible to use Eq. 6.1,
substituting RC Ñ R$, d$ Ñ d$ ŔC

and dC Ñ dC ´ d$. The radius of the umbra is maximum when the Earth is at
aphelion and the Moon is at perigee:

$p1 é$q ŔC

u “ R$ ´

pR@ Ŕ

$q « 116 km .
Cp1 èCq ´ d$p1 é$q

Therefore, the maximum length of the umbra is about 230 km.

If we take the distances dC, d$ equal to their average values (i.e. the semi-
major axes), we obtain a negative value of r. This means that, for a total solar
eclipse to occur, the Earth must be close to aphelion or the Moon close to
perigee (otherwise the eclipse is anular).

Let us now derive the radius of the penumbra on Earth. Looking at Fig. 6.4,
it suffices to replace R@ in the previous formula with Ŕ@ (or, equivalently,
R$ Ñ Ŕ$, but then we also need to take the opposite sign overall). We then
get, on average: d

$ ŔC

p “ R$ `

pR@ Ŕ

$q .

C ´ d$

Neglecting RC and R$ in the two factors at numerator, and d$ at

denominator, we obtain: d

@{dC
p « R$ `

R@ “ R

1`

R${d$

but R@{dC and R${d$ are the angular diameters of the Sun and the Moon,
therefore the fraction is approximately unity (actually 1.03, on average).
Hence, it follows that the radius of the penumbra on Earth is approximately
twice the radius of the Moon: rp « 2R$.

Depending on the relative positions of the Earth and the Moon, the radius of
the penumbra can vary, deviating from the average by at most a few hundred
kilometres.

174

Chapter 14. Exercise Solutions

7. Radiation Mechanisms

7.1

Applying Wien’s law (Eq. 7.10):

2.897 ¨ 10´3 m K

λmax “
“

« 724 nm .

4000 K

which corresponds to the colour red.

7.2

Applying Stefan-Boltzmann law (Eq.7.13)

to the star under consideration
and the Sun: L “ 4πσR2T 4 ,

@ “ 4πσR@ T@

Dividing the two equations and using T@ “ 5778 K:

Ŕ ¯2´ T ¯4

´ 6800 ¯4

“ 2.52 ¨

« 12 .

L@
R@

T@

5778

7.3

Let r be the radius of a dust particle and a its distance to the Sun. Light is
incident on an area of πr2, hence the radiation force is given by Eq. 7.4:

@r2

r“

¨ πr2 “

πr2 “

4πa2c

4a2c

The gravitational force, written as a function of the density and radius of the
dust particle is: GM
4

GM

g“m

πr3ρ ¨

a2

a2

Equating the forces:

L@r2

4π

ρr3 GM@ .

4a2c

a2
Isolating r, we find:

3L

« 0.6 µm .

16πρGM@c

Both the gravitational force and the radiation pressure grow as a´2, hence the
radius of equilibrium does not depend on the distance a. The gravitational
force is proportional to the mass of the particle, which grows as r3, while the
radiation force is proportional to the cross section area, which grows as r2.
For this reason, there is only one value of r for which these two forces are
equal.

7.4

The electronvolt eV is equal to the kinetic energy gained by an electron

accelerating from rest through an electric potential difference of one volt.
Therefore: 1eV “ e ¨ p1 J/Cq ñ 1eV “ 1.6 ¨ 10´19 J ,

since the electron charge is e “ ´1.6 ¨ 10´19 C. Every reaction releases an

energy of: Er “ 26.8 ¨ 106 ¨ 1.6 ¨ 10´19 J “ 4.3 ¨ 10´12 J ,

and produces two neutrinos, hence Nn “ 2Nr.

The solar constant is approximately

k “ 1367 W/m2, therefore:

2k

Nn “
« 6.4 ¨ 1014 neutrinos/(s ¨ m2q .

Er

175

7.5

The action of the laser beam is different in the “near zone”, where the entire
beam is incident on the base of the spaceship, and in the “far zone”, where
the ship will only intercept part of the beam. The distance at which the size
of the beam is equal to the base diameter is: D0

d0 “

where D0 is the base diameter and Θ is the divergence of the laser beam,
expressed in radians. As long as the distance of the spaceship is less than d0,
the laser beam gives rise to a constant force of:

2P

F0 “

where P is the power emitted by the laser, and the factor of 2 appears
because the base of the spaceship is perfectly reflecting. After travelling a
distance d0, the spaceship will have gained a kinetic energy of:

2P D0

K0 “ F0d0 “

.
cΘ

When the spaceship moves at distances greater than d0, only part of the laser
beam will be incident on its base. Hence, the total power reflected by the
spaceship will be:

´ d0 ¯2

P pdq “ P

As a result, the force decreases with distance according to: 2P ´ d0 ¯2

F pdq “

We can find the total kinetic energy gained by the spaceship in the “far
zone” either by integrating the force from d0 to infinity, or by recognizing
that this force is similar to the gravitational force, as it is proportional to the
inverse of the square of the distance, but has opposite direction. Hence, we
can associate a “radiation potential” of: 2P d2

cd
Since, at infinity, U Ñ 0, while initially U0 “ 2P d0{c, from the conservation
of energy it follows that the kinetic energy must increase by U0 (equal to
K0). Hence, at an infinite distance from the laser, the total kinetic energy of
the spaceship will be: 4P D0

Kf “ 2K0 “

cΘ

and its velocity:

2Kf

4P D0

v“

« 1 km/s .

mc Θ

7.6

In Eq. 7.8,
we can substitute the mass m (measured in kg) and kB, with µ
(measured in kg/mol) and R, respectively. Indeed m “ µ{Na, where Na is
Avogadro constant, while the Boltzmann constant is numerically equal to kB
“ R{Na. Therefore, the root mean square velocity can be written as:

c 3RT
vrms “

(14.3)

176

Chapter 14. Exercise Solutions

Substituting µH “ 2.016 g/mol, µ

“ 32.000 g/mol e µ

“ 28.013 g/mol:

O2

N2

3RT

vrms,H “

“ 1884.4 m/s ,

µH2

3RT

vrms,O “
“ 473.0 m/s ,

µO2

3RT

vrms,N “

“ 505.5 m/s .

µN2

At sea level, the escape velocity from the Earth is vf “

2GM {R “ 11182 m/s. Hence, we

need to numerically evaluate the integral:

¯3{2 ż 8

f “ 4π

v2e´µv2{2RT dv .

2πRT

vf
Which gives:

fH “ 1.72 ¨ 10´24 ,

fO “ 7.28 ¨ 10´356 ,

fN “ 1.86 ¨ 10´311 .

The fractions of O2 and N2 with velocities greater than the escape velocity
are extremely small. In practice, the probability that a molecule close to the
surface will escape is insignificant. This is due to the escape velocity being
greater at the surface, and to the fact that the mean free path of a molecule is
very small when the gas density is high. Thus, molecules are more likely to
leave from the uppermost layers of the atmosphere. The critical layer is
defined as the height at which a molecule, moving upward, has a probability
1/e of hitting another molecule, before escaping. The region of the
atmosphere above the critical layer is called the exosphere. Earth’s
exosphere starts at a height of 500 km, where the kinetic temperature of the
gas is 1500 – 2000 K.

7.7

Similarly to the previous exercise, we need to evaluate the integral:

¯3{2 ż 8

f “ 4π

v2e´µv2{2RT dv .
2πRT

vf

Using the fact that vf “ 3vrms “ 3

3RT {µ:

´3

3 ¯3 ż 8

´ 27 v2

´ 33 ¯

18

2v2

“ 4π

v2e

dv “ 1 érf

`?

e´27{2 “ 5.8874 ¨ 10´6 .

2πvf

6π

In the case vf “ 5

3RT {µ, we have:

´5

3 ¯3 ż 8

´ 75 v2

´ 53 ¯

30

2v2

“ 4π

v2e

dv “ 1 érf
?

`?

e´75{2 “ 3.6233 ¨ 10´16 .

2πvf

6π

177

7.8

Taking the derivative of Eq. 7.6

with respect to v, we find:

¯3{2 ”

´ 27 v2

4π

2v2

´ v2 µ
ve

“0.

2πRT

RT

It follows that:

c 2RT

2 ´ v2 µ “ 0 ñ v “

RT

7.9

Let us consider an element of atmosphere in the shape of a parallelepiped,

with infinitesimal height dh, base surface A and mass dm “ ρphqA dh. The
pressure on the upper face is P `dP , and that on the lower face is P . The
pressure difference gives rise to a force (directed upwards) that keeps the
parallelepiped afloat, against the gravitational force exerted by the Earth: Fg
“ Fp ñ gρA dh “ A dP ,

where g can be taken as a constant. Indeed, we are assuming the temperature

is constant as well, hence our model will be restricted to relatively small
heights. From the ideal gas law: P µ

P V “ nRT ñ ρ “

RT
Substituting the density in the first equation:

Pµ

dP “ ´g

dh .

RT

Separating variables and integrating:

ż Ph dP

µżh

“ ´g

dh

RT

P0

Ph

ln

“ ´g

h.

P0
RT

It follows that:

Ph “ P0 exp ´g

h.

RT

Near the surface of the Earth, the pressure and density of air decrease
exponentially. This model is only valid for heights up to a few kilometres,
since the temperature actually decreases by about 10K/km. A better
approximation is the model of the adiabatic atmosphere.

Consider an element of air that, due to a small turbulence, is displaced

upwards slightly.

Air pressure decreases with height, so the cube expands. The air is a bad heat
conductor, therefore the exchange of energy between the element and the
surrounding air is small and the process can be regarded as adiabatic. If the
temperature of the air around the element is now lower that the temperature
of the element itself, the element will be denser than the surrounding air and,
consequently, will be pushed down by gravity, returning to its original
position. In the adiabatic model, therefore, the atmosphere is in a continuous
dynamic balance. In the limiting case, we can assume that the temperature of
the layers above the element is the same as the temperature the element
would acquire if it rose adiabatically. In this case, the element will just find a
new equilibrium position slightly upwards. In reality, this model is valid
only in the absence of convective motion and if the air is perfectly dry.

It can be shown that convective motion takes place when the temperature
gradient satisfies
´dT {dz ą g{cpµ « 0.2857 K/km, i.e. if the temperature decreases by more
than 1 degree every 3.5 km, approximately. For air, the temperature gradient
is more than 30 times higher.

If the air is humid, the water inside the cube condenses as it rises.
Condensation releases heat, which heats up the cube, making it less dense
than the surrounding air and therefore able to rise even higher. This is the
phenomenon that gives rise to clouds.

178

Chapter 14. Exercise Solutions

7.10

Consider a circular annulus of radius r, thickness dr and mass dm “ ρprq ¨

2πr dr. Let P

be the pressure on the inner rim and P ` dP that on the outer rim. The force
caused by the pressure difference must equal the centripetal force due to the
rotation of the spacecraft.

The density of air can be found from the ideal gas law: P µ

P V “ nRT ñ ρ “ RT

where µ is the molar mass of the gas. Hence:

Pµ

dm “ 2π

r dr .

RT

The pressure differential is due to the centrifugal force: Ω2r

´
Pµ

´ Ω2r ¯

P µΩ2

dP “ dm

2π

r dr ¨

ñ Pc “

r dr .

RT

2πr

RT

Integrating:

ż Pr dP

µΩ2 ż r

r1 dr1

P
RT

Pc

Pr

µΩ2

ln

r2

Pc

2RT

" µΩ2

ñ Pr “ Pc exp

r2

2RT

Since the station provides an acceleration equal to g at the outer edge, we

have Ω2R0 “ g.

The pressure P0 on the outer edge is:

µg
)

P0 “ Pc exp

R0 .

2RT

7.11

Space debris can sometimes move at high relative velocities with respect to
satellites, therefore constituting a serious danger to orbiting bodies.

Let P be the pressure inside the

spaceship and assume the pressure outside to be zero. We will also assume
that the air near the hole obeys Bernoulli’s law, whereby its velocity (v) is
related to its density (ρ) and the pressure difference (P ) by:

2P

P“

ρv2 ñ v “

The rate at which air leaves the spaceship through the hole of area A is: c 2P

dV “ A ¨ v “ A

dt .
ρ

The air density can be written as a function of the pressure using the ideal
gas law: mtot

nµ

Pµ

ρ“

RT

where µ is the molar mass of the gas. Differentiating the ideal gas law, we
obtain the change in pressure following the expulsion of an infinitesimal
volume of air, assuming nRT to be instantaneously constant:

P V “ const ñ P dV ` V dP “ 0 ñ dV “ ´

dP .

179

Substituting ρ and dV in the initial equation, we obtain: c

dP
A

2RT

“´

dt .

Integrating:

ż P ptq

dP

2RT ż t

“´

dt .

P0

0
Hence:

"

ptq

2RT

2RT

ln

“´

t ñ P ptq “ P0 exp ´

« P0e´0.000405¨t .

P0

V
µ

Hence, the pressure halves after a time:

ln 2

t“

« 1710 s “ 28m30s .

0.000405

7.12

Using the formula suggested:

ż8

xv2y “

v2f pvq dv

¯3{2 ż 8

“ 4π

v4e´mv2{2kBT dv .

2πkBT

The gaussian integral is:

ż8

1cπ

I0 “

e´αx2 dx “

If, instead, we have:

ż8

I1 “

xe´αx2 dx “

é´αx2 ı8 “

2α

2α

0
0

Adding another x in the integrand:

ż8

ż8

1?

I2 “

x2e´αx2 dx “

xe´αx2 ı8 è´αx2 dx “

πα´3{2 ,

2α

2α

were we have used integration by parts on v1 “ xe´αx2 dx and u “ x. It is

easy to see that: 3 ?
I4 “

πα´5{2 .

Hence:

¯3{2

3 ? ´ 2kBT ¯5{2

xv2y “ 4π

2πkBT

3?

“4π

ππ´3{2 2kBT

3kBT
“

Therefore, the root mean square speed is:

3kBT

xv2y “

as we wanted to show. Another interesting result is that the root mean square
speed for a

molecules hitting the walls of a container is

4kBT {m, which is larger than the result found

above. Indeed, faster molecules hit the walls more often, hence the mean
speed is larger. In this case, the integral we need to calculate is ş8 v3f pvq
dv, where the additional v comes from 0

the number of collisions with the wall being proportional to the particle’s
velocity. Try it!

180

Chapter 14. Exercise Solutions

8. Flux and Magnitude

8.1

According to the Stefan-Boltzmann law (Eq. 7.13):

@ “ 4πσR@ Te

“ 3.84 ¨ 1023 W .

The flux arriving on Earth is:

“ 1367 W .

πd2C

This is the solar constant k “ 1367 W, equal to the power incident on Earth
per square meter.

The Earth only intercepts photons on an effective cross-sectional area of πR2

. Hence, the C

fraction of the Sun’s luminosity that arrives on Earth is: πR2

f“

C
« 4.5 ¨ 10´10 .

4πd2C

A hypothetical sphere that completely encompasses a star is called a Dyson

sphere. Some have hypothesized that, once the energy requirements of an
intelligent civilization exceed what can be provided by their home planet’s
resources alone, a Dyson sphere would be built, in order to gather most of
the energy generated by fission inside their star. To get a feeling of the
amount of energy produced by the Sun, imagine we were able to gather all
of its energy for just one second: this would be enough to meet our energy
demands for the next half-million years (assuming energy consumption stays
the same).

8.2

According to the Stefan-Boltzmann law (Eq. 7.13),

the power emitted by the
Earth is: Pout “ 4πRCσT 4

C,

where TC “ 300 K. Since the Earth is in thermal equilibrium, the Sun

provides a thermal power of Pout. Hence, the power incident on the surface
of the Earth, per unit area, is: Pout

F“

“ σT 4

4πR2

C « 460 W/m2 .

(14.4)

The ratio between the flux from the Sun and the flux due to radioactive
decay is therefore 460{p5 ¨ 10´2q « 104. If the only energy source were
radioactive decay, the temperature of

the Earth would be approximately 4 104 “ 10 times smaller, i.e. only 30 K.

8.3

The solar constant is equal to k “ 1367 W/m2. Approximately 40 % of the

solar radiation is reflected back into space or absorbed by clouds, whilst 15
% is absorbed by the atmosphere.

Hence, the energy arriving on the surface is 45 % of the solar constant,

which corresponds to a flux of keff “ 0.45 ¨ k “ 615 W/m2. The distance at
which a light bulb of power L “ 100 W

would have to be placed to appear equally as bright as the Sun is: c

keff “

ñd“

“ 0.114 m .

4πd2

4πkeff

8.4

Using Eq. 8.5:

Fa “ 10´0.4pma´mbq “ 11070 .

Fb
181

8.5

The ratio of the fluxes is found using Eq. 8.5:

Fb “ 10´0.4pmb´mtq “ 10´3 .

Ft

8.6

We know the apparent magnitude of the Sun, as seen from Earth, and the
ratio of the planet-Sun to Earth-Sun distances (i.e. the distance of the planet
written in au). The apparent magnitude of the Sun, as viewed from each
planet, is found using Eq. 8.4:

d2

mp “ me ´ 2.5 log

ñ mp “ mè 5 log dp,au .

d2

Substituting the numerical values, we find:

mmer “ ´26.8 ` 5 log 0.3871 “ ´28.9 ,

mven “ ´26.8 ` 5 log 0.723 “ ´27.5 ,

mmar “ ´26.8 ` 5 log 1.524 “ ´25.9 ,

mjup “ ´26.8 ` 5 log 5.203 “ ´23.2 ,

msat “ ´26.8 ` 5 log 9.539 “ ´21.9 .

8.7

Let F0 be the initial flux and F1 “ 1.1 F0 the flux after the increment. Using
Eq. 8.4:

F1

∆m “ m1 ´ m0 “ ´2.5 log

“ ´0.103 ,

F0

for both the Sun and Jupiter. On Earth, the increase in brightness of the Sun
is observed after light has travelled a distance equal to the Earth-Sun
distance. Hence: d

∆t

@“

“ 499 s “ 8m19s .

After reaching the Earth, light must travel to Jupiter and back. The time this
takes is: 2pd

∆t

E ´ dCq

E“

“ 4195s “ 1h9m55s .

c
8.8

The intrinsic luminosity of the stars is the same, hence the ratio of their
fluxes depends only on their distances from Earth:

L{p4πd2 q

´ d1 ¯2

L{p4πd1 q

d2

Using Eq. 8.4,

we find the difference in magnitudes from the flux ratio:

´ d1 ¯2

d1

∆m “ m2 ´ m1 “ ´2.5 log

“ ´5 log
.

d2

d2

Isolating d1{d2:

d1 “ 10´0.2∆m « 0.2 .

d2

182

Chapter 14. Exercise Solutions

8.9

From Eq. 8.7,

writing the distance d in parsecs:

8.6 ¯

M “ m ´ 5 log d ` 5 “ ´1.45 ´ 5 log

` 5 “ 1.44 .

3.262

Knowing that M@ “ 4.83, we use Eq. 8.5

to find the ratio of the
luminosities: L “ 10´0.4pM´M@q “ 22.7 .

L@

8.10

Using Eq. 8.7,

isolating the distance d: m´M

M
`1

´ m “ ´5 log d ` 5 ñ d “ 10

“ 11.22 pc .

The parallax is given by Eq. 9.3:

π2

p“

“ 0.08912 .

11.22

8.11

Writing down Eq. 8.7

for Sirius and the Sun, respectively: Ms ´ ms “ ´5 log
ds ` 5 ,

M@ ´ m@ “ ´5 log d@ ` 5 .

The stars must appear equally as bright, therefore their apparent magnitudes
must be the same, i.e. ms “ m@. Subtracting the two above equations and
using the logarithm property log ds ĺog d@ “ log ds{d@, we find:

ds

ds
Ms ´ M@ “ ´5 log

“ 10´0.2pMs´M@q “ 4.85 .

d@

d@

Hence, Sirius would be equally as bright as the Sun if its distance were 4.85
au.

8.12

The maximum diameter of the pupil at night is around 2r “ 8 mm. Since the
apparent magnitude of the Sun is ´26.74, and its flux on Earth is k “ 1367
W/m2, the flux of a star with magnitude m “ 6 would be:

F “ k ¨ 10´0.4pm´m@q “ 1.1 ¨ 10´10 W/m2 .

The energy of a photon with wavelength λ is E “ hf “ hc{λ. Assuming that

the star only emits photons with wavelength λ, the rate of incident photons
per square meter (effectively, the flux of photons) is:

Fλ

Ff “

hc
Hence, the rate of incident photons on our pupils, with total area A “ 2πr2,
is: F λ

Ff Ä “

¨ 2πr2 « 3 ¨ 104 photons/s .

hc

183

8.13

The distance of the Moon to the Sun is approximately equal to the Sun-Earth
distance dC, therefore the flux incident on the Moon is equal to the solar
constant k “ 1367 W/m2.

Hence, the total incident energy on the Moon is Lin “ kπR2$, and the
reflected energy is Lrif “ ALin “ πkAR2$. Assuming that the Moon reflects
light isotropically (like a perfect sphere), the flux arriving on Earth is:

Lrif

kA Ŕ

¯2

$“

kAα2
4πd2

rad .

d$

where αrad is the angular radius of the Moon as seen from Earth. The ratio
of the fluxes of the Moon and Sun are:

F$

´0.4pm

“ 10

$´m@q .

Hence, substituting in the first equation:

´0.4pm

´0.4pm

Aα2

$´m@q ñ A “

10
$´m@q « 0.53 .

rad “ 10

α2rad

In fact, the Moon does not behave like a perfect sphere, but reflects more
strongly in the same direction as the incident light. Therefore, the coefficient
4 in the above formula should be replaced by 1, approximately, in which
case A “ 0.13. We have therefore found an upper bound on the albedo of the
Moon, whose measured value is A « 0.12.

8.14

The absolute magnitude of UY Scuti, if we only considering only the light

reaching us, can be obtained from Eq. 8.8:

Mapp “ m ` 5 ` 5 log π2p “ ´3.25 .

Since only 0.5% of the light passes through the envelope surrounding the
star, the true value of the absolute magnitude is:

M “ Mapp ` 2.5 log 0.005 “ ´9 .

Hence, in the visible range, the luminosity of UY Scuti is: L “ 100´0.4pM

´M@q “ 3.3 ¨ 105 .

L@

On the other hand, according to the Stefan-Boltzmann law: L

Ŕ ¯2´ T ¯4

´ V ¯2{3´ T ¯4

“
.

L@

R@

T@

V@

T@

Hence, the temperature of UY Scuti is:

´V

¯1{6 Ĺ ¯1{4

“ T@

“ 3350 K .

L@

Since L@ “ 3.84 ¨ 1026 W, the energy radiated by UY Scuti is: L “ 3.3 ¨

105L@ “ 1.26 ¨ 1032 W .

Due to radiation, UY Scuti looses mass at a rate of:

dmr

“
“ 1.4 ¨ 1015 kg/s .

dt

c2

184

Chapter 14. Exercise Solutions

Hence, the total rate at which UY Scuti looses mass is: dm

dmr{dt

“ 3.5 ¨ 1018 kg/s .

dt

0.004

Assuming this rate stays constant, the total lifetime of UY Scuti is: 8M

∆τ

“ 1.5 ¨ 105 years ,

dm{dt

which is a very short time on the cosmic scale.

8.15

The absolute magnitude of Gliese 581 can be found from its apparent
magnitude and parallax, using Eq. 8.8:
Mg “ mg ` 5 log π2p ` 5 « 9.0 .

Since M@ “ 4.83, the ratio of the intrinsic luminosities is: Lg “ 10´0.4pMg

´M@q « 1{48 .

L@

Since Gliese 581g has similar characteristics to the Earth, we require their
surface temperature to be approximately the same. This amounts to equating
the fluxes of their respective stars, as seen from the planets:

Lg

L@

Lg

ñ ag,au “

« 0.144 .

4πa2g

4πa2

The period is found using Kepler’s third law:

a3
T

au

years “

« 36 days .

M {M@

8.16

The distance of Altair to the Earth is d “ 1{π2p “ 5.13 pc, i.e. da{d@ « 106.
From Eq. 8.5:

Fa “ 10´0.4pma´m@q .

F@

The ratio of the fluxes can be found from the distances and intrinsic
luminosities of the stars: Fa

La ´ d ¯2

F@

L@

da

Substituting in the first equation and isolating La{L@: La

´ da ¯2
“

¨ 10´0.4pma´m@q .

L@

d@

Because Altair is a main-sequence star with a mass in the range 1.4 –

2.1M@, looking at Tab. 7.1,
its temperature its around 8000 K. According to
Stefan-Boltzmann law: La “ 4πR2aσT 4

a,

L@ “ 4πR2@σT 4

@.

Dividing the two equations, substituting for La{L@ the expression

previously found, and isolating Ra{R@:

Ra

da ´ T ¯2

¨ 10´0.2pma´m@q « 1.642 .

R@

d@

Ta

185

The ratio of the densities is:

ρa

Ma Ŕ ¯3

« 0.384 .

ρ@

M@

Ra

From which it follows that:

3M

a « 0.384 ¨

« 437 kg/m3 .

4π R3@

8.17

The composite magnitude can be found using Eq. 8.9,

with n “ 3: msys “
´2.5 logr10´0.4m1 ` 10´0.4m2 ` 10´0.4m3 s “ 3.11 .

8.18

Let m1 be the magnitude of the larger and colder star, and m2 that of the
smaller and hotter star. The composite magnitude is smallest when both stars
are visible, while it is greatest when the hotter star is completely eclipsed.
Hence, it immediately follows that mmin “ m1 “ 4.85, while m2 is found
using Eq. 8.9:

mmax “ ´2.5 log r10´0.4m1 ` 10´0.4m2 s

10´0.4m2 “ 10´0.4mmax ´ 10´0.4m1

ñ m2 “ ´2.5 log r10´0.4mmax ´ 10´0.4m1 s “ 4.16 .

Therefore, the magnitudes of the two stars are m1 “ 4.85 and m2 “ 4.16. The
ration of the maximum and minimum fluxes is:

Fmax “ 10´0.4pmmax´mminq “ 2.88 .

Fmax

8.19

From Eq. 8.9,

we know that the composite magnitude is given by: ms “ ´2.5
logr10´0.4m1 ` 10´0.4m2 ` ... ` 10´0.4mn s .

In this case n “ 24, equal to the number of letters in the Greek alphabet.
Furthermore, the magnitude of the n-th star is mn “ 0.10 ¨ n, hence the
previous equation becomes: ms “ ´2.5 logr10´0.4¨0.10 ` 10´0.4¨0.20 ` ... ` 10
´0.4¨2.4s 2

24

“ ´2.5 logrp10´0.04q ` p10´0.04q ` ... ` p10´0.04q

” 1 ´ 10´0.04¨25

“ ´2.5 log

´ 1 « ´2.41 .
1 ´ 10´0.04

where we have used the fact that:

1 ´ xn`1

1 ` x ` x2 ` ... ` xn “

1´x

186

Chapter 14. Exercise Solutions

8.20

The brightness of the image of a star is proportional to the number of

photons captured, which in turn is proportional to the product of the flux of
the star and the exposure time.

Let F1, F2 be the fluxes of the two stars and t1, t2 the exposure times. To
obtain the same luminosity, we need F1t1 “ F2t2, i.e. F1{F2 “ t2{t1. Using
Eq. 8.5:

F1 “ 10´0.4pm1´m2q .

F2

Substituting F1{F2 “ t2{t1:

t2 “ t1 ¨ 10´0.4pm1´m2q “ 1000 s .

Indeed, since the ratio of the fluxes is 1{100, the exposure time for the
second star must be 100 times longer, i.e. 1000 s.

8.21

Using Eq. 8.5,

we obtain the ratio of the fluxes: F$
´0.4pm

“ 10

$´m@q .

F@

From Eq. 8.12,

we have:

F$

F$

“ e´τ ñ τ “ ĺn

F@

F@

Substituting the ratio of the fluxes found in the first equation, using the
logarithm property ln x “ log x{ log e, we find:

0.4

τ“

pm

log e

$ ´ m@q “ 12.9 .

8.22

First, we compute the maximum distance at which a star, exploding as a

supernova, would raise the temperature on Earth beyond T “ 333 K.
Assuming the Earth to be a perfect black body, the power emitted in space is
Pout “ 4πR2 T 4, while the incident power is C

Pin “ FtotπR2 . Equating P

out and Pin, we find that the fourth power of the temperature is directly
proportional to the incident flux. Since the temperature on Earth was
originally T0 “ 14˝ “ 287 K, it follows that:

´ T ¯4

F`k

L{4πd2

L{L@

“1`

“1`

“1`

(14.5)

T0

L@{4πd2
d2

au

where dau is the distance of the supernova, expressed in astronomical units,

and L{L@ its luminosity, expressed as a multiple of the Sun’s luminosity.
Isolating dau: d

L{L

max “

« 3.5 ¨ 105 au “ 1.7 pc .

(14.6)

pT {T0q4 ´ 1

On average, the number of stars at a distance d ă 1.7 pc is: 4

N“

πd3

max ¨ n “ 2.88 .

(14.7)

Since the Solar System has a lifetime of t@ “ 1010 years, and there is a
supernova every t “ 30 years among the Ngal “ 1011 stars that populate our
galaxy, the probability that a supernova wipes out life on Earth during the
lifetime of the Solar System is: N t
2.88 1010

2.88

« 0.01 .

(14.8)

Ngal t

1011 30

300

187

9. Cosmic Distance Ladder

9.1

From Eq. 9.3,

we obtain the distance: 1

d“

“ 3.50 pc .

π2

p
We then substitute F

10d{Fd “ pd{10dq

“ 1{100 in Eq. 8.4,

since the intrinsic luminosity is the same. The magnitude
of the star at a distance 10 times greater is: 1

m10d ´ md “ ´2.5 log

ñ m10d “ md ´ 2.5 ¨ p´2q “ 0.34 ` 5 “ 5.34 .

100

Because m10d ă 6, the star is still visible.

9.2

Eq. 9.10
gives the ratio of the intrinsic luminosities of the two galaxies: L1

´ vrot,1 ¯4

L2

vrot,2

Using Eq. 8.5,

we obtain the ratio of their fluxes from the apparent
magnitudes: F1 “ 10´0.4pm1´m2q .

F2

But the flux depends on both the intrinsic luminosity and the distance: F1

L1 ´ d2 ¯2
“

F2

L2 d1

Solving the last equation for d2{d1, substituting L1{L2 and F1{F2 given by
the first two equations, we find:

d2

´ vrot,2 ¯2

¨ 10´0.2pm1´m2q « 7 .

d1

vrot,1

9.3

Using Eq. 8.4:

FM

d2

∆d ¯

∆M

`∆M

“ pM ` ∆M q ´ M “ ´2.5 log
“ ´2.5 log

“ 5 log 1 `

FM

pd ` ∆dq2

Hence:

∆d “ 100.2¨∆M ´ 1 « 25.9 % .

9.4

Since spiral galaxies are approximately circular, but the image appears
elliptic, it is clear that the galactic plane does not coincide with the
observation line. Let i be the angle between the perpendicular to the plane of
the galaxy and the observation line, and let r be the radius of the galaxy. The
length of its apparent semi-major axis is a “ r, while that of its semi-minor
axis is b “ r cos i, hence cos i “ b{a. The rotational velocity of the galaxy is
greater than the observed velocity by a factor of sin i, therefore:

rot “ voss{ sin i “ voss{

1 ´ pb{aq “ 366 km/s .

188
Chapter 14. Exercise Solutions

Using the Tully-Fisher relation in the H band, we find: MH “ ´9.5 log vrot `
2.08 « ´22.3 .

The distance of the galaxy is:

mh´MH

`1

H ´ mh “ ´5 log d ` 5 ñ d “ 10

« 109 pc “ 1000 Mpc .

Since z is small, we can use the non-relativistic formula: cz

zc “ H0 dMpc ñ H0 “

“ 60 km s´1Mpc´1 .

1000 Mpc

9.5

The distance of the galaxy can be obtained from Hubble’s law: zc

d“

“ 440 Mpc .

Since z ! 1, we use Eq. 8.7,

neglecting the decrease in brightness due to
redshift: M “ m ` 5 ´ 5 log d « ´20 .
We can now compare the luminosity of the galaxy to that of the Sun, using
Eq. 8.5:

F “ 10´0.4pM´M@q « 1010 .

F@

The luminosity of this galaxy is 1010 times greater than the luminosity of
the Sun. Since there is practically no gas and dust in elliptical galaxies, we
can assume there is no absorption.

Furthermore, assuming that the average mass of stars in the galaxy is equal
to the mass of the Sun, and the average luminosity is the luminosity of the
Sun, it follows that the mass of all stars in the galaxy is 1010 solar masses.
Taking into account dark matter, the mass of a galaxy is around 5 times
greater than the mass of visible matter (stars, in this case).

Therefore, the final estimate of the total mass will be 5 ¨ 1010 solar masses.

9.6

From Hubble’s law (Eq. 9.13),

it follows that: v “ H0d ,

where v is the velocity of an object and d its distance from Earth.

Rearranging: 1

distance

“ time .

H0

v
velocity

Hence, by calculating the reciprocal of Hubble’s constant, we can estimate

the age of the universe. Using H0 “ 68 km s´1 Mpc´1:

τ«

H0

68 km s´1 Mpc´1

68{p206265 ¨ 149.6 ¨ 1012q Mpc s´1 Mpc´1

206265 ¨ 149.6 ¨ 1012

s “ 4.54 ¨ 1017 s

68

4.54

¨ 1017 years “ 14.4 ¨ 109 years .

86400 ¨ 365.25
Close enough to the true value of τ “ 13.7 ¨ 109 years. Since H0 is known
with a certain amount of error, i.e. H0 “ p68 ˘ 5.5q km s´1 Mpc´1, we should
take this into account when estimating τ . The relative error on H0, equal to
5.5{68 “ 0.081, is also the relative error on 1{H0, hence the absolute error
on τ is 14.4 ¨ 109 ¨ 0.081 “ 1.2 ¨ 109 years. Therefore: τ “ p14.4 ˘ 1.2q ¨ 109
years ,

which contains the accepted value of 13.7 ¨ 109 years.

189

9.7

At a distance r, the universe expands at a rate of vprq “ Hr. The mass of a

spherical shell between r and r ` dr is dm “ ρ dV “ 4πρ r2 dr. Hence, its
kinetic energy is: 1

dm v2 “

p4πρ r2 drqpHrq “ 2πH2ρ r4 dr .

The mass inside a sphere of radius r is m “ ρV “ 4{3 πρ r3, therefore the

potential energy of this shell is:

Gm dm

G´4
¯

16

U“´

“´

πρ r3 p4πρ r2 drq “ ´

Gπ2ρ2r4 dr .

The total energy is then:

E “ K Ù “ 2πρ H2 ´

Gπρ r4 dr .

Setting E “ 0, we find the corresponding density:

3H2
´ Gπρc ` H2 “ 0 ñ ρc “

« 10´26 kg/m3 .

8πG

This is the so-called critical density of the universe, which can also be
obtained from Ein-stein’s theory of relativity. The critical density is the
average density of matter required for the universe to just halt its expansion,
but only after an infinite time. A universe with the critical density is said to
be flat. If the density of matter in the universe is higher than the critical
density (closed universe), self-gravity slows the expansion until it halts, and
ultimately the universe re-collapses. Instead, if the density of matter is lower
than the critical density (open universe), self-gravity is insufficient to stop
the expansion, and the universe continues to expand forever (albeit at an
ever decreasing rate). The critical density corresponds to approximately 10
hydrogen atoms per cubic metre. Its measurement is still a matter of debate,
but experimental data suggests that our universe is flat.

9.8

The Lyman series results from the transition of an electron in an excited state
(n ě 2) to the ground state (n “ 1). Therefore, the lowest wavelength is
obtained from the most energetic transition, i.e. from n “ 8 to n “ 1. This
energy difference is, by definition, the ionization energy of hydrogen, hence:

hc

λl “

“ 91.2 nm .

Eion

For the V band, λmax “ 600.5 nm and λmin “ 501.5 nm. Using z “ ∆λ{λl, we
find z “ 4.50–
5.58. Using the relativistic Doppler shift (Eq. 7.20),
we have vrel “ p0.937–
0.953q c, i.e. vrel “

p281–286q¨103 km/s. Applying Hubble’s law, the range of distances is

4130–4200Mpc.

9.9

The redshift parameter of the galaxy is z “ pλE ´ λ@q{λ@. According to

Wien’s law, the wavelengths of maximum emission are related to the
temperatures by λE “ k{TE and λ@ “ k{T@, hence λE{λ@ “ T@{TE.
Therefore, the redshift parameter is: λE ´ λ

´ 1 « 0.18 .

λ@

TE

The galaxy recedes from us with a velocity of v “ c ¨ z “ 5.4 ¨ 104 km/s. By

Hubble’s law, its distance is dg “ v{H0 « 760 Mpc. The photons emitted by
the galaxy have energy E “ hc{λ@, while those arriving on Earth have
energy E “ hc{λE, hence the ratio of the

190

Chapter 14. Exercise Solutions

emitted to the observed flux is Fg{Fo “ λE{λ@ “ T@{TE. Additionally, we
know that the galaxy appears 1000 times fainter than Eridani, i.e. Fo{FE “
1{1000. We then have: Lg

Fg ´ dg ¯2

Fg Fo

pdg π2

p,E q

FE

dE

Fo FE

5780

p760 ¨ 106 ¨ 0.311q « 6.6 ¨ 1013 .

4900 1000
The ratio between the luminosity of Eridani and that of the Sun can be
obtained from their apparent magnitudes and parallaxes:

FE

LE ´ d ¯2

E ´ m@ “ ´2.5 log

“ ´2.5 log

F@

L@ dE

LE

´ dE ¯2

¨ 10´0.4pmE ´m@q « 0.283 .

L@

d@

Because the galaxy mainly consists of Sun-like stars, the number of stars is
equal to the ratio between the intrinsic luminosities of the galaxy and the
Sun: Lg

Lg

LE
N“

« p6.6 ¨ 1013q ¨ 0.283 “ 1.9 ¨ 1013 .

L@

LE

L@

9.10

The ratio of the fluxes during maximum and minimum brightness can be
computed from the apparent magnitudes, using Eq. 8.5:

F1 “ 10´0.4pm1´m2q .

F2

Since the star is at a constant distance from the Earth, the ratio of the fluxes
is equal to the ratio of the intrinsic luminosities, given by Stefan-Boltzmann
law: F1

L1

4πR2

¯2 ´

¯4

1 σT 4

1
F1

R1

T1

F2

L2

4πR2σT 4

According to Wien’s law, λ1 “ k{T1 and λ2 “ k{T2, hence T1{T2 “ λ2{λ1.

Substituting T1{T2 and F1{F2 into the last equation:
R1

´ λ1 ¯2

¨ 10´0.2pm1´m2q « 0.89 .

R2

λ2

which is the desired result.

After a period T , the surface of the star has covered a distance R2 Ŕ1, at a
velocity of v.

Hence, R2 Ŕ1 “ vT , and substituting R1 “ 0.89R2, we find: R2p1 ` 0.89q “

vT ñ R2 “ 5.76 ¨ 109 m

ñ R1 “ 0.89R2 “ 5.12 ¨ 109 m .

Let k “ 1367 W/m2 be the solar constant and m@ “ ´26.74 the apparent
magnitude of the Sun. Then:

F2 “ 10´0.4pm2´m@q ñ F2 “ 6.42 ¨ 10´10 W/m2 .

When the radius is maximum, the temperature of the star is: k

0.002897

T2 “

K “ 4463.1 K .

λ2
649.1 ¨ 10´9

Hence, its intrinsic luminosity is:

L2 “ 4πR22σT 4

2 “ 9.38 ¨ 1027 W .

While the flux is:

F2 “

ñ d “ R2T 2

“ 34.94 pc .

4πd2

191

10. Gravitation and Kepler’s Laws

10.1

From Eq. 10.2,

we can write:

GM
GM

@“

gC “

R2

R2

where R@, RC are the radii and M@, MC the masses of the Sun and Earth,
respectively.

Dividing the two above equations:

¯2

M@ RC

“
“ 27.96 .

gC

MC R@

10.2

Writing the mass as a function of the radius and density, i.e. M “ 4{3 πr3ρ,
from Eq. 10.2:

4πG

g“

ρr.

Using the above equation to write gSW3 and gE, dividing one by the other:
gSW3

´ ρSW3 ¯ŕSW3 ¯

gE

ρE

rE

Substituting ρSW3{ρE “ 4 and rSW3{rE “ 1{4, we finally get: gSW3 “ 1 .

gE

Hence, the gravitational acceleration is the same as Jupiter’s.

10.3

Since ρ “ 3m{p4πr3q, the ratio of the densities can be written as: ρ

¯3

MC R@

ρ@

M@ RC

We now need to express all the terms on the RHS as a function of the four
known parameters θ@, g, Tsid, s. Let us start with R3@{M@. If θ@ is
expressed in radians, then: 2R

2R

@«

ñ dC «

dC
θ@

where dC is the Earth-Sun distance. Substituting dC in Kepler’s third law: 3

R3

GT 2θ 3

T2

“ 4π2 8R@

GM@θ3

32π2

From the definition of s, it follows that:

180

360 ¨ s “ 2πRC ñ RC “

s.
π

Using 10.2
to express g:

GM

R2

RC

Hence:

MC

MC
1

πg

R3

RC

RC

180 s G

Substituting everything back into the first equation: ρ

GT 2θ@

πg

T 2θ@ g

“
¨

« 3.91 .

ρ@

32π2

180 s G

5760 s π

192

Chapter 14. Exercise Solutions

10.4

The velocity in a circular orbit is given by Eq. 10.18:

GM

GM

vc “

“ 9688.4 m/s .

RC ` H
The orbital period is given by Kepler’s third law:

pR

C ` H q3

“ 2π

“ 5745.4 s “ 1h35m45.4s .

GM

10.5

The orbital period of a geostationary satellite is equal to the period of

rotation of the Earth about its axis (Tsid “ 86164 s), hence by Kepler’s third
law: 4π2

´ GM

¯1{3

T2

sid “

ags

ñ ags “

T2

« 42150 km .
GM

4π2

Therefore, the distance from the Earth’s surface is 35770 km. The velocity
is: d

GM

2πGM

v“

“3

« 3.07 ¨ 103 m/s

ags

Tsid

Geostationary satellites are often used for telecommunications, since an

antenna pointed at a fixed point in the sky is sufficient to exchange data with
a satellite. However, there is a delay of at least 35770{p3 ¨ 106q « 0.01
seconds, so locally cables are used to transfer data.

The geostationary orbit was first proposed by Herman Potočnik in 1928 and
popularized by science fiction writer Arthur C. Clarke. In theory, to cover
the entire equator, three satellites in coplanar geostationary orbits, distant
120˝ from each other, would be sufficient.

10.6

On Earth, the sky appears to move from east to west with the same angular
velocity as the rotation of the Earth about its axis. Therefore, a satellite
moves in the same direction as the apparent rotation of the sky if its orbital
period is greater than the period of rotation of the Earth. For a geostationary
satellite, the orbital period is exactly equal to the period of rotation of the
Earth, and since the angular velocity decreases with the square root of the
distance, we require the orbital radius to be greater than the radius of the
geostationary orbit.

Thus, the minimum orbital radius is a “ ags, where ags is the radius of the
geostationary orbit (see previous exercise). We conclude that the minimum
height from the ground is: hmin “ ag,s ŔC « 35770 km .

10.7

Since a is already expressed in astronomical units, we convert T in years and

apply Eq. 10.14:

T2

T2

yr

yr “

a3

“ 2.14 ¨ 1030 kg .

au ñ M “ M@

a3au

193

10.8
The sum of the distances at perihelion and aphelion is equal to two times the
semi-major axis: dp ` da

a“

“ 16 au .

From Kepler’s third law:

T2

yr “ a3

au ñ T “

212 years “ 64 years .

To calculate the area swept by the radius vector every year, we divide the
area of the ellipse by the orbital period (measured in years), since, according
to Kepler’s second law, the area swept by the radius vector per unit time is
constant. The area of the ellipse is A “ π a b. To find b, we first calculate c:

da ´ dp

c“

“ 15.5 au .

Which gives:

b“
a2 ć2 “ 3.97 au .

Hence, the area swept by the radius vector per year is: dA

πa b

“ 3.1 au2{year “ 6.9 ¨ 1016 km2{year .

dt

Tyr

10.9

The energy is given by Eq. 10.26:

GmM

E“´

2a

The Sun-Earth distances at aphelion and perihelion are da “ ap1 èq and dp “

ap1 éq, respectively. Denoting with va and vp the velocities at aphelion and
perihelion, applying conservation of energy:

GmM

GmM
GM

1é

mv2

“´

ñ va “

a áp1 èq

2a

1è

GmM

GmM

GM

1è

mv2

“´
ñ va “

p áp1 éq

2a

1é

To check the correctness of our result, let us verify that the angular
momentum is indeed conserved. Using Eq. 10.12,
we require that: dp ¨ vp “
da ¨ va .

Substituting va and vp obtained previously, and dividing by GM {a:

1è

1é

dp

“ da

ñ dpp1 èq “ dap1 éq .

1é

1è
But dp “ ap1 éq and da “ ap1 èq, hence the last equation is an identity.

10.10

The idea of this problem is to think of the trajectory of a body in free fall as
the borderline case of an elliptical orbit that tends to a straight line (when the
eccentricity goes to 1). Assuming that g is constant and using the equations
of uniformly accelerated motion is incorrect because, at the distance of r

“ 105 km, g{g0 “ 1{p1 ` h{RCq « 0.65, so the gravitational

194

Chapter 14. Exercise Solutions

acceleration varies considerably. At the time of observation, the asteroids are

at rest, so they are located at the apogee of their orbits. At the moment of
impact, neglecting Earth’s radius, the asteroids will be in the focus of the
orbit (which coincides with the perigee), therefore they will have travelled
exactly half of the orbit. The major axis is equal to the initial distance from
the centre of the Earth (d ` RC). Hence, by Kepler’s third law: c

rpd1 ` R

Cq{2s3

1“π

“ 1777047 s ,

GM

rpd2 ` R
T

Cq{2s3

2“π

“ 1776772 s .

GM

The time difference is ∆t “ 264 seconds. The distance along the Earth is
then: d “ v ¨ ∆t “ ωRC∆t “ 123 km .

We have assumed that the radius of the Earth is small compared to the initial
distance.

Without this assumption, we need to solve the equations of motion

numerically, and we would obtain T1 “ 1776550 s and T2 “ 1776290 s,
giving ∆t “ 260 seconds. So, even though the time intervals are both smaller
by about 500 seconds, their difference does not change substantially. The
approximate solution is therefore correct up to 2 km.

10.11

In vacuum, electromagnetic radiation travels at the speed of light c, hence

the distance of perihelion and aphelion are, respectively:

dp “ p2 ¨ 60 sq ¨ c « 3.60 ¨ 1010 m “ 0.24 au ,

da “ p39 ¨ 60 sq ¨ c « 70.1 ¨ 1010 m “ 4.79 au .

The semi-major axis is then:

dà dp

as “

“ 2.52 au .

2
The focal distance is equal to the difference between the distances at
aphelion and perihelion: da ´ dp

cs “

“ 2.28 au .

Hence, the eccentricity is:

cs

es “

“ 0.9 .

as

The period of Seneca is given by Kepler’s third law:

Ts,yr “

a3s,au “ 4 years .

10.12

In a circular orbit, the centrifugal and gravitational forces are always equal,
ensuring the satellite does not accelerate in the radial direction, so that its
orbital radius stays constant.

In an elliptical orbit, however, the two forces are different in general, and
this causes the body to accelerate radially, moving towards or away from the
centre. Let us calculate the radial acceleration of the body at perigee. The
gravitational force is: GmM

Fg “
,

r2

195

where r “ dp ` RC. The centrifugal force is:

v2p

¯2 GmM

Fc “ m

1`

r
1000

r2

where we have used the fact that the velocity at perigee is 0.6 % greater than
the velocity of a

a circular orbit at the same height, which is just v “

GM {r. Expanding the square and

neglecting the factor

p6{1000q , we obtain the total force in the radial direction: 12 GmM

12

GM

Ftot “ Fc ´ Fg «

ñ atot “

« 0.103 m/s2 .

1000

r2

1000 pdp ` RCq2

The satellite undergoes approximately uniformly accelerated motion, starting

with zero velocity at perigee, covering a distance of s “ d ´ dp “ 70 km in the
radial direction. The desired time is thus:

a
s“

atott2 ñ t “

2s{gtot « 1200 s “ 20 minutes .

10.13

Figure 14.7: The length of the latus rectum can be derived by applying the
Pythagorean theorem to the triangle F1LF2.

Solution 1.

First, we find the length of the latus rectum. Looking at Fig. 14.7,
let LF2 “
x.

Since F1L ` F2L “ 2a, it follows that F1L “ 2a ´ F2L. We also know that
F1F2 “ 2c “ 2ea and OF2 “ c “ ea. Applying the Pythagorean theorem to the
triangle F1LF2.

LF2 ` F1F2 “ F1L

x2

` 4e2a2 “ p2a ´ xq

4e2a2 “ 4a2 ´ 4ax

ñ x “ ap1 é2q .
The angle θc (in Fig. 14.7)
is given by: LF2

1 é2

tan θc “

OF

Using Eq. A.7,

the area of the sector of the ellipse between ´θc and θc is: á

A “ 2Apθcq “ a b arctan

tan θc

“ a b arctan p

1 é2{eq “ a b arccos e ,

196
Chapter 14. Exercise Solutions

where we have used the fact that b “ a 1 é2 and arctan p 1 é2{eq “ arccos e.
The total area swept by the radius vector is then:

As “ A ´ 2AOLF “ a b arccos e á2ep1 é2q “ a bparccos e é 1 é2q .

The total area of the ellipse is πab and the orbital time is T , thus Eq. 10.11
gives: A

t“

T“

parccos e é

1 é2q .

Atot

Solution 2.

The length of the latus rectum can be found using Eq. 10.32,
with θ “ 90˝,
which gives r “ ap1 é2q (as before). Using Eq. 10.33,
the eccentric anomaly
for the latus rectum is:

ap1 é2q “ ap1 é cos Eq ñ E “ arccos e .

The mean anomaly is then given by Eq. 10.34:

M “ arccos e é sin parccos eq “ arccos e é 1 é2 .

where we have used sin parccos eq “

1 é2. Since M increases linearly with time and

completes a full revolution after a period T , it follows that: M

t“

T“

parccos e é

1 é2q .

which is the same result obtained previously. Note that this method is
generally faster.

10.14
Let af be the semi-major axis of Earth’s orbit after the catastrophe, M the
initial mass of the Sun and m the mass of the Earth. Earth’s kinetic energy
immediately before and after the catastrophe is the same, because there is no
net force that changes its speed. Being proportional to the mass of the Sun,
Earth’s potential energy is instead halved after the catastrophe. Let us
examine the two cases:

Case 1, Earth in aphelion

As shown in Ex. 10.9, the velocity at aphelion is obtained by applying

conservation of energy:

GM 1 é

v2

1è

The sum of the kinetic and potential energies is equal to the total energy of
the elliptical orbit with semi-major axis af , and is given by Eq. 10.26:

GM {2m

GM {2m

mv 2

´
“´

ap1 èq

2af

Substituting v 2

a , given by the first equation:

GM

GM 1 é

GM

4af

2a 1 è

2ap1 èq

1´

1é¯
“

4af

2a 1 è

1è

af

a1è

1è

ñ af “ a

2e

197

The period of the new orbit is given by Kepler’s third law: 4π2a 3

T2

f
“

GM {2

While the initial period, equal to one year, was given by: 4π2a3

T2“

GM

Dividing the two equations:

f,yr

“ 2af,au ,

where the factor 2 appears because the mass of the Sun is halved after the
catastrophe. Note that af can be easily expressed in astronomical units if we
divide by a the equation for af .

We then find:

Tf “ 118.8 years .

Case 2, Earth in perihelion

The velocity of the Earth at perihelion is:

GM 1 è
v2

1é

The energy of the Earth after the catastrophe is:

GM m

GM m ´ 1 è

mvp ´

2
2ap1 éq

2a

1é

1é

From which we obtain:

GM m

E“

2a

1é

Since E is greater than zero, the Earth will follow an hyperbolic orbit, and its
motion will not be periodic.

10.15

On average, a person can jump (lift their centre of mass) by 50 cm on the

Earth, so their launch velocity vl is:

mg∆h “

mv2

2gh .
2

ñ vl “

The escape velocity from the planet is given by Eq. 10.27:

c 2GM

vesc “

Since the density of the planet is the same as the density of the Earth: M

Ŕ ¯3

MC

RC

Substituting M in vesc:

2GM

2gR2

v
C

esc “

R2 ñ vesc “

R3

RC

where we have used g “ GMC{R2 . Finally, setting v

l “ vesc:

R“

hRC « 2 km .

We have retained only one significant digit, since vl was an estimate.

198

Chapter 14. Exercise Solutions

10.16

The escape velocity is given by Eq. 10.27:

c 2GM

vesc “
.

Assuming that, on average, the stars have the same mass as the Sun, M “ N
M@. Substituting M in the previous equation and solving for N : Rv2

esc

« 8 ¨ 104 stars .

2GM@

10.17

The Schwarzschild radius for a black hole of mass M@ is given by Eq.

10.28:

2GM

s“

« 3 km .

c2

The density is:

3
ć2 ¯

m“

“ 1.8 ¨ 1019 kg/m3 .

4{3 πR 3

4πM@ 2G

10.18

By symmetry, the gravitational field of a cylinder must point in the radial

direction. If we consider a Gaussian surface with cylindrical shape whose
axis coincides with that of the planet, the only contribution to the
gravitational flux is given by the lateral surface, since the base of the
cylinder is perpendicular to the gravitational field. Therefore, the total flux
of the gravitational field is:

Φ “ ´2 π l r gprq ,

where l is the height of the cylinder. From Eq. 10.4:

Φ “ ´4πGMint “ ´4π2 G ρ R2 l .

Equating the two expressions for the flux:

2πGρR2

gprq “

.
r

In a circular orbit, the centripetal force is equal to the gravitational force: c

v2c,1

2πGρR2

3 GM

“m

ñ vc,1 “

2π G ρ R2 “

“ 14.72 m/s ,

2 RC

where we have substituted ρ “ MC{p 4 πR3

Cq and R “ RC, since the density and radius are

the same as on Earth. The angular velocity of rotation is also the same as on
Earth: vc,1

vc,1
“ ωe ñ h “

ŔC “ 195.5 ¨ 103 km .

h ` RC

ωe

The second cosmic velocity is infinite. Indeed, the gravitational field of the
planet is constant, hence it is never possible to escape from it. As you travel
farther and farther away from the planet, which is an infinitely long cylinder,
imagine rescaling all distances. The infinite cylinder would still look
identical, however your distance from it would be reduced.

199

10.19

Figure 14.8: The total gravitational field is given by the sum of the
gravitational fields of the large sphere and the small sphere, taken with
negative mass.
Gravity satisfies the superposition principle, hence, in Fig. 14.8,
the
gravitational field at each point in space is the sum of the gravitational field
produced by the sphere of radius a and by the sphere of radius a{4, taken
with negative mass. In fact, in considering the gravitational field of the entire
sphere a, we are overestimating the total gravitational field, since a portion
of radius a{4 has been removed. Therefore, the total gravitational field can
be calculated by subtracting the contribution of the cavity or, alternatively,
by adding the contribution of the cavity, taken with negative mass. The
calculation of the gravitational field is particularly simple on the diameter
AB since the two contributions point in the same direction, and it is
sufficient to subtract their modules. Let ρ be the density of the body and let
M , m be the masses of the large and small spheres, respectively. Then: 4

M“

π ρ a3 ,

m“

π ρ a3 .

48

Summing the contributions, for |x| ě a:

GM

Gm

4πρGa3 ” 1

ı
gpxq “

x2

px ´ 5{8 aq2

x2

p8x ´ 5aq2

Substituting xB “ a and xA “ á, we find:

gB

1{9 ´ 1

169

gA

1{169 ´ 1

189
10.20

Since the projectile reaches high altitudes, the gravitational field is constant
is not constant.

Part 1.

To find the semi-major axis, we compute the total energy energy: 1

GM

GM

GM

GM

Cm

Cm

Cm

Cm

mv0 ´

“´

.
2

RC

2RC

RC

2RC

Comparing with Eq. 10.26,

we conclude that a “ RC.

200

Chapter 14. Exercise Solutions

Part 2.

We give two solutions: one uses conservation of energy and angular

momentum, the other is based on purely geometrical arguments.
Solution 1.

Initially, the angle between the instantaneous velocity and the radius vector
is θ “ 30˝. At the highest point of the orbit, the radius vector is perpendicular
to the instantaneous velocity (if it weren’t, the rocket would be ascending or
descending, but then it wouldn’t be located in the highest point of the orbit).
Applying conservation of energy and angular momentum between the
launch point and the point of maximum height: GM

Cm

GMCm

“´

mv2 ñ v2 “ GMC

2RC

rmax

2
rmax

RC

m RC v0 sin θ “ m rmax .

Squaring both sides of the last equation and substituting v2 found in the first
equation:

3 ¯2

1¯

R 2 GMC

“ rmax ¨ GMC

ŔC

rmax

RC

r
2

max

RC “ 2rmax ´

RC

which is a quadratic equation:

4˘

16 ´ 12

4r

max

´ 8rmaxRC ` 3RC

ñ rmax “

RC ,

with solutions rmax,1 “ RC{2 (not acceptable since rmax,1 ă RC) and rmax
“ 3RC{2. The maximum distance from the surface of the Earth is therefore
hmax “ RC{2.

Figure 14.9: Projectile launched at 30˝ to the horizontal with the first cosmic
velocity.

Solution 2.

The sum of the distances of a point on the ellipse from the two foci is equal
to the major axis. Considering the launch point A in Fig. 14.9,
we have: AF1
ÀF2 “ 2RC ,

since a “ RC. But AF1 “ RC, hence AF2 “ AF1 “ RC. Being equidistant from
the foci, A is on the minor axis of the ellipse. The orbit of the projectile is
symmetric with

201

respect to the launch and landing points, hence the major axis passes through
F1, F2 and is perpendicular to AB, which is the minor axis. It follows that
=tAF1 “ 90˝, =v0At “ 30˝

and =v0AB “ 90˝ (since AB is the minor axis), hence:

=BAF1 “ =tAF1 ´ =tAB “ =tAF1 ´ p=v0AB ´ =v0Atq “ 90˝ ´ p90˝ ´ 30˝q “

30˝ .

At the same time, =AF1F2 “ 90˝ ´ =BAF1 “ 60˝, therefore, by symmetry, the
triangle F1AF2 is equilateral. The semi-focal distance is then c “ F1F2{2 “
RC{2. Thus, the maximum distance from the centre of the Earth is:

rmax “ 2a ć “ 2RC ŔC “

RC ,

2
2

as we found earlier.

Part 3.

The angle at the centre of the Earth is α “ 2 ¨ =AF1B “ 120˝ “ 2π{3 radians.

Hence, the range of the projectile is:

2π

s“

RC .

Part 4.

By Kepler’s second law, the flight time is given by the ratio of the area
swept by the projectile to the total area of the elliptical orbit, multiplied by
the time necessary to travel the full orbit. To calculate the total area we need
the semi-minor axis:

b“

a2 ć2 “ RC

1 ´ 1{4 “

RC
2

?3π

ñ Atot “ πa b “

RC .

The area swept by the radius vector during the flight is the sum of the area to
the right of

the minor axis AB, which is just half the are of the ellipse A 2

1“p

3π{4q ¨ RC , and the area

of triangle F1AB:

2“b¨c“
RC ¨

RC “

RC .

Hence, the area swept by the radius vector is:

?3

s “ A1 À2 “

pπ ` 1qRC .

The ratio of the areas is:

As

π`1

R“

Atot
2π

Therefore, the flight time is:

R3

“ R ¨ T “ pπ ` 1q

« 3335.7 s “ 55m 36s .

GMC

10.21

As in the previous problem, the energy of the probe is: 1

GM

GM

GM

GM

Cm

Cm

Cm
Cm

mv0 ´

“´

RC

2RC

RC

2RC

from which it follows that the semi-major axis is a “ RC. Looking at Fig.
14.10
(overleaf), it is clear that F1PF2E is a square, and PE must be the
minor axis of the ellipse. The solution
202

Chapter 14. Exercise Solutions

Figure 14.10: Probe launched at 45˝ to the horizontal from the north pole,
landing at the equator.

is similar to the previous problem, only with θ0 “ 45˝. Applying

conservation of energy and angular momentum between the launching point
and the point of maximum height: 1

GmM

GmM

mv 2

0
´

mv2 ´

RC

rmax

? RCv0 “ rmaxv .

Squaring the second equation and substituting v2 obtained from the first
equation: 1

RC

2RC

4r2max
rmax

where we used v 2

“ GM {RC. It follows that:

1¯

max

ŕmax `

RC “ 0 ñ rmax “ RC 1 ˘ ?

2RC

The only acceptable solution is for rmax ě RC, hence:

rmax “ RCp1 ` 1{ 2q .
?

The maximum height with respect to the surface of the Earth is hmax “ RC{
2.

To find the time of flight, we compute the total area swept by the radius
vector, which is just the sum of two contributions:

1´

R2 ´

π¯

s “ AF

`?R

1`?

1 PE Àhalf ellipse “
C

From the second and third Kepler’s laws, we conclude that: p1 ` π

? qR2

C{2

4π2R

T2

?R

GMC
2

R3

ñT“

2πpπ `

2q

« 4320s “ 1h12m .

GMC

203

10.22

In the case of minimum speed, the asteroid initially orbits the Sun at the
same distance and in the same direction as the Earth. We can therefore
assume that the initial relative velocity between the asteroid and the Earth is
zero. When the asteroid is close enough to the Earth (at a distance smaller
than the Hill sphere, about 1.5 million kilometres), it stars accelerating
towards the Earth because of their mutual gravitational attraction.

Since the radius of the Hill sphere is very large, and since the asteroid has a
small but non-zero velocity when it enters the Hill sphere, we can very well
assume that the asteroid starts at rest, from an infinite distance, and
accelerates towards Earth. Then, the impact velocity is exactly equal to the
escape velocity from Earth:
c

GmM

2GM

mv2

“0ñv“

“ 11.2 km/s .

RC

RC

If the asteroid hits the Earth at the equator, in the same direction as the
rotation of the Earth, the impact velocity will be approximately 0.5 km/s
smaller. Hence, the minimum velocity of an asteroid that impacts the Earth is
vmin « 10.7 km/s.

In the case of the maximum velocity, the orbit of the asteroid is a parabola.
In fact, since the asteroid belongs to the Solar System, it cannot follow an
hyperbolic orbit, therefore its maximum energy is E “ 0. The direction of the
asteroid’s orbit must be opposite to the direction of motion of the Earth
around the Sun and the vertex of the parabolic orbit must coincide with the
collision point. When the asteroid is closest to the Sun, its velocity is: c

1
GmM

2GM

mv2

“ 0 ñ v1 “

1´

dC

dC

Since the orbital velocity of the Earth is vC “

GM@{dC, at this moment, the relative

velocity between the asteroid and the Earth is:

2GM

GM
?

GM

r“

“ p1 `

2q

dC

dC

dC

As before, we can assume that the asteroids starts at infinity. This time,
however, the initial velocity is vr. Applying conservation of energy:

GmM

?
GM

GM

mv2

mv2

p3 ` 2

2q

`2

“ 72.8 km/s .

rñv“

dC

RC
If the asteroid hits the Earth at the equator, in the opposite direction as the
rotation of the Earth, the impact velocity is 0.5 km/s greater, hence vmax «
73.3 km/s. Taking into account the eccentricity of Earth’s orbit, we obtain an
even greater velocity of impact if the Earth is at perihelion. In this case,
using dC “ ap1 éq in the equation for vr, we find vr “ 72.7 km/s. Adding in
quadrature the contribution of the Earth’s gravitational

acceleration, we then obtain vmax “

72.72 ` 11.22 ` 0.5 « 74 km/s.

10.23

Solution 1.

The geometric solution makes use of the fact that, according to Archimedes’

theorem, the area of a parabolic segment is 4/3 of the area of the inscribed
triangle. Hence, in Fig. 14.11
(overleaf), the area of the parabolic segment,
on the left of AB, is 4/3 of the area of triangle AOB. Let p be the distance of
the comet at perihelion. Since the orbit is parabolic, E “ 0, and applying
conservation of energy we find the velocity at perihelion a

vp “

2GM {p. Therefore, the angular momentum of the comet is L “ mpvp “ m

2GM p.
204

Chapter 14. Exercise Solutions

Figure 14.11: The dashed line represents the orbit of the Earth; the heavy
solid line, the parabolic orbit of the comet, with closest approach at a
distance p from the Sun (S).

From Kepler’s second law, the constant rate at which the radius vector
sweeps out area is:

dA

GM p

“
“

dt

2m

Let the x-axis be the axis of symmetry of the parabolic orbit, and let the
origin coincide with its vertex (O). The equations of the orbits of the comet
and Earth are, respectively: y2

“ 4px ,

px ´ pq ` y2 “ 1 .

Substituting y2 “ 4px in the equation of the Earth’s orbit: 4px

` px ´ pq “ 1 ñ x2 ` 2px ` p2 ´ 1 “ 0 ,

which is a quadratic equation, with the only acceptable (|x| ă 1) solution x “

1 ´ p.

Substituting back into the equation of the parabola, we obtain y “ 2

pp1 ´ pq. Hence, the

area of the inscribed triangle is A

3{2
t “ yx “ 2

pp1 ´ pq

, and that of the parabolic segment

3{2

p “ 8{3

pp1 ´ pq

. The area swept by the radius vector is then:

8?

3{2

s “ Ap ÁASB “

p p1 ´ pq

´2

pp1 ´ pq p1 ´ 2pq

2a

2a
“

pp1 ´ pq r4p1 ´ pq ´ 3p1 ´ 2pqs “

pp1 ´ pq p1 ` 2pq .

The time taken to cover this area is:

As

2{3

pp1 ´ pq p1 ` 2pq

Tcomet “

dA{dt

aGMp{2

1a

1a

2p1 ´ pq p1 ` 2pq “
2p1 ´ pq p1 ` 2pq years ,

GM

3π

since

1{GM “ Tyr{2π, where Tyr is the duration of one year (remember we set dC
“ 1).

To obtain the maximum time, we require dT {dp “ 0:

1 1 ` 2p

1´p´

“ 0 ñ 4p1 ´ pq “ 1 ` 2p ñ p “ 1{2 .

1´p

205

Hence:

Tcomet, yr “
years « 77 days .

3π

Solution 2.

Writing 9r “ dr{dt “ vr in Eq. 10.25,

we have: 1

L2

GmM

E“

m 9r2 `

2mr2

Since the orbit is parabolic, the energy is E “ 0. The angular momentum can
be found by considering the moment when the comet is in perihelion, at a
distance p from the Sun. At this point, 9r “ 0, hence the above equation
becomes: L2

GmM

0“

ñL“m
2GM p .

2mp2

Isolating 9r from the first equation, we find:

dr

2 ´ GmM

L2 ¯

r“

dt

2mr2

The time the comet spends inside Earth’s orbit is obtained by separating
variables and integrating both sides:

ż dC

ż dC
dr

ż T {2

dr

dt ñ T “ 2

GmM

Ĺ2

GmM Ĺ2

m
r

2mr2

2mr2

where dC is the radius of Earth’s orbit. But L2 “ 2GM m2p, hence: ż dC

dr

ż dC

T“2

dr .

GM
r´p

GmM

GmM p

r2

The above expression can be easily integrated by parts, yielding: ż dC

2p ¯

dr “

d3{2 1 `
1´

3C

´p

The time, as a function of p, is therefore:

?c

22

d3

2p ¯

T“

C
1`

1´

GM

dC

dC

Since Tyr “ 2π

d3 {GM , we recover the previous solution.

10.24

Suppose we want to produce the maximum gravitational field at the origin of

our coordinate system, along the x-axis. An infinitesimal element of the
planet, of volume dV and position vector r, which makes and angle ψ with
the x-axis, produces a gravitational field of: ρ dV

dg “ G

r2

where ρ is the density of the planet. The component of the gravitational field
along the x-axis is dgx “ dg cos ψ, hence the specific contribution of this
element is: dgx

cos ψ
“ Gρ

dV

r2

206

Chapter 14. Exercise Solutions

Figure 14.12: The dashed line represents the “level surfaces”; the heavy
solid line, the shape of the planet.

The contribution is the same for all parts of the planet for which the fraction
cos ψ{r2 has the same value. Such “level surfaces” (Fig. 14.12)
can be
described in a polar coordinate system (with the x-axis as the polar axis) by
the equation: a

rpψq “ a

cos ψ .
The larger the value of a, the farther (on average) the surface is from the
centre and the smaller its specific contribution. Imagine that the shape of a
planet is described by the above equation. Changing its surface in any way
must involve moving some element from the interior to the exterior of the
planet, which would inevitably lower its contrition to the

gravitational field. This proves that rpψq “ a cos ψ is indeed the shape giving
the greatest gravitational field at the origin. The value of a can be related to
the volume V of the planet.

Transforming the polar coordinates pr, ψq into Cartesian coordinates, we

have: x

3{2

1{2

“ r cos ψ “ apcos ψq

y “ r sin ψ “ apcos ψq

sin ψ .

In terms of these, the volume of the planet (as a solid of revolution) is: ż a

3π

ż0

4π

3{2
“

πypxq dx “ á3

pcos ψq

sin3 ψ dψ “

a3 .

15

π{2

Expressing a in terms of V , the equation describing the shape of the planet

becomes: c 15V a

pψq “

cos ψ .

4π

The total gravitational field at the origin is obtained by integrating the

contribution of all the “level shells”, with a ranging from 0 to 3

a15V {p4πq. These shells have an infinitesimal

volume of dV “ dp4π{15a3q “ 4{5πa2 da, therefore:

b
3 15V

Gρ

4π

Gρ 4

15V

15 ´ π ¯2{3

x“

dgx “

dV “

πa2 da “

πGρ 3
“

GM .

a2

a2 5

4π

On the other hand, the gravitational field produced by a sphere is g “ GM

{R2, where R “ 3

a3V {p4πq. Therefore, the ratio of the maximum gravitational field produced
by a planet and by a spherical planet with the same mass and density is: c

gmax

15 ´ π ¯2{3

GM

135
3

« 1.026 .

¯2{3

sph

64

GM 4π{3 V

The maximum gravitational field is only 2.6% greater than that of a simple
sphere.
207

10.25

Figure 14.13: The dashed line represents the envelope; the heavy solid line,
the orbit of a piece of debris.

Since the fragments fly off with the same velocities and, at the moment of
impact, they are all at the same distance SP from the Sun, it follows that they
have the same energies, hence the major axes of their orbits have a common
value of 2a. In Fig. 14.13,
the heavy solid line represents the possible orbit
for a piece of debris; it passes through P and has the Sun (S) as one of its
foci. The situation has cylindrical symmetry about the line SP, therefore it is
sufficient to work in an arbitrary plane that contains it. Since, for any point
on an ellipse, the sum of the distances from the two foci is equal to the
length of the major axis, it follows that the distance of the second focus (F),
as measured from P, is also fixed: it lays on a circle (Γ1) with centre in P and
radius r1 “ 2a ŕ.

Consider now an arbitrary point Q on the plane. If an elliptical trajectory

passes through Q, its focus must be on a circle (Γ2), centred in Q, with
radius r2 “ 2a ŚQ. Therefore, the second focus (F) must belong to both Γ1
and Γ2. Three cases are now possible: 1. if circle Γ2 intersects circle Γ1,
then point Q is on two different “eligible” ellipses, and the two intersection
points give the second foci of the two corresponding trajectories.

2. if circle Γ1 and Γ2 have no common point, then none of the possible

orbits of the debris pieces can pass through Q; hence, Q lies outside the
required envelope.

3. if circles Γ1 and Γ2 are tangent (at point F1 in Fig. 14.13),

only a single
elliptical trajectory passes through Q; this means that Q lies on the required
envelope.

In the third case, it follows that:

PQ “ r1 ` r2 “ p2a ŚPq ` p2a ŚQq ,

(14.9)

that is:

PQ ` SQ “ 4a ŚP “ const.

(14.10)

Therefore, the points of the envelope themselves lie on an ellipse (the dashed
line in Fig.

14.13),
with foci at P and S. Because of the cylindrical symmetry, the three-
dimensional envelope of the orbits of the pieces of debris is a spheroid
(ellipsoid of revolution), with major axis of length 4a ŚP, and foci at P and S.

208

Chapter 14. Exercise Solutions

11. Motion of the Planets

11.1
For a superior planet we use Eq. 11.3:

TyrTp

Tsyn “

“ 398.85 days .

Tp ´ Tyr

Dividing numerator and denominator by Tyr, we find:

Tp,yr

398.85

Tp,yr ´ 1

325.25

Hence:

398.85{325.25

Tp,yr “

“ 11.87 years ,

398.85{325.25 ´ 1

which is Jupiter’s orbital period

11.2

We don’t know whether this is a superior or inferior planet, hence we

consider two cases.
For an inferior planet, we use Eq. 11.2:

TyrTp

584{325.25

“ 584 ñ Tp,yr “

“ 0.615 years .

Tyr ´ Tp

1 ` 584{325.25

For a superior planet, we use Eq. 11.3:

TyrTp

584{325.25

“ 584 ñ Tp,yr “

“ 2.67 years .

Tp ´ Tyr

1 ´ 584{325.25

Since there is no planet with an orbital period of 2.67 years, while the orbital
period of Venus is exactly 0.615 years, we conclude that the planet under
consideration is Venus.

11.3

The orbital periods can be found using Kepler’s third law: c

pR
pR

C ` hiq3

C ` hsq3

i “ 2π

“ 5304 s ,

Ts “ 2π

“ 5548 s ,

GMC

GMC

where i and s are the inferior and superior satellites, respectively. Using Eq.
11.2:

TiTs

Tsyn “

“ 120600 s “ 1d9h30m .

Ts ´ Ti

11.4

The maximum elongation of an inferior planet is always smaller than 90˝.

Since the elongation is greater than 90˝ in this case, it must be a superior
planet.

11.5
In the evening, the Sun sets in the west. Planets that rise in the east have an
angular distance from the Sun (i.e. elongation) around 180˝. Since the
elongation of inferior planets is always less than 90˝, it must be a superior
planet.

209

11.6

For an inferior planet, we use Eq. 11.2,

setting Tsyn “ Tp: TpTyr

Tp “

ñ Tyr ´ Tp “ Tyr ñ Tp “ 0 ,

Tyr ´ Tp

which is clearly impossible. For a superior planet, Eq. 11.3

gives: TpTyr

Tp “

ñ Tp ´ Tyr “ Tyr ñ Tp “ 2 Tyr .

Tp ´ Tyr
Hence, it must be a superior planet with an orbital period of two years.

11.7

Figure 14.14: Apparent motion of Mars.

The synodic period of Mars can be calculated using Eq. 11.3:

D,yr

syn,yr “

“ 2.135 years .

TD,yr ´ 1

The angle between eastern quadrature and opposition is (see Fig. 14.14):

θ “ arccos pdC{dDq “ arccos p1{dD,auq .

(14.11)

Let ωr “ 2π{Tsyn be the angular velocity of Mars. Then, the time taken to
arrive in eastern quadrature starting from opposition is:

arccos p1{d

∆t

D,auq

“
Tsyn « 0.29 years “ 105d22h8m .

ωr

2π

11.8

The greatest and the smallest maximum elongations of Mercury are observed
when the planet is in perihelion and aphelion, respectively:

dp

da

“ sin pmax,2q,

“ sin pmax,1q .

dC

dC

From Eq. 10.7,

we have:

da ´ dp

sin pmax,1q śin pmax,2q

e“

“ 0.206 ,

dà dp

sin pmax,1q ` sin pmax,2q

where we neglected the eccentricity of Earth’s orbit, since it is 10 times
smaller than Mercury’s.

210

Chapter 14. Exercise Solutions

11.9

Using Kepler’s third law (Eq. 10.14),

we estimate the semi-major axis of the
asteroid’s orbit: aau “ T 2{3

yr

“ 15.212{3 « 2.5 au .

From Eq. 8.5,

we obtain the ratio of the maximum and minimum fluxes
perceived on Earth: Fmax “ 10´0.4∆m “ 10 .

Fmin

The flux depends not only on the distance of the asteroid from the Sun, but
also on the distance between the observer and the asteroid. Let e be the
eccentricity of the asteroid’s orbit, R its radius and A its albedo. Then, the
fluxes at perihelion and aphelion, for an observer on Earth, are:

πR2A

p“

4πa2p1 éq2 2πrap1 éq ´ dCs2

L

πR2A

a“

4πa2p1 èq2 2πrap1 èq ´ dCs2

where we have assumed that the asteroid only reflects light on the
hemisphere in the direction of the incoming rays. A perfect sphere would
reflect light isotropically, so in this case 2π

should be substituted with 4π. In reality, this coefficient depends on the

surface of the asteroid, and could be as small as π. We have also assumed
that the orbit of the Earth is a circle. This is a good assumption, since we
expect the eccentricity of the orbit of the asteroid to be much greater (as can
be verified at the end). Expressing the distances in astronomical units, taking
the ratio of the above equations:

Fmax

Fp

´ 1 è aaup1 èq ´ 1 ¯2

“ 10

Fmin

Fa
1 é aaup1 éq ´ 1

1èa

aup1 èq ´ 1

10 .

1 é aaup1 éq ´ 1

Rearranging, we obtain a quadratic equation for the eccentricity:

e2ap1 ´

10q èp2a ´ 1qp1 `

10q ` pa ´ 1qp1 ´

10q “ 0 ,

which leads to e « 0.21 (an order of magnitude larger than the eccentricity of
Earth’s orbit) 11.10

Because Mars is visible on the meridian when the Sun is setting, it is in

eastern quadrature and it rises at midnight. Looking at Fig. 14.14,
initially
the angle formed by Mars (M) with the SO direction (as seen from S) is:

=OSM “ árccos p1{dD,auq “ árccos p1{1.524q “ ´49˝ .

Since the sidereal period of Mars is TD “ 1.881 years, after a year it will
have covered an angle of 360˝{1.881 “ 191.4˝ to the west, as seen from the
Sun. Hence, =OSM “ 191.4˝ ´ 49˝ “

142.4˝. To find the angle formed with the CE direction, as seen from E, we
can either apply the sine and cosine rules to triangle SEM, or note that: d

tan

D,au sin p=CSMq

p=CEMq “ dD,au cos p=CSMq ` 1

dD,au sin p180˝ ´ =OSMq

dD,au cos p180˝ ´ =OSMq ` 1

211

Hence:

sin p180˝ ´ 142.4˝q

=CEM “ arctan

“ 22.8˝ .

cos p180˝ ´ 142.4˝q ` 1

At the autumnal equinox, the Sun rises exactly at 6 am; therefore Mars,
being further west by 22.8˝, will rise 22.8˝{360˝¨24h « 1.5h earlier, i.e. at
approximately 4 : 30 am, local time.

12. Orbital Manoeuvres

12.1
Let us compute the desired velocity increments using Eqs. 12.2
and 12.3.
In
this case, a

R2{R1 “ 5.2 and v0 “

GM@{dC “ 29.787 km/s, therefore:

∆v1 “ vP ´ v0 “ v0

21´

´ 1 “ 8.792 km/s ,

1 ` R2{R1

R„

∆v2 “ v0
1´

“ 5.643 km/s .

R2

1 ` R2{R1

The transfer time can be obtained from Eq. 12.4:

π2

T“

pR1 ` R2q3 “ 2.73 years .

8GM@

12.2

Summing Eqs. 12.2

and 12.3,
setting α “ R2{R1:

„1

?¯

v0
´1`?

´?

“ ∆vtot ,

1`α

where v0 “

GM {R1 is the velocity of the initial circular orbit. Solving for the semi-
major axis in Eq. 12.4:

c 8GMT 2

1p1 ` αq “

π2

Substituting R1, thus obtained, in the first equation and simplifying: c

”?
´

2ı

´2

2T ¯1{3

1`α?

´1`

2α ´

“ ∆vtot

GM π

Inserting the numerical values on the RHS:

1
¯

1`α?

´1`

2α ´

« 0.5 .

It can be verified that α « 2. Hence:

8GM T 2

1“

« 0.01 au ,

1`α

π2

from which R2 “ αR1 « 0.02 au.

12.3

It is better to fire the engine at take-off. Indeed, looking at the result derived
in Pr. 12.4, it is best to maximize the rate of fuel consumption.

212

Chapter 14. Exercise Solutions

12.4

Since the rope is in equilibrium, the centrifugal force Fc due to the rotation
of the Earth is equal to the gravitational force Fg. Let λ be the linear density
of the rope. Let us consider an infinitesimal element of rope, of length dr and
mass dm “ λ dr, at a distance r from the centre of the Earth. The gravitational
force acting on this element is: GM

dF

Cλ

g prq “ gprq ¨ dm “

dr .

r2

The gravitational force on the rope is the sum (integral) of the contributions
from all infinitesimal elements:

ż h`RC GM

¯
F

Cλdr

g“

ñ Fg “ GMCλ

r2

C`h

where h is the total length of the rope. The centrifugal force on an

infinitesimal element is: dFcprq “ ω2r dm “ λω2r dr ,

where ω is the angular velocity of rotation of the Earth. The total centrifugal
force is then: ż RC`h

Fc “
λω2r dr ñ Fc “

λω2 2RCh ` h2 .

RC

Setting Fc “ Fg, we obtain:

h ¯2

2GMC

`3

`2´

“0.

RC

RC

ω2R3C

Denoting with g “ GMC{R2 the gravitational acceleration on the surface of

the Earth and C

solving the quadratic equation in h{RC, we find:

1”
2g

´1`

´ 1 « 22.5 .

RC

ω2RC

The rope must be approximately 22.5 times longer than the Earth’s radius,
which corresponds to a length of 143000 km. The tension is maximum at the
point where the gravitational and centrifugal forces acting on an
infinitesimal element are the same. Equating dFg and dFc, it is clear this
happens at the distance of the geostationary orbit rgs « 42000 km.

The maximum tension is then σmax{ρ « 4.8 ¨ 107 N m/kg. This is much
greater than the maximum sustainable tension of any construction material.
For steel, the breaking point is about 2.6 ¨ 105 N m/kg, for carbon it is 1.7 ¨
106 N m/kg. One possible way to overcome this would be using a rope with
a variable cross-section.

12.5

The energetically optimal trajectory is an ellipse, with its perihelion and

aphelion tangent to the orbit of the Earth and the planet. Since the probe
returned on Earth at the same initial position, the entire flight must have
taken an integer number of years. Of course, this is impossible in the case of
an inner planet, since it would take less than a year. Therefore, we only need
to consider the case of an outer planet. The time of flight is twice the value
given in Eq. 12.4:

π2
T2

pdC ` dpq .

(14.12)

2GM@

The length of a year can be written as Tyr “ 2π

d3 {GM

@. Since T “ n Tyr, were n is an

integer, it follows that:

dp

3{2

? p1 `

.
(14.13)

22

dC

213

Writing dp,au “ dp{dC, isolating dp,au:

dp,au “ 2n2{3 ´ 1 .

(14.14)

Trying every integer, we see that n “ 12 gives dp “ 9.48 au, which is exactly
the distance of Saturn from the Sun.

12.6

Writing the density as mass divided by volume:

Mp

Ŕp ¯

Mp

R3p

2320 ` 3180

kg/m3 ñ

“ 9718R2

4
p ` 13320

{3πR3p

RC

Rp

RC

From Eq. 10.27,

the escape velocity from the planet is: d

2GMp

Ŕ3p ¯

vesc “

2G 9718R2

(14.15)

p ` 13320

RC

Assuming that friction with the atmosphere is negligible and that the rocket
expels all its fuel instantaneously (hence ignoring the effect of gravity, Pr.
12.4), we have: mi
´

vesc “ ∆v “ ve ln

“ 4460 ¨ ln

“ 14356 m/s .

(14.16)

mf

1 ´ 0.96

Substituting for vesc:

Ŕ3p ¯

2G 9718R2p ` 13320

“ 14356

RC

Ŕp ¯2

Ŕp ¯3

143562

9718

` 13320
“

RC

RC

2GR2C

Ŕp ¯2

Ŕp ¯3

9718

` 13320

“ 37979 ,

RC

RC

which can be solved numerically, giving Rp “ 1.21RC. If the expulsion of

fuel is not instantaneous, we need to use Eq. 15.18
(see Pr. 12.4). Assuming
the burn lasts for 10 minutes, the decrease in ∆v is approximately 0.25 km/s.
This leads to Rp “ 1.19RC. The atmosphere may reduce the ∆v by another 2
km/s, giving Rp “ 1.06RC.

13. Binary Stars

13.1

Using Eq. A.38,

we compute the following Taylor expansions:

∆δ2

cos pδ ` ∆δq “ cos δ śin δ∆δ ćos δ

` ... ,
2

∆δ2

sin pδ ` ∆δq “ sin δ ` cos δ∆δ śin δ

` ... ,

∆α2

cos ∆α “ 1 ´

` ... .

In Eq. 13.1,
the term in square brackets can then be written as:

∆δ2 ¯´

∆α2 ¯

∆δ2 ¯

cos δ cos δ śin δ∆δ ćos δ

1´

` sin δ sin δ ` cos δ∆δ śin δ

2
2

∆δ2

∆α2 ´

∆δ2 ¯

“1´

ćos2 δ śin δ cos δ∆δ ćos2 δ

214

Chapter 14. Exercise Solutions

If δ « 90˝, the term in round brackets is an infinitesimal of second order,

hence the term containing ∆α2 can be neglected, since it is an infinitesimal
of order higher than ∆δ2. Otherwise, the terms sin δ cos δ∆δ and ćos2 δ
∆δ2{2 inside the round brackets can be neglect, since much smaller than
cos2 δ. Hence, in general:

∆δ2

∆α2

d2 “ d21 ` d22 ´ 2d1d2 1 ´

ćos2 δ ,

proving Eq. 13.2.

13.2

Using Eq. 9.3,

we find dm “ 1{π2p,m “ 25.40 pc and da “ 1{π2p,a “ 25.06
pc. The differences in their right ascensions and declinations are ∆α “ 78s “
0.00567 rad and ∆δ “ 2262 “

0.0011 rad, respectively. Using Eq. 13.1:

∆δ2

∆α2

d“

d2m ` d2a ´ 2dmda 1 ´

ćos2 δm « 0.351 pc « 1.14 ly

Hence, Mizar and Alcor are close enough to form a binary system, the first
ever discovered.
Modern telescopes have since found that Mizar is itself a pair of binaries
(Mizar Aa, Mizar Ab, Mizar Ba, Mizar Bb), revealing what was once
thought of as a single star to be four stars orbiting each other. Alcor has been
sometimes considered a fifth member of the system, orbiting far away from
the Mizar quadruplet. Recently, astronomers have discovered that Alcor is
also a binary, gravitationally bound to the Mizar system.

The whole group is

therefore a sextuplet.

13.3

Using Eqs. 13.11

and 13.12,
we know that, when the larger star covers the
smaller entirely: L

min,1

R1 T1

0
R1 T1 ` R2 T2

Instead, when the smaller star partially eclipses the larger star: L

min,2

pR1 Ŕ2 qT1 ` R2 T2

R1 T1 ` R2 T2

Substituting R2 “ R1{4 and T2 “ T1{3, we find:

Lmin,1
1296

L0

1297

Lmin,2

1216

L0

1297

Therefore, the difference in magnitudes is:

Lmin,1

1296

∆m “ ´2.5 log

“ ´2.5 log

« ´0.069 .

Lmin,2

1216

13.4
The transit method consists in simultaneously monitoring the brightness of
thousands of stars, with the aim of identifying small periodic variations,
which could indicate the presence of orbiting bodies, known as extrasolar
planets.

Let Rs « R@ “ 6.96 ¨ 105 km, Rr “ 0.2R@ « 1.4 ¨ 105 km, rg “ RE “ 7.0 ¨

104 km and rt “ RC “ 6400 km be the radii of a Sun-like star, of a red dwarf,
of a gas giant and of an

215

Earth-like planet, respectively. During a transit, the brightness of the system

decreases by a factor equal to the ratio between the cross-sectional areas of
the orbiting planet and the host star. In the case of a Sun-like star:

ŕg ¯2

fs,g “

« 0.01 ñ 1 % ,

Rs

ŕt ¯2

fs,t “

« 0.0000845 ñ 0.0084 % .

Rs

While, for a red dwarf:

ŕg ¯2

fr,g “

« 0.25 ñ 25 % ,

Rn
ŕt ¯2

fr,t “

« 0.00209 ñ 0.209 % .

Rn

The decrease in brightness due to the transit of a gas giant is about 100 times
(or 5 magnitudes) greater than that due to an Earth-like planet. Given the
limited sensitivity of the tools available (about 0.1 %), it is clear that gas
giants are much more likely to be discovered than Earth-like planets, which
instead can only be found when orbiting a red dwarf. By measuring the
maximum variation in the brightness of the star, and estimating its radius
from the spectral class, it is possible to obtain the radius of the planet.
Furthermore, using the radial velocity method, it is possible to measure the
mass of the planet, thus obtaining an estimate of its density. The period of
variation of the brightness of the star gives the time of revolution, from
which it is then possible to derive the semi-major axis of the orbit. However,
it is very rare for the orbital plane of a system to coincide with our line of
sight. In fact, if we consider an Earth-like planet orbiting around a Sun-like
star, the angle of inclination can be at most θrad ă Rs{dC « 0.00465 rad for a
transit to be observable. The probability of this happening is 2π ¨
p2θradq{4π “ θrad, that is, only 1 in 200.

13.5

Let α “ R1{R2 be the ratio of the radii of the larger to the smaller star and β
“ T1{T2 the ratio of their temperatures. Using Eqs. 13.11
and 13.12,
in
conjunction with Eq. 8.5,
we find ∆1 and ∆2:

Lmin, 1

α2β4

∆1 “ ´2.5 log

“ ´2.5 log
,

Lmin, 2

pα2 ´ 1qβ4 ` 1

Lmin, 1

α2β4

∆2 “ ´2.5 log

“ ´2.5 log

L0

α2β4 ` 1

Raising both equations to exponents of 10:

α2β4

“ 10´0.4∆1 ,

pα2 ´ 1qβ4 ` 1

α2β4

“ 10´0.4∆2 .

α2β4 ` 1

Solve for α2β4 in the second equation:

10´0.4∆2

α2β4 “
.

1 ´ 10´0.4∆2

Solving for β4 in the first equation, writing it as a function of α2β4: α2β4

“ 10´0.4∆1

α2β4 ` 1 ´ β4

ñ β4 “ 1 ´ α2β4p100.4∆1 ´ 1q .

216

Chapter 14. Exercise Solutions

Hence, inserting the expression for α2β4 obtained earlier: 10´0.4∆2

β4 “ 1 ´

p100.4∆1 ´ 1q ñ β « 0.533 .

1 ´ 10´0.4∆2

Substituting the numerical value of β in the equation for α2β4, we find α: 10

´0.4∆2
α2 “

ñ α « 1.289 .

1 ´ 10´0.4p∆2´∆1q

If we had not know that R1 ą R2, T1 ă T2 we would have had to examine

two cases, according to which minimum was the deepest.

13.6

Figure 14.15: a) Initial shape of the orbits, b) smallest eccentricity for which
they intersect.

The bodies must be diametrically opposite at all times, relative to their

centre of mass, and their distances must obeys the relation m dm “ 2m d2m,
i.e. dm “ 2d2m. Therefore, their orbits must have coincident apse lines and
equal eccentricities. Furthermore, when one body is at minimum distance
from the centre of mass, the other must also be at minimum distance, hence
their orbits are flipped relative to the minor axis. From Fig. 14.15
b), we see
that the orbits intersect if:

Rp1 èq ` 2Rp1 èq “ 4R ñ e “ 3

13.7

Let’s calculate the velocity of the Sun with respect to the centre of mass of
the system, using Eq. 13.6
and taking i “ 90˝, since the orbit of the planet is
on our line of sight.

2πG

1{3

v1 “ m2
.

pm1 ` m2q T

The frequency shift is given by the Doppler formula:

1{3

v1

m2

2πG

∆f “

f“

pm1 ` m2q T
In the case of the Sun-Jupiter system, we take m1 “ M@ and m2 “ ME.
Since ME ! M@, we can neglect the mass of Jupiter at denominator,
obtaining: M „ 2πG 1{3

∆f

M2

@T

217

If we observe with a telescope in the visible region of the electromagnetic

spectrum, λ «

550 nm. The orbital period of Jupiter can be measured from the periodicity
with which f varies. Using T “ 11.86 years “ 3.74 ¨ 108 s:

∆f « 2.49 ¨ 107 Hz ,

which corresponds to a wavelength shift of:

λ2

∆λ “

∆f “ 2.51 ¨ 10´5 nm .

Hence, the resolution needed is λ{∆λ « 2 ¨ 107.

13.8

Optical binaries

Regardless of the orientation of the system, at some point in time the

segment connecting the stars will be perpendicular to the line of sight. Since
its length is 1 au, and the limiting angle is 0.12, such a segment is visible
from a distance of 10 pc. At this distance, the apparent magnitude of each
star is equal to its absolute magnitude, which is equal to that of the Sun (M@
“ 4.83), and is more than enough for observations with an astrograph. As a
result, it will be possible to resolve all binary systems inside a sphere of
radius 10 pc. The number of such systems is:

´4

o“n

πdo

« 4 stars .

Eclipsing binaries

Eclipsing systems can be registered with a photometer. Its accuracy is 0.001

magnitudes, so we can assume that only a small partial eclipse is sufficient
for registration, i.e. the apparent disks of the stars need only touch each other
slightly. In this case, the angle between the line connecting the centres of the
stars and the direction to the observer is:

2R
γ“

“ 0.0094 rad .

dC

Such eclipses can be observed if the perpendicular to the plane of rotation of

the stars lays on a thin ring with angular width 2γ, centred on the plane
perpendicular to the direction of the observer. This ring covers an area of
2πp2γq, whilst the area of the whole sphere is 4π, hence the probability that
the stars eclipse each other is: 4πγ

pe “

“γ.

4π

In addition, the binary system must be observable with a photometer. Since it

consists of two Sun-like stars, each with absolute magnitude M “ 4.83, the
total magnitude of the system is:

M “ ´2.5 log 2 ¨ 10´0.4M “ M ´ 2.5 log 2 “ 4.83 ´ 0.75 « 4 .

The distance at which the system will have an apparent magnitude of 15 is:
M ´ m “ ´5 log dè 5 ñ de “ 10´0.2pM´mq`1 « 1600 pc ,

from which we obtain:

´4

e “ nγ

πde
“ 1.6 ¨ 105 stars .

Spectroscopic binaries

To determine the number of spectroscopic binaries, we find the velocities of

the stars about the centre of rotation. From Kepler’s third law (Eq. 10.20),
the orbital period is:

d3

T “ 2π

2GM

218

Chapter 14. Exercise Solutions

Since each star is at a distance dC{2 from the centre of rotation, their linear
velocities are: d

2πd

2GM

GM

v
C{2

d3

2d

The stars travel in opposite direction, hence their maximum relative velocity
is twice as high.

If the perpendicular to the plane of rotation of the binary system is inclined

by an angle i to the direction of the observer, the observed relative speed is:
vrel “ 2v sin i .

The Doppler shift implies ∆λ{λ “ vrel{c, hence the resolution limit requires
the inclination to be greater than:

2 sin i
GM

2d

10´5

ñ sin i “

¨ 10´5 “ 0.071 rad « 4˝ .

2dC

GM

As a result, the area suitable for observation covers almost the whole sphere,
with the exclusion of a patch of area 2πp2iq. Hence, the spectroscopic binary
can be observed with a probability of:

4π ´ 4πi

ps “

“ 1 í “ 0.93 .

4π

The magnitude of the system must be greater than 12, hence the limiting
distance is: ds “ 10´0.2pM´mq`1 « 400 pc .

The number of such systems is therefore:

´4

s “ nps

πds

“ 2.5 ¨ 105 stars .

This gives an idea of how few binary systems are optical binaries. Instead,
the number of eclipsing and spectroscopic binaries are on the same order of
magnitude, and are approximately 105 more frequent than optical binaries. If
the stars eclipse each other, the photometer can be used in conjunction with a
spectrometer to better determine the characteristics of the binary.

15

Problem Solutions

1. Celestial Coordinate Systems

1.1 The seasons

The temperature of a location on the surface of the Earth is proportional to

the flux incident on it. The flux depends on both the distance to the Sun and
on the inclination of the solar rays. Let us examine which of the two effects
gives rise to the greatest variation in temperature. Let a be the semi-major
axis of the Earth’s orbit and e its eccentricity. The maximum and minimum
Sun-Earth distances are:

dmax “ p1 èqa ,
dmin “ p1 éqa .

Since the flux is proportional to the inverse of the distance squared, the ratio
of the fluxes at aphelion and perihelion is:

Fa

´ 1 é ¯2

« 0.94 .

Fp

1è

Let us now examine how the flux varies with the altitude of the Sun. If the
Sun’s rays form an angle h relative to the ground, those passing through a
section of area A (perpendicular to the direction of the rays) are distributed
on Earth on a surface of area A{ sin h. The angle h is just the altitude of the
Sun. The declinations of the Sun during the summer and winter solstices are
and ´, respectively, where “ 23 ˝271 is the obliquity of the ecliptic. For an
observer in the northern hemisphere, the corresponding altitudes of the Sun
are: hs “ 90 ˝ ´ φ ` ,

hw “ 90 ˝ ´ φ ´ .

The flux is inversely proportional to the area on which the Sun’s rays are
distributed: Fs

sin p90 ˝ ´ φ ` q

Fw
sin p90 ˝ ´ φ ´ q

For intermediate latitudes (φ « 45 ˝), we find:

Fs “ 2.5 .

Fw

As the Sun-Earth distance varies, the flux arriving on Earth changes at most
by 6 %, while, as the declination of the Sun changes, the flux varies by
approximately 250 %, at intermediate latitudes. Of course, the change in
temperature is mitigated by the atmosphere. The Earth is close to aphelion
during the summer solstice and close to perihelion during the winter solstice.
Hence, the winter in the northern hemisphere is milder than the winter in the
southern hemisphere, while the summer is slightly warmer.

219

220

Chapter 15. Problem Solutions

1.2 Rotation of the Earth

Buildings rotate with the same angular velocity ω as the Earth. While the
speed of the Earth’s surface is ωRC cos φ, the speed of an object launched
from the top of a building with height h is ωpRC ` hq cos φ, where φ is the
latitude of the place. The relative velocity is therefore ωh cos φ and remains
constant during the fall, if we neglect the curvature of the Earth and friction
with the air. Since the vertical motion is uniformly accelerated, h “ gt2{2, a

hence the object hits the ground after a time t “

2h{g. The horizontal distance travelled

is therefore d “ ωh
2h{g cos φ. A body dropped from the Leaning Tower of Pisa (h “ 57 m, φ “
44˝) travels a horizontal distance of d « 1 cm.

The above calculation is not entirely correct, as it assumes that the horizontal
speed of the body is constant. In reality, since the object moves tangentially
and the Earth is curved, the gravitational force gradually moves away from
the initial vertical, acquiring a component in the tangential direction and
decelerating the body accordingly. This correction adds a factor of 2{3 in
front of the expression previously obtained. We can show this by either
considering an inertial or an accelerating frame.

Inertial frame If the ball has moved a distance x to the right, then the
westward component of gravity is approximately gpx{RCq. To the leading
order, the distance travelled horizontally is x “ RCωt cos φ, so the sideways
acceleration is a “ ωgt cos φ. Integrating the last expression, using pRC `
hqω cos φ as the initial speed, we obtain the horizontal speed: 1

vptq “ pR ` hqω cos φ ´

ωgt2 cos φ

Integrating again, we find the horizontal distance as a function of time: 1

xptq “ pR ` hqωt cos φ ´

ωgt3 cos φ

Subtracting off the distance travelled by the base of the tower: 1

∆x “ hωt cos φ ´

ωgt3 cos φ

6
a

For small deflections, we can substitute t “

2h{g in the above equation:

2h

2h

2h

2h

∆x “ hω

cos φ ´

ωg

cos φ ñ ∆x “

hω

cos φ

6
g

Accelerating frame

In general, the Coriolis force is given by Fc “ ´2m~

ωˆ~

v. In this

case, the angle between ~

ω and ~

v is π{2 ´ φ, hence the Coriolis force is directed eastward with magnitude

2mωpgtq cos φ, where gt is the vertical speed at time t.

Note that the

ball is deflected eastward, with acceleration 2ωgt, independent of which

hemisphere it is in.

Integrating the last expression, we obtain the eastward speed (which is

initially zero) as a function of time vptq “ ωgt2. Integrating again, we find a
total displacement of x “ ωgt3{3.

Substituting t “

2h{g, we recover the previous result.

1.3 Foucault’s Pendulum

If the pendulum is located at the north pole, the solution is simple: for an
inertial observer hovering above the north pole, the pendulum’s plane of
oscillation appears stationary (because of the conservation of angular
momentum), while the Earth below it rotates anti-clockwise with a period of
Tsid. Hence, for an observer at the poles, the plane of the pendulum rotates
clockwise with period T “ Tsid. On the other hand, for an observer at latitude
φ, the rotation of the Earth can be decomposed into a component pointing
along the vertical line, and another pointing along the horizon (Fig. 15.1).
The component along the vertical line

221

Figure 15.1: Components of the angular velocity of Earth’s rotation for an

observer at latitude φ.

is ωF “ ω sin φ. We are only interested in this component, since the

component along the horizon just modifies the effective gravitational
acceleration experienced by the pendulum.

Hence, since ω “ 2π{Tsid, we finally get T “ Tsid{ sin φ. For an observer on

the equator, the pendulum’s plane of oscillation appears stationary.

1.4 Dip of the horizon with refraction

The effective curvature of the Earth is simply diminished by the curvature of

the ray: the Earth’s curvature is 1{R, the ray’s curvature is k{R, and the
difference of the curvatures is Reff “ p1 ´ kq{R. The value of k mostly
depends on the temperature gradient. It turns out that in normal conditions, k
ranges between 1{6 to 1{7 at sea level, and is smaller on sunny days or at
higher elevations. On the other hand, when there is a strong temperature
inversion, k can reach, or exceed, unity. The case k “ 1 corresponds to
horizontal rays that orbit the Earth indefinitely. Values larger than 1
correspond to ducting conditions; if the observer is inside the duct, a pseudo-
horizon appears above the astronomical one, a remarkable phenomenon that
really is observed.

2. Transformation of Coordinates

2.1 Upper and Lower Culmination

Consider a location at latitude φ and a star of declination δ.

For an inertial observer, the Earth’s axis is fixed (because of the conservation
of angular momentum), and the direction of the star is also fixed, since the
celestial equatorial coordinates are independent of time. Looking at Fig. 15.2
(overleaf), we see that the altitudes of the star at lower and upper
culmination are:

hmin “ δ ´ p90˝ ´ φq “ δ ` φ ´ 90˝ ,

hmax “ δ ` p90˝ ´ φq “ 90˝ ´ φ ` δ .

where, by convention, hmax is measured from the south and hmin from the
north.

Now consider the reference system of an observer on Earth. Since the

direction of the Earth’s axis remains constant, the polar star appears fixed in
the sky, while all other stars circle around it. A star with declination δ
describes a circle with radius equal to the angle between the polar star and
itself, i.e. 90˝ ´ δ. The polar star forms an angle φ with the northern horizon.

Looking at Fig.

15.3
(overleaf), the altitudes of lower and upper culmination are:

hmin “ φ ´ p90˝ ´ δq “ δ ` φ ´ 90˝ ,

hmax “ 180˝ ´ φ ´ p90˝ ´ δq “ 90˝ ´ φ ` δ .
222

Chapter 15. Problem Solutions

Figure 15.2: Inertial reference system of the Earth.

Figure 15.3: Reference system for an observer on Earth.

223

3. Perturbation of Coordinates

3.1 Precession of the Equinoxes

Let us first calculate the contribution of the Sun. The origin of our
coordinate system is the centre of the Earth. Let ~

R be the position vector of the Sun, and ~

r the position vector of an

infinitesimal element of the Earth, with mass dm. The gravitational force
between the Sun and the element is:

GM

d~

F“

p~

R´~

rq dm .

|~

R´~
r|3

The torque about the centre of the Earth is then:

GM

GM ´

R¨~

r¯

d~

τ“~

rˆd~

F“

p~

Rˆ~

rq dm «

1`3

p~

Rˆ~

rq dm ,

|~

R´~
r|3

R3

R2

where we have used ~

ˆ~

r “ 0 and p1 ` xq

« 1 ` nx for x ! 1, with x “ |~

r|{| ~

R| and

n “ 3. The total torque is obtained by integrating the last equation over the
whole ellipsoid.

Separating the vector relation into components, we first compute τx: GM ż

ŕxRx ` ryRy ` rzRz ¯

τx “

1`3

pryRz ŕzRyq dm .

R3

R2

When solving the integral, we see that all factors of the form ş rx dm and ş
rxry dm are equal to zero. Indeed, by symmetry, there are as many elements
with rx ě 0 as there are with rx ď 0. Hence, summing (integrating) over the
whole ellipsoid, every element simplifies with its symmetric about the yz
plane, giving a net zero contribution. The only non-zero factors are those of
the form ş r2x dm:

3GM

τx “

RyRz

r2

r2

R5

y dm ź dm

The integrals ş r2ydm, ş r2zdm are the moments of inertia about the
principal axes y and z, hence: 3GM

τx “

RyRzrIyy Ízzs .

R5

We then obtain τy and τz by cyclically permuting x, y, z: 3GM

3GM

τy “

RzRxrIzz Íxxs ,

τz “

RxRyrIxx Íyys .

R5

R5

It is possible to write the position of the Sun ~

R as a function of its ecliptic longitude. Looking

at Fig. 15.4
(overleaf), we see that the components of ~

R are:

$Rx “ R sin λ cos

&

Ry “ R cos λ

%Rz “ R sin λ sin .

The torque in the y direction is then:

3GM

τy “
sin2 λ sin cos rIzz Íxxs .

R3

Denoting with xτyy the time average of τy and with xsin2 λy the time
average of the square of the sine of the ecliptic longitude, we have:

3GM

3GM

xτyy “

sin cos rIzz Íxxsxsin2 λy ñ xτyy “

sin cos rIzz Íxxs ,

R3

2R3

224

Chapter 15. Problem Solutions

Figure 15.4: The position of the Sun ~

R can be written as a function of its ecliptic longitude λ, which can be

assumed to increase uniformly throughout a year.

where we have assumed that λ increases linearly with time, i.e. that the
Earth’s orbit can be approximated as circular, so that:

1żT

´ 2π ¯

xsin2 λy “

sin2

t dt “

During a year, the torque is maximum at the solstices and minimum at the
equinoxes. From the equation for xτyy, we see that the average torque
throughout a year is equal to the average of the torque at a solstice and at an
equinox. We can also show that τx, τz are proportional to sin λ cos λ, but
since xsin λ cos λy “ 0, we have xτxy “ xτzy “ 0. From the formula for xτyy,
we see that the torque is proportional to M {R3. Therefore, the ratio of the
contribution of the Moon and the contribution of the Sun is:

M$ R3
M$ Ŕ ¯3

@“

« 2.17 .

R3$ M@

M@

R$

In fact, this number is slightly different, since the orbit of the Moon is
inclined by i “ 5˝91 «

0.09 radians with respect to the ecliptic. Therefore, the position of the Moon
ranges from

ì to í, and it can be shown that this leads to a correction factor of 1 ´ 0.092 «

0.992.

Hence, the combined effect of the Sun and the Moon is equal to 3.15 the
effect of the Sun alone. Setting Izz “ Ip and Ixx “ Ie, the total torque acting
on the Earth is: 3GM

tot “ 3.15 ¨

sin cos rIp Íes .

2R3@
As a result of this torque, the angular momentum vector of the Earth
describes a double cone, in which only the component of the angular
momentum perpendicular to the ecliptic changes with time. The value of this
component is LK “ Ip ω sin , hence we have: d~

2π

“~

Ωpr ˆ ~

L ñ xτtoty “

LK .

dt

Tpr

Isolating Tpr:

4πωR3

Ip

pr “

« 25300 years .

3.15
GM 3 cos I

p Íe

This is the precession period of the Earth’s axis, with an error of about 2 %.

The value of Ip{pIp Íeq can be estimated from the eccentricity of the Earth.
It is well known

225

that the moments of inertia of an ellipsoid of revolution along the polar and
equatorial axes are: 2

Ip “

M a2 ,

Ie “

M pa2 ` b2q .

Hence:

Ip Íe

a2 ´ b2

.
Ie

2a2

Since the equatorial and polar radii are a “ RC “ 6378 km and b “ Rp “ 6357
km, respectively; we conclude that pIp Íeq{Ie « 0.00335 « 1{300.

4. Observation and Instruments

4.1 Combination of thin lenses

The image formed by the first lens is located at the same position as if the
second lens were not present. It serves as the object for the second lens,
whose image is the final image of the system. Let p be the distance of the
object from the first lens and let f1, f2 be the focal lengths of the first and
second lenses. Then, according to Eq. 4.6:

q1

f1

where q1 is the distance of the image from the first lens. Treating the image
formed by the first lens as the object for the second lens, we see that the
object distance for the second lens must be p2 “ ´q1 (the lenses are in contact
and assumed to be infinitesimally thin). Let q be the distance of the final
image from the second lens. We then have: 1

q1

f2

Summing the two equations, q1 simplifies, and we are left with: 1

f1f2

“
ñ feff “

f1

f2

feff

f1 ` f2

4.2 Lens maker’s equation

Assuming all angles are small in Fig. 15.5

(overleaf), we see that α, β, γ are
given by: d

α“

β“

γ“

(15.1)

p
R1

q1

The angles of incidence and refraction are θi “ α`β and θr “ β ´ γ; hence, by

Snell’s law: n1θ1 “ n2θ2

n1pα ` βq “ n2pβ ´ γq

´1

1¯

1¯

n1d

“ n2d

R1

R1

q1

Therefore, we find:

n1
n2

n2 ń1

q1

R1

Now, suppose the back of the refractive material has a radius of curvature
R2, and that the overall lens is infinitesimally thin. As in Pr. 4.1, the image
formed by R1 acts as the object for R2, so p2 “ ´q1. Let q be the distance of
the final image from R2, then: n2

n1

n1 ń2

q1

R2
226

Chapter 15. Problem Solutions

Figure 15.5: Refraction of light rays originating from a point P at a distance

p from a spherical surface with radius R1. The image forms at a distance q1.

Summing the two above equations, we obtain:

n1

n1

1¯

“ pn2 ń1q

´
.

R2

R1

Setting n1 “ 1 (i.e. the index of refraction of air) and n2 “ n, we recover Eq.

4.5:

1¯

“ pn ´ 1q

R2

R1

4.3 Airy Disk

The source (S) produces spherical waves with a strength aS, and is at a
distance s from the aperture element at px, yq. The wave arriving at the
element is therefore: aseiks

ψ1prq “

The aperture, denoted by Σ, can change the amplitude or phase of the

incident radiation, and its transmission properties can be described by the
aperture function, hpx, yq. Usually h “ 0 or 1 for obstructing or open areas
respectively. By Huygens’ principle, the aperture element can now be
considered to act as a source of secondary, spherical, wavelets with a
strength and phase given by:

aap 9 ψ1hpx, yqdx dy .

Next, we need to calculate the amplitude of the secondary wavelet reaching

the observation point (P), which is a distance r away from the aperture
element. This amplitude is given by: eikr

dψp 9 aap

In reality, Huygens’ principle is not exact, since the simple idea of spherical
wavelets would lead to a backward-propagating wave-front as well as a
forward-propagating one, which is not observed experimentally. To fix
Huygens’ principle, we should multiply the previous equation by the
obliquity factor Kpθq, which describes the fall-off in intensity of the
wavelets with angle θ away from the forward direction. However, assuming
angles are small (Fraunhofer regime), Kpθq « 1. To calculate the total
amplitude at point P, we finally sum over all aperture elements:

żż
aseiks eikr

ψp 9

hpx, yq

dx dy .

227

Consider the diffraction pattern in a plane at a distance L from the aperture

(Fig. 4.9).
We denote the coordinates of a point P in this plane by px0, y0q.
We will assume that the source S

is a large distance behind the aperture (and centred on the aperture) so that s
Ñ 8 and the aperture is illuminated with a plane wave at normal incidence.
Using the coordinate system shown in Fig. 4.9,
we find the distance r from
the aperture element at px, yq to point P: r2

“ L2 ` px ´ x0q ` py ´ y0q

“ L2 ` x20 ` y20 ´ 2pxx0 ` yy0q ` x2 ` y2

xx0 ` yy0

x2 ` y2 ¯

“ R2 1 ´ 2
`

R2

R2

where R2 “ L2 ` x20 ` y20. Using the binomial expansion, we obtain: xx0 `

yy0

r«R´

where we have assumed that the last term can be neglected, i.e. that: x2 ` y2

!π,

2R

The wave amplitude at P is then given by the integral: ż ż

xx0 ` yy0 )

ψp 9

hpx, yq exp ík

dx dy .

Σ
Changing to a polar coordinate system, we substitute dx dy with ρ dρ dφ and
x, y with ρ cos φ

and ρ sin φ, respectively:

ż D{2 ż 2π

"

0 cos φ ` y0 sin φ

ψp 9

ρ exp íkρ

dφ dρ .

Since we expect the diffraction patter to be circular symmetric, it suffices to

study the intensity along a given direction, say x. Then, setting y0 “ 0 in the
previous equation, and substituting x0 “ R sin ξ, we have:

ż D{2 ż 2π

ψp9

ρeíkρ sin ξ cos φdφ dρ

0
ż D{2

“ 2π

ρJ0pkρ sin ξq dρ

2π

ż kD{2 sin ξ

kρJ0pkρ sin ξq dpkρ sin ξq

k2 sin2 ξ 0

2π

Dk sin ξ

´ kD sin ξ ¯

J1

k2 sin2 ξ

Which can be written as:

J1pπD sin ξ{λq

ψp 9

πD sin ξ{λ

where we have substituted k “ 2π{λ. We know that the first root of J1pxq is
at x “ 3.8317.

Hence, the first minimum in the intensity is at:

πD sin ξ

3.8317 λ

“ 3.8317 ñ ξ “

ξ « 1.2197

228

Chapter 15. Problem Solutions

As we wanted to show. Since ψp must be circular symmetric, its general

form is: a

J1pπD
sin2 ξ ` sin2 θ{λq

ψp9

πD

sin2 ξ ` sin2 θ{λ

To calculate the diffraction pattern of an elliptical aperture, let us define x1,

y1, such that x1 “ ρ cos φ, y1 “ pb{aq ρ sin φ and x12 ` y12 “ a2{ρ2 is a
circle of radius a{ρ. The amplitude at point P“ px0, y0q on the diffraction
screen is:

żż

xx0 ` yy0 )

ψppx0, y0q 9

hpx, yq exp ík

dx dy

ż a ż 2π

x0 cos φ ` b y0 sin φ
b

exp íkρ

ρ dφ dρ

ż a ż 2π

x0 cos φ ` b y0 sin φ

ρ exp íkρ

dφ dρ

0
We can then write:

ż a ż 2π

"

x0 cos φ ` y0 sin φ

ψp x0,

y0 9

ρ exp íkρ

dφ dρ

J1pπa

x20 ` y20{pλRqq

,
a

πa

x20 ` y20{pλRq

which follows from the circular symmetric solution found earlier. Therefore,
substituting pa{bq y0 Ñ y0:

J1pπa

x2

0 ` pb{aq2y2

0 {pλRqq

ppx0, y0q 9

πa

x20 ` pb{aq2y20{pλRq

J1pπ

a2x20 ` b2y20{pλRqq

a
πa

a2x20 ` b2y20{pλRq

Hence, we obtain:

J1pπ

a2 sin2 ξ ` b2 sin2 θ{λq

ψppx0, y0q 9

πa

a2 sin2 ξ ` b2 sin2 θ{λ

5. Time System

5.1 Effect of ecliptic obliquity on the equation of time The ecliptic longitude
of the Sun is β@ “ 0˝. Substituting β@ in the system of equations

2.12,
we have:

$ sin α cos δ “ cos sin λ

&

cos α cos δ “ cos λ

% sin δ “ sin sin λ .

Dividing the first equation by the second, discarding the first: $ tan α “ cos
tan λ

&

cos α cos δ “ cos λ

% sin δ “ sin sin λ .

229

Differentiating the first equation with respect to time, assuming is constant:

1

dα

cos dλ

cos2 α dt

cos2 λ dt

Substituting cos α “ cos λ{ cos δ, obtained from the second equation: dα

cos dλ

dt
cos2 δ dt

which is what we wanted to show. This formula shows that the angular
velocity of the Sun varies throughout the year because:

• dλ{dt is not constant, but is greatest at perihelion and smallest at aphelion;

• cos { cos2 δ varies from a minimum of cos when δ “ 0˝, to a maximum of

1{ cos

when δ “ .

5.2 Equation of time

Both the energy and the angular momentum are conserved: GmM

E“´

mv2 ,

L “ m r vt “ m r ω2 ,

(15.2)

where vt is the tangential velocity and ω “ dθ{dt is the angular velocity. The
total velocity v is obtained by solving the equation for the energy: c 2 ´

GmM ¯

v“

È
.

In an elliptical orbit, the energy is:

GmM

E“´

2a

The angular momentum can be calculated by considering the instant when

the body is in perihelion:

2´

GmM ¯

L “ mrpvp “ mrp

rp

2´

GmM

GmM ¯
“ map1 éq

2a

ap1 éq

“ mp1 éq

GM a

´1 ` 1 é

“m

1 é2 GM a .

Thus, the angular velocity is:

dθ

?
?

p1 è cos θq

“m

1 é2 GM a

dt

mr2

a2p1 é2q2

c GM

p1 è cos θq

a3

p1 é2q3{2

as we wanted to show. The angular velocity of the Sun on the ecliptic is thus:
c

dλ

GM

2
p1 è cos θq

dt

a3

p1 é2q3{2

230

Chapter 15. Problem Solutions

From Pr. 5.1, the projection of this motion on the celestial equator is: dα

cos dλ

.
dt

cos2 δ dt

The declination of the Sun can be obtained from the ecliptic longitude, using
Eq. 2.12c:

sin δ “ sin sin λ .

Hence, we have:

dα

cos

GM

r1 è cos pλ ´ γqs

dt

1 śin2 sin2 λ

a3

p1 é2q3{2

where we have substituted θ “ λ ´ γ. Since θ “ 0˝ corresponds to the direction

of perihelion and λ “ 0˝ to the direction of the vernal point, γ is the angular
distance between the perihelion and the vernal point. The Earth transits
through perihelion on the 5th of January, while the spring equinox is on the
21st of March, i.e. 76 days later. Hence γ “ p76{365.25q ¨
360˝ « 75˝. Denoting with Ts “ 2πpdα{dtq´1, the length of the true solar day
is: 1

TsidTs

ñ Tsol “

Tsol

Tsid

Ts

Ts ´ Tsid

The difference between the length of a given day and the mean solar day is
therefore Tsol ´

86400 s. For a given day, the equation of time is the sum of all these
differences from the 1st of January up to that day. We can then draw the
analemma by calculating the altitude and the azimuth of the true Sun at each
day of the year, using the system of Eqs. 2.4.

In the following plots, each point represents the position of the Sun seen at a
given day. The equation of time and the analemma for an observer at latitude
φ “ 45˝, at time 12 : 00, is shown in Figs. 15.6
a) and b), respectively. In
Figs. 15.7
a), b) and c) we see the shape of the analemma for an observer at
latitude φ “ 45˝, at observation times 10 : 00, 12 : 00 and 14 : 00,
respectively. In Figs. 15.8
a), b) and c) we compare the shape of the
analemma, at time 10 : 00, for observers at latitudes 90˝, 45˝ and 0˝,
respectively. Finally, in Figs. 15.9

a), b) and c), we see the equation of time if the eccentricity of Earth’s orbit
were 10 times smaller, the current value, and 10 times larger, respectively.
You can find my code for this exercise on the web page of the book; have
fun experimenting with different cases!

Figure 15.6: a) Equation of time, b) analemma at latitude φ “ 45˝ and time

12:00.

Figure 15.7: Analemma at latitude 45˝ and times a) 10:00 , b) 12:00 and c)
14:00.

231

Figure 15.8: Analemma at time 10:00, for observers at latitudes a) 90˝, b)

45˝ and c) 0˝.

Figure 15.9: The equation of time if the eccentricity were a) 10 times

smaller, b) the current value and c) 10 times larger.

6. The Moon

6.1 Meton cycle

Lunar cycles depend on the relative position between the Sun and the Moon.
The position of the Sun relative to the Earth varies with a periodicity of one
tropical year (ttr “ 365.24d).

The position of the Moon is the same, relative to the Earth, every synodic
period (tsyn “

29.53d). The length of a Meton cycle is therefore the smallest interval of

time that contains an integer number of tropical years and synodic months.
For n, m integers, we must have: x

“n,

“m.

29.53

365.24

Dividing the first equation by the second:

n “ 12.36844 .

We try several values of m and check whether n is approximatively integer.

Note that varying m is easier than varying n, since m is smaller by one order
of magnitude, and we therefore need to try fewer cases. By inspection, we
find m “ 19, which gives n “ 235.0003 « 235.

Hence, the Meton cycle is equal to 19 tropical years, or 235 synodic months.

6.2 Anomalistic month

Let ωa “ 2π{Ta and ωsid “ 2π{Tsid be the angular velocities of rotation of

the apse line and of the Moon, respectively, where Ta “ 8.8504 years “
3232.665 days and Tsid “ 27.322 days.
Since both the apse line and the Moon rotate in the anti-clockwise direction,
the relative angular velocity is ωr “ ωsid ´ ωa. Then:

TaTsid

ñ Tan “

« 27.554 days .

Tan

Tsid

Ta

Ta ´ Tsid

The anomalistic month is 5h35m longer than the sidereal month.

232

Chapter 15. Problem Solutions

6.3 Measuring the distance of the Moon

As already found in Ex. 6.5, the distances between an observer on the Earth
and the Moon at zenith or on the horizon are, respectively:

dz “ d$ ŔC ,

dh “

d2$ Ŕ2 .

The angular diameter of the Moon in these two cases is: D

tan α

z“

ñ αz,rad «

dz

d$ ŔC

D
D

tan α

h“

ñ αh,rad «

d2$ Ŕ2C

Dividing the two equations:

´ αz,rad ¯2

pd$ ŔCq

αh,rad

d2$ Ŕ2C

Denoting with α “ αz,rad{αh,rad “ 237{233 and solving the second order

equation for d$, we finally obtain:
a

1`

1 ´ p1 ´ α4q

d$ “ RC

« 375000 km ,

α2 ´ 1

which is 9000 km smaller than the true value.

6.4 Distance of the Moon, another method

Figure 15.10: The zenith distance is measured when the declination of the
Moon is a) minimum and b) maximum, respectively, from a place of latitude
φ.

The apparent position of the Moon changes because of parallax. In Fig.

15.10
b), consider triangle OPM. We see that =POM “ φ ´ δmax and =OPM
“ 180˝ źu, so it follows that

=PMO “ 180˝´pφ´δmax`180˝źuq “ zu´φ`δmax. Using the law of sines (Eq.

A.13):

OP

OM

sin p=PMOq

sin p=OPMq
Substituting OP “ RC and OM “ d$, using the reduction formulae (Appendix
A.3):

d$

sin zu

RC

sin pzu ´ φ ` δmaxq

233

Similarly, looking at Fig. 15.10

a), we obtain a second equation for d${RC.
It is sufficient to swap δmax with ´|δmin| and zu with zl in the previous
formula: d$

sin zl

RC

sin pzl ´ φ ´ |δmin|q

Since the orbit of the Moon is symmetric with respect to the celestial
equator, δmax “

|δmin| “ δ. The problem then reduces to solving the system of equations: $ d

sin z

’
$

& RC

sin pzu ´ φ ` δq

sin z

% RC

sin pzl ´ φ ´ δq

Dividing the two equations, we find:

sin zu
sin pzu ´ φ ` δq

sin zl

sin pzl ´ φ ´ δq

Since δ is the only unknown, the above equation can be solved numerically,
giving δ « 28.6˝.

Finally, substituting the value of δ in one of the above equations, we find

d${RC « 60.1.

Knowing that the obliquity of the ecliptic is “ 23˝271, we then obtain the
angle between the plane of the lunar orbit and the ecliptic: i “ δ ´ “ 5.15 “
5˝91.

6.5 Lunar influence

Let x$ and xC be the respective distances of the Moon and the Earth from
the centre of mass of the Earth-Moon system. Then:

CxC “ M$x$ ñ x$ “

xC .

M$

The Earth-Moon distance is d$ “ xC ` x$ “ 3.844 ¨ 105 km. Hence,

substituting x$ in the equation for d$, we find:
´

$“1`

xC ñ xC “

« 4670 km .

M$

1 ` MC{M$

Suppose there is a first quarter Moon during the vernal equinox. Then, the
centre of mass of the Earth-Moon system starts at a distance xC behind the
Earth. Since there are approximately 12.5 synodic months in a year, at the
end of the year there will be a last quarter Moon. At that moment, the centre
of mass will be at a distance xC in front of the Earth.

Therefore, the centre of mass will have travelled an additional distance of

2xC, compared to the average. Since the orbital velocity of the centre of
mass is constant, the time taken to cover this additional distance is:

2x

d
∆t

“ 2xC

« 310 s “ 5m10s .

vC

GM@

The next year, there is a last quarter Moon during the vernal equinox, hence
the centre of mass of the system starts at a distance xC in front of the Earth.
At the end of the year there will be a first quarter Moon, hence the centre of
mass will now be at a distance xC behind the Earth. Therefore, the centre of
mass has travelled a distance smaller by 2xC, compared to the average, and
the duration of this year will be ∆t shorter. Since the year before was ∆t
longer than the average, the difference in length of the two years is 2∆t «
10m20s.

234

Chapter 15. Problem Solutions

6.6 Longitudinal libration

Let us first find an estimate for the amplitude of longitudinal libration. The
velocity of the Moon at aphelion is (see Ex. 10.9):

1è
GM

1é

a$

Therefore, the angular velocity at aphelion is:

1è

GM

riv “

p1 éqa$

p1 éq3
a3$

Since the Moon rotates with angular velocity ω2

rot “ GMC{a3

$ about its axis (equal, on

average, to that of revolution), after a time t we will observe an additional

angle of the Moon:

1è

2A “ pωriv ´ ωrotqt “

GMC{a3$

´1t.

p1 éq3

Using the approximation for small e (since e “ 0.0549 ! 1), we find: 2π ”

4π

2A «

p1 è{2qp1 ` 3e{2q ´ 1 t “

et .
Tsid

Tsid

Since this is just an approximation, we can loosely chose t. To get rid of

some numerical factors, let us take t “ Tsid{π, in which case A « 2e “ 6˝,
approximately. This should be considered as an order-of-magnitude
estimation.

Another solution, which does not rely on a guess for t, starts with Eq. 5.9:

dθ

GM

C p1 è cos θq

dt

a3$ p1 é2q3{2

The relative velocity of the lunar surface as seen from Earth is: d

´ dθ ¯

dθ

GM ”

ı
C

p1 è cos θq

´ ωrot “

´1.

dt rel

dt

a3$

p1 é2q3{2

The relative velocity is zero for:

p1 è cos θ

{4

0q

p1 èq

´1

´ 1 “ 0 ñ cos θ0 “

p1 é2q3{2
e

Using the approximation for small e, we get cos θ0 « 3{4 e. Since ωr “

dA{dt “ pdA{dθqpdθ{dtq: ż A

ż θmax

p1 é2q {2 ı

dA “

1´

dθ .

p1 è cos θq2

For small e, the integral becomes:

ż cos´1 θ

´3

A “ 2e

cos θ dθ “ 2e
1 é2

« 2e ,

to first order. Hence, we recover the previous result.

235

7. Electromagnetic radiation

7.1 Radiation emitted by accelerated charge

Let C be the units of charge, T of time, L of length and M of mass. Writing

down the physical dimensions of the quantities under consideration: C2T 2

r0s “

rcs “

rqs “ C ,

ras “

L3M

T
T2

Our aim is to combine these quantities to get another, whose physical

dimension is power: M L2

rP s “

T3

Let α, β, γ and δ be the exponents with which 0, c, q and a appear in the final
formula for P . The problem reduces to solving a system of four equations: $
L : ´ 3α ` β ` δ “ 2

(15.3a)

& T : 2α ´ β ´ 2δ “ ´3

(15.3b)

M:

(15.3c)

´α“1

’
’

% C : γ ` 2α “ 0 .

(15.3d)

For instance, to get the first equation, we note that the length L appears with
exponent ´3

in 0 (so we add ´3α); with exponent 1 in c (so we add β), and finally with
exponent 1 in a (so we add δ). The length appears in the expression for P
with exponent 2, hence the sum of the previous terms must equal 2, and we
recover Eq. 15.3a.

From Eq. 15.3c,

we immediately obtain α “ ´1 and, substituting the value of
α in Eq.

15.3d,
we find γ “ 2. Substituting the value of α and γ in Eqs. 15.3a
and
15.3b,
we have:

"β ` δ “ ´1

(15.4a)

´ β ´ 2δ “ ´1 .

(15.4b)

Summing Eqs. 15.4a

and 15.4b,
we find ´δ “ ´2, i.e. δ “ 2. Substituting the
value of δ in any of the two above equations, we find β “ ´3. We know that
the numerical constant is 1{6π, hence we can write:

1 q2a2

P “ 6π c3

7.2 Maxwell distribution

According to Boltzmann’s law, the velocity distribution gpvxq is
proportional to: mv2

mv2

gpv

2k

2k

xq 9 e

BT

ñ gpxq “ k e

BT,

where k is a constant. The probability that a particle has a velocity anywhere

between ´8

and 8 is 1. Requiring gpvxq to satisfy this condition, for a certain k, is called

normalizing the a

function. We change variable to u “

m{p2kBT qvx, hence dvx “ du

2kBT {m. Integrating

gpvxq, we find:

2k

ż8

BT

2πkBT

eú2 du “ k

´8

where we have used the Gaussian integral ş8 eú2 du “

π. The above integral must

´8

be equal to 1, therefore k “

m{p2πkBT q. The probability function gpvxq, and similarly gpvyq, gpvzq,

is given by:
c

mv2

gpv

2k

xq “

BT.

2πkBT

236

Chapter 15. Problem Solutions

Let npvx, vy, vzq be the velocity distribution function, such that npvqdvx
dvy dvz is equal to the probability that a particle’s velocity is in the range
pvx, vy, vzq to pvx ` dvx, vy ` dvy, vz `

dvzq. Then:

mpv2

¯3{2
x `v2

y `v2

zq

ńpvq “ gpv

2k

xq gpvy q gpvz q “

BT

2πkBT

where v2

x ` v2

y ` v2

z “ v2. In a coordinate system where vx, vy and vz are the three axes, the
number of particles with velocities in the range v to v ` dv is given by the
product of npvq with the volume of the spherical shell with radius v and
thickness dv, i.e. 4πv2 dv:

¯3{2

´ mv2

f pvq dv “ 4πv2npvq dv “ 4π
v2e 2kBT dv ,

2πkBT

which is Maxwell distribution law.

7.3 Natural width of emission lines

When an atom passes from the excited state to the ground state, it emits a
photon with energy E “ hf “ h{p2πq ¨ p2π{T q “ ¯

hω, where ω is the angular frequency. If the time

between two successive emissions is ∆t, the atom undergoes 1{∆t transitions
per second, hence the power emitted is E{∆t “ ¯

hω{∆t. As shown in Pr. 7.1, the power emitted by an

accelerated electron is on the order of P “ e2a2{0c3. The acceleration of an

electron is on the order of ω2r, where r is the radius of the hydrogen atom (r
“ 50 ¨ 10´12 m). Equating P

and E{∆t, we then obtain:

hc ć ¯2 1

∆t “

e2

ωr

In the case of visible radiation c{ω « 10´7 m, hence ∆t « 4 ¨ 108ω´1. Using

∆E “ ¯
h∆ω,

and substituting ∆E in Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle, we find:

∆E

∆ω

« 2 ¨ 10´9 ,

hence ∆E “ ¯

h∆ω « 5 ¨ 10´28 J. Note that radio waves have a natural width which is
approximately 1010 times smaller than for visible light, while the time
between two successive emissions is longer by 1015. The natural width of
the emission lines increases with increasing pressure. Indeed, the higher the
pressure, the shorter the average time between two consecutive collisions.
Collisions interrupt the emission process, shortening its characteristic time,
and increasing, according to Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle, the
uncertainty in E.

Thanks to the pressure dependence of the natural width of the spectral lines,
we are able to estimate the surface gravity of stars, by simply observing their
spectra. This is the basis of the Yerkes classification system.

7.4 Doppler Broadening

As shown in Sec. 7.6,

in the non-relativistic limit, the wavelength emitted by
an atom with velocity vx is λ “ λ0p1´vx{cq, where λ0 is the wavelength
emitted at rest. Solving for vx:

´
λ¯

vx “ c 1 ´

λ0

According to Boltzmann law, the number of atoms emitting photons between

λ and λ ` dλ is

proportional to exp

, where E “ 1 mv2

mc2pλ

{λ2

x“1

0´λq

0. Hence, the intensity is:

BT

2
"

mc2

2*

pλ0 ´ λq

Ipλq 9 exp ´

2λ2k

0BT

237

The wavelength at which Ipλq is half the maximum value satisfies: Ipλ0 `
∆λ{2q

Ipλ0q

Substituting for Ipλq, previously found, we obtain the desired result.

This formula is valid when the gas can be treated as ideal, therefore the
temperature and pressure should not be too high or too low. Furthermore, if
the pressure is too high, the natural width of the emission lines would
overwhelm the Doppler broadening. Other phenomena that can be observed
on emission lines are the Stark effect, which consists in the separation of
spectral lines caused by an electric field due to the matter in the state of
plasma, or the Zeeman effect, equivalent to the Stark effect for the magnetic
field.

7.5 Wien and Stefan-Boltzmann laws

To compute the distribution of Pλ, we note that the energy contained in the
interval rλ, λ`dλs is the same as the energy is the interval rf, f `df s, where f “
c{λ. Hence, Pf df “ Pλ dλ, or: df

Pλ “ Pf

dλ

But df {dλ “ ć{λ2, and substituting f “ c{λ in Pf , we obtain: 2πhc2

Pλ “

λ5

hc

e kBT λ ´ 1

The maximum of Pλ can be found by setting dPλ{dλ “ 0. Since the

numerator is constant, it is simpler to set the derivative of the denominator to
zero. Denoting with x “ λT “ cT {f and k “ hc{kB “ 0.0143878 mm K, we
have:

hc

hc

5λ4pe kBx ´ 1q ´ λ4 hc e kBx “ 0

kBx

ñ ek{xp5 ´ k{xq “ 5 .

Solving this equation numerically, we find x “ 0.201405 k, hence λT “

2.89777 mm K, which is Wien’s law. The maximum of Pf can be found
setting dPf {f “ 0. As before, using x “ λT “ cT {f and k “ hc{kB “
0.0143878 mm K:

f2

kkı

3ex´1éx

“0.

pe

x ´ 1q2

The term inside the brackets must be equal to zero. Thus, we need to
numerically solve:

k¯k
3éx“3,

which gives x “ 0.354429 k as the only real solution. Hence, the maximum
of Pf is at λT “ 5.09945 mm K. Integrating the power over all frequencies: ż
8

2πh ż 8

f3

P“

Pf df “

df .

c2

hf

e kBT ´ 1

Using the substitution u “ h{pkBT qf , with df “ kBT {h du: 2πh ´ kBT ¯4 ż

8

u3

P“

du .

c2

h
eu

´1

238

Chapter 15. Problem Solutions

The last integral is just π4{15:

2π5k4

T4.

15c2h3
This equation can be written in the form:

2π5k4

“ σT 4 ,

where

σ“

15c2h3

7.6 Ultraviolet catastrophe

Figure 15.11: Rayleigh-Jeans and Planck laws for a body at the temperature
of the Sun (T “ 5778 K). In the ultraviolet part of the electromagnetic
spectrum, Planck’s function decreases after having reached a maximum,
while Rayleigh-Jeans increases to infinity.

In the previous problem, we showed that:

2πhc2

Pλ “

λ5

hc

e kBT λ ´ 1
hc

For large λ, hc{pk

B T λq tends to zero, hence e B T λ

tends to 1 ` hc{pkBT λq. Therefore:

2πhc2 kBT λ

2πckBT

Pλ “

(15.5)

λ5

hc

λ4

However, for λ Ñ 0, P Ñ 8. Of course, a body cannot emit an infinite amount

of energy. It is for this reason that classical physics, when applied to the
study of the black body, leads to the so-called “ultraviolet catastrophe”,
being this the part of the electromagnetic spectrum where the Rayleigh-Jeans
law significantly deviates from the true distribution.

7.7 Why do stars emit energy?

Backing our arguments with data directly measurable on Earth, let us show
that the first two models cannot be correct, while the third one is reasonable.
Let k “ 1367 W/m2 be the solar constant and L@ “ 4πd2C ¨ k « 3.8 ¨ 1026
W the power emitted by the Sun.
Hypothesis 1 An asteroid arriving from infinity has an initial energy of zero.

Applying

conservation of energy, we find the kinetic energy of the asteroid when it

hits the surface of the Sun:

GmM

Ù“0ñK“

R@

239

The power produced in this way is:

∆K

GM

∆m

∆t
R@

∆t

Since P “ L@, the mass of the Sun increases at the rate of:

∆m

R@

“ L@

∆t

GM@

Hence, every year, the mass of the Sun would increase by: R

∆m

yr “ 365 ¨ 86400 ¨ L@

« 6.3 ¨ 1022 kg .

GM@

The duration of a year and the semi-major axis of the Earth depend on the
mass of the Sun.

Let da, dM and dT be the variations in the semi-major axis, the mass of the
Sun and the length of a year, after a time interval dt. At t “ 0, the semi-major
axis of the Earth is a, the mass of the Sun is M and the length of a year is T .
Therefore, at t “ 0, the kinetic energy of the Earth is:

GmM
K“

2a

When t “ dt, the mass of the Sun increases by dM , thus the potential energy
of the Earth decreases, but the kinetic energy remains the same (similarly to
Ex. 10.14). Therefore, the total energy is now:

GmpM ` dM q

GmM

GmM ”

dM ¯ı

GmM

E“´

1´21`

«´

2a

2a
M

2ap1 ´ 2 dM {M q

where we have used the approximation p1 ` xq « 1{p1 ´ xq for x “ dM {M !

1. The total energy can be written as E “ ´GmM {2pà daq, where à da is the
new semi-major axis.

Comparing this expression for E with the above equation:

dM ¯

da

dM

à da “ a 1 ´ 2

“ ´2

According to Kepler’s third law, the new orbital period (T ` dT ) is: 2

4π2

pT ` dT q “
pà daq

GpM ` dM q

4π2

dM ¯´

da ¯

T 2 ` 2T dT «

a3 1 ´

1`3

GM

dM ¯´

dM ¯

T 2 ` 2T dT « T 2 1 ´

1´6

2T dT « ´7 T 2 dM
M

dT

7 dM

«´

2M

We can then find by how much the period changes in a year: 7 T

∆Tyear “ ´

∆myear « ´1.4 s .

2M

240

Chapter 15. Problem Solutions

Hence, if the Sun got its energy solely from the impact of asteroids, the
orbital period of the Earth would decrease by around 1.4 s every year.
Integrating the above equation: ż T ptq dT

7 ż Mptq dM

“´

M
T0

M0

T ptq

M ptq

ln

“ ĺn

T0

M0

´ M ptq ¯´7{2

T ptq “ T0

M0

∆myr

¯´7{2

T ptq « T0 1 `

tyr

M0
After just 6.9 million years, the duration of a year would halve. Of course,
this is not observed.

Hypothesis 2 In Pr. 10.4 we obtained the potential energy of a star: 3GM 2

U“´

5R

According to the contraction hypothesis, when R decreases, the potential

energy decreases, thus the star must radiate the energy lost into space. In
fact, according to the Virial theorem (Sec. 10.6),
the magnitude of the kinetic
energy is always equal to half the magnitude of the potential energy. Hence,
while the star contracts, only half of the potential energy is emitted as
radiation, while the rest goes to increasing the thermal velocity of atoms
inside the star.

The total energy that the star can emit according to this process is: 3GM 2

Etot “

« 1.14 ¨ 1041 J .

10R

Assuming the solar luminosity stays roughly constant, the lifetime of the Sun
would be: Etot

tlife “

« 9.5 ¨ 106 years .

L@

If this hypothesis were true, the Sun would only be able to radiate energy for
a little more than 9 million years. However, we have ample evidence that
shows the Solar System has existed for more than 5 billion years, hence this
hypothesis must also be wrong. At the time when stars were believed to emit
energy by this process, one of the objections to Darwin’s theory of evolution
was that it could only take place over a couple billion years, whereas the
Solar System was thought to be much younger than that.

It is interesting to note that, if this hypothesis were true, the mean

temperature of the Sun would increase every year by:

∆T

nR

“ L@

∆t

3 M@

∆T

kB

“ L@

2 mp

∆t

∆T

2L@mp

“
« 0.5 K{year ,

∆t

3M@kB

where mp is the mass of a proton (we assumed that the Sun is entirely made
up of hydrogen and neglected the mass of an electron). Again, this variation
is not measured.

Hypothesis 3 According to the process of nuclear fission, 2 protons and 2

neutrons are needed to form a helium atom. However, the mass of reagents
and products is not the same,

241

but it is smaller by 0.72 %, compared to the mass of a helium atom. This

mass difference is directly converted into energy, according to the equation
E “ mc2. Assuming that around 10 % of the total mass of the Sun can be
converted into helium through this reaction, the total energy the Sun can
emit is:

Etot “ M@ ¨ 0.1 ¨ 0.0072 ¨ c2 “ 1.3 ¨ 1044 J .

Hence, its lifetime is:

Etot

tlife “

« 10 ¨ 109 years .

L@

Which sounds plausible.

7.8 Inside a star

Hydrostatic equilibrium In Sec. 10.2,
we find that the gravitational
acceleration at a distance r from the centre of a star is:

Gmprq

gprq “

r2

Consider a cylindrical element, at a distance r from the centre of the star,

with base area dA, thickness dr and mass dm “ ρ dA dr. The gravitational
force acting on it is: Gmprq

Fg “ gprq dm “

ρ dA dr .

r2

The force due to the radiation pressure is always directed radially and is
opposite to the force of gravity. Let dP be the pressure difference between
the top and bottom of the cylinder.

The cylinder experiences an outwards force of:

Fp “ dP dA .

Equating the two forces:

Gmprq

dP

Gmprqρ

dP dA “

ρ dA dr ñ
“

r2

dr

r2

Mass distribution

Consider a spherical shell of radius r and thickness dr, with mass dm “

p4πr2 drqρ. Then:

dm “ 4πr2ρ .

dr

Energy production

The contribution to the total luminosity from an infinitesimal mass element

dm is dLr “ dm. The mass between r and r ` dr is dm “ 4πρr2 dr, hence: dLr “
4πr2 ρ .

dr

Temperature

Consider a cylindrical element between r and r ` dr, with base area dA. The
radiation pressure is directly proportional to the incident flux: Fr

Lr

dPr “ pkρ drq

kρ dr ,
c

4πr2c

where Lr is the luminosity of the star at a distance r from the centre, which
can be calculated using the result from the previous part. At the same time,
the pressure in a photon gas is P “ aT 4{3. If dT is the temperature difference
between the bottom and the top of the cylinder, then the pressure difference
is:

´1

dPr “ ´d

aT 4

“ áT 3 dT .

Equating the two expressions:

Lr

dT

3 kρ Lr

kρ dr “ áT 3dT ñ

“´
4πr2c

dr

4ac T 3 4πr2

242

Chapter 15. Problem Solutions

8. Flux and magnitude

8.1 Olbert paradox

Let L be the average luminosity of a star and n the average number density
of stars in the universe. The number of stars between r and r ` dr is: dNr “ n ¨
4πr2 dr .

Hence, the total luminosity produced by stars in this spherical shell is: dLr “
L ¨ dNr “ 4πnLr2 dr .

Therefore, the flux arriving on Earth is:

dLr

dFr “

“ 4πnL dr .

4πr2

As we see, the flux does not depend on the distance of the spherical shell
from the Earth.

Thus, the fluxes arriving on Earth from spherical shells of radii R and r (with
r ‰ R) are the same. Since there are an infinite number of these shells, the
flux arriving on Earth should be infinite, therefore the night sky should be as
bright as daylight! This reasoning is also valid if we assume that stars are
grouped into galaxies, since we only used the average luminosity and density
of stars (which is certainly non-zero). Olbert believed that the answer to this
paradox is that space is opaque. At that time, thermodynamics had yet to be
fully developed, but today we know that, if this hypothesis were true, the
interstellar medium would absorb part of the light emitted by stars, re-
emitting it in the form of black body radiation: the energy arriving on Earth
would be the same as if space were completely transparent. In reality, the
speed of light is finite and, because light from distant regions of the universe
has not yet had time to travel to the Earth, the observable universe is finite.
At the same time, the universe expands according to Hubble’s law, so
radiation from distant stars is fainter, due to the Doppler effect.

8.2 Earth’s temperature

Assuming the Sun to be a perfect black body, the flux arriving on Earth is
given by the solar constant:

σR 2T 4

4πd 2

2
C

dC

To obtain the power incident on the Earth (Li), we multiply the flux by
Earth’s cross-sectional area (πR 2

C ):

2T 4

2 σR@

i “ πRC

d2

The reflected power is proportional to the albedo of the Earth, according to

Lr “ ACLi.

The difference between the incident and reflected power is equal to the
power (P ) absorbed by the Earth:

2T 4

2 σR@

“ Li Ĺr “ Lip1 ÁCq “ πRC

p1 ÁCq .

d2

In a stationary regime (at constant temperature) the energy absorbed is equal

to the energy emitted, according to the black body radiation formula: P

“ 4πσRC TC .

Solving for T 4

C , we find:

cR

1{4

C “ T@

p1 ÁCq

(15.6)

2dC

243
The temperature is independent on the radius of the planet. Inserting the
numerical values and assuming Earth has an albedo of AC “ 0.31:

TC “ 254 ˝K “ ´19 ˝C .

This is lower by about 30˝ C, compared to the average temperature on Earth.

In fact, we neglected the role of the Earth’s atmosphere.

8.3 Earth’s temperature, another model

For the Sun, the wavelength of maximum emission is λmax,s “ 501.5 nm,
which corresponds to visible light. The Earth, as shown in Pr. 8.2, has an
average temperature of around 250 K, hence its wavelength of maximum
emission should be around λmax,t “ 11500 nm, which corresponds to the
infra-red part of the electromagnetic spectrum. Since ei ă ev, this
phenomenon raises the Earth’s temperature.

Let us model the Earth as surrounded by a thin sheet of atmosphere, with a

radius of about RC, and constant temperature Tatm. The radiation that enters
the atmosphere is: σR2 T 4

eff “ p1 ÁatmqkπR2

C “ p1 Áatmq

πR2

d2

C,

C
where k is the solar constant. The atmosphere directly absorbs a luminosity
of Leffp1 évq, and transmits the remaining Leff ev to the surface. The
energy arriving on the surface and then reflected is Leff evAs, while the
energy absorbed is Leff evp1 Ásq. The energy reflected by the surface and
absorbed by the atmosphere is L

eff ev Asp1 év q, the remaining Leff ev As

being lost in space. Energy is not only emitted by the Sun, but also by the
atmosphere and the surface of the Earth. The atmosphere absorbs a fraction
equal to p1 éiq of the thermal energy emitted by the Earth, which is 4πR2 σT
4 . On the other hand, the Earth absorbs C

half of the energy emitted by the atmosphere, which is 8πR2 T 4

atm (taking into account both

inner and outer surfaces). Therefore, the conditions for the atmosphere and
the Earth to be in thermal equilibrium are:

#Leffrp1 évq Àsevp1 évqs ` 4πσR2CT 4Cp1 éiq “ 8πσR2CT 4atm Leff evp1
Ásq ` 4πσR2CT 4

atm “ 4πσR2

CT 4

C.

Isolating 4πσR2 T 4 in the second equation, and substituting into the first: C

C
Leffrp1 évq Àsevp1 évq èvp1 Ásqp1 éiqs “ 4πσR2CT 4

atmr1 èis .

Isolating 4πR2 σT 4

atm:

effr1 Ásev

évei Àseveis

4πR2CσT 4

atm “

1 èi

Substituting 4πR2 σT 4

atm into the second equation of the system, and isolating T 4

Leff

1 èv Ásevp1 èvq
T4

C“

4πR2 σ

1è

Inserting the expression for Leff and taking the fourth root of both sides: c R
”

1 èv ı1{4

C “ T@

p1 Áatmqp1 Ásevq ¨

2dC

1 èi

Inserting numerical values, we find TC « 283 K“ 10˝C. In reality, the Sun

and the Earth do not emit at only one wavelength, hence the effective ev, ei
could be slightly different. At the same time, we have assumed that the Earth
and atmosphere only reflect visible light. This model predicts that the
temperature of the Earth increases with decreasing ei (greenhouse effect ), to
a maximum temperature of Tmax « 300 K = 27˝C, when ei goes to zero and
the albedo of the Earth is reduced, due to the melting of the ice, to As “ 0.06.
The change in Aatm is, instead, harder to estimate. In any case, it wouldn’t
be such a friendly world!

244

Chapter 15. Problem Solutions

9. Cosmic Distance Ladder

9.1 The Astronomical Unit

As explained in Sec. 11.1,

the distance of Venus from the Sun can be
obtained from its maximum elongation:

sin

max “

ñ dB “ 0.723 dC .

dC

The angle between the two images of Venus is ∆φ “ 232 ˘ 62, while the
parallax baseline is

b “ 2RC sin 60˝ “

3RC. Hence, the distance (d) of Venus from the Earth is: b

∆φrad “

ñ d “ p9.91 ˘ 2.5q ¨ 1010 m .

d
We can determine the astronomical unit by applying the Pythagorean
theorem: d2 “ d2C ´ d2B “ p1 ´ 0.7232qd2C

(15.7)

dC « d ¨ 1.4475 “ p1.43 ˘ 0.35q ¨ 1011 m .

9.2 Luminosity-radius relationship

Differentiating Stefan-Boltzmann law (L “ 4πR2σT 4), we find: dL “ 8πRσT

4 dR ` 16πR2σT 3 dT

dR

dT ¯

“ 4πR2σT 4 2

`4

Dividing by L:

dL

dR

dT

“2

`4
.

Writing V “ 4{3πR3 in the adiabatic relationship, we find T R3pγ´1q “ const,

which differentiated gives:

dT R3pγ´1q ` 3pγ ´ 1qT R3pγ´1q´1dR “ 0

dT

dR

“ ´3pγ ´ 1q

Substituting this expression for dT {T in the equation for dL{L, we find: dL

dR

dR ı

“2

` 4 ´ 3pγ ´ 1q

L
R

dR

dR

“2

´ 12pγ ´ 1q

Hence, using γ “ 5{3:

dL

dR

“ ´6

When the star expands, dR is positive, thus the above equation tells us that
dL must be negative, i.e. the luminosity decreases.

9.3 Period-density relationship

The pressure at a distance r from the centre of the star can be obtained using
the equation of hydrostatic equilibrium (Pr. 7.8):
dP

Gmprqρ

Gρ ´ 4

“´

“´

πr3ρ “ ´ πGρ2r ,

dr

r2

245

which can be easily integrated assuming that the pressure on the surface of
the star is zero: ż 0

żR

dP “

´ πGρ2r
3

P prq

´P prq “ ´ πGρ2pR2 ŕ2q

ñ P prq “

πGρ2pR2 ŕ2q .

The velocity of sound is therefore:

γP

v“

γπGρpR2 ŕ2q .

3
The period of pulsation is:

ż R dr

żR

dr

żR

dr

T“2

«2

2 γπGρpR2 ŕ2q

2 γπGρ 0

pR2 ŕ2q
3

The last integral can be solved by substituting r “ R sin θ and dr “ R cos θ dθ.
The lower and upper limits become θi “ arcsin p0{Rq “ 0 and θf “ arcsin
pR{Rq “ π{2, so we have: ż π{2

R cos θ dθ

ż π{2

dθ “

R2p1 śin2 θq

Hence, substituting in the equation for the period:

3π
T“

ñT“

b 2 γπGρ 2

2γGρ

This shows that the period of pulsation is inversely proportional to the

square root of the density. Indeed, the period of pulsation is greater for
supergiants than for white dwarfs.

Taking M “ 5M@ and R “ 50R@ for a typical Cepheid, we find T “ 10 days,

which is close to the observed period.

10. Gravitation and Kepler’s Laws

10.1 Planets as point masses

In Sec. 10.2
we stated that a sphere behaves in the same way as a point mass,
with the same mass, placed at its centre. The easiest way to prove this
statement is by computing the potential of a spherical shell, since the force
can be obtained by differentiating the potential, according to F “ ´dU prq{dr.
It is sufficient to show that a spherical shell obeys this statement, since a
solid sphere can be regarded as a collection of shells.

Let R be the radius of the spherical shell, r the distance between the centre of
the shell and a point P at its exterior, d the distance between P and a circular
annulus constituting the shell, and θ the angle between d and r (Fig. 15.12).
The distance d can be written as a function of r, R and θ, by applying the law
of cosines (Eq. A.14)
to triangle APO:

?
d“

R2 ` r2 ´ 2rR cos θ .

The area of the circular annulus between θ and θ ` dθ is equal to the

circumference times the height: p2πR sin θq ¨ pRdθq. Let σ “ M {p4πR2q be
the surface density. The potential energy at point P due to the circular
annulus between θ and θ ` dθ is: GmσpRdθqp2πR sin θq

dU “ ´

246

Chapter 15. Problem Solutions

Figure 15.12: The potential at a point P, at a distance r from the centre of a

spherical shell of radius R, can be calculated by sectioning the shell into
infinitesimal circular annuli and summing (integrating) all of these
contributions to the potential.

To obtain the potential energy of the spherical shell, we need to sum

(integrate) the contribution of all circular annuli:
żπ

2πσGR2m sin θ

U prq “ ´

dθ

R2 ` r2 ´ 2rR cos θ

(15.8)

2πσGRm ”?

ıπ

“ Ŕ2 ` r2 ´ 2rR cos θ

We now consider two cases. If r ě R:

2πσGRm

4πR2σGm

GM m

“
‰

prq “ ´

pr ` Rq ´ pr Ŕq “ ´

“´

which is the potential due to a point mass, with the same mass of the shell,
and placed at its centre. If r ă R:

2πσGRm

4πR2σGm

GM m

prq “ ´

pr ` Rq ´ pR ŕq “ ´

“´

r
R

which is independent of r.

By differentiating the potential U prq with respect to r, we find F prq in both

cases: $

GM m

&´

if

rěR

F prq “

r2

%0,

if

răR.

By symmetry, F prq is entirely radial. Since a solid sphere is made up of

many spherical shells, and since each spherical shell can be treated as a
material point, it follows that a solid sphere produces a gravitational field, on
its exterior, equal to the gravitational field produced by a material point, with
the same mass, and placed at its centre. This result is valid as long as the
density is spherically symmetry.

The force experienced inside a spherical shell is zero. Therefore, when

calculating the force inside a solid sphere, at a distance r from its centre, it is
sufficient to consider the mass inside a spherical surface with radius r (the
mass outside does not contribute to the total gravitational field).

10.2 Using Gauss’ theorem

As explained in Sec. 10.2,

for r ě RC, we can treat the Earth as a point mass,
and use Eq.

10.1
in conjunction with Newton’s second law to obtain: M

prq “ G

r2

247

For the Earth, MC “ 5.972 ¨ 1024 kg and RC “ 6.378 ¨ 106 m, hence: 5.972 ¨
1024 kg

gpRCq “ 6.674 ¨ 10´11 Nm2 ¨

“ 9.81 m/s2 ,

kg2

6.371 ¨ 106 m2

which is the well-known value for the gravitational acceleration on the

surface of the Earth.

To compute the gravitational acceleration inside the Earth, at a distance r

from its centre, we only need to take into account the mass mprq inside a
sphere of radius r: 4
4

mprq “

πρ r3 ,

MC “

πρR3

C.

Dividing the two equations:

r3

mprq “ MC

R3C

This is the mass responsible for the gravitational acceleration at a distance r.

Using Eq.

10.1
in conjunction with Newton’s second law, we find, for r ă RC: GM

prq “

r,

R3C
where the gravitational field is directed towards the centre of the body. To
sum up: $ GMC

if

rěR

&

r2

gprq “

GM

r,

if

ă RC .

R3C
We note that the gravitational field at the centre of the Earth is zero,
therefore an object would be in (stable) equilibrium at that point.

10.3 Deep tunnels

A body being transported on a circular orbit to the antipode, must cover half
the orbit.

Hence, the time taken is:

R3

1“π

GM$

We now calculate the time taken to reach the antipode through a tunnel. In
Pr. 10.2, we found that the gravitational field inside a spherical body is:

GM

prq “ ´

r,
R3$

where the minus sign has been introduced because the gravitational field
points towards the centre of the body, in direction opposite the position
vector ~

r. Consider, by analogy, the

motion of a body of mass m, given by Hooke’s law:

F “ ´k~

rñ

aprq “ ŕ .

where k is the spring constant. The above equation can be written as:

aprq “ ´ω2r ,

where ω is the angular frequency. In this case, the period of oscillation is: 2π

T“

248
Chapter 15. Problem Solutions

The equation of motion of a body falling through the tunnel and one attached
to a spring are the same, if we set ω2 “ GM${R3$. The time taken to reach
the antipode, i.e. to cover half a full oscillation, is:

R3

2“

“π

GM$

We note that t1 “ t2, hence it takes the same time to transfer a load using a
circular orbit or a tunnel. For a more accurate calculation, we would need to
consider the centrifugal force due to the rotation of the Moon about its axis,
which slightly increases the transfer period.

You can verify that the transfer time is the same for any straight tunnel
connecting two points on the surface of the Moon (try it!).

10.4 Potential energy of a spherical body

Imagine we assemble a spherical body by successively compounding

spherical shell. The potential energy of the whole body is then the sum of the
potential energy of each of these shells. The potential energy of a shell of
radius r, thickness dr and mass dm “ p4πr2drqρ, which is placed on the
surface of a body of mass mprq and radius r, is: Gmprq dm

dU “ ´

Assuming the density is constant, mprq “ M r3{R3. We then obtain: 4πGM ρ

r4

dU “ ´

dr .

R3

Integrating both sides to find the total potential energy: ż U

ż R 4πGM ρr4 dr

dU “ Ŕ3

4πGM ρR2

ñU“´

Finally, substituting ρ “ 3M {p4πR3q:

3GM 2
U“´

(15.9)

5R

Eq. 15.9
gives the potential energy of a body of mass M , radius R and
constant density.

10.5 Escape velocity

Without loss of generality, let us assume that m1 is initially at rest and that
m2 has an initial velocity of ~

v. We want to find the minimum velocity needed for both masses to travel
indefinitely far away from each other. In Sec. 10.5,
we assumed that m1
remains stationary while m2 is escaping. However, it is clear that m1 will
move in the same direction as m2, because of the reciprocal gravitational
attraction. Looking at Fig. 15.13
a), at the point of maximum distance, the
relative velocity between the two bodies is zero, therefore they will both
travel with the same velocity ~

v1.

The key idea is to consider the reference system of the centre of mass of m1
and m2. In this system, the velocity of the centre of mass if zero, by
definition, and the total momentum is always zero, hence the bodies will
move in opposite directions, as shown in Fig. 15.13
b).

The maximum distance is attained when both bodies are stationary, i.e. when
their final kinetic energy is zero in the CM frame.

In the lab frame, the centre of mass moves with velocity:

249

Figure 15.13: Initial and final configurations in the reference system of a)

the laboratory and b) the centre of mass.

m1 ¨ 0 ` m2~

m2

u“

v.

m1 ` m2

m1 ` m2

Hence, in the CM frame, m2 and m1 move with velocities: m1

~
v2 “ ~

v´~

u“

v,

m1 ` m2

m2

v1 “ ´~

u“´

v.

m1 ` m2

The initial kinetic energy in the frame of the CM is thus: 1

m1m2

2
CM,i “

m1v1 `

m1v1 “

v2 .

2 m1 ` m2

At the end, both the kinetic and potential energy are zero in the CM frame,
hence Ef,CM “ 0.

Applying conservation of energy, Ei,CM “ Ef,CM, which implies KCM,i Ùi

“ 0, thus: 1

m1m2

Gm1m2

v2

2 m1 ` m2

c 2Gpm1 ` m2q

ñ ve “

.
d

In the limit m1 " m2, the above equation reduces to Eq. 10.27.

10.6 Roche limit

Let us consider a central body with mass M and radius R, and a secondary
body with mass m and radius r, which is at a distance x from the central
body (Fig. 15.14).
Let A and B be the points of the secondary body which
are farther and closer to the central body, respectively. The gravitational field
is the vector sum of the gravitational fields of the central body gc and of the
secondary body gs. Taking the magnitudes: GM

Gm

gA “ gc ` gs “

px ` rq2

r2

GM

Gm

gB “ gc ´ gs “

px ŕq2

r2
We require the relative acceleration between A and B to be zero, since the
body is rigid: gA ´ gB “ 0

GM

GM

Gm

“2

px ŕq2

px ` rq2

r2

250

Chapter 15. Problem Solutions

Figure 15.14: The rigid body-condition is satisfied if the gravitational
accelerations in A and B are the same.

Multiplying both sides by

pr ` xq pr ´ xq :

x4

2rx “ α r2 `

´ 2x2 ,

r2

where α “ m{M . When M " m, we expect the body to disintegrate at a

distance x much greater than its radius r. Hence, on the RHS of the above
equation, we only retain the term x4{r2:

x4

2M

2rx “ α

ñx“r3

r2
m

The ratio of the masses can also be written as a function of the densities and
radii of the two bodies:

4 πρcR3

ρc Ŕ ¯3

“3

4 πρ

sr3

Hence:

c 2ρc

x“R3

(15.10)
ρs

This is the Roche limit for a non-rotating body. If the rotation of the body
about its axis cannot be neglected, we need to add the contribution of the
centrifugal force: GM

Gm

gA “ gc ` gs ácf “

´ ω2r ,

px ` rq2

r2

GM

Gm

gB “ gc ´ gs àcf “

` ω2r .

px ŕq2

r2

Equating the accelerations and using the approximation x " r, we find,

following a similar reasoning as before:

2ρc

xrot “ R 3
.

(15.11)

ρs ´ 3ω2

4πG

As expected, the centrifugal force increases the distance at which the body
disintegrates. In the case ω “ 0, Eq. 15.11
reduces to Eq. 15.10.
Denoting
with xs and xr the Roche limits for a stationary and a rotating body,
respectively, in the case of the Earth-Sun system we find: xe,s « 556330 km

xe,r « 556980 km .

While, for the Earth-Moon system:

xm,s « 9485 km

xm,r « 9485 km .

251

We see that rotation can be neglected in both cases (remember that the
approximation x " r likely introduces an error comparable to the correction
due to rotation). If a secondary body revolves about a central body at a
distance equal to its Roche limit, and its rotation is synchronous with its
revolution:

GM

ω2 “

πR3pc ¨
.

x3

x3

Substituting ω in 15.11,
we find: d

2ρc

x“R3

R3

s ´ pc x3

which, after some manipulation, leads to the synchronous Roche limit: c 3ρc

xsyn “ R 3

(15.12)

ρs

10.7 Jeans Limit

The force of gravity tends to compress the nebula, while the gas pressure
tends to expand it.

In equilibrium, these two forces are equal. Instead of working with forces
however, it is more convenient to think in terms of energy. We can equal the
difference in potential energy of the nebula, following an infinitesimal
contraction dr, with the work done by the gas during this contraction.
Equating the differences in energy and work is just another way of equating
the forces. As we found in Pr. 10.4, the potential energy of the nebula is:
3GM 2

U“´

5r

Differentiating the above equation:

3GM 2

dU “

dr .

5r2

The work done by the gas during the contraction is:

dW “ P dV .

Assuming the gas is ideal, we know that P “ nRT {V , where V “ 4{3 πr3.
Substituting dV “ 4πr2 dr, we find:

3nRT

dW “

dr .

Equating dU and dW :

GM 2 “ nRT .
5r

Let µ be the molar mass of the gas, we then have n “ M {µ. Furthermore, M
“ 4{3πρr3, where ρ is the density of the nebula, hence r

“ r3M {p4πρqs {3. Substituting the expressions

for n and r in the last equation, isolating M :

3 ŔT ¯3{2

MJ “

(15.13)

4πρ

Gµ
252

Chapter 15. Problem Solutions

10.8 Hill sphere and Lagrangian points L1, L2

Figure 15.15: Positions of the Lagrangian points.

The Lagrangian points are five points in the Solar System whose positions
relative to the Earth and Sun are fixed (Fig. 15.15).
It can be shown that only
L4 and L5 are stable points, while L1, L2 and L3 are all unstable.
Nonetheless, L1 is very convenient for observing the Sun, and many probes,
such as the SOHO (Solar and Heliospheric Observatory ) and the ACE
(Advanced Composition Explorer ), have taken advantage of it. Instead, L2,
placed on the opposite side of the Earth relative to the Sun and shielded from
the solar radiation, is used for studying deep space, especially in the infra-
red (which requires low temperatures).

Among the best known satellites in L2 we find Gaia, and the future James
Webb telescope.

Now, let us calculate the position of L1 and L2. Let m be the mass of the
Earth, M the mass of the Sun, r the distance of the Earth from the Sun and x
the distance of the points L1 and L2 from the Earth. For now, we don’t make
any assumptions about the m{M ratio. The two bodies orbit around the
common centre of mass, which is at a distance rm{pM ` mqsr from the
centre of the Sun. The distance rL between L

1 and the centre of mass corresponds

to the radius of its orbit:

rL “ r ´ x ŕ “

r´x.

M`m

M`m

Equating the gravitational and centrifugal forces in L1: GM

Gm

ω2rL “

´
,

pr ´ xq2

x2

253

where ω2 “ GpM ` mq{r3 is the square of the angular velocity of revolution

of the Earth.

Multiplying by

pr ´ xq {GM :

x ¯´

x ¯2

x ¯2

p1 ` αq

1´

“1´α1´

1`α
r

x2

x3

x4

x5 ¯

x3

x4

x5

ñα1´2

´2

“3

´3

`
,

r2

r3

r4

r5

r3

r4

r5

where α “ m{M « 3 ¨ 10´6. Since r " x (this hypothesis can be verified at the
end, but appears reasonable given that m{M ! 1), in approximating the above
equation we only retain terms of zero order in x{r on the LHS (ignoring x{r,
x2{r2, x3{r3 and so on), and only the third order term on the RHS. Thus:

3x3{r3 “ α .

It follows that:

x“r3

(15.14)

3M
For the Earth-Sun system, we obtain x “ 149.6 ¨ 107 m “ 0.01 ua. Therefore,
L1 is at a distance from the Earth of one hundredth of an astronomical unit,
in the direction of the Sun. Hence, the assumption r " x was indeed valid.
With a similar reasoning, we can show that the distance of L2 from Earth is
also equal to x (in the direction opposite the Sun).

If, instead, we numerically solve the fifth order equation, we find xL “

1.4914 ¨ 109 m ,

xL “ 1.5014 ¨ 109 m .

As we expect, the error is on the order of 1{100 (i.e. the size of x{r). The
points L1 and L2 define a sphere around the Earth such that all the bodies
inside it gravitationally belong to the Earth, while the bodies outside it
belong to the Sun. If we take into account the eccentricity of the Earth’s
orbit, we need to replace r Ñ ap1 éq in Eq. 15.14.
Therefore, a more general
formula for the radius of the Hill sphere is: c

rH “ p1 éqa 3

(15.15)

3M

For the above formula to hold, the mass of the secondary body should be
much smaller than the mass of the primary body, so that the approximations
m{M, x{r ! 1 are valid.

While this is certainly true for the Earth-Sun system, it is not a very good
approximation for the Earth-Moon system (indeed the Hill sphere of the
Moon is about 1/6 of the Earth-Moon distance). In reality, there are other
phenomena (such as radiation pressure and the Yarkovsky effect ), that make
a body at the edge of the Hill sphere unstable. Therefore, bodies are stable,
in the long term, only if their distance is less than half of the Hill sphere.

10.9 Position of Lagrangian point L3

Let m be the mass of the Earth, M the mass of the Sun, r the Earth-Sun
distance and x the distance of L3 from the point on Earth’s orbit opposite the
Earth. Looking at Fig.

15.16
(overleaf), we find the distances L3-centre of mass, L3-Sun and L3-
Earth, respect-

254

Chapter 15. Problem Solutions

Figure 15.16: Schematics showing the orbits of the Sun and the Earth (small
and large circles, respectively).

ively:

m
M

dL

r`x“

r`x,

3 ,c “ r ´ M ` m

M`m

M´m

dL

r`x“

r`x,

3 ,s “ r ´ 2 M ` m

M`m

2M

dL

r`x.

3 ,e “ dL3 ,s ` r “ M ` m

Equating the centrifugal and gravitational forces at L3, we find: GM

Gm

ω2dL
`

3 ,c “ d2

d2

L3,s

L3,e

where ω2 “ GpM ` mq{r3 is the square of the angular velocity of revolution

of the Earth.

Denoting by α “ m{M « 3 ¨ 10´6, similarly to the previous problem, it is

possible to neglect the terms of order greater than one in x{r and α. After
some manipulation, we get: 17

53 ¯ x

α“3`

But αx{r is an infinitesimal of second order, hence, to be consistent with the

previous approximation, we neglect it. We finally obtain:

17
x“

αr.

(15.16)

12

Therefore, the point L3 is at a distance x « 636 km away from the point on

Earth’s orbit opposite the Earth. It can be shown that L3 is a point of
unstable equilibrium, therefore there aren’t any bodies that orbit the Sun at
that point. We can also write down the position of L3 with respect to the
centre of mass of the system: M

17

dL

r ` x « p1 ´ αqr `

αr “ 1 `

αr.

(15.17)

3 ,c “ M ` m

12

12

10.10 The three-body problem and Lagrangian points L4, L5

Let us place the origin of our coordinate system in the centre of mass of m1,
m2 and m3.

Then:

m1 ~

r1 ` m2 ~

r2 ` m3 ~

r3 “ 0 .

255

Figure 15.17: The three-body problem has a simple solution if the bodies
form an equilateral triangle.

The forces acting on the first body are:

Gm1m2
F2,1 “ ´

p~

r1 ´ ~

r2q ,

a31,2

Gm1m3

F3,1 “ ´

p~

r1 ´ ~

r3q .

a31,3

The centripetal force is:

Fc “ m1ω2 ¨ ~

r1 .

Equating the centripetal and gravitational forces, we find: Gm1m2

Gm1m3

p~

r1 ´ ~
r2q `

p~

r1 ´ ~

r3q ´ m1ω2 ¨ ~

r1 “ 0 .

a3

a3

1,2

1,3

Solving for ~

r3 in the CM equation, we find ~

r3 “ ´pm1{m3q ~

r1 ´ pm2{m3q ~

r2. Substituting in

the above equation:

Gm1m2

Gm1m3 ” ´

m1 ¯

m2

ı
p~

r1 ´ ~

r2q `

r1 1 `

r2 ´ m1ω2 ¨ ~

r1 “ 0

a3

a3

1,2

1,3

m2

m3 ´
m1 ¯

ω2 ı

m2

m2 ı

ñ~

r1

1`

“~

r2

1,2
a1,3

m3

a1,3

a1,2

The three bodies cannot be aligned, hence ~

r1 and ~

r2 cannot be on the same line. For the

above equation to be satisfied, the coefficients of ~

r1 and ~

r2 should be both zero. We therefore

obtain two equations:

m2

m2

“0,

1,3
a1,2

m2

m3 ´

m1 ¯

ω2

1`

“0.

1,2

a1,3

m3

The first equation tells us that a1,2 “ a1,3 but, as we could have chosen any
of the three bodies at the beginning, by symmetry we must also have a1,2 “
a1,3 “ a2,3 “ a. Now, the second equation gives:

GM
ω2 “

pm1 ` m2 ` m3q “

a3

a3

256

Chapter 15. Problem Solutions

where M is the total mass of the system. We have shown that the three
bodies all move with the same orbital period and that they are placed on the
vertices of an equilateral triangle (Fig. 15.17).
In the Solar System, the
points L5 and L4 are at the same distance from the Sun as the Earth, and are
placed 60˝ before and after the Earth, respectively.

Analysing the energy of the system in L4 and L5, we discover that it is a

local maximum.

Therefore, even a small disturbance would move the body away from the
Lagrangian points and, consequently, there would be no stable orbits around
L4 and L5. However, in the Solar System, we observe a large amount of so-
called Trojans asteroids distributed in two oblong regions around the points
L4 and L5 of Jupiter. The reason why these points can host stable orbits is
due to the Coriolis force in the rotating frame of the Sun. This force is large
enough to sufficiently curve the trajectory of an asteroid that moves at
moderate speeds, forcing it to stay close to L4 or L5.

10.11 The fate of abandoned satellites

Part 1 Let r be the radius of the orbit of the satellite. Its total energy is: GmM

Etot “ ´

.
2r

Since the orbit is circular, xKy “ K and xU y “ U . According to the Virial

theorem: 1

GmM

K“Ú“

2r

Friction with air reduces the total energy of the satellite. The above
equations shows that, as r decreases, K increases: it seems like friction
increases the velocity of the satellite. However, we have not taken into
account the gravitational force. In a perfectly circular orbit, the gravitational
force is perpendicular to the instantaneous velocity, hence it does no work.
In this case, the orbit is not perfectly circular, and the force of gravity has a
small but non-zero tangential component. In the next part, we will show that
the value of this component is exactly two times the friction force, so that
the total force acting on the body is equal to the friction force, in magnitude,
but opposite in direction.

Part 2 The work done by the friction force is dWa “ ~

Fa ¨ ~

ds, where ~

ds “ ~

v dt and v is the

velocity of the satellite. The satellite looses energy due to friction, according
to dEtot “ dWa.
Hence:

dEtot “ ~

Fa ¨ ~

ds .

Note that ~

Fa is directed opposite to ~

ds, hence the scalar product is negative, and the energy decreases. The
kinetic energy is K “ 1 mv2. Differentiating, we find: 2

dv dt

dK “ mv dv “ mv

ds “ ma ds “ ~

Ftot ¨ ~

ds “ p ~

Fg ` ~

Faq ¨ ~

ds

dt ds

ñ dK “ p ~

Fg ` ~

Faq ¨ ~

ds .
Applying the Virial theorem dEtot “ ´dK. Substituting the expressions
obtained previously for dEtot and dK, we have:

Fa “ ´p ~

Fg ` ~

Faq ñ ~

Fg “ ´2 ~

Fa .

The tangential component of the gravitational force is therefore equal to two

times the friction force, and has opposite direction. Hence, the total force
acting on the body in the tangential direction is

Ftot “ ~

Fg ` ~

Fa “ 2 ~

Fa ´ ~

Fa “ ~

Fa, equal to the friction force, but

opposite in direction. That is why the satellite accelerates!

257

Part 3 Differentiating the kinetic energy with respect to the radius (r) of the
orbit: dK
GM m

“´

dr

2r2

If the radius of the orbit decreases, dr is negative and dK is positive, i.e. the
velocity increases. After every revolution, the radius of the orbit decreases
by dr “ 100 m. The work done by the force acting on the satellite is:

dW “

Ftot ¨ ~

ds “ Fa

ds “ Fap2πrq .

The friction force is Fa “ cρv2. The velocity in the circular orbit is v2 “ GM

{r, hence:

GM ¯

dW “ cρ

¨ p2πrq ñ dW “ 2πcρGM .

r
This work is equal to the increase in kinetic energy after one revolution.
Therefore: GM m

2cπρGM “ ´

dr .

2r2

Taking the magnitude of dr and isolating ρ, we find an expression for the

density: m

ρ“

|dr| « 4 ¨ 10´10 kg/m3 .

4cπr2

10.12 Kepler’s equation

In the usual notation, the equation of an ellipse is: x2

y2

“1.

a2

b2

Placing the origin at the rightmost focus, we perform the translation x Ñ x `

c: 2

px ` cq

y2

`
“1

a2

b2

Consider a plane polar coordinate system, with x “ r cos θ and y “ r sin θ.

Substituting in the previous equation:

pr cos θ ` cq

r2 sin2 θ

“1

a2

b2

Since c “

a2 ´ b2 and c “ a e, we have b2 “ a2p1 é2q:

r2 sin2 θ

pr cos θ à eq `

“ a2

1 é2

´
1 ćos2 θ ¯

r2 cos2 θ `

à2e2 ` 2a er cos θ “ a2

1 é2

r2 1 é2 cos2 θ ` 2ae r cos θ á2p1 é2q “ 0 .

1 é2

Solving the quadratic equation, we find:

1 é2

r“

á e cos θ ˘

a2e2r2 cos2 θ à2p1 é2 cos2 θq

1 é2 cos2 θ

1 é2

á e cos θ ˘ a
1 é2 cos2 θ

ap1 é2q

1 ˘ e cos θ

p1 é cos θqp1 è cos θq

ap1 é2q

1 ˘ e cos θ

258

Chapter 15. Problem Solutions

Since the origin is in the rightmost focus, rp0˝q “ ap1 éq, we chose the
positive sign in the previous equation. We then find:

ap1 é2q

rpθq “

1 è cos θ

as we wanted to show.
Let H be the intersection of the line passing through EP and the major axis.
Looking at Fig. 10.8,
we have:

FP “ PH ` FH .

Since an ellipse is just the scaled version of a circle, by factors a and b along
the major and minor axis, respectively:

r2

“ pb sin Eq ` pa cos E éaq

“ a2p1 é2q sin2 E à2 cos2 E è2a2 ´ 2ea2 cos E

“ a2 è2a2p1 śin2 Eq ´ 2ea2 cos E

“ a2 è2a2 cos2 E ´ 2ea2 cos E

“ a2p1 é cos Eq .

Hence:

r “ ap1 é cos Eq ,

as we wanted to show.

To derive Kepler’s equation, we differentiate the above formula with respect

to time: 9
r “ ae sin E 9

E.

On the other hand, r is related to the true anomaly by: ap1 é2q

1 è cos θ

rpθq “

1 è cos θ

ap1 é2q

Differentiating the above equation with respect to time: 9

e sin θ 9

r2

ap1 é2q
From Kepler’s second law, we know that the radius vector sweeps out equal
areas in equal times. Multiplying Eq. 5.9
by r2, setting θ “ 0˝:

r2 9

θ “ ωa2 1 é2 ,

where ω “

GM {a3 is the mean angular velocity of revolution. Substituting 9

θ in the

previous equation:

ae sin θ

r“ω?

1 é2

Comparing with 9r “ ae sin E 9

E:

sin θ

E“ω?

.
1 é2 sin E

Since an ellipse is just the scaled version of a circle, by factors a and b along
the major and minor axis, respectively; PH “ b EH, which can be written as:

r sin θ “ a 1 é2 sin E .

259

Comparing with the equation for 9

E, we then have:

r9

E“ωa.

Since r “ ap1 é cos Eq, this becomes:

p1 é cos Eq 9

E“ω.

Integration over time yields:

E é sin E “ ωpt ´ t0q .

If t0 is interpreted as the time elapsed since the body passed through
perihelion, then M “

ωpt ´ t0q. Hence:

M “ E é sin E ,

which is Kepler’s equation.

10.13 Relaxation time

Figure 15.18: If two stars interact weakly, their motion is approximately a

straight line, and only the component of the velocity perpendicular to the
direction of motion is changed significantly.

If the impact parameter is large enough, the incoming star travels

approximately on a straight line with velocity v, as shown in Fig. 15.18.
The
distance between the two stars is r “ b{ cos θ, hence the gravitational force
along the y direction is: Gm2

Fy “ Fg cos θ “

cos3 θ .

b2

After an infinitesimal time dt, the variation of linear momentum in the y

direction is dpy “

Fy dt “ pFy{vq dx. But tan θ “ x{b, which differentiated is 1{ cos2 θ dθ “

dx{b. We then find dpy “ Gm2{pvbq cos θ dθ. Integrating between ´π{2 and
π{2: ż py,f

ż π{2

Gm2

dpy “
cos θ dθ

vb

py,i

´π{2

2Gm2

ñ ∆p “

vb

The variation of the velocity along the y direction is ∆vy “ ∆py{m. Clearly,
this approximation is valid only in the case ∆vy ! v, while for ∆vy Á v the
interaction is substantial and should be computed using the concepts
presented in Appendix B.

We want to understand if stars for which ∆vy Á v give rise to a greater

perturbation compared to stars for which ∆vy ! v. In the first case, the
interaction is significant, but, at the same time, it is rare that two stars come
very close to each other. In the second case, the

260

Chapter 15. Problem Solutions

interaction is weak, but the stars can be far away from each other.

Significant interactions happen when the impact parameter is smaller than

the critical value bc: 2Gm

Gm

Á v ñ b À bc «

,
vb

v2

where we ignore numerical factors, since this is just an estimate. Therefore,

a significant interaction takes place only if the incoming star passes through
an area of σ « b2c « G2m2{v4.

Let n be the number density of stars. In a volume σ dx there are nσ dx stars,

hence, every second, a number nσ dx{dt “ nσv of stars pass through this
volume. On average, to register the passage of a star, we need to wait a time
of 1 “ tgc nσv ñ tgc “ 1{pnσvq. Let R be the dimension of the system and N
the total number of stars. Then: 1

R3v3

N R3v3

tgc «

nσv

N pG2m2q

G2M 2

where we have used n « N {R3, and M “ N m is the total mass of the system.
If the system is in gravitational equilibrium, the velocity (v) can be found
from the Virial theorem, i.e.

v“
GM {R. It follows that:

Ŕ ¯Ŕ2v4 ¯

tgc « N

«N

G2M 2

This is the time scale in the case of significant interactions between stars.

If the interaction is weak, b " bc. Following a collision, the velocity of the
star changes by dvy « Gm{pvbq. Since stars are equally likely to come from
any direction, we expect the mean velocity to be constant. The star therefore
traces a chaotic path about the orbit it would have in the case of a continuous
mass distribution. The mean square speed produced by these interaction in
an interval rb, b ` dbs and time ∆t is:

´ Gm ¯2

xdv2

y y “ p2πb dbqpv∆tqn

vb

Integrating over all possible impact parameters, we find the total mean
square speed: ż b2
´ G2m2 ¯

2πnG2m2

´ b2 ¯

xdv2

yy

« ∆t

p2πb dbqpvnq

∆t ln

tot

b2v2

We can take b2 « R and b1 « bc « Gm{v2. Therefore b2{b1 « Rv2{Gm “ N

pRv2{GM q « N

if the system is in Virial equilibrium. The system significantly deviates from

the model of continuous mass distribution on the time scale for which
xdv2yy
« v2. Isolating ∆t from

tot

the above equation, it follows that:

v3

Ń ¯Ŕ ¯

tgc

∆tgc «

2πG2m2n ln N

ln N

ln N

which is shorter than the scale time tgc. This is the relaxation time.

For a galaxy, N « 1011, R « 1020 m and m « 1030 kg, hence R{v «

R3{GN m « 1015 s «

109 years, therefore tgc « 1017 years. This is much larger than the age of the
universe, therefore galaxies are considered to be “relaxed”, and can be
approximated with a continuous mass distribution.
a

For a star cluster, N « 106, R « 1017 m and m « 1030 kg, thus R{v «

R3{GN m « 1013 s «

105 years, and tgc « 5 ¨ 109 years. The age of the universe is on the same
order of magnitude, therefore stellar interactions are important, and
effectively randomize the velocities of all stars in the cluster. It is for this
reason that star clusters are spherical.

261

11. Motion of the Planets

11.1 Great opposition

We neglect the precession of Mars’ apse line. The sidereal period of Mars is
PD “ 1.88082 years, while the synodic period can be calculated using Eq.
11.3:

D,yr

syn,yr “

“ 2.1353 years .

PD,yr ´ 1

At the end of a synodic period, Mars will have covered an angle

corresponding to Psyn{Psid “

1.13531 of a full circle, and will be displaced by 0.13531 of a full circle,

relative to the starting position. The time taken to return to the same point
with respect to its apse line is 1{0.13531 “ 7.39067 synodic periods, which
corresponds to 7.39067 ¨ 2.1353 “ 15.78 years.

Therefore, great oppositions happen approximately once every 15 ´ 17 years.

A more precise cycle is five times longer than the previous one, with a
periodicity of 78.906 « 79 years.

12. Orbital Manoeuvres

12.1 Circular orbits

The most effective way to put a satellite in an equatorial orbit around the
Earth is to launch it from a location on the equator, in the same direction as
the rotation of the Earth, from west to est. Indeed, the Earth completes a
rotation about its axis every 86164 seconds, thus its angular velocity of
rotation is ω “ 2π{T “ 7.29 ¨ 105 rad/s. The equatorial radius is RC “ 6378
km, therefore a satellite launched in this way has an initial velocity of ωRC “

465.1 m/s. The velocity of a circular orbit at sea level is v “

GM {RC « 7.9 km/s, hence

the minimum ∆v required to put a satellite in circular orbit is approximately

7.4 km/s.

To insert a satellite in a polar orbit, perpendicular to the equator, it is best to

launch it from a location near the poles, so that the component of the
velocity along the equator (which will have to be cancelled) is the smallest
possible. The minimum ∆v required is simply equal to the velocity of a
circular orbit at sea level, which is 7.9 km/s.

To escape Earth’s gravitational field, the velocity must be equal to the escape
velocity from a

the Earth, i.e v “

2GM {RC « 11.2 km/s. If the satellite is launched from the equator, in the
same direction as the rotation of the Earth, the ∆v is reduced to 10.7 km/s.

In reality, the ∆v should be a bit larger than the previously stated limits. Of
course, it is not possible to put a body in circular orbit at sea level, but we
must first reach a height of a few hundred kilometres above the surface. This
requires an additional ∆v to contrast the gravitational force (which adds
about 1 km/s), while the velocity of the new circular orbit a

is essentially the same, since v “

GM {pRC ` hq and h ! RC. In addition, the friction

force with the atmosphere (1.5 km/s) also tends to slow down the satellite.
Therefore, it is reasonable to assume we need a further 3 km/s above the
previously stated limits.

12.2 Changing the plane of the orbit

The manoeuvre should be carried out in the ascending or descending node,

depending on whether the desired final orbit is above or below the starting
orbit. Let v0 be the velocity of the circular orbit. Then, the projections of ~

v0 on the plane of the final orbit and on the

perpendicular to it are:

vi “ v

“v

0 cos i ,

viK

0 sin i .
The final velocity must be:

vf “ v

“0.

0,

vfK

262

Chapter 15. Problem Solutions

Hence, the necessary ∆v is:

∆vk “ vf ´ v

“v

ik

0p1 ćos iq ,

∆vK “ vf ´ v

“ ´v

iK

0 sin i .

Adding the two components in quadrature:

b

∆vtot “

∆v2

v2

sin2 i

k ` ∆v2 “

0 p1 ćos iq2 ` v2

“ v0

1 ` cos2 i ´ 2 cos ì sin2 i “

2v0 1 ćos i .

Using the half-angle formula in Eq. A.22,

we find: í ¯

∆vtot “ 2v0 sin

2
Usually, satellites are directly launched with the desired orbital inclination,
in order to avoid wasting fuel with this orbital manoeuvre.

A satellite in a circular orbit, at a height of

h “ 200 km above the surface, would require ∆v “ 270 m/s for a change of 1˝
in its orbital inclination. If the expulsion speed is 4.5 km/s and the mass of
the satellite is 1000 kg, we need an additional ∆m “ 60 kg of fuel for this
manoeuvre. However, to bring additional fuel in orbit, we also require more
fuel to lift the satellite. Suppose ∆vorb « 9 km/s is needed to place the
satellite into orbit (taking into account friction with air and the effect of
gravity).

Then:

mi

∆vorb “ ve ln

mf

If an additional mass of fuel ∆m must be left at the end, the initial mass must
be greater by an amount ∆M :

mì ∆M

∆vorb “ ve ln

mf ` ∆m

Dividing the above equations, we find:

mi

mì ∆M
mi

ln

“ ln

ñ ∆M “ ∆m

mf

mf ` ∆m

mf

where mi{mf “ evorb{ve « 7. Hence, the additional mass of fuel needed to

launch the satellite is:

mi

∆M “ ∆m

“ 420 kg ,

mf

approximately 40 % of the mass of the satellite itself.

12.3 Third cosmic velocity

The trajectory of the probe escaping the Solar System can be divided into
two parts.

First, the satellite moves far away from Earth, to enter the sphere of
influence of the Sun.

The energy needed to achieve this is approximately equal to the energy

required to escape the gravitational field of the Earth entirely. Indeed, the
gravitational potential energy is inversely proportional to the distance, thus
the error made in assuming that the final distance is infinite rather than the
Hill sphere of the Earth (about 1.5 million kilometres) is not significant.

Denoting with vi the initial speed of the probe and with vf its speed upon
entering the sphere of influence of the Sun, applying energy conservation: c

GmM

2GM

mv2

mv2

v2

iŔ

f ñ vf “

iĆ

RC
In the second part, the gravitational field of the Earth can be neglected. Now,
the probe is at a distance dC from the Sun and is moving with a velocity of
vf ` vC in the frame of

263

the Sun. To find the minimum velocity required to escape the Solar System,
we require the speed of the probe to be zero at infinity. Therefore, the probe
must travel in a parabolic orbit, with energy E “ 0:

GmM

pvf ` vCq ´

“0.

dC

Solving for vf :

c GM

f“p
2 ´ 1q

dC

Substituting vf in the first equation and solving for vi, we find: c 2GM

i“

` p3 ´ 2

2q

« 16.6 km/s .

RC

dC

If the satellite is launched from the equator, the required velocity is smaller
by about 0.5 km/s, therefore the third cosmic velocity is approximately v «
16 km/s. Notice that the energy scales with the square of the velocity. Since
the escape velocity from Earth is ve “ 11.2 km/s, and from the Sun is vf “
12.3 km/s, a quicker way to find vi is by adding

in quadrature the two contributions: vi “

11.22 ` 12.32 ´ 0.5 « 16 km/s.

To collide with the Sun, the probe first needs to escape Earth’s gravitational
field, which requires a velocity of 11.2 km/s. After this, the probe would
orbit the Sun, at the same distance and with the same velocity as the Earth.
To reach the centre, the angular momentum of the probe needs to be zero
(see Pr. 12.5), hence it is necessary to cancel all of its tangential velocity,
which requires a ∆v equal to Earth’s orbital velocity. To minimize this

∆v, we chose to launch the probe when the Earth is at aphelion, its velocity
being: c

GmM

GmM

1 é GM

“´

mv2

“ 29.3 km/s .

2a

a ñ va “

1è
a

Since energy scales with the square of the velocity, the speed needed to
collide with the Sun

is vc “

11.22 ` 29.32 ´ 0.5 « 31 km/s. Hence, escaping the Sun requires less energy
than colliding with it!

Notice that, in both cases, we must deliver at take off all the ∆v the probe
needs for both parts of its motion. By doing so, we take advantage of the fact
that the energy is proportional to the square of the velocity (Oberth effect).

In fact, if we only gave the

probe enough energy to escape the Earth first, and then fired the engine
again to escape the Sun, the total ∆v needed would have been 11.2 ` 12.3 ´
0.5 “ 23 km/s, instead of

?11.22 ` 12.32 ´ 0.5 « 16 km/s.

12.4 Rocket in a gravitational field

While the linear momentum is conserved for a rocket moving in free space,
this is not true when the rocket is in a gravitational field of strength g (for
instance, it is escaping the Earth), since its momentum changes by dp “ ´mg
dt after a time dt. Looking at Fig. 12.1:

dp “ pm ` dmqpv ` dvq ´ p´dmq ¨ pve ´ vq ´ mv “ ´mg dt .

Simplifying, we obtain:

m dv ` ve dm “ ´mg dt .

Denoting with r “ ´dm{dt the rate of exhaustion, it follows that dt “ ´dm{r

(for r ‰ 0), and substituting in the above equation:
´ ve

g¯

dv “ ´

dm .

If r is independent of time, we can easily integrate both sides, to get: mi

∆v “ ve ln

pmi ´ mf q .

(15.18)

mf

264

Chapter 15. Problem Solutions

If the gravitational field goes to zero, or the rate of fuel consumption goes to
infinity, the previous equation reduces to Eq.12.1,
which describes a rocket
moving in empty space.

Therefore, the gravitational field reduces the effective ∆v a rocket can

deliver. This is the effect of gravity mentioned in Pr. 12.1. If ve{m “ g{r,
then dv “ 0, therefore the rocket hovers at a constant height. If r “ 0, we must
revert back to the equation expressing the conservation of linear momentum
to deduce that dv{dt “ ´g, as expected.

12.5 Reaching the centre

We assume the potential has the form:

U“´

rk

We want to find out what k needs to be for the body to reach the centre, with
non-zero angular momentum (L ě 0). The body reaches the centre if the
radial velocity, for r Ñ 0, is positive, i.e. if the radial kinetic energy is
positive in this limit: 1

L2

m 9r2 “ E Ú prq ´

ą0.

2mr2

It follows that r can take any arbitrary small value only if: L2

L2

rr2U prqsrÑ0 ă ´

ñ rr´k`2srÑ0 ą

.
2m

2mα

Let us distinguish three cases:

• if k ą 2, then 8 ą L2{2mα is always true, therefore the body can reach the
centre;

• if k “ 2, then 1 ą L2{2mα and the body reaches the centre only if L ă

2mα;

• if k ă 2, the body never reaches the centre if L ‰ 0.

The last case corresponds to the gravitational potential (k “ 1). This is the
reason why is necessary to cancel the tangential speed of the probe (so that L
“ 0) in order to reach the centre of the Sun in Pr. 12.3.

12.6 Gravitational slingshot

Let v0 be the velocity of the probe with respect to the Sun once it has left the
gravitational field of the Earth. Let dC be the radius of the Earth’s orbit and
dp “ xdC the radius of the orbit of the planet which is used as a gravitational
slingshot. Let vt and vr be the tangential and radial velocities of the probe
when it is at a distance dp from the Sun, with mass M

(Fig. 15.19).
Applying conservation of energy and angular momentum: 1

GM m

GM m

mv 2

2
2

mpvt ` vr q ´

dC

xdC

v0

mdCv0 “ mxdCvt ñ vt “

Substituting vt, obtained from the second equation into the first, and
isolating vr: c

1¯

GM ´

1¯

2
r“

v0

1´

´2

1´

x2

dC

The velocities of the Earth and of the planet are, respectively: GmM

v2

GM

“m

ñ vC “

d2

d
C

GmM

v2

“m

ñ vp “

vC .

d2 x2

xd

C
265

Hence, vr can be written as:

1¯

1¯

r“
v0

1´

´ 2vC 1 ´

x2

Requiring that the term under the square root is positive, we have a condition
on v0: c

v0

2x

ě gpxq “

vC

1`x

If v0{vC were smaller than gpxq, the probe wouldn’t have enough energy to
reach the planet.

Let us now consider the reference system of the planet. We assume that the
gravitational field of the Sun can be neglected close to the planet. Let vrel be
the relative velocity between the probe and the planet when the probe is just
entering its sphere of influence: a

rel “
pvt ´ vpq2 ` vr .

The probe will travel on a hyperbolic orbit, with speed at infinity vrel and
some angle of deviation (Fig. 15.20).
In the reference system of the planet, it
appears not much has happened; however, in the frame of the Sun, the
velocity of the probe has increased. In the best case, the probe is deviated in
such a way that its velocity, upon exiting the sphere of influence of the
planet, is directed along the velocity of the planet. Therefore, in the frame of
the Sun, the final velocity of the probe is vf “ vrel ` vp. If this velocity is
greater than the

escape velocity from the Sun at that distance, which is 2vp, then the probe
will leave the

Solar System. The condition is therefore vrel ě p 2 ´ 1qvp. Substituting vrel

as a function of vt, vp and vr, we obtain:

v0

ě?

`2´
” f pxq .

vC

x3

x3

We therefore have two constraints on the velocity v0. The first ensures the
probe does indeed reach the planet, while the second is needed for the planet
to escape the Solar System.

Figure 15.19: Applying conservation of energy and angular momentum, it is

possible to find the components of the velocity of the probe when it reaches
the other planet.
266

Chapter 15. Problem Solutions

Figure 15.20: In the reference system of the planet, the probe travels on an
hyperbolic orbit, with velocity ~

vrel at infinite distance. The planet deflects the path of the probe, therefore
changing its velocity in the reference system of the Sun.

Plotting both functions on the same graph, we see that f pxq is always
greater than gpxq for

xă2`

8 (Fig. 15.21).
At this point, the two functions have the same value, and, for

xą2`
8, gpxq is greater than f pxq. The minimum velocity is therefore: $

&?

`2´

for

1ďxď2`

x3
x3

2x

for

xą2`

8.

1`x

Solving f pxq1 “ 0, we find the planet that gives the lowest possible velocity
v0: b

?¯

x“9`

81 ´ 24 8 {8 “ 1.58 .
Surprisingly, this value is very close to the Sun-Mars distance (1.52 au).
Therefore, Mars is the best planet to use as a gravitational slingshot.

Figure 15.21: The velocity must be greater than the maximum of f pxq and
gpxq.

Appendix

267

Mathematics

A.1

Vectors

The simplest physical quantity one can imagine is the scalar, specified only
by its magnitude, a number complete with units in which it is measured.
Examples of scalar quantities are temperature, energy, time and density.

A vector is a quantity that requires both a magnitude, and a direction in

space to specify it completely; we may think of it as an arrow in space.
Examples of vectors are velocity, acceleration, force, linear and angular
momentum.

Addition and Subtraction

There are two ways to sum vectors. With the parallelogram method, we
translate the first vector in such a way that its tail coincides with the tail of
the second vector. As you can see in Fig. A.1
a), the vector sum is the
diagonal of the parallelogram formed by these two vectors. With the head-
to-tail method, we translate the first vector in such a way that its tail
coincides with the head of the second vector. In Fig. A.1
b), the resultant
vector is the vector whose head and tail are the head and tail of the first and
second vector, respectively.

The sum of two vectors is associative, i.e. ~à~b “ ~b ` ~a. Subtraction is

similar to addition, since ~a ´ ~b “ ~à p´~bq, where ´~b is the vector with the
same magnitude as ~b, but opposite direction.

Figure A.1: Vector addition using: a) parallelogram and b) head-to-tail

methods.

268

A.1. Vectors

269

Figure A.2: Multiplication of a vector ~

a by a scalar λ.

Multiplication by a scalar

Not to be confused with the scalar product, the multiplication of a vector ~a

by a scalar λ returns a vector with magnitude |λ||~a| (where |~a| denotes the
magnitude of ~a), and the same direction as ~a if λ ą 0, otherwise opposite
direction (Fig. A.2).
The following properties hold: pλµq~

a “ λpµ~aq “ µpλ~aq ,

λp~à ~bq “ λ~à λ~b ,

pλ ` µq~

a “ λ~à µ~a .

Basis vectors and components

Given three distinct and non-coplanar vectors ~

u1, ~

u2, ~

u3, it is possible to write

any other vector ~a in space as:

~a “ a1 ~

u1 à2 ~

u2 à3 ~

u3 .

The three vectors ~

u1, ~

u2, ~

u3 are said to form a basis, and the scalars a1, a2, a3

are called the components of the vector ~a with respect to the basis. We say
that the vector has been resolved into components. The basis is called
orthogonal if ~

u1, ~

u2, ~

u3 are all perpendicular to each other; orthonormal if, additionally, all three
vectors have unit modulus. An example of an orthonormal basis is the
Cartesian basis, specified by three unit vectors î, ˆ

j, ˆ

k which point along the

x, y, z axes, respectively. We can therefore write ~a as:

~a “ a ˆ

xi ày j àz k ,

(A.1)

where ax, ay, az are the projections of ~a on the axes x, y, z, respectively.

Using a Cartesian basis, it is easy to write down vector addition:

~à ~b “ pa ˆ

ˆ
ˆ

xi ày j àz kq ` pbxì by j ` bz kq

“ pax ` bxqˆì pay ` byqˆ

j ` paz ` bzqˆ

k.

Multiplication of ~a by a scalar can be written as:

λ~a “ λpa ˆ

xi ày j àz kq “ pλaxqˆ

ì pλayqˆj ` pλazqˆ

k.

270

Appendix A. Mathematics
Magnitude of a vector

The magnitude of a vector ~a, denoted by |~a|, can be written in terms of its
Cartesian components as:

|~

a| “

a2x à2y à2z ,

(A.2)

which can be viewed as the Pythagorean theorem in three dimensions. A

vector whose magnitude equals unity is called a unit vector. The unit vector
in the direction ~a is usually denoted by â, and may be evaluated as:

~a

â“

(A.3)

|~

a|

Scalar product

Figure A.3: The scalar product ~

a ¨ ~b equals the magnitude of ~a multiplied by the projection of ~b onto ~

a, or vice versa.
The scalar product of two vectors ~a and ~b, denoted by ~a ¨~b, is the
scalar:

~a ¨ ~b “ |~a||~b| cos θ ,

(A.4)

where θ is the angle between the two vectors, placed tail to tail or head to
head. Thus, the scalar product ~a ¨ ~b equals the magnitude of ~a multiplied
by the projection of ~b onto ~a, or vice versa (Fig. A.3).
If ~a is
perpendicular to ~b, their scalar product is zero. If ~a and ~b are parallel to
each other and point in the same direction, their scalar product is |~a||~b|,
otherwise it is ´|~a||~b|, if their direction is opposite. An example of scalar
product is the work W “ ~

F ¨~r.

Vector product

The vector product of ~a and ~b, denoted by ~a ˆ ~b, is the vector

perpendicular to both ~a and ~b, with magnitude:

~a ˆ ~b “ |~a||~b| sin θ ,

(A.5)
A.2. Conic Sections

271

where θ is the angle between the two vectors, placed tail to tail or head to
head (Fig. A.4).
The direction can be found with the right hand rule: if the
thumb is pointed in the direction of the first vector, the index in the direction
of the second vector, then the middle finger gives the direction of their
vector product. If we exchange the order of the two vectors, their vector
product changes sign, as you can verify with the right hand rule. Therefore,
the vector product is anti-commutative: ~a ˆ~b “ ´~b ˆ ~a . From its
definition, we see that the vector product has the very useful property that if
~a ˆ ~b “ 0, then either

~a is parallel or anti-parallel to ~b (unless either of them is zero). We also

note that ~a ˆ ~a “ 0. An example of vector product is the torque ~

τ“~

F ˆ ~r.
Figure A.4: The vector product of ~

a and ~b, denoted by ~

a ˆ ~b, is the vector perpendicular to

both ~

a and ~b, with magnitude equal to the area A of the parallelogram formed by
the two vectors. The direction can be found with the right hand rule.

A.2

Conic Sections

Figure A.5: a) Conic sections, b) shape of the corresponding orbits.

272

Appendix A. Mathematics

As the name suggests, conic sections are curves obtained from the
intersection of a circular cone with a plane (Fig. A.5).

Circle

The circle is the locus of points in the plane that are equidistant from a fixed
point, called the centre. Let r be the radius of the circle, i.e. the constant
distance of any point P“ px, yq on the circle to the centre C“ p0, 0q. Then:
x2 ` y2 “ r2 .

Ellipse

The ellipse is the locus of points in the plane such that the sum of the
distances from two fixed points, called foci, is constant. Consider a Cartesian
coordinate system and let the position of the two foci be F1 “ pć, 0q and F2 “
pc, 0q.
Take a point P“ px, yq on the ellipse, and let 2a be the sum of the distances
of P from the two foci. Then:

2a “

px ` cq2 ` y2 `

px ćq2 ` y2 .

Moving the second square root to the LHS and squaring both sides: a

p 2a ´

px ćq2 ` y2 q “ px ` cq ` y2

4a2

` px ćq ` y2 ´ 4a

px ćq2 ` y2 “ px ` cq ` y2

4a2 ´ 4xc “ 4a

px ćq2 ` y2
c

a´x

px ćq2 ` y2 .

Squaring again both sides:

ć ¯2

a2 ` x2

´ 2xc “ x2 ` c2 ´ 2xc ` y2

ć ¯2

a2 ć2 “ ´x2

` x2 ` y2

ć ¯2ı

a2 ć2 “ x2 1 ´

` y2 .

a
For simplicity, let us define b2 “ a2 ć2. The above equation becomes: b2

x2

` y2 “ b2 .

a2

Dividing both sides by b2, we obtain the canonical equation of an ellipse: x2

y2

“1.

(A.6)

a2

b2

A.2. Conic Sections

273
Figure A.6: a) Schematics of an ellipse, b) the degree of flattening along the
semi-major axis increases with increasing eccentricity.

Here, a is the semi-major axis, b the semi-minor axis and c the semi-focal
distance, as shown in Fig. A.6
a). The ratio between the semi-focal distance
and the semi-major axis is called the eccentricity of the ellipse, and is
denoted by e:

e“

with

0ăeă1.

The eccentricity is always contained in the range 0 to 1, and measures the

degree of flattening along the major axis. As you can see in Fig. A.6
b), if a
“ b, then e “ 0, and the ellipse reduces to a circle. With increasing
eccentricity, the ellipse is more and more flattened along the major axis until,
in the degenerate case e Ñ 1, it becomes a segment connecting the two foci.

The area of a sector on an ellipse between the major axis and a segment
forming an angle θ with it is:

Apθq “

a b arctan

tan θ .
(A.7)

Which is easy to prove by thinking of an ellipse as a circle scaled by factors

a and b along the x and y axes, respectively. The total area of an ellipse is: A
“ πa b .

(A.8)

Parabola

The parabola is the locus of points in the plane that are equidistant from a
fixed line, called directrix, and a fixed point, called focus (Fig. A.7,
overleaf).

The line passing through the focus and perpendicular to the directrix is the
axis of symmetry of the parabola.

Consider a Cartesian coordinate system and let F“ pp, 0q be the position of

the
274

Appendix A. Mathematics

Figure A.7: Parabola

focus and x “ ´p the equation defining the directrix. Taking a point P“ px, yq
on the parabola, we have:

apx ´ pq2 ` y2 “ x ` p .

Squaring both sides:

x2 ` p2 ´ 2xp ` y2 “ x2 ` p2 ` 2px

Hence, the canonical equation for a parabola, with focus in F“ pp, 0q and
directrix x “ ´p, is:

y2 “ 4px .

(A.9)
An important property of the parabola is that any incident ray parallel to its
axis of symmetry is reflected in its focus.

Hyperbola

The hyperbola is the locus of points in the plane such that the difference in
the distances from two fixed points, called foci, is constant (Fig. A.8).
Consider a Cartesian coordinate system and let F1 “ pć, 0q and F2 “ pc, 0q
be the position of the two foci. Take a point P=px, yq on the hyperbola, and
let 2a be the difference of the distances from the two foci. Then: ˇ a

2a “ ˇ

px ` cq2 ` y2 ´

px ćq2 ` y2 ˇˇ ,

where we have taken the modulus of the difference since we don’t know, a
priori, which distance is greater. Moving the second square root to the LHS,

A.2. Conic Sections

275

Figure A.8: Hyperbola

squaring both sides, and considering both positive and negative cases: a

p2a ˘

px ćq2 ` y2q “ px ` cq ` y2

4a2

` px ćq ` y2 ˘ 4a

px ćq2 ` y2 “ px ` cq ` y2

˘4a

px ćq2 ` y2 “ ´4a2 ` 4xc

px ćq2 ` y2 “ x
á.

Squaring both sides again:

ć ¯2

a2 ` x2

´ 2xc “ x2 ` c2 ´ 2xc ` y2

ć ¯2

x2

´ x2 ´ y2 “ c2 á2

”ć ¯2

x2

´ 1 ´ y2 “ c2 á2 .

For simplicity, define b2 “ c2 á2 (note that c and a are swapped compared to

the ellipse, since c ą a). The above equation becomes: b2

x2

´ y2 “ b2 .

a2
Dividing both sides by b2, we finally obtain the canonical equation for the
hyperbola:

x2

y2

“1.

(A.10)

a2

b2

The hyperbola has eccentricity e ą 1, since c ą a. The asymptotes are

described by:

y“˘.

276

Appendix A. Mathematics
A.3

Plane Trigonometry

Measuring Angles

The radian is the SI unit for measuring angles. Given a circle of radius r, the
radian is defined as the angle at the centre subtended by an arc of length r.

Therefore, an arc of length s subtends an angle of:

αrad “

A full circle, measured in radians, is equal to the circumference divided by

the radius, i.e. αc, rad “ 2πr{r “ 2π. On the other hand, a full circle measured
in degrees is αc, deg “ 360˝, hence the conversion from degrees to radians is:
αrad

αdeg

ñ αrad “

αdeg .

(A.11)

2π

360 ˝
180

Similarly, the steradian is the SI unit for measuring solid angles. Given a
sphere of radius r, the steradian is numerically equal to the solid angle at the
centre subtended by an area of r2 on the sphere. The solid angle subtended
by an element of area A, at a distance r, is thus:

ωsr “

r2

Since the area of a sphere is 4πr2, a full sphere measures 4π steradians.

Sine, cosine and tangent

Trigonometry is useful in physics to describe periodic motion. Given a right

triangle (Fig. A.9),
we define three trigonometric functions:

• the sine of an angle, denoted by “sin”, is the ratio of the leg opposite the
angle to the hypotenuse;

• the cosine of an angle, denoted by “cos”, is the ratio of the leg adjacent the
angle to the hypotenuse;

• the tangent of an angle, denoted by “tan”, is the ratio of the leg opposite the
angle to the adjacent leg.

Figure A.9: Definition of sine, cosine and tangent.

A.3. Plane Trigonometry

277

Hence, we can write:

b “ a sin β ,

c “ a sin γ ;

b “ a cos γ ,

c “ a cos β ;

b “ c tan β ,

c “ b tan γ .

Pythagorean identity
The sum of the sine squared and cosine squared of any angle is equal to
unity.

Indeed, looking at Fig. A.9,

the lengths of the opposite and adjacent legs to β
are equal to b “ a sin β and c “ a cos β. According to the Pythagorean
theorem, a2 “ b2 ` c2. Hence, substituting for b and c, dividing both sides by
a2, we find:

sin2 β ` cos2 β “ 1 .

(A.12)

Law of Sines

Figure A.10: Proof of the law of sines.

Consider a generic triangle with sides of length a, b, c and angle opposite

those sides of α, β, γ, respectively. Let R be the radius of the circumference
that circumscribes the triangle. The law of sines states that: a

“ 2R .

(A.13)

sin α

sin β

sin γ

Let us prove that c{ sin γ “ 2R; the other equations follow by symmetry.
Looking at Fig. A.10,
let H be the height of triangle ABO relative to the base
AB. Since the angle at the circumference is half the angle at the centre

278

Appendix A. Mathematics

subtended by the same arc, we have =AOB “ 2γ. Because triangles AHO

and HBO are both right triangles in H, AO “ BO “ R, and since they share
OH, it follows that they are congruent, hence =AOH “ γ. Then, AH “ c{2,
but we also know that AH “ R sin γ, hence c{ sin γ “ 2R, as we wanted to
show.

Law of Cosines

Figure A.11: Proof of the law of cosines.

The law of cosines allows us to compute the length of one side of a triangle,
knowing the length of the other two and the angle between them. In
particular: a2 “ b2 ` c2 ´ 2b c cos α .

(A.14)

By symmetry, we can substitute a Ñ b, b Ñ c, c Ñ a and α Ñ β to obtain b2 “

c2 à2 ´ 2c a cos β and, with a similar transformation, c2 “ a2 ` b2 ´ 2a b cos
γ.

Swapping every index with the next (imagine they are placed on a circle) is
called performing a cyclic permutation. We only prove Eq. A.14;
the others
follow by cyclic permutation.

Looking at Fig. A.11,

we draw the height relative to the base AC and we call
H the point of intersection. We have:

AH “ c cos α ,

BH “ c sin α .

It follows that HC “ bć cos α. Applying the Pythagorean theorem to triangle

HCB:

a2

“ BH ` HC “ pc sin αq ` pb ć cos αq

“ c2psin2 β ` cos2 βq ` b2 ´ 2b c cos α .

Using the Pythagorean identity:

a2 “ b2 ` c2 ´ 2b c cos α ,

which is what we wanted to prove.

A.3. Plane Trigonometry

279

Reduction Formulae

In this section we look for a simple way to memorize the value of

trigonometric functions for some common angles. Since the sine and cosine
have a period of 2π (i.e. a full circle), we only need to know the value of
trigonometric functions for angles in the interval r0, 2πs. We can do even
better: from the trigonometric function of an angle α in r0, π{4s, we would
like to find the trigonometric functions for:

π
3

˘α,

π˘α,

π˘α,

´α .

The strategy is to visualize the angles on the trigonometric circle (Fig. A.12),

applying rotations or reflections in order to reduce the problem to that of an

angle in the interval r0, π{4s. We then find:

• for π ˘ α,

sin ` π ˘ α˘ “ cos α ,

cos ` π ˘ α˘ “ ¯ sin α ;

• for π ˘ α,

sin `π ˘ α˘ “ ¯ sin α ,

cos `π ˘ α˘ “ ćos α ;

• for 3 π ˘ α,

sin ` 3 π ˘ α˘ “ ćos α ,
cos ` 3 π ˘ α˘ “ ¯ sin α ;

• for ´α,

sin p´αq “ śin α ,

cos p´αq “ cos α .

Figure A.12: By visualizing the angles on the trigonometric circle, and

applying rotations or reflections, it is possible to reduce the problem of
finding the trigonometric function of an angle in r0, 2πs, to that of an angle
in r0, π{4s.

280

Appendix A. Mathematics

Looking at Fig. A.12,

let us compute, for instance, the sine, cosine and
tangent of π ´ α. Clearly, the two angles have the same sine, hence sin pπ ´
αq “ sin α.

Instead, the cosine has opposite sign (because the corresponding triangles
are in the first and second quadrant, respectively), hence cos pπ ´ αq “ ćos α.
The tangent is equal to the ratio of sine and cosine, therefore tan pπ ´ αq “ ´
tan α.

With a similar reasoning, it is possible to obtain all the above relations.

For completeness, we give the trigonometric values of some common angles

in the interval r0, π{4s:

?3
1

cos 30˝ “

sin 30˝ “

tan 30˝ “ ? ;

cos 45˝ “ ? ,

sin 45˝ “ ? ,

tan 45˝ “ 1 .

Using the reduction formula for π{2 ´ α, and taking α “ 30˝, we can then
compute the trigonometric functions for 60˝:

1
3

cos 60˝ “

sin 60˝ “

tan 60˝ “

3.

Trigonometric Identities

Below, we give some of the most useful trigonometric identities, which

should be remembered.

Addition Formulae:

sin `α ˘ β˘ “ sin α cos β ˘ cos α cos β ,

(A.15)

cos `α ˘ β˘ “ cos α cos β ¯ sin α sin β ,

(A.16)

tan α ˘ tan β

tan `α ˘ β˘ “

.
(A.17)

1 ¯ tan α tan β

Double Angle Formulae:

Setting α “ β in the addition formulae:

sin 2α “ 2 sin α cos α ,

(A.18)

cos 2α “ cos2 α śin2 α ,

(A.19)

2 tan α

tan 2α “

(A.20)

1 ´ tan2 α
A.4. Spherical Trigonometry

281

Half-angle Formulae:

Using the Pythagorean identity in Eq. A.19,

setting α Ñ α{2:

1 ćos α

sin

(A.21)
2

1 ` cos α

cos

(A.22)

A.4

Spherical Trigonometry

Figure A.13

Let ABC be a triangle on a sphere of unit radius, with sides of length a, b, c

and angles opposite the respective sides of A, B and C (Fig. A.13).

Spherical Law of Cosines

The spherical law of cosines states that:

cos c “ cos a cos b ` sin a sin b cos C ,

(A.23)
and the corresponding cyclic permutations. In the case C “ 90 ˝, we obtain
the Pythagorean theorem on a sphere:

cos c “ cos a cos b .

(A.24)

If the triangle is small, i.e. a, b, c ! 1, we can use the approximation cos x «

1 ´ x2{2 for x ! 1 (see Sec. A.6),

to obtain the Pythagorean theorem on a

282

Appendix A. Mathematics

plane:

c2

á2 ¯´

b2 ¯

1´

1´

1´

c2

a2
b2

1´

«1´

ñ c2 « a2 ` b2 ,

where we have neglected the term a2b2{4, since it is an infinitesimal of

higher order.

Spherical Law of Sines

The spherical law of sines states that:

sin a

sin b

sin c

(A.25)

sin A

sin B
sin C

If a, b, c ! 1, we can use the approximation sin x « x for x ! 1, to obtain the

law of sines on a plane.

If the sphere has radius r, it is sufficient to substitute a Ñ a{r, b Ñ b{r and c

Ñ c{r in the previous formulae.

Spherical Excess

The sum of the angles of a spherical triangle is always greater than 180˝. The
quantity:

E “ À B ` C ´ 180˝ ,

(A.26)

is called the spherical excess. It is not a constant, but depends on the

triangle.

The area of a spherical triangle is related to the spherical excess in a very

simple way:

A “ Er2

(A.27)

A.5. Special Functions

283

A.5

Special Functions

Exponentials

Let us consider a function of the form f pxq “ ax, where a ą 0, called the
exponential function. We can distinguish three cases:
• a “ 1, then f pxq “ 1 for every x;

• a ą 1, as in Fig. A.14
a);

• 0 ă a ă 1, as in Fig. A.14
b).

The exponential function has some important properties:

• f p0q “ 1 for every a. Indeed a0 “ 1 for every a;

• f pxq ą 0 for every x. Indeed a ą 0 implies ax ą 0.

In the case a “ e, where e is Euler’s number, we obtain the natural

exponential function. The functions f pxq “ ex and f pxq “ e´x are shown in
Fig. A.14
c).

Logarithms

The logarithmic function has the form f pxq “ loga x, where a ą 0 and a ‰ 1.

The meaning of this notation is the following:

f pxq “ loga x

if and only if

afpxq “ x .

(A.28)

Clearly, the case a “ 1 is not valid because 1fpxq is always equal to unity.
Since a ą 0, it follows that afpxq ą 0 for every x, i.e. the function is only
defined for a positive argument (the domain is x ą 0).

The graphs of the logarithmic function for a ą 1 and 0 ă a ă 1 are shown in

Figs. A.14
d) and e), respectively. As shown in Fig. A.14
f), the logarithmic
function is simply a reflection of the exponential function about the line f
pxq “
x. In other words, the two functions are related by an exchange of axes: x
becomes f pxq, and f pxq becomes x.

The logarithmic function has some important properties, which can be

proven by using A.28
and reducing the problem to one involving
exponentials:

• logarithm of a product: loga px ¨ yq “ loga x ` loga y;

• exponent rule: logapxyq “ y loga x;

• logarithm of a fraction: loga px{yq “ loga x ĺoga y;

• change of basis: loga x “ logy x{ logy a.

284

Appendix A. Mathematics
Figure A.14: a), b) and c) exponential functions; d), e) logarithmic functions.
In f) we see that the logarithmic function is simply a reflection of the
exponential function about the line f pxq “ x.

A.6. Derivatives

285

A.6

Derivatives

In physics and astronomy, differential calculus is of fundamental importance.

In this section we introduce the concept of a derivative in a straightforward

and intuitive manner.

Let f pxq be a function with real argument. Consider two points P1 “ px1, f
px1qq and P2 “ px1 ` ∆x, f px1 ` ∆xqq on f pxq. The line passing through P1
and P2 is a secant of f pxq but, as we make ∆x smaller, it becomes closer to
the line tangent to f pxq in P1. The angular coefficient of this line is ∆f {∆x,
with

∆f “ f px ` ∆xq ´ f pxq. Thus, for ∆x infinitesimally small, ∆f {∆x tends to

the angular coefficient of the line tangent to f pxq in P1. Instead of using the
notation ∆ for a generic variation, we will use the letter d to denote an
infinitesimal variation. Hence, ∆x becomes dx and ∆f becomes df “ f px `
dxq ´ f pxq.

In this limit, the angular coefficient of the line tangent to f pxq in x, which
we denote with f 1pxq, is called the first derivative of f pxq in x, and is given
by: f px ` ∆xq ´ f pxq

df

f 1pxq “ lim

“
.

(A.29)

∆xÑ0

∆x

dx

Qualitatively, the derivative measures the rate of variation of a function, as x

is changed. The greater the derivative, the stronger the growth is; the smaller
the derivative, the faster the decrease.

From the definition of the derivative, it is clear that the value of ∆f for a
small (but non-infinitesimal) displacement ∆x is:

df

∆f «

∆x .

dx

The accuracy of the above relation increases as ∆x becomes smaller. For ∆x

that goes to zero, we can substitute ∆x and ∆f with dx and df , respectively:
df

df “

dx .

(A.30)

dx

In the same way, we can define the second derivative of a function f pxq
with respect to x, which we denote by f 2pxq, as the angular coefficient of
the line tangent to f 1pxq in x:
f 1px ` ∆xq ´ f 1pxq

df 1pxq

f 2pxq “ lim

(A.31)

∆xÑ0

∆x

dx

A physical example of a second derivative is the acceleration, equal to the

derivative of velocity w.r.t. time, with velocity being the derivative of
distance w.r.t time. Hence, acceleration is the second derivative of distance
w.r.t. time.

Since we often consider derivatives w.r.t. time, it is convenient to define 9x, :

x

286

Appendix A. Mathematics

as a short-hand notation for dx{dt and d2x{dt2, respectively.

We can then define the n-th derivative of a function as: f pn´1qpx ` ∆xq ´ f
pn´1qpxq

f pnqpxq “ lim

(A.32)
∆xÑ0

∆x

In this notation, we have f 1pxq “ f p1qpxq, f 2pxq “ f p2qpxq, etc. and,

formally, f p0qpxq “ f pxq.

Basic derivatives

All derivatives can be obtained by solving the limit A.29.

In most cases, the
limit can be solved by simply thinking what quantities can be neglected as
∆x goes to zero. Let us calculate the derivative with respect to x of f pxq “
x2: Function

Derivative

df pxq

f px ` ∆xq ´ f pxq

f 1pxq “

“ lim

dx

∆xÑ0

∆x

px ` ∆xq2 ´ x2

“ lim

xα
αxα´1

∆xÑ0

∆x

ex

ex

2x∆x ` p∆xq2

“ lim

∆xÑ0

∆x

log x

1{x

“ lim p2x ` ∆xq .

sin x

cos x

∆xÑ0

cos x

śin x

As ∆x goes to zero, 2x ` ∆x is just 2x:

tan x

1{ cos2 x
f1

pxq “ 2x .

arcsin x

1{ 1 ´ x2

It is useful to memorize the basic derivatives in

arccos x

´1{

1 ´ x2

Tab. A.1.
Using the techniques explained in the arctan x

1{p1 ` x2q

next section, they can be used to find the deriv-

atives of more complex functions.

Table A.1

Product Rule

We want to calculate the derivative of a function f pxq which can be written

as the product of two or more functions: f pxq “ upxq vpxq. For example, if f
pxq “ x3 sin x, we see that upxq “ x3 and vpxq “ sin x. Of course, the
separation is not unique: we could have chosen upxq “ x2, vpxq “ x sin x or
even upxq “ x4 tan x, vpxq “ cos x{x. However, the point of separating f pxq
is to find two functions, upxq and vpxq, whose derivatives are simpler to
calculate.
Ultimately, we would like to trace back the calculation of the derivative of
any function to the basic derivatives. Since f pxq “ upxq vpxq, it follows
that: f px ` ∆xq ´ f pxq “ upx ` ∆xqvpx ` ∆xq úpxqvpxq

“ upx ` ∆xqrvpx ` ∆xq ´ vpxqs ` rupx ` ∆xq úpxqsvpxq .

A.6. Derivatives

287

From the definition A.29:

df

f px ` ∆xq ´ f pxq

“ lim

dx

∆xÑ0

∆x

” vpx ` ∆xq ´ vpxq ı

” upx ` ∆xq úpxq ı

“ lim

upx ` ∆xq

vpxq .
∆xÑ0

∆x

∆x

As ∆x becomes infinitesimally small, the terms in the square brackets

become du{dx and dv{dx, respectively, while upx`∆xq becomes upxq.
Therefore: df

dvpxq

dupxq

rupxqvpxqs “ upxq

vpxq ,

dx

dx

dx

dx

which can be written as:

f 1 “ puvq1 “ uv1 ù1v

(A.33)

This equation is known as the product rule.

Hence, the initial problem is

reduced to:

px3 sin xq “ x3

psin xq `

px3q sin x “ x3 cos x ` 3x2 sin x .

dx

dx

dx

We can extend the product rule to three or more separations: d

du

f pxq “ upxqvpxqwpxq ñ f 1pxq “ u

pvwq `

vu ,

dx

dx

where we have used Eq. A.33,

applied to u and vw. Using again Eq. A.33
to
expand pvwq1:

d
dw

dv

du

puvwq “ uv

w`

vw ,

dx

dx

dx

dx

which can be written as:

puvwq1 “ uvw1 ùv1w ù1vw .

(A.34)

It is clear that the same reasoning can be extended to the product of any
number of terms.

Chain Rule

Consider a function of a function f pupxqq. For example, if f pxq “ p3 `

x2q3, we can take upxq “ 3 ` x2, so that f pxq “ upxq3. If ∆f , ∆u and ∆x are
finite, we can write:

∆f

∆f puq ∆upxq
“

∆x

∆upxq ∆x

288

Appendix A. Mathematics

When the above quantities become infinitesimally small, we can write: df

df puq dupxq

(A.35)

dx

dupxq dx

The above equation is known as the chain rule, and can be used to compute
the derivative of a function of a function. We can now solve the example
given at the beginning of the section:

df

df puq du

”d

”d
ı

pu3q ¨

p3 ` x2q “ 3u2 ¨ 2x “ 6xp3 ` x2q .

dx

du

dx

du

dx

In a similar way, we can use the chain rule to compute the derivative of the
reciprocal of a function. Let f pxq “ 1{vpxq “ vpxq´1. Applying Eq. A.35:

df

1 dv

“´

(A.36)

dx

v2 dx

Quotient Rule
Using the product rule and the chain rule (Eqs. A.33,
A.35),
it is easy to find
the derivative of the quotient of two functions:

ú ¯1

´ 1 ¯1

´1¯

v1 ¯

u1

f1“

“u

ù1

“u´

v2

The last equation can be written as:

ú ¯1
vu1 úv1

f1“

(A.37)

v2

which is often referred to as the quotient rule. For example, the derivative of
f pxq “ sin x{x can be found by taking u “ sin x and v “ x, from which u1 “
cos x and v1 “ 1. Applying A.37:

x cos x śin x

cos x

sin x

f 1pxq “

x2

x2

Special Points
We have seen that the derivative measures the rate of change of a function f
pxq in the neighbourhood of a point. If the increment of f pxq in the
neighbourhood of x0 is zero, we call this a stationary point. Stationary points
can be divided into three categories.

A.6. Derivatives

289

Figure A.15: In B, D and E the first derivative is zero: these are called
stationary points. In particular, B and D are points of minimum and
maximum, respectively (collectively known as turning points), while E is a
point of inflection.

Referring to Fig. A.15,

B is a point of minimum, since the function increases
in both directions moving away from that point; D is a point of maximum,
since the function decreases in both directions away from that point; finally,
E

is an inflection point, as the function increases on one side of E and

decreases on the other. Note that B and D are not absolute maxima or
minima, but, rather, local maxima and minima. From a mathematical point
of view, we can distinguish maxima, minima and inflection points by
studying the second derivative of the function at those points. By definition,
all stationary points are such that df {dx “ 0. Looking at the minimum B, we
see that df pxq{dx is negative in A and positive in C, passing through zero in
B. Therefore, in the neighbourhood of B, the first derivative is increasing,
hence the second derivative (rate of change of the first derivative) is
positive. Similarly, the second derivative must be negative in D. It is less
obvious that in E the second derivative is zero. Intuitively, we note that, on
the left of E, the function is concave upwards, therefore the first derivative is
increasing and the second derivative is positive. Similarly, on the right of E,
the function is concave downwards, therefore the second derivative is
negative. Since the second derivative varies continuously, it must be zero in
E.

To sum up, stationary points are characterized by df {dx “ 0 and:

• d2f {dx2 ą 0, for a minimum;

• d2f {dx2 ă 0, for a maximum;

• d2f {dx2 “ 0 for an inflection point, and d2f {dx2 changes sign through the
point.

290

Appendix A. Mathematics

Taylor Series

The Taylor series allows us to approximate a function, in the neighbourhood

of a point, with a polynomial of degree n. The general form of the Taylor
series is: f 2px0q

f 3px0q

f px ` x0q “ f px0q ` f 1px0qx `

x2 `
x3 ` ..

(A.38)

2!

3!

The validity of the above formula can be checked with the following
reasoning.

Taking the first derivative with respect to x and setting x “ 0, we obtain f

1px0q on both sides. Indeed, the derivative of the LHS is f 1px ` x0q, which,
in x “ 0, is equal to f 1px0q. The derivative of the RHS is f 1px0q ` f 2px0qx
` .., hence, in x “ 0, the only non-zero term is f 1px0q. Similarly, taking the
second derivative and setting x “ 0, we obtain f 2pxq on both sides, and so
on. Since both sides are equal in x “ 0, and their n-th derivatives in x “ 0 are
the same for every n, it follows that they are the same function. Some
examples of Taylor series and their first order approximations are given in
Tab. A.2.

Function

Taylor series

For x ! 1

1 ` x ` x2 ` x3 ` ...

1`x

1´x

ln p1 ` xq

x ´ x2{2 ` x3{3 ´ ...

x

ex

1 ` x ` x2{2! ` x3{3! ` ...

1`x

sin x

x ´ x3{3! ` x5{5! ´ ...

cos x

1 ´ x2{2! ` x4{4! ´ ...

`n˘

`n˘

p1 ` xqn

1 ` nx `

x2 `

x3 ` ...

1 ` nx

Table A.2
To obtain the first formula in the table, we need to compute the n´th
derivatives of 1{p1 ´ xq at x0 “ 0. Using the chain rule with upxq “ 1 ´ x: 1

f pxq “

ñ f p0q “ 1 ,

1´x

df du

f 1pxq “

ñ f 1p0q “ 1 ,

du dx

p1 ´ xq2

df 1pxq

f 2pxq “

“ ´2

¨ p´1q “

ñ f 2p0q “ 2 ,

dx

p1 ´ xq3
p1 ´ xq3

f 3pxq “

ñ f 3p0q “ 6 ,

p1 ´ xq3

... ,

n!

f npxq “

ñ f 1p0q “ n! .

p1 ´ xqn

A.7. Integrals

291

Substituting the derivatives in Eq. A.38,

with x0 “ 0: f 2p0q
f np0q

f pxq “ f p0q ` f 1p0qx `

` ... `

xn ` ...

2!

n!

n!

“1`x`

` ... `

xn ` ...

2!

3!

n!

“ 1 ` x ` x2 ` x3 ` ... ,

1´x
as we wanted to show.

We define the order of a power series as the minimum degree of the

independent variable. For instance, the order of x2 is 2, while the order of x2
` 3x is 1.

The Taylor series allows us to approximate a function with a power series.

For x ! 1, we can often truncate the Taylor series to first order, since xn ! x
for n ą 1. For example, the first order approximation of 1{p1 ´ xq is obtained
by neglecting all terms of degree greater than 1, hence 1{p1 ´ xq « 1 ` x.

A.7

Integrals

Figure A.16: The shaded area under the curve is the integral of f pxq
between the extremes a and b, and is denoted by şb f pxq dx.

The notion of an integral as the area under a curve will already be familiar to
many. In Fig. A.16,
where the function f pxq is drawn as a solid line, the
shaded area represents the quantity denoted by:

żb

I“

f pxq dx .

(A.39)

This expression is known as the definite integral of f pxq between the lower
and upper limits x “ a and x “ b, respectively. Here, f pxq is called the
integrand.

292
Appendix A. Mathematics

Integration from basic principles

According to Riemann’s definition, the integral of a function f pxq between

the extremes a and b is the limit of the sum of the areas of the rectangles
with height f pxiq and width pxi ´ xi´1q, for a “ x0 ă x1... ă xi ă ... xn “ b, as
n goes to infinity. Hence:

S “ lim

f pxiqpxi ´ xi´1q .

(A.40)

nÑ8 i“1

In this limit, with the constraint that the length of the interval rxi´1, xis goes
to zero (i.e. to dx), S converges, for a continuous function in a finite interval,
to the definite integral of f pxq. The symbol representing the integral (see
Eq.

A.39)
is a reminder of the S, which stands for summation.

Properties of the integral

Let a ă b ă c be three real numbers. The following properties hold:

• reversing the limits of integration changes the sign of the definite integral:
żb

ża

f pxq dx “ ´

f pxq dx ;
a

• if the upper and lower limits are the same, the integral is zero: ż a

f pxq dx “ 0 ;

• the definite integral of f pxq over the interval ra, cs is equal to the sum of
the integrals over the intervals ra, bs and rb, cs:

żc

żb

żc

f pxqdx “

f pxq dx `

f pxq dx ;

• the definite integral of the sum of two functions is equal to the sum of the
integrals of these functions:

żb

żb

żb
pf pxq ` gpxqq dx “

f pxq dx `

gpxq dx ;

• a constant factor can be moved outside the integral sign: ż b

żb

c ¨ f pxq dx “ c

f pxq dx .

A.7. Integrals
293

How to solve integrals

Let us define the indefinite integral F pxq of f pxq as: ż x

F pxq “

f px1q dx1 ,

(A.41)

x0

where x1 has been used to distinguish the independent variable from the
extreme of integration. Using the properties above, we find: ż b

f pxq dx “ F paq ´ F pbq .

(A.42)

If we know F pxq, it is then possible to compute the definite integral of f

pxq.

But how do we find F pxq?

Fundamental theorem of calculus

Figure A.17: F pxq is the indefinite integral, equal to the area bounded by f
pxq between rx0, xs. Considering a small additional stripe between x and x `
dx, with width dx and area f pxq dx, the change in F pxq is f pxq dx.
Therefore, dF pxq “ f pxq dx, i.e. F 1pxq “ f pxq. For this reason, F pxq is
also called the anti-derivative of f pxq.

The fundamental theorem of calculus states that F 1pxq “ f pxq, i.e. the
derivative of F pxq is equal to f pxq. Since the derivative of a constant factor
is zero, if follows that F pxq is defined up to an additive constant. Integration
and differentiation are therefore inverse operations. This theorem is easy to
visualize graphically: for an infinitesimal variation dx, the increment dF pxq
of F pxq is equal to the area of the rectangle between x and x ` dx, with base
dx and height f pxq, i.e. dF pxq “ f pxqdx (Fig. A.17).
By the definition of
the derivative, F 1pxq “ dF pxq{dx. Hence dF pxq “ f pxq dx implies F 1pxq
“ f pxq, as we wanted to show. Now that we know how to find F pxq, it is
sufficient to apply Eq. A.42
to find the definite integral of f pxq, as we will
see in the following examples.

294

Appendix A. Mathematics

Let us calculate, for instance, the integral şa x dx. We want to find the
function 0

F pxq whose derivative is f pxq “ x. It is easy to see that F pxq “ x2{2 ` c

satisfies the required condition. We then use Eq. A.42
and calculate the
difference of F pxq, evaluated at the extremes:

ża

a2

x dx “ F paq ´ F p0q “

As another example, let us compute the integral şa 2xe´x2 . It is easy to see 0

that F pxq “ é´x2 ` c is the anti-derivative of 2xe´x2. Hence: ż a

2xe´x2 “ F paq ´ F p0q “ éá2 ` 1 .

0
At times, we may want to compute an integral without specifying the
extremes of integration. This can be useful, for instance, to examine how the
integral itself varies as the extremes are changed. In this case, it suffices to
find F pxq and write down Eq. A.41.
Notice that the solution will carry an
arbitrary constant, which we call constant of integration.

For the previous examples:

f pxq

F pxq

x dx “ x2{2 ` c ,

kx

2xe´x2 dx “ é´x2 ` c .

xn, n ‰ ´1

xn`1{pn ` 1q

1{x

ln x

Here, the extremes of integration are im-

ex

ex

plicitly x0 and x, where x0 is an arbitrary

constant related to c by F px0q “ c. In

sin x

ćos x

Tab. A.3,
we present some common indef-cos x

sin x

inite integrals, where the constant of integ-

1{ 1 ´ x2

arcsin x

ration has been omitted for clarity. These

are the basis for computing more complex

1{ 1 ´ x2

árccos x

integrals, using the rules explained in the

1{1 ` x2

arctan x

next section.

Table A.3

Integration by substitution
The indefinite integral of simple integrands can be found immediately by
inspection, as shown in the previous section. For more complex functions,
we can use some strategies to simplify the calculation.

If the integral does not appear to be elementary, the first strategy we can try
is integration by substitution. The idea is to define a new variable that
simplifies the integral, possibly reducing it to an elementary one. For
example, if we are given ş f pxq dx, we may want to define a new variable u
“ upxq, which

A.7. Integrals

295

transforms the starting integral into one of the form ş gpuq du. To find du in
terms of dx, we use Eq. A.30.
It is important to note that once the variable
has been changed and the new integral has been obtained, no reference to x
or dx should remain. Choosing the new variable is not always easy: below
we see some examples in order of difficulty.

cosp2x ` 7q dx .

The choice upxq “ 2x ` 7 looks promising. Using Eq. A.30

to compute du:
du

du “

dx ñ du “ 2 dx .

dx

Substituting in the initial integral:

1ż
cosp2x ` 7q dx “

cos u du ,

which is a basic integral:

1ż

cos u du “

sin ù c .

Reverting back to the expression for upxq, we then obtain: ż

cosp2x ` 7q dx “

sin p2x ` 7q ` c .

Let us now calculate:

dx .

xpln xq2
After some trials, we see that the substitution upxq “ ln x will simplify the
integral. Then, du “ dx{x, and substituting in the integral: ż

dx

dx “ 3

“3

du ,

xpln xq2

pln xq2 x

u2

which is an elementary integral:

u´1

3
du “ 3

u´2 du “ 3

`c“´

`c.

u2

´1

We can now substitute u in terms of x:

dx “ ´

`c.

xpln xq2

ln x

296

Appendix A. Mathematics

Integration by parts

Another strategy to simplify integrals is integration by parts. Using Eq. A.33

for the derivative of a product:

d

dv

du

puvq “ ù

v.

dx

dx

dx

Isolating the first term on the RHS:

dv

du

puvq ´

v.

dx

dx

dx

Integrating both sides w.r.t. x:

ż

dv

du

dx “ uv ´

v dx ,

dx

dx

which can be written as:

uv1 dx “ uv ú1v dx .

(A.43)

The above equation is the rule of integration by parts. To integrate by parts,

we write the integrand as a product of two functions u and v1, so that the
integral of u1v is easier to calculate compared to the initial integral. As an
example, let us calculate:

x cos x dx .

Substitution fails here, so we try integration by parts. Taking dv{dx “ x and u

“ cos x, we find v “ x2{2 and du{dx “ śin x. Applying Eq. A.43:
ż

x2

1ż

x cos x dx “

cos x `

x2 sin x dx .

This integral looks more complicated than the starting integral, so we try
another choice for u and v. If we take u “ x and dv{dx “ cos x, we have
du{dx “ 1 and v “ sin x, and it follows that:

x cos x dx “ x sin x śin x dx .

This is an elementary integral:

x cos x dx “ x sin x ` cos x ` c .

Kepler’s Laws

B.1

Solving the equation of motion

The velocity of a body orbiting around a centre of attraction can be
decomposed into radial and tangential components:

dr

vr “

“9

r,

dt

dθ

vt “ rω “ r

“r9

θ.

dt

The energy can be written as:

GmM

E“

m 9r2 ` mr2 9θ2 ´

(B.1)

2
2

Angular momentum is also conserved:

L “ mr2 9θ .

(B.2)

We want an expression in which the only unknown is r. Hence, we isolate 9

θ in

Eq. B.2,
and substitute it in Eq. B.1:

L2

GmM

E“

m 9r2 `

(B.3)

2mr2

Isolating 9r:
c

L2

GmM

r“

E´

(B.4)

2mr2

From the above equation we can obtain rptq. Since we are interested in the
shape of the orbit, we want to find rpθq. Using the chain rule (Eq. A.35):

dr

dr dθ

dr

L dr

9
r“

“9

dt

dθ dt

dθ

mr2 dθ

297

298

Appendix B. Kepler’s Laws

Hence, substituting in B.4

and reordering:

dr

2m

dθ .

(B.5)
b

r2

E Ĺ2

2mr2 ` GmM

Since this equation is valid for any r and θ, we can imagine summing all
such equations separated by infinitesimal increments dθ. This sum is just an
integral:

dr

2m

dθ .

(B.6)

r2

E Ĺ2
2mr2 ` GmM

Now, it comes down to solve two integrals. The one on the RHS is
straightforward:

2m

2m

dθ “

θ ` c1 .

To solve the integral on the LHS, we change variable to x “ 1{r, so that dx “

´1{r2 dr:

1ż

dx

´?

E
1 Ĺ2 x2 ` GmM x

2Em

Completing the square at the denominator:

1ż

dx

´?

p1 ` G2m3M2 q ´ p

x ´ GMm

q2

2L2E

2Em

L
2E

Using the substitution:

G2m3M 2

GM m c m

1`

cos y “ ?

x´

2L2E

2Em

2E

G2m3M 2

1`

sin y dy “ ´ ?

dx ,
2L2E

2Em

the previous integral simplifies to:

am

2m ż

2m

2m

„?

x ´ GMm

2E

dy

2Em

y ` c2 “
arccos

` c2 .

1 ` G2m3M2

2L2E

The axes are often chosen so that the integration constant is zero. Then, Eq.

B.6
becomes:

am

´ GMm

2Em r

2E “ cos θ .

1 ` G2m3M2
2L2E

B.2. The orbits

299

Isolating r:

L2

r“

GM m2

1`

2L2E

G2m3M 2 ` 1 cos θ

If we denote with:

L2

r0 “

(B.7)

GM m2

2E
e“

1`

r0 .

(B.8)

GmM

The equation for rpθq can be written in a simpler form: r0

r“

(B.9)

1 è cos θ

B.2

The orbits

Starting from Eq. B.9,

it is possible to determine the type of orbits described
by the planets.

In any case, Eq.

B.9
represents a conic section.

Setting

dr{dθ “ 0 in Eq. B.9,

it is possible to obtain the maximum and minimum
distances of the body from the centre of attraction:

r0
&

if

eă1

p1 éq

max “

(B.10)

%8

if

eě1.

r0

rmin “

(B.11)

1è

We can write Eq. B.9

in Cartesian coordinates, using r “

x2 ` y2 and

cos θ “ x{p
x2 ` y2q:

x2 ` y2 “ r20 ´ 2r0 e x è2x2 .

(B.12)

Circle (e “ 0)

In the case e “ 0, Eq. B.9

becomes r “ r0, hence the planet describes a
circular orbit with radius r0. From Eq. B.8
it follows that: GmM

E“´

2r0

We see that the energy is negative.

300

Appendix B. Kepler’s Laws

Ellipse (0 ă e ă 1)

From Eq. B.8,

it follows that:

GmM

ăEă0.

2r0

Hence, the energy is negative, but it is greater than the energy of a circular
orbit with radius r0. Completing the square for x in Eq. B.12,
we obtain: r

px `
0e

y2

é2 q2

“1

with

a“

and

b“?

(B.13)

a2

b2

1 é2

1 é2
This is the equation of an ellipse with semi-major axis a, semi-minor axis b

and centre in pŕ0 e{p1 é2q, 0q. The semi-focal distance is c “

a2 ´ b2 “

r0 e{p1 é2q, hence one focus is in the origin. Now that we know the semi-a

major axis a, we can write the eccentricity as e “

1 ŕ0{a. Substituting e

in Eq. B.8,
we find:

r0

2E

1´

1`

r0

GmM

GmM

ñE“´
,

2a

which is the well-known expression for the energy of an elliptical orbit.

Parabola (e “ 1)

From Eq. B.8,

it follows that E “ 0. Hence, the velocity of the body tends to
zero when its distance from the centre of attraction tends to infinity. The
minimum and maximum distances are rmin “ r0{p1 èq and rmax “ 8,
respectively. In this case, Eq. B.12
becomes: y2 “ r20 ´ 2r0 x “ ´2r0px ŕ0{2q
.

(B.14)

This is the equation of a parabola with vertex in pr0{2, 0q and focal length
r0{2. Hence, the focal point is in the origin.

Hyperbola (e ą 1)

From Eq. B.8,

it follows that E ą 0. The body can escape from the central a

potential with a non-zero velocity at infinity, given by v “

2E{m. Again,

rmin “ r0{p1 èq and rmax “ 8. Completing the square for x, Eq. B.12

becomes:

px ´

0 e q2

e2

y2
r

´1

“1

with

a“

and

b“?

(B.15)

a2

b2

e2 ´ 1

e2 ´ 1

B.3. Proof of Kepler’s third law

301

This is the equation for a hyperbola with centre (point of intersection of the
?

asymptotes) at pr0 e{pe2 ´ 1q, 0q. The semi-focal length is c “

a2 ` b2 “

r0 e{pe2 ´ 1q. The impact parameter is the minimum distance from the
centre of the potential that the body would reach if it were to travel on a
straight line from infinity. It can be shown that the impact parameter is equal
to b.

B.3

Proof of Kepler’s third law

In Ch. 10
we proved Kepler’s third law only in the case of a circular orbit.

We are now in a position to prove Kepler’s third law for elliptical orbits. As
shown in Sec. “The Second Law”:

dA

dt

2m

Integrating over a period:

LT

Atot “

,
2m

where T is the orbital period. The area of an ellipse is Atot “ πab, where

b “ a 1 é2. Substituting and squaring both sides:

L2

ıT2

π2a4 “

(B.16)

mp1 é2q 4m

Using L2 “ GM m2r0, the term in square brackets becomes GmM r0{p1 é2q.

Since a “ r0{p1 é2q, this can also be written as GmM a: T 2

π2a4 “ pGmM aq 4m

4π2

ñT2“

a3 ,

GM

which is what we wanted to prove.

C
Virial Theorem

To prove the Viral theorem, consider the quantity:

G“

pi ¨ ~

ri ,

where the summation extends over all the particles in the system. The total
time derivative of this quantity is:

dG

i¨~

pì

~
pi ¨ ~

ri .

(C.1)

dt

The first term can be transformed into:

ÿ9

i¨~

pi “

mi ~

ri ¨ 9~

ri “

mi ¨ v2i “ 2K .

i
i

Since force equals rate of change of momentum, the second term is: ÿ 9

i¨~

ri “

Fi ¨ ~

ri .

Then, Eq. C.1

reduces to:

dG

“ 2K `

Fi ¨ ~

ri .
dt

The time average of the last equation, over an interval τ , is obtained by

integrating both sides from 0 to τ , and dividing by τ :

1 ż τ dG

dG

“ 2K `

Fi ¨ ~

ri ,

dt

dt

or:

1”

ı
2K `

Fi ¨ ~

ri “

Gpτ q ´ Gp0q .

(C.2)

302

303

If the motion is periodic, i.e. all coordinates repeat after a certain time, the
term Gpτ q ´ Gp0q is bound, while τ can be taken arbitrarily large.
Therefore, the right hand side of Eq. C.2
vanishes. It then follows that: 1 ÿ

K“´

Fi ¨ ~

ri .

(C.3)

2i

Now, for a potential of the form U “ ´αrń, the force is: dU

U
F“´

“ ńαrń´1 “ n

dr

Hence, the right hand side of Eq. C.3

is just ńU {2, and we obtain the Virial
equation for a general potential U “ ´αrń:

K“Ú.

For the gravitational potential, n “ 1, hence K “ Ú {2.

Tables and constants

Sun

Mean radius

695475 km

Mass

1.99 ¨ 1030 kg

Surface temperature

5778 K

Absolute magnitudè4.83
Apparent magnitude

´26.74

Distance to the galactic centre

2700 ly

Spectral class

G2V

Moon

Mean radius

1738 km

Mass

7.35 ¨ 1022 kg

Semi-major axis

3.844 ¨ 106 km

Sidereal period

27.322d

Orbital eccentricity

0.0549

Orbital inclination

5.145˝

Apparent magnitude (full)

´12.74

304

305

Symbols of celestial bodies

Name

Symbol

Sun

Mercury

Venus

Earth

Moon

Mars

Jupiter

E
Saturn

Uranus

Neptune

Solar System

Mercury

Venus

Earth

Mars

Jupiter

Saturn

Uranus

Neptune

Mean

2440

6052

6371

3397
71493

60267

25557

24766

radius (km)

Mass (kg)

3.30 ¨1023

4.87 ¨1024

5.97 ¨1024

6.42 ¨1023

1.90 ¨1027

5.69 ¨1026

8.68 ¨1025

1.02 ¨1026

Semi-major

0.3871

0.7282

1.5237

5.2033
9.5826

19.2184

30.11

axis (au)

Orbital

period

0.240846

0.615198

1.88082

11.862

29.4571

84.0205

164.8

(years)

Orbital

0.2056

0.0068

0.0167

0.0934
0.0484

0.0542

0.0472

0.0086

eccentricity

Physical constants

Name

Symbol

Value

Units

Speed of light

2.9979 ¨ 108

m s´1

Universal gravitational constant

6.67 ¨ 10´11

N m2kg´2

Gravitational acceleration

g
9.81

m s´2

Astronomical unit

au

149.6 ¨ 1011

Parsec

pc

206265

au

Planck’s constant

6.63 ¨ 1034

Js

Stefan-Boltzmann constant

5.67 ¨ 10´8

W m2K4

Boltzmann constant

kB
1.38 ¨ 1023

J K1

Hubble constant

H0

67.8

kms´1Mpc´1

Suggested resources

The following texts are suggested for an in-depth study of some of the topics
presented in this book.

Theory

• Fundamental Astronomy, Hannu et al.

This book presents many topics in a clear and balanced way, highlighting
their physical basis. It requires a slightly more advanced knowledge of
mathematics and physics.

• An Introduction to Modern Astrophysics, Carroll B., Ostlie D.

This book contains all the astronomy you would need for a bachelor’s
degree. However, compared to the previous one, it can be dispersed and
difficult to follow.

• Introduction to Classical Mechanics, David Morin.

One of the best books on classical physics. With accessible explanations and
hundreds of problems, this book is ideal for developing your problem
solving skills.

• Concepts in Thermal Physics, Stephen and Katherine Blundell.

This book covers the basics of thermal physics, thermodynamics and
statistical mechanics, with applications in stellar astrophysics, condensed
matter physics and climate change.

• Cosmology and Astrophysics Through Problems, Padmanabhan.

This book is very advanced and requires good physics knowledge. Very
recommended for those who want to study beyond the international
competition and prepare for university.

Observation

• Stellarium.

This software is one of the best resources to study the sky, interactively.

• Sky and Telescope’s Pocket Sky Atlas, Roger W. Sinnott.

It may be useful to have a reference on paper, by combining Stellarium with

an atlas.

306

Index

aberration, 26

chain rule, 297

absorption, 41, 93

chromatic aberration, 43

achromatic, 43

circumpolar, 3, 16

action and reaction, 114

CMBR, 74
active optics, 41

color index, 92

adaptive optics, 41

conjunction, 137

albedo, 86

coordinate system, 2

almucantar, 5

cosine theorem, 278

altitude, 3, 5, 14, 17

culmination, 4, 17

angular momentum, 119, 126, 297

lower, 4, 16

angular resolution, 36

upper, 4, 15

annual parallax, 89

cycle of eccentricity, 30

anti-meridian, 52

aperture ratio, 40

daylight saving time, 52

aphelion, 48, 118

de Broglie, 69

arcsecond, 91, 101, 103

declination, 7, 14, 17, 20, 24, 45

ascending node, 7

descending node, 7

astronomical unit, 121

diffraction, 38

atmospheric refraction, 16, 17

dip of the horizon, 4

Aufbau principle, 75

dispersion, 41

autumnal equinox, 25

distinguishable particles, 70

azimuth, 5, 14

Doppler effect, 76

double angle formulae, 280

basis vector, 269

draconic month, 63

binary

astrometric, 149
eccentricity, 30, 48, 118

contact, 148

eclipse, 59

distant, 148

lunar, 60

neighbouring, 148

solar, 62

photometric, 152

eclipse seasons, 59

spectroscopic, 150

ecliptic, 7, 8, 20, 23, 48, 59

visual, 148

effective potential, 127

black body, 72, 74

electromagnetic spectrum, 68, 87

curve, 72

ellipse, 118

radiation, 72

elongation, 137

black hole, 129

emissivity, 74

bolometric correction, 92

energy, 124, 127, 128, 297

Boltzmann distribution law, 70

kinetic, 124

bremmstrahlung, 74

potential, 124

equation of time, 50

calendar

equatorial bulge, 23

Gregorian, 53

equinox, 20

Julian, 53

equipartition theorem, 71

cardinal points, 4

escape velocity, 71, 128, 248

Carnot, 278

Euler’s number, 283

celestial equator, 6, 7, 48

event horizon, 129

central force, 119

exeligmos, 64

centre of mass, 123

exponential, 283

centripetal force, 122

extinction, 92, 93, 104

Cepheid, 105

eyepiece, 35

307

308

Index

filed of view, 42

longitude, 3

first contact, 61

ecliptic, 8

first point of Aries, 7

galactic, 9

first quarter, 57

luminosity class, 79

flux, 86
lunar phase, 57

focal

lunation, 57

length, 35

plane, 35

magnification, 38

point, 118

maximum, 39

Fraunhofer diffraction, 38

minimum, 39

Fraunhofer lines, 75

magnitude, 86, 87, 268, 270

full moon, 57, 59

absolute, 89, 104

apparent, 89, 104

Gaia, 103

bolometric, 87, 91

Gauss, 117, 247

composite system, 90

gaussian surface, 116

integrated, 91

gravitational acceleration, 116

visual, 91

great circle, 4

Maxwell distribution law, 70

Greenwich Mean Time, 51

mean quadratic velocity, 70

meridian, 2, 45

Harvard stellar classification, 79

Meton cycle, 66

Hill sphere, 253

molecular mass, 71

Hipparcos, 103

momentum, 69

Hohmann transfer orbit, 143

month

horizon

anomalistic, 66

apparent, 4, 27

draconic, 58
astronomical, 4, 17

sidereal, 57

geometrical, 4

synodic, 57

hour angle, 6, 7, 14, 15, 17

Moon, 56

hour circle, 6

Hubble, 106, 108

nadir, 4, 6

constant, 108

new moon, 59

law, 108

nodal precession, 58

hydrogen 21 cm, 9, 106

node line, 59

nutation, 26

impulse, 144

inertial reference system, 114

Oberth effect, 143

interstellar medium, 92, 104

objective, 35

intrinsic brightness, 89, 104

obliquity of the ecliptic, 24, 48

isolated system, 126

opacity, 93, 94

isotropy, 86

opposition, 137, 139

optical depth, 92, 104

Kepler, 118, 297

orbit, 118, 127

first law, 118

bound

second law, 119

circular, 127, 299

third law, 121

elliptical, 127, 299

Kirchoff, 72

unbound

hyperbolic, 128, 300

last contact, 61
parabolic, 128, 300

last quarter, 57

latitude, 3, 14, 17

pair of cones, 23

ecliptic, 8

parallax, 27, 89, 99, 124

galactic, 9

annual, 102

law of cosines, 281

diurnal, 101

law of sines, 277, 281

spectroscopic, 104

libration, 64

parallax baseline, 99

light year, 103

parallel, 2

local time, 51

parallel of declination, 6

logarithm, 283

parsec, 89, 103

Index

309

penumbra, 61

spectral class, 104

perihelion, 48, 118

spectral type, 92

period

spectrum, 72–74

sidereal, 139

absorption, 74

synodic, 139

continuous, 73, 74

photon, 68

emission, 74

Planck constant, 68

speed of light, 129

Planck’s law, 74

spherical trigonometry, 281

planet

standard candle, 105

inferior, 137

Stefan-Boltzmann, 86

superior, 137

constant, 73

planetary atmosphere, 71, 128

law, 73, 88

Pogson law, 87

steradian, 276

point mass, 114

surface brightness, 91

Pole Star, 23

surface temperature, 79, 88

precession of the equinoxes, 23

system

prime meridian, 3

ecliptic, 8, 19

prime vertical, 4

equatorial, 6

principal vertical, 4

first or HA-dec, 6, 14
Ptolemaic system, 139

second or RA-dec, 7, 19

galactic, 9

quadrature, 138, 139

horizontal, 4, 14

quantization, 68

quantization of energy, 74

tangential velocity, 297

telescope, 32

radial velocity, 297

Galileo’s refracting, 35

radial velocity method, 214

Newton’s reflecting, 35

radian, 276

temperature, 86, 104

Rayleigh scattering, 93

tidal force, 249

Rayleigh’s criterion, 38

time dilation, 76

recession velocity, 108

time zone, 51, 52

redshift, 108

torque, 119

reduction formulae, 279

transit, 124

relative speed, 76

transit method, 214

retrograde, 137

transmittance, 94

right ascension, 7, 17, 24, 48

triangulation, 99

Roche limit, 249

trigonometric function, 276

rocket equation, 142

Tully-Fisher relation, 106

RR Lyrae, 106

Tycho Brahe, 118

Saros, 64

Saros cycle, 63

UBV, 92
scalar product, 117, 124, 270

umbra, 61

scattering, 93

universal law of gravitation, 114

Schwarzschild radius, 129

Universal Time, 51

seeing, 41

semi-major axis, 118, 121

vector product, 119, 270

semi-minor axis, 118

vernal equinox, 7, 23, 25, 45

shadow, 61

virial theorem, 129

sidereal

Wien’s law, 72

time, 7, 17, 45

year, 52

Yarkovsky effect, 253

sidereal day, 45

year, 58
singularity, 129

draconic, 58

Snell’s Law, 27

sidereal, 52

solar day

tropical, 8, 53, 58

mean, 45, 48

Yerkes stellar classification, 80

true, 45, 48

solar time, 45

zenith, 4, 6

solstice, 7

zodiac, 24

special relativity, 76
Document Outline
Preface
I Positional Astronomy
Celestial Coordinate Systems
Geographical Coordinate System
The Horizontal System
The Equatorial System
The Ecliptic System
The Galactic System
Exercises
Problems
Transformation of Coordinates
The Three Equations
From the Horizontal to the HA-dec System
Upper and Lower Culmination
Rising and Setting Times
Duration of day and night
From The Ecliptic to the RA-dec System
Declination of the Sun throughout the year
Exercises
Problems
Perturbation of Coordinates
Precession
Nutation
Aberration
Parallax
Refraction
Proper Motion
Other Cycles
Exercises
Problems
Observation and Instruments
Angular Size
The Thin Lens Equation
 Optical Telescopes
Angular Resolution
Magnification
Minimum Magnification
Maximum Magnification
Aperture Ratio
The Role of the Atmosphere
Exercises
Problems
Time systems
Sidereal and Solar Day
Estimating Sidereal Time
Equation of Time
Local Solar Time
Greenwich Mean Time
Time Zones
Daylight Saving Time
Measuring the Length of a Year
Sidereal Year
Tropical or Solar year
Calendars
Exercises
Problems
The Moon
Sidereal Month
Synodic Month
Draconic Month
Eclipses
Conditions for the Occurrence of Eclipses
Total Number of Eclipses in a Year
Lunar Eclipse
Solar Eclipse
Saros cycle
Libration
Exercises
Problems
II Radiation Mechanisms
 Electromagnetic Radiation
Wave or particle?
Boltzmann Distribution Law
Maxwell Distribution Law
Planetary Atmospheres
Black Body
Wien's Law
Stefan-Boltzmann Law
Types of Spectra
Doppler Effect
Harvard Stellar Classification
Yerkes Stellar Classification
Exercises
Problems
Flux and Magnitude
Flux
Albedo
Stellar magnitudes
Absolute Magnitude
Magnitude of a Composite System
Surface Magnitude
Magnitude Systems
Extinction and Optical Depth
Exercises
Problems
Cosmic Distance Ladder
Parallax
Diurnal Parallax
Annual Parallax
Spectroscopic Parallax
Standard Candles
Tully-Fisher Relation
Hubble's Law
Exercises
Problems
III Celestial Mechanics
Gravitation and Kepler's Laws
 Newtonian Mechanics
Universal Law of Gravitation
Kepler's Laws
Energy of an Orbiting Body
Closed Orbits
Open Orbits
Escape Velocity
Schwarzschild Radius
Virial Theorem
Exercises
Problems
Motion of the Planets
Apparent Motion of the Planets
Synodic Period
Exercises
Problems
Orbital Manoeuvres
The Rocket Equation
Oberth Effect
Hohmann Transfer Orbit
Exercises
Problems
Binary Stars
Distance Between Two Stars
Visual Binaries
Astrometric Binaries
Spectroscopic Binaries
Photometric Binaries
Exercises
IV Solutions
Exercise Solutions
Problem Solutions
Appendix Mathematics
Vectors
Conic Sections
Plane Trigonometry
Spherical Trigonometry
 Special Functions
Derivatives
Integrals
Appendix Kepler's Laws
Solving the equation of motion
The orbits
Proof of Kepler's third law
Appendix Virial Theorem
Appendix Tables and constants
Suggested resources
Index
Table of Contents
Preface
I Positional Astronomy
Celestial Coordinate Systems
Geographical Coordinate System
The Horizontal System
The Equatorial System
The Ecliptic System
The Galactic System
Exercises
Problems
Transformation of Coordinates
The Three Equations
From the Horizontal to the HA-dec System
Upper and Lower Culmination
Rising and Setting Times
Duration of day and night
From The Ecliptic to the RA-dec System
Declination of the Sun throughout the year
Exercises
Problems
Perturbation of Coordinates
Precession
Nutation
Aberration
Parallax
Refraction
Proper Motion
Other Cycles
Exercises
Problems
Observation and Instruments
Angular Size
The Thin Lens Equation
Optical Telescopes
 Angular Resolution
Magnification
Minimum Magnification
Maximum Magnification
Aperture Ratio
The Role of the Atmosphere
Exercises
Problems
Time systems
Sidereal and Solar Day
Estimating Sidereal Time
Equation of Time
Local Solar Time
Greenwich Mean Time
Time Zones
Daylight Saving Time
Measuring the Length of a Year
Sidereal Year
Tropical or Solar year
Calendars
Exercises
Problems
The Moon
Sidereal Month
Synodic Month
Draconic Month
Eclipses
Conditions for the Occurrence of Eclipses
Total Number of Eclipses in a Year
Lunar Eclipse
Solar Eclipse
Saros cycle
Libration
Exercises
Problems
II Radiation Mechanisms
Electromagnetic Radiation
 Wave or particle?
Boltzmann Distribution Law
Maxwell Distribution Law
Planetary Atmospheres
Black Body
Wien's Law
Stefan-Boltzmann Law
Types of Spectra
Doppler Effect
Harvard Stellar Classification
Yerkes Stellar Classification
Exercises
Problems
Flux and Magnitude
Flux
Albedo
Stellar magnitudes
Absolute Magnitude
Magnitude of a Composite System
Surface Magnitude
Magnitude Systems
Extinction and Optical Depth
Exercises
Problems
Cosmic Distance Ladder
Parallax
Diurnal Parallax
Annual Parallax
Spectroscopic Parallax
Standard Candles
Tully-Fisher Relation
Hubble's Law
Exercises
Problems
III Celestial Mechanics
Gravitation and Kepler's Laws
Newtonian Mechanics
 Universal Law of Gravitation
Kepler's Laws
Energy of an Orbiting Body
Closed Orbits
Open Orbits
Escape Velocity
Schwarzschild Radius
Virial Theorem
Exercises
Problems
Motion of the Planets
Apparent Motion of the Planets
Synodic Period
Exercises
Problems
Orbital Manoeuvres
The Rocket Equation
Oberth Effect
Hohmann Transfer Orbit
Exercises
Problems
Binary Stars
Distance Between Two Stars
Visual Binaries
Astrometric Binaries
Spectroscopic Binaries
Photometric Binaries
Exercises
IV Solutions
Exercise Solutions
Problem Solutions
Appendix Mathematics
Vectors
Conic Sections
Plane Trigonometry
Spherical Trigonometry
Special Functions
 Derivatives
Integrals
Appendix Kepler's Laws
Solving the equation of motion
The orbits
Proof of Kepler's third law
Appendix Virial Theorem
Appendix Tables and constants
Suggested resources
Index