A M E R IC A N

C IN E M A T O G R A P H E R
MANUAL

SEVENTH
E D IT IO N

EDITED BY
DR. ROD RYAN

T h e A SC P r e ss

H o l l y w o o d , C a l if o r n ia
 A m erican C inem atographer M anual
S eventh E dition
Copyright© 1993 by The ASC Press
H ollyw ood, California, USA
All Rights Reserved
Library of Congress Catalog Card No. 79-93439
ISBN 0-935578-11-0
Cover Design and Artwork by George E. Turner
Copy edited by David Heuring, Stephen Pizzello and Marji Rhea
Production by Martha Winterhalter
Printed in the United States of America by Sinclair Printing Company

Ü
Acknowledgem ents
This edition, like all of the previous editions, was a joint effort. We
have called on A SC members, associate members and manufacturers' rep­
resentatives to discuss the state of the art in the areas of their exper­
tise. I would like to thank each of the more than 50 contributors for tak­
ing time from their busy schedules to help in the preparation of this
m anual. M ehrdad Azarm i, Ph.D.; Ed Blasko, Eastm an Kodak; Paul
Bourque, Agfa Photo Division; James K. Branch; Steven C. Chamberlain,
Arriflex Corp.; Ed Clare, M atthews Studio Equipment Group; Chris J.
Condon, StereoVision International, Inc.; Anthony Coogan, StereoMedia,
Inc.; Jack Cooperman, ASC; Ed DiGiulio, Cinema Products Corp.; Fred
Detmers; Linwood G. Dunn, ASC; Richard Edlund, ASC; Jonathan Erland;
Marianne Exbrayat, Aaton Des Autres, Inc.; Doug Fries, Fries Engineer­
ing; Tom Fraser; Richard Glickman, Gliconen Corp.; William Hansard, Sr.,
Hansard Enterprises; Frieider Hochheim, Kinoflo Inc.; Michael Hofstein;
Bill Hogan, Sprocket Digital; Robert C. Hum m el III, Theme Park Produc­
tions, Inc.; Masaru Jibiki, Fuji Photo Film USA; John Jurgens, Cinema Prod­
ucts Corp.; Frank M. Kay, Panavision; Conrad Kiel, Photo-Sonics, Inc.; Jon
Kranhouse; Bern Levy, Bern Levy Associates; Frank Leonetti, Leonetti Co.;
Grant Loucks, Alan Gordon Enterprises; Harry Mathias; Rami Mina, Don
Miskowich, Eastman Kodak; John Mosely, CAS; Martin Mueller, MSM
Design, Inc.; Dennis Muren, ASC; Ryan O'Hara, Chapman Leonard; Marty
Ollstein; Allan Peach, DemoGraFX; Steven Poster, ASC; David L. Quaid, ASC;
Pete Romano, Hydroimage; Gavin Schütz, Image Transform; Daniel L.
Symmes, Spatial Technologies, Inc.; Bill Taylor, ASC; Ira Tiffen, Tiffen
Manufacturing Corp.; Bill Turner, Century Precision Optics; Petro Vlahos,
Vlahos Motion Pictures, Inc.; Paul Westerfer, AMPTP; Michael Whitney,
DemoGraFX; Geoffrey H. Williamson, Wilcam Photo Research; Irwin W.
Young, DuArt Laboratories.
Special thanks to David H euring, M artha W interhalter, Steven
Pizzello, Marji Rhea, and the American Cinematographer staff for their
suggestions and assistance.
— Rod Ryan

Dr. Rod Ryan retired as Regional Engineering Director o f Eastman Kodak

M P& A V Division after 40 years service with that company. He is a graduate of
the University of Southern California BA, Ma, PhD, an Honorary Member of
ASC, a Life Fellow o f SM PTE, Retired Fellow BKSTS, a member o f the Acad­
emy o f Motion Picture A rts and Sciences, the Academy of Television Arts and
Sciences and the Motion Picture Pioneers. His awards include the Herbert T.
Kalmus Gold Medal, three SM PTE Special Commendations, the A M P A S Sci­
entific & Engineering Award and the A M P A S Medal O f Commendation. D ur­
ing World War / / , he was a U SN photographer, and after the war one o f the pho­
tographers o f the Atomic Bomb Tests at Bikini Atoll. He is the author o f "A His­
tory o f Motion Picture Color Technology , " editor and contributing author of
"Color Sensitom etry" "Sixtieth Anniversary Issue SM PTE Journal," "Fiftieth
Anniversary Issue American Cinematographer," contributing author o f " Con­
trol Techniques in Film Processing," "Technologies in the Laboratory Handling
of Motion Picture and Other Long Film s/' "The Book of Film Care," and several
articles in the SM PTE Journal and other trade publications.
 >mm/35 mm dailies, color or black and white
>Video dailies, w et or dry, with tim e-code or key code
■ Answer prints, intermediates, volume release
>Screening and editing rooms
Audio
>Most film/video formats including R-DAT
>Rerecording, sweetening, transfers
Video
>Film-to-tape - NTBC/PAL wet gate
»Standards- Conversions
NTSC/PAL/SECAM
■ Duplication all formats
■ Tape-to-film transfers
»Satellite Services
>Syndication

WRS MOTION PICTURE AND VIDEO LABORATORY

ONE CALL ANSWERS THEM ALL: 800-FILM-WRS

■J WRS-Pittsburgh • 1000 Napor Blvd. •
Pittsburgh, PA 1 5 2 0 5
 CONTENTS
CINEMATOGRAPHIC SYSTEMS
35mm Systems 3
16mm Systems 9
Special Purpose Systems 10
Pros and Cons of 1.85,2.35
and Super 35 Film Form ats 13

CAMERAS
65mm
Arriflex 765 31
C inem a Products CP-65 33
Fries 865 34
M itchell Reflex TODD-AO 36
MSM 8870 37
Panavision A C /S PC 39
Panavision System-65 39
Panavision Panaflex System-65 43
35mm
A aton 35mm 45
A aton 35-11 46
Arriflex 535 47
Arriflex 535B 50
Arriflex 35-3 52
Arriflex 35BL-4s 54
Arriflex 35-3C 56
Arriflex 35-2C 57
C inem a P roducts FX35 59
C inem a P roducts XR35 61
Feathercam CM35 62
IMAGE 300 35mm 63
M itchell NC, NCR, BNC,
BNCR (35mm); FC, BFC (65mm) 64
 35mm continued
Mitchell S35R (M ark II) 66
Mitchell S tandard and H igh Speed 67
M oviecam S uper 35mm 69
Panavision Platinum Panaflex 70
Panavision GII G olden Panaflex 74
Panavision Panaflex-X 74
Panaflex Panastar High-Speed 74
Panavision Super R-2000 76
Photo-Sonics 4B /4C 79
Photo-Sonics 4ER 79
U ltracam 35mm 80
V islaV ision
MSM 8812 81
W ilcam W-7 82
W ilcam W-9 83
W ilcam W -ll 85
16mm
A aton XTRplus 86
Arriflex 16SR-2 88
Arriflex 16SR-3 93
Arriflex 16BL 95
Arriflex 16S/B, 16S/B-GS, 16M /B 97
Bolex 16mm 99)
Bell & H ow ell Filmo 70* -Itil
Minicam 16mm (GSAP) ' 102
Cinem a Products CP-16, CP-16A 102
Cinem a Products CP-16R, CP-16R/A 102
Cinem a Products GSMO 105
Eclair ACL 107
Eclair CM-3 (16/35m m ) 108

xviii
 16mm continued
Eclair NPR 109
M itchell Professional HS, HSC 111
M itchell 16mm Reflex, SSR-16, DSR-16 113
Panavision Panaflex 16mm 114

FILM
Color 119
Black & W hite 120
Color Reversal Film 121
Edge N um bers 121
Film Perforations 123
Film H andling and Storage 125
Charts: 122,127-141

LENSES
Selection of Lenses 142
U nderstanding an MTF C hart 145
M odem Telephoto Lenses 148
Z oom Lenses 153
Lens Form ulas 160
Extreme Close-up 165
Special Purpose Lenses 170
Charts: 146,174-199

FILTERS
Filters for Both Color
an d Black & W hite 201
Special Effect Filters 208
Filters for Black & W hite 216
Filters for Color 217
Charts: 226-232

xix
ACCESSORIES
Exposure M eters 233
Crystal-Controlled Cordless
Cam era Drive Systems 242
Cam era S upports 246
Cam era Stabilizing System s 253
Preparation of M otion
Picture E quipm ent 258

PUTTING THE IMAGE ON FILM

Exposure 270
The C inem atographer an d the Laboratory 280
Photographic Testing and Evaluation 288
Em ulsion Testing 294
Charts: 272-279,300-312

LIGHTING
Light Sources and Lighting Filters 313
Characteristics of Light Sources 313
Photographic Light Sources 328
Light Source Filters 352
C om m ercial/Industrial Light Sources 354
Fluorescent Lighting for M otion Pictures 359
AC Arc Lam p Flicker Problem 376
Lum inaires 380
Light Control Accessories 390

Charts: 314-315,319,323,328,339,345, 366-375

SPECIAL VISUAL EFFECTS

Shooting B ackground Plates 394
Front-Projection Process 399
Com positing 415
Photographing M iniatures 420
M otion-Control C inem atography 424

xx
 Travelling-M atte C om posite Photography 430
The F uture for Travelling-M atte
C om posite P hotography 445
D igital Effects C inem atography 460
H igh-Resolution Electronic
Interm ediate System for Film 462
C om puter G raphics 467
Cinem agic of the O ptical Printer 475
A erial Im age C inem atography 481
Charts: 413,419,423,443

SPECIAL TECHNIQUES
Aerial C inem atography 487
U nderw ater C inem atography 495
Safety G uidelines for Insert Cam era Cars 503
Arctic C inem atography 504
Tropical C inem atography 511
D ay-for-Night C inem atography 518
Infrared C inem atography 521
U ltraviolet P hotography 523
Shooting 16mm Color N egative
for Blowup to 35mm 527
Stereoscopic M otion Picture Technology 534
3-D C inem atography 538
Synchronizing M ethods for Picture
an d S ound System s 540
Filming Television Screens 555
Television Film C inem atography 561
Shooting V ideotape for Transfer to Film 566

REFERENCES 577

INDEX 579

xxi
 CHARTS AND TABLES
FILM
C om parison of Film Speeds 122
Film D ata C hart 127
Film Stock Tables
Agfa XT-100 128
Agfa XT-320 128
Agfa XTS-400 129
Agfa PAN-250 129
Eastm an EXR 5245/7245 130
Eastm an EXR 5248/7248 130
Eastm an EXR 5293/7293 131
Eastm an EXR 5296/7296 131
Eastm an 5297/7297 132
Eastm an Ektachrom e 5239/7239 132
Eastm an Ektachrom e 7240 133
Eastm an Ektachrom e 7251 133
Eastm an Ektachrom e 7250 134
Eastm an Plus-X 5231/7231 135
Eastm an Double-X 5222/7222 135
Eastm an Plus-X 7276 136
Eastm an Tri-X 7278 136
Eastm an K odachrom e 7267 137
Eastm an K odachrom e 7268 137
Fuji F-64 8510/8610 138
Fuji F-64 8520/8620 138
Fuji F-125 8530/8630 139
Fuji F-250 8550/8650 139
Fuji F-250 8560/8660 140
Fuji F-500 8570/8670 140
 Film Stock Tables continued
Fuji FG 71112 141
Fuji RP 72161 141

LENSES
Typical MTF of 3:1 Zoom s for 16mm 146
D epth of Field C harts
35mm Cam era
9.8mm 174
15mm 175
20mm 176
25mm 177
35mm 178
40mm 179
50mm 180
85mm 181
100mm 182
150mm 183
200mm 184
400mm 185
16mm Cam era
8m m 186
9.5mm 187
12mm 188
16mm 189
25mm 190
35m m 191
50m m 192
85mm 193
100mm 194
135mm 195
VistaVision 196

xxiii
LENSES continued
Vertical Angle vs.
Effective Focal Length 196a-b
Extreme Close-up
35mm D epth of Field
and Exposure Factor 197
16mm D epth of Field
and Exposure Factor 198
Plus D iopter Lenses Focus C onversion 199

FILTERS
Filter Com pensation 226
ND Filter Selector 227
Color Filters for B & W D aylight Exteriors 228
Color Filters for Altering
B & W Contrast 229
Conversion Filters for Color Film 230
Kodak Light Balancing Filters 230
Kodak Color C om pensating Filters 231
N om ograph for Light Source Conversion 232

EXPOSURE
Incident K eylight/T-stop 272
T-stop C om pensation for C am era Speed 274
Shutter A ngle/fp s/T -sto p C hange 276
Color Balancing Existing
Fluorescent Lighting 277
Balancing D aylight W indow s in Interiors 278
Balancing to M atch Existing
Interior Lighting 279
Recom m ended Panning Speeds 310-312
Footage Tables
16mm (24 fps) 300
16mm (25 fps) 301

xxiv
 Footage Tables continued
16mm (29.97 fps) 302
35mm (24 fps) 303
35mm (25 fps) 304
35mm (29.97 fps) 305
65/7 0 m m (24 fps) 306
Footage O btained at V arious C am era Speeds
16mm 307
35m m (+ frames) 308
65mm (+ frames) 309

LIGHTING
C om m ercial/Industrial Light Source
Characteristics 314
C om parison of Photographic Light Sources 315
C orrelated Color Tem perature 319
MIRED Shift Value Effec ts 323
Tangent Function 328
N ational Carbons for Studio Lighting 339
HMI™ Lam p Characteristics 345
Lighting Filters: Color A djusting 366-367
Color Balancing for Existing Fluorescents 368-373
Color Balancing of AC Arc
D ischarge Lighting 374

SPECIAL EFFECTS
M inim um Object-Distance 413
Background Projection 419
M iniatures: S peed/S cale/E xposure 423
A lternative M ethods for Travelling M attes 443

xxv
 Cinematographic Systems
M ost films p roduced for theatrical presentation are
photographed in one of the system s intended for projection
in an aspect ratio greater than 1.33:1. These are loosely cat­
egorized as "w ide screen" systems. All films produced for
use in television system s and m ost of those produced for
industrial an d educational use are photographed in an as­
pect ratio of 1.33:1.
F ollow ing are the p h o to g rap h ic system s currently
em ployed in die preparation of m otion picture negatives
or reversal originals from w hich the various projection sys­
tem s can be supplied w ith the p roper prints.
M ost films p roduced for theatrical presentation are
later used for television. It is desirable that the cinem atog­
rap h e r allow for this in com posing. The accom panying
draw ings will show dim ensions of finder m arkings to aid
the transition. C ertain other enlarged or reduced copy di­
m ensions are also shown. The dim ensions show n are those
of prim ary interest to the cinem atographer; for detailed
specifications, refer to the following Standards and Recom­
m ended Practices, p u blished by the A m erican N ational
S tandards Institute (ANSI) and the Society of M otion Pic­
ture and Television Engineers (SMPTE).

Im age A reas, C am era

16mm SMPTE 7 -1988
16mm Type W (Super 16) SMPTE 201M -1992
35mm SMPTE 59 -1991
65mm SMPTE 215 -1990

Im age Areas, Projector

16mm SMPTE 233-1987
35mm PH22.195 -1984
70mm SMPTE 152 -1989

C opy D im ensions
35m m to 16mm RP65 -1991
16mm to 35mm RP66 -1991
Super 16 to 35mm SMPTE 201M-1992
35mm to 70mm N one

Television:
Safe Action and Title A rea RP27.3 -1989

1
 35m n CAMERA SPHERICAL LENS

NO. 1 THEATRICAL
RELEASE

FINDER MARKING &

PROJECTOR APERTURES
NO. 1&2 .825" x .602" FOR 1.37/1
NON-SQUEEZED .825" x .497" FOR 1.66/1
NE6ATIVE .825" x .471" FOR 1.75/1
.825" x .446" FOR 1.85/1

NO. 2 TELEVISION APERTURES

AND SAFE AREAS

CAMERA APERTURE
.864" min. x 630" min.

CAMERA APERTURE
0.864" min. x 0.630" min
TV STATION—
PROJECTOR APERTURE
0.016" X 0.612"
TV TRANSMITTED AREA
0.792" x 0.594"
L TV SAFE ACTION AREA
0.713" x 0.535"
CORNER RADII R = 0.143"
SAFE TITLE AREA
0.630" x 0.475"
CORNER RADII R. 0.125"

Figure 1.

2
35mm Systems
1 .35mm camera, spherical lens (non-squeezed) p h o ­
tography for theatrical presentation (Sound area blocked).
(See Figure 1.)
The ANSI sta n d a rd calls for cam eras for n on an a-
m orphic p hotography to be equipped w ith an aperture of
0.864" by 0.630" m inim um . M any cam eras, how ever, are
equipped w ith apertures w hich will cover the area required
for anam orphic im ages as well, and it is occasional prac­
tice to use a "hard m atte" to lim it the area in the vertical
dim ension to the w ide screen form at desired by the direc­
tor. It should be understood, of course, that w hile the use
of a hard m atte ensures correct fram ing in the theater, it also
limits the future use of the im age for television releases in
1.33:1 aspect ratio. In addition to the necessity for (and the
expense of) a special duplicate negative for television, it
should also be noted that the side lines for 1.33:1 w ithin a
hard m atted w ide screen fram e m ay have to be respected
by the cinem atographer to protect for such later use. W hen
theatrical subjects are p h o to g ra p h e d w ith o u t the h ard
matte, it is w ise to protect the height of the im age for later
television release by excluding extraneous objects, such as
m icrophones or goboes, from the areas above and below
the 1.85:1 fram e line and by being careful not to overshoot
the set w ithin the television area of 0.594 inches high as
m easured on the film.
2 .35mm camera, spherical lens (non-squeezed) p h o ­
tography for television presentation (Sound area blocked).
(Figure 1) (See also "Television Film Cinem atography.")
The television aspect ratio is 1.33:1 and the dim ensions
given on the accom panying diagram indicate not only the
actual headroom b u t also suggested "safe areas" for both
action and titles. In television transm ission, m aladjustm ent
or electrical errors can cause cropping of the im age before
it reaches the hom e viewer. The areas so indicated delin­
eate the usual limits of such cropping.
3 .35mm camera, spherical lens (non-squeezed) p h o ­
tography (full aperture). C am era aperture fills 4-perfora-
tion area, full space betw een perforations (0.980 inches by
0.735 inches).
A. U sed for special effects duplication. No protection
dim ension given (image size depends on user). (Figure 2)
B. For th e atric al p re se n ta tio n , n e g a tiv e im ag e is
anam orphosed or reduced spherically in laboratory prepa-

3
 NO. 3: 35mm FULL APERTURE
SPHERICAL LENS
(FOR PARTIAL FRAME EXTRACTION)
PRINTS

NEGATIVE
SUPER PANAVISION 35
SUPER TECHNISCOPE, ETC.
1.85:1AR
IMAGE TO BE OPTICALLY
Non-Squeezed
EXTRACTED FOR RELEASE PRINT. Proj Ap .825" x .446"
CAMERA APERTURE
.980" x 735-
COMMON HEADROOM

FINDER MARKINGS 2.4:1AR

L 35min ANAMORPHIC 2.4:1AR 2:1 ANAMORPHIC SQUEEZE
.945" x .394" PROJ AP .838" X .700"
70 mm 2.2:1AR
.945" x .430"
35mm FLAT 1.85:1AR
.945" x .511"

5 peri 70 mm 2.2:1AR
Proj Ap 1.912" x .870"

Figure 2.

4
ration of release printing duplicate negative. Prints m ust
be projected w ith an anam orphic lens. (A lternate finder
m arkings are show n for 35mm "flat" and 70mm extraction.
N ote that all extractions use the sam e headroom . Television
extraction is n o t fixed at this w riting; alternate versions
w ould crop sides and extend to the bottom of the camera
apertu re or use the sam e side lines an d protect the area
above the nom inal headroom line. There have been m inor
variations on this system, and guidelines are under consid­
eration for ultim ate standardization of dim ensions. Use of
the system depends on capability and w illingness of the
laboratory to m ake the im age extractions on the release
p rinting duplicate negatives.) (Super Panavision 35 an d
Super Techniscope) (Figure 2) (See also "Special Systems.")
4. 35m m cam era, 2:1 an a m o rp h ic le n s (squeezed)
p hotography for theatrical presentation (Panavision and
Todd-AO 35). (Figure 3)
A. 35mm contact or 1:1 prints. For this system, cam ­
eras are equipped w ith anam orphic lens attachments which
com press the im age horizontally in a 2 to 1 ratio, resulting
in a lens field twice as w ide as w ould otherw ise be photo­
graphed w ith lenses of equal focal length. Prints from nega­
tives photographed in this system m u st be projected in the
th eater w ith anam o rp h ic lenses. A t least in the U nited
States, for all practical purposes all theaters are so equipped.
For non-theatrical distribution, 16mm prints are m ade
e ith er w ith a n a m o rp h ic im ages or by u n sq u e ez in g to
spherical ("flat") im ages w ith a 1.85:1 aspect ratio, cropping
each side of the im age about 12%. Because of the 16mm
projector aspect ratio, anam orphic prints m ade at the reduc­
tion ratio of RP65-1991 will crop the top and bottom of the
35m m im age. Some reduction p rints have been m ade at
2.4:1 aspect ratio w ith printed-in m attes at the sides to avoid
this problem , b u t this is not yet stan d ard practice.
B ecause of th e a sp e c t ra tio a n d th e a n a m o rp h ic
squeeze, direct prints from this system cannot be ru n on
television, except in letterbox. In m ost instances a 1.33:1 as­
pect ratio extraction from the center of the screen loses sig­
nificant action. This problem has been circum vented in the
past by "scanning" the im age to follow action in the prep a­
ration of a duplicate negative from w hich television prints
m ay be m ade — an unsatisfactory b u t com m on solution.
The accom panying diagram show s the transition. A n u m ­
ber of optical houses are prepared to supply this type of d u ­
plicate negative either in 35mm or 16mm. (Figure 4)
5
 35mm ANAMORPHIC LENS CAMERA

(A)

35mm SQUEEZED PRINT

No. 4 FINDER MARKING &
PANAVISION 35 PROJECTOR APERTURE
AND .838" x .700"
TODD-AO 35 (Additional finder markings:
SQUEEZED 70mm .753' x .66 8 '
NEGATIVE 16mm .614" x 660" 1.05:1AR
16mm .017" x .615" 2.66:1AR
CAMERA APERTURE
.064" min x .732" min

-PRINTS
1 6 n n SQUEEZED PRINT
.300 x .206
Max. proj. ap.

16mm UNSQUEEZED PRINT

(1.85:1)
.380" x .205"
Proj ap or matte.

70mm
UNSQUEEZED PRINT
PROJECTOR APERTURE
1.912" x 0.070"
Figure 3.

6
SCANNING ANAMORPHIC IMAGES
FOR TELEVISION

ORIGINAL PHOTOGRAPHY
Camera Aperture .864" x .732" min.
Projector Outline .838" x .700"
Squeeze Ratio 2:1
Anamorphic camera lens

Schematic tigure:
TOTAL IMAGE OF ORIGINAL
PHOTOGRAPHY— UNSQUEEZED
Screen Aspecl Ratio 2.36:1
Areas 1.728" x .732"
1.676" x .700"

LINEAR REDUCTION OF ABOVE

TOTAL UNSQUEEZED IMAGE AREA
Area tor selective scan­
ning: 1.459" x .616"

MASKIN6 to follow important

action equals TV SAFE ACTION
AREA: .713" x .535"

FINAL PRINTED IMAGE

Aspecl Ratio: 1.33:1
Area: .8 6 8 " x .616" (35mm)
Suitable for TV projector
aperture: .816" x .612" and
Theatre projector aperlure
.825" x .602"
or: .380" x .286" (16mm)

Figure 4.

7
 16mm FILM APERTURES
TELEVISION SAFE AREA

NO. 5

- CAMERA APERTURE
.404" x .295"
- T V STATION—
PROJECTOR APERTURE
.300" x .286"
- TV TRANSMITTED AREA
.368" x .276"
- TV SAFE ACTION AREA
.331" x .248"
CORNER RADII R = .066"
SAFE TITLE AREA
.293" x .221"
CORNER RADII R = .058"

NO. 6 16mm FINDER MARKINGS

lor enlarging lo 35mm

Camera aperture .404" x .295"

Projector aperture .370" x .276" (max).
Projector aperture .370" x .205" (1.85:1)
(enlarging ratio 1:2.18)

SUPER 16 (16mm Type W )

for enlarging to 35mm

Camera aperture .4 9 3 " * .2 9 2 "

Projector aperture .4 6 3 " x .2 7 9 "
Projector aperture .4 6 3 " * .251

Figure 5.

8
 B. 70mm de-anam orphosed (unsqueezed) prints. Sev­
eral laboratories are equipped to m anufacture 70mm posi­
tive prints from such negatives. The aspect ratio of 70mm
prints (2.2:1) crops very little from the 35mm im age, w hich
is anam orphically unsqueezed in the m aking of the prints.
The resulting 70mm print therefore is projected w ith spheri­
cal lenses. 70mm prints are striped w ith m agnetic oxide,
an d their soundtracks are capable of carrying six channels.

16mm Systems
5 .16mm cam era, spherical lens photography for tele­
vision, industrial and educational use. (Figure 5) (See also
"T e lev isio n F ilm C in e m a to g ra p h y ." ) 16m m cam eras
eq u ip p ed w ith spherical (nonanam orphic or "norm al")
lenses are u sed for this type of photography. Either rever­
sal or negative films m ay be used as cam era originals. Be­
cause 16mm is u sed for econom y as w ell as portability,
direct contact release prints are often m ade from the cam­
era original film w h en only a few are required. In such
cases, extrem e care should be taken to protect the original.
For prints in quantity, duplicate negatives are m ade on ap ­
p ropriate raw stock. The sam e com m ents as to the lim ita­
tions of television transm ission apply as w ere noted in the
35mm television section above (#2). Tiie accom panying dia­
gram show s the dim ensions for the ground glass to be used
for 16mm photography for television.
6 . 16mm cam era, spherical lens p hotography for en­
largem ent to 35m m for theatrical presentation. (Figure 5)
(See also "Shooting 16mm Color N egative for Blowup to
35mm.") From 16mm originals, 35mm duplicate negatives
m ay be prep ared by optical enlargem ent for the m anufac­
ture of 35mm release prints for theatrical distribution. M ost
theaters in the U nited States are currently m atting 35mm
prints to a 1.85:1 aspect ratio.
The accom panying diagram show s the height of the
ground glass m ark suggested for this type of photography.
As w ith 35mm photography, it is w ise to protect the bal­
ance of the aperture so that b oth theatrical and television
prints w ill be suitable.
7 .16mm special cam era, spherical lens photography
specifically for enlargem ent to 35m m w ide screen for the­
atrical presentation. (Figure 5) (See also "Shooting 16mm
Color N egative for Blowup to 35mm.") (Super 16 or 16mm
Type W) Special 16mm cam eras w ith extended-w idth ap ­
ertures extending into the area usually reserved for the
9
sound track are used for this system. The aspect ratio of the
resulting negative is 1.66:1, and this im age is enlarged to
the stan d ard 35m m sou n d film aperture. 1.66:1 is com ­
monly used in Europe and 1.85:1 in the U.S. Both dim en­
sions are given for finder marks. A specially centered 1.33:1
16mm or 35mm duplicate negative a n d /o r print is required
for television display.

Special Purpose Systems

D uring the history of m otion pictures, there have been
num erous cam era and projection systems, som e of w hich
have had w idespread use for a period and then have be­
come obsolete. It is the purpose of the A m erican Cinem a­
tographer M anual to explain and display current systems;
for history, please refer to earlier editions of the m anual and
American Cinematographer magazine.
8. 65m m , 5 -p e rfo ra tio n , fra m e p h o to g ra p h y for
com positing to one of the 35mm systems. A ny p art of the
negative im age m ay be used.
9 .65mm, 5-perforation, frame photography for p rin t­
ing on 70mm. The difference in cam era and projector ap ­
ertures allows for a m agnetic sound track betw een picture
and perforations on each side, and the add ed 5m m w idth
allows for tw o m agnetic sound tracks outside the perfora­
tions on each side. (Figure 6)
A. General theatrical distribution; rarely used p res­
ently.
B. Showscan; uses this form at b u t photographed and
projected at 60 fps in a specially designed theater environ­
m ent on a large screen at higher than standard brightness
and w ith terraced seating to im prove sightlines. Grain,
flicker and im age "strobing" are m inim ized.
C. For special p u rp o se projection system s such as
Disney's 3-D at EPCOT.
10.65mm, 15-perforation, horizontal frame photogra­
phy (24 fps) (Im ax/O m nim ax). (Figure 7) The film form at
for the two systems is the same. Imax is projected on a large
flat screen in specially designed theaters.
O m nim ax is photographed w ith a "fisheye" lens, op­
tically centered 0.37 inches above the film centerline and
displayed on a dom e screen, filling 180 degrees laterally
and 20 degrees below and 110 degrees above the horizon
for central viewers. The picture shape is thus elliptical. Both
systems use terraced seating to im prove sightlines.

10
 65mm— 5 PERFORATION PULLDOWN CAMERA

No. 8 & 9
TODD-AO
SUPER PANAVISION—
NONSQUEEZEO NE6ATIVE

35mm

CAMERA APERTURE
2.066" X0.906"

70mm

PROJECTOR APERTURE
0.838" x 0.700"
2:1 SQUEEZED

PROJECTOR APERTURE
1.912" x 0.870"
Doited line indicates
finder marking for 35mm
extraclion 1.912" x 0.816"

Figure 6.

11. 35mm , 8-perforation, horizontal fram e photogra­

p h y (VistaVision) for com positing to one of the 35mm sys­
tems. As any p art of the negative im age m ay be used to suit
the user, no projection ap e rtu re or finder m arkings are
show n. (Figure 8) (Lens angles are given in the tables only
for the full negative aperture.)
D epth of field is also affected by the ultim ate use; it is
therefore suggested that the 35mm tables be used as a guide
to the relative d ep th of field, one lens to another, until test
results are seen on the screen.
12. Proposed 35mm anam orphic projection systems
using 1.5:1 squeeze and the conventional (ANSI PH22.195
Style B) anam orphic projection aperture for a 1.8:1 aspect
ratio. Source cam era negative w ould be VistaVision (Fig­
ure 8) or 35mm full aperture (Figure 2) from either of w hich
a la b o ra to r y p r in tin g d u p lic a te n e g a tiv e w o u ld b e
an am o rp h ically p rin te d ; alternately, 1.5:1 anam orp h ic
lenses w ould be used on standard 35mm cameras.

11
 13. 65mm 8-perforation, fram e (vertical pulld o w n )
photography (24 or 30 fps) (Dynavision). C am era aperture
2.080" X 1.480" for printing on 70mm positive film. Lenses
m ay be "fisheye" for dom e theater projection or conven­
tional focal lengths for 4 X 3 aspect ratio projection.

No. 10 65mm Horizontal 15 pert.

Im ax/O m nim ai
♦FILM TRAVEL DIRECTION (V IEW ED F R 0 M B A SE SIDE)
2 .7 7 2 " _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 7 0 .4 1 M M ,
0 .6 9 M M
TRAVEL
REGISTRATION PIN
□ □ C □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ i n d o □ C

2.5 5 0 '' (REFERENCE) 64.97 MM

5 2 .6 3 M M
r
PR OJEC T ION C U T S OFF

0 .8 0 " MIN. TO P & BOTTOM >

.016" MIN. AT S ID E S

’W
-

2.072"
________ 1________
□ □ C□ □ p□ □ □ a o o Q D D o a a ■ o □ a □ i
FULL REGISTRATION 5
PIN
15 PERFORATION PULL-ACR0SS
2 799- 7 1 .0 9 M M

Figure 7.

Figure 8.

12
 Pros and Cons of 1.85,2.35 and
Super 35 Film Formats
by Rob H um m el

The m ost prevalent film form ats, or aspect ratios, p ro ­

jected in the U nited States are 1.85 and 2.35. As a po in t of
reference, these ratios are determ ined by dividing the w idth
of the picture by the height, w hich is w hy you will som e­
times see them w ritten as 1.85:1 or 2.35:1 Verbally, you will
hear them referred to as "One Eight Five" or "Two Three Five"
(2.35 is also often referred to as '‘Scope," referring to its ori­
gins as Cinemascope).
A n exam in atio n of film s over the p a st forty years
show s that format is not automatically dictated by dramatic
content. It is a creative choice on the p a rt of the cinem atog­
rapher and the director. The full range of dram a, comedy,
rom ance, action or science fiction can be found in both as­
pect ratios. The p u rpose here is to advise on the pros and
cons of both aspect ratios and the photographic alternatives
available to achieve them . This should help a film m aker
m ake an inform ed decision as to w hich form at is best for a
given project.
As a clarification in this discussion, Full Aperture will
refer to the total area betw een the 35mm perforations, in­
cluding the area norm ally reserved for the soundtrack (this
Full Aperture area is also referred to as the camera aperture).
Academy Aperture w ill refer to that area of the negative ex­
cluding the soundtrack area. A cadem y A perture got its
n am e w hen the M otion Picture A cadem y established the
standard for w here to place sound and picture inform ation
w hen the first talkies w ere produced.
W hile all 1.85 com posed films are achieved w ith nor­
mal, spherical lenses, the 2.35 aspect ratio can be achieved
in two w ays. The m ost com m on m ethod is w ith the use of
anam orphic lenses th at squeeze the im age to fit w ithin the
A cad em y A p e rtu re (see Illu stra tio n 6). T he a lte rn a te
m ethod (Super 35, Super Techniscope) uses normal lenses
w ithout any distortion of the image. Both m ethods will be
discussed here.
Also, the form ats discussed here deal w ith general
35m m m o tio n p ic tu re p h o to g ra p h y . F o rm ats su ch as
VistaVision and 65mm are m ost often used for visual ef­

13
fects and special event cinem atography and w ould require
a separate article.

Composition
Before getting into specifics about the different for­
mats, I w ant to point out the com position differences be­
tween the tw o aspect ratios of 2.35 and 1.85, regardless of
how they are achieved photographically.
Illustration 1 displays a given scene of the Tàj Mahal.
O n this image, a 2.35 aspect ratio is outlined by a w hite rect­
angle.
In Illustration 2, tw o 1.85 aspect ratios are outlined by
w hite rectangles. The larger of those tw o rectangles repre-

Illustration 1 - Aspect Ratio 2.35:1

Illustration 2 - Aspect Ratio 1.85:1

14
sents a 1.85 com position equal in its width to the 2.35 aspect
ratio in Illustration 1. The sm aller 1.85 rectangle is equal in
height to Illustration l 's 2.35 rectangle.
Illustrations 1 and 2 dem onstrate that a 1.85 im age has
potential of encom passing as m uch w id th as a 2.35 image.
A lthough 1.85 w ill take in the sam e w id th w ith greater
height in the composition, it's im portant to realize that w ide
sets and vistas are n ot restricted to the 2.35 format.

I. The 1.85 Aspect Ratio

Photographed in NORMAL Academ y Aperture
Photography
1.85 is far an d aw ay the m ost com m on aspect ratio for
m otion pictures filmed in the U nited States. I say the U.S.,
since aro u n d the w orld the aspect ratio m ost com m only
used sw ings betw een 1.85 and 1.66 depending on the coun­
try.

Illustration 3 -1.85:1

Illustration 3 portray s how a 1.85 film com position

w ould be fram ed in the view finder of the camera.
Illustration 4 show s how that im age appears on the
negative an d subsequently on a positive p rin t for projec­
tion. A lthough you w o u ld n 't have an optical track until
final com posite prints are m ade, the track is illustrated here
for clarity. The shaded areas of the film frames indicate that
area of the A cadem y aperture that goes u nused in a 1.85
film. A lthough additional picture inform ation is usually
contained w ithin that shaded area, it is m asked out w hen
the film is projected.

15
 t Optical Soundtrack

Illustration 4 -1.85:1. Above Left: The scene as it appears on the negative.

Above Right: the scene as it appears on a contact p rin t for projection.
W hen the film is finally projected in a theater (assum ­
ing it is projected properly), it will appear the same as origi­
nally com posed in the view finder (see Illustration 3).

A. Advantages of 1.85
1. M any perceive 1.85 as m ore appropriate for pictures
that lend them selves to m ore com pact visuals. Since close-
ups virtually fill the entire fram e, it is often considered a
m ore "intim ate" format.
2. If a film is largely interiors, 1.85 is often argued as
the preferred format, since interiors usually d o n 't involve
the w ide panoram ic vistas associated w ith 2.35. O n the
other hand, m any do not w eigh interiors or exteriors in their
choice of format.
3. G reater dep th of field (the total area in focus at a
given distance). Since 1.85 uses shorter focal length lenses
as com pared w ith anam orphic, greater d ep th of field is
m ore easily attainable, m aking photography less prone to
focus problem s. This advantage is som etim es negated by
cinem atographers using such sm all am ounts of light that
they have to shoot w ith lenses "w ide open," resulting in a
small gain in d ep th of field.
4. A n opinion often expressed is that sets d o n 't need
to be as w ide on a 1.85 film as one photographed in 2.35,
resulting in savings in set construction. H ow ever, m any
w ould argue that film form at has no bearing on the w idth
of set construction. As Illustrations 1 and 2 pointed out, it's
possible for 1.85 to require as w ide a set as 2.35, d ep en d ­
ing on the composition.
5. 1.85 is the sim plest form at to execute from a m e­
chanical/ technical standpoint. The choice of photographic
equipm ent is virtually unlim ited, as any standard 35mm
camera will accom m odate this format.
6. If a stu n t cam era m ount is required that risks d e­
stroying a camera, there are a num ber of expendable cam ­
16
era bodies available.
7. W ith som e effort on the shooting com pany's part,
com position can protect for video so that a sim ple one-to-
one transfer can be done w ithout panning and scanning.
W hile left and right im age integrity rem ain virtually intact
this w ay, there is an approxim ate 33% increase in die ver­
tical height of the com position.
A lthough m any think it routine to protect the TV area
from in tru d in g objects (e.g., lights, m icrophones, etc.), it
m akes the cinem atographer's job m ore difficult, by p re­
venting him or her from bringing lights d o w n close to the
area of com position. This is w h y m any cinem atographers
shooting 1.85 prefer to shoot w ith a 1.66:1 aspect ratio h ard
matte. 1.66 is slightly larger than 1.85, closely approxim at­
ing the height of the TV frame, and it gives die cinem atog­
rapher m ore freedom to light his subjects, w ithout fear of
a light or m icrophone show ing u p w h en tran sferred to
video.
8. M any people believe it is an advantage to shoot 1.85
because spherical lenses are sharper than 2.35's anam orphic
lenses. This is a m isconception. It is tru e th a t spherical
lenses are sharper than anam orphic; how ever, the m uch
greater negative area u sed w ith anam orphic m ore th an
m akes u p for the su b tle difference in reso lu tio n from
spherical lenses.

6 . D isa d v an ta g es of 1.85
1. The m ain disadvantage is the actual size of the 1.85
form at on the negative. Because of the sm aller area, 1.85 is
noticeably grainier th an anam orphic 2.35. This is n o t as
noticeable in the original negative stage, b u t becomes m ore
pronounced after going through d u p e negatives.
The negative area of 2.35 anam orphic is a 59% increase
over the 1.85 area.
2. Because of the greater height of 1.85's aspect ratio,
ceilings of sets are m ore prone to being photographed. This
can be a restriction on how easily a cam eraperson can light
an interior set (visible ceilings lim it light placem ent). O n
som e sets, it m ay require additional construction.
3. O pticals (dissolves, repositions, etc.) te n d to be
grainier than w ith anam orphic 2.35.
A cu rren t tren d is for editors to order "double IP"
opticals, com pensating for the smaller negative area of 1.85.
This im proves the quality of opticals, but at greater expense.

17
 4. N ot truly com patible w ith 70mm. A lthough it can
be done, there is a large am ount of unused print on the sides
w hen blow n up to 70mm (see Illustration 11). Also, because
of the greater magnification in 1.85 70mm prints, grain is
m uch m ore ap p a ren t th an in anam orphic b lo w -u p s to
70mm.
5. W hen projected, the area of the fram e for 1.85 is
subjected to m uch greater m agnification on a screen than
an anam orphic frame, resulting in m ore apparent grain in
the image.

II. The 2.35 Aspect Ratio

Photographed w ith A nam orphic (Scope) Lenses
The following is a discussion of the 2.35 aspect ratio
photographed w ith anam orphic lenses. A discussion of
Super 35 com posed for 2.35 will follow.
A nam orphic 2.35:1 (also know n as "C inem ascope" or
"Panavision") optically "squeezes" the w idth of the im age
to fit w ithin the 35mm A cadem y A perture. Illustration 5
portrays how an anam orphic 2.35 scene w ould appear in
the viewfinder.

Illustration 5

Illustration 6 show s how that im age appears on the

negative and subsequently on a positive p rin t for projec­
tion.
W hen the film is finally projected in a theater (assum ­
ing it is projected properly), it will be " unsqueezed" by an
anam orphic projection lens and appear on the screen the
same as originally com posed in the view finder (see Illus­
tration 5).

A. Advantages of Anamorphic 2.35

1. The m ost salient advantage is the m uch larger nega­
tive area. A 59% increase in negative area over 1.85 results

18
Illustration 6 - Anam orphic 2.35:1, Above Left: The scene as it appears
on the Negative "squeezed" by the anamorphic lenses. Above Right: The
scene as it appears on a Contact Print for projection.

in finer grain, better opticals, and an increase in apparent

sharpness (apparent because w hile a sim ilar im age p hoto­
g raphed in 1.85 will be sharper, the increase in grain and
greater magnification actually m ake it appear less sharp).
This difference becomes m ost apparent after going through
the du p e negatives.
2. M ore com patible w ith 70mm. Because of the origi­
nal negative area, there is less of a blow -up than w ith 1.85,
resulting in finer grain in the 70mm print. Also, the aspect
ratio can fill the entire 70mm p rin t frame.
3. Allows for complex compositions. Able to do a tight
close-up on tw o individuals sim ultaneously. Action can be
spread across a w ide expanse of the frame.
4. M ost often the form at of choice for films w ith a lot
of action or big production values.
5. M ost closely approxim ates the norm al field of vi­
sion.
6. W hen shooting interiors, ceilings becom e obscured,
giving the cinem atographer m ore alternatives for place­
m ent of lighting.
7. A possible advantage m ay com e w ith continuing
advances in H igh Definition TV. The area of negative used
in anam orphic films m eans you will exceed HDTV's reso­
lution capability for m any years to come. Some HDTV tech­
nologies are already alm ost equal to 1.85's resolution ca­
pability.

B. D isadvantages o f Anam orphic 2.35

1. Difficult video transfer. To extract a video im age
directly from the center of the 2.35 frame usually results in
odd com positions and the exclusion of relevant action.
A n alternative is to "pan and scan" the im age (panning
the w idth of the 2.35 frame, following the m ost im portant
action). W hile not mechanically m ore expensive than regu­

19
lar video transfer, panning and scanning usually costs m ore
d ue to the extra time required by each scene's com position
decisions. W hile panning and scanning m akes the best of
a bad situation, m any people feel it com prom ises the origi­
nal compositions. M any film m akers have released videos
of their films in "letterbox" form at, w here the 2.35 form at
is m aintained by putting black m attes above and below the
frame. This is a com m on practice in videodisc releases of
films.
The difficulty in video transfer is the m ost often stated
disadvantage of the 2.35 format.
2. It is often said that anam orphic is m ore expensive
than 1.85. H ow ever, the difference in cost betw een an an­
am orphic lens package vs. a 1.85 lens package is negligible.
Anam orphic w ould be approxim ately $2,400.00 m ore ex­
pensive over the course of a ten-w eek film schedule.
Also, discussions w ith a num ber of prom inent cinema­
tographers indicate that they w o u ld n 't increase the size of
their lighting package significantly for the 2.35 aspect ratio
(in fact, one said it w o u ld n 't change at all).
3. Single close-ups result in w ide areas on either side
of a face, w ith potential for distracting objects in the frame.
H owever, due to the nature of anam orphic's longer focal
length lenses, usually anything in the background on either
side of a face w ould be severely out of focus.
4. M any people feel that sets need to be built w ider
because of the w ider aspect ratio. There are also m any w ho
feel it doesn't m atter, and that sets can be accom m odated
by choosing lenses carefully. See again Illustrations 1 and
2 and the discussion u n d er Composition.
5. Some directors have a h a rd tim e blocking action
w ithin the larger frame.
6. Expense of m ore extras m ay be necessary for some
crow d scenes.

III. Super 35 Formats

The Super 35 Formats, know n under a variety of nam es
such as Super Techniscope, Super 1.85, and Super 2.35, are
all flat, spherical lens form ats using equipm ent sim ilar to
that used in 1.85 photography. All of the Super 35 form ats
require an optical step w hen m aking d u p e negatives for
release prints.
Illustration 7 is a diagram of a standard Super 35 frame
of film w here all aspect ratios are aligned on Full A perture
center. As the illustration show s, inform ation is usually
2 0
exposed over the entire Full A perture area of the film. The
film m aker decides w h at form at he is com posing for, and
it is that aspect ratio the film lab will eventually extract from
the fram e for release prints.
W hen speaking of Super 35, people are usually refer­
ring to its use in com posing for a 2.35:1 aspect ratio, the
sam e ratio as 2.35 anam orphic.

2.35 1.85
Area Area

B oundary of Full F ra m e TV Extraction

Illustration 7 - Standard Super 35/Super Techniscope

A nam orphic 2.35 uses special lenses that squeeze the

w ide im age to fit w ithin the standard A cadem y A perture
frame. Super 35 composes for 2.35 w ith standard lenses and
extends the w id th of the fram e into that area of the nega­
tive reserved for the soundtrack. A lthough m ost cam eras
already expose picture inform ation in the soundtrack area,
it norm ally goes unused.
A t tim es, people will suggest shooting Super 35 com ­
posed for 1.85 (a. k. a. Super 1.85). The reason for this is a
belief that the slight increase in negative area w ith Super
1.85 w ill yield a finer-grain im age for release. Tests have
show n this is not so. O nce the negative has gone through
interpositive and intem egative, and been optically reposi­
tioned for standard 1.85 release, there is at best no differ­
ence betw een Super 1.85 an d standard 1.85 photography,
an d depen d in g on the scene, Super 1.85 can look w orse
than standard 1.85.
S tandard 1.85 produces all d u p e negatives and prints
w ith contact printing, w hile Super 1.85 requires an optical
step to reduce the im age into the standard 1.85 area. C on­
tact printing significantly reduces the appearance of grain,
w hile any optical step precisely focuses the grain in a nega­
tive, effectively enhancing the appearance of grain.

21
 A s for a rg u m e n ts th a t S u p e r 1.85 y ie ld s a b e tte r 1.85
b lo w -u p to 70m m , the difference is slight, a n d o n ly n o tice­
able in a d irect A /B or side-by-side co m p ariso n . O th erw ise
it is in d istin g u ish ab le. If, h o w e v e r, a scene is a lre a d y co m ­
m itted to a n optical ste p (i.e., a v isu al effects sh o t), S u p er
1.85 m a y p ro v id e a n im p ro v e m e n t in n e g a tiv e a re a th a t
re su lts in a b e tte r im ag e q u a lity w h e n c o m p a re d w ith a
sta n d a rd 1.85 im ag e g o in g th ro u g h th e sa m e optical p ro ­
cess.
A n o th er m e th o d o f p h o to g ra p h y for S u p e r 35 is re ­
fe rre d to as common topline (see Illu s tra tio n 8). Common
topline d erives its n a m e fro m th e g ro u n d g lass of th e cam ­
era h av in g m u ltip le fo rm a ts scrib ed o n it, all h a v in g th e
sam e, or com m on, topline. T his v a rian t o f S u p er 35 is b ased
on the n o tio n th a t it co u ld b e a generic film form at; th e film ­
m a k er m a y sh o o t a m o v ie w ith th e o p tio n of releasin g it in
an y aspect ratio desired . T he common topline is su p p o se d to
lessen th e effect of c h a n g in g asp ect ratio s b y m a in ta in in g
the h e a d ro o m a n d ra isin g o r lo w e rin g th e b o tto m of th e
fram e. In actual practice, m o st cin em ato g rap h ers fin d it d is­
agreeable to com pose for m u ltip le form ats. A lso, th e change
in com p o sitio n from 2.35 to 1.85 o r telev isio n 's 1.33 can b e
quite objectionable (close-ups beco m e m e d iu m sh o ts, etc.).

C a m e ra
A perture

1.33:1 A rea
for Video

1.66:1 P rojected A rea

1.65:1 A rea

2.2:1 A rea (70m m A specl Ratio)

2.35:1 A rea

Illustration 8 - Super 35/Super Techniscope Common Topline

E xperience h a s sh o w n , m o st film m ak ers ag ree, th at

ju st m o d ify in g a film 's a sp ect ratio to fit w ith in the v id e o
realm is a creative process. To assu m e th a t a generic for­
m a t w ill au to m atically d e liv e r p le a sin g c o m p o sitio n s n o
22
m atter w h at aspect ratio you choose does n ot hold u p cre­
atively.
The rest of this discussion will only deal w ith Super
35 com posed for a 2.35:1 aspect ratio. Illustration 9 portrays
how Super 35 com posed for 2.35:1 w ould app ear in the
viewfinder.

A. A dvantages of Super 35 C om posed for 2.35 Aspect

Ratio
1. The m ain rea so n for choosing this fo rm at is its
g reatly increased d e p th of field over anam o rp h ic 2.35.
W here anam orphic lenses have to rack focus to keep near
an d distant objects sharp, Super 35 has a greater potential
for keeping both objects in focus sim ultaneously.
H ow ever, as stated in the advantages of 1.85, the po­
tential for greater dep th of field can be negated if cinem a­
tographers choose to use such small am ounts of light that
they m u st shoot w ith lenses "w ide open," resulting in a
sm all gain in d ep th of field.
2. A n often-stated advantage is the production savings
in the lens/cam era package over anam orphic. This is er­
roneous, since the expense of optical Super 35 d u p e nega­
tives (needed for release prints) negate any cost savings in
production.

Illustration 9 - Super 35 Aspect Ratio 2.35:1

3. The ability to shoot a film com posed for 2.35 and, if

necessary, change directions and release in 1.85 by increas­
ing the top and bottom of the frame. For m ost filmmakers,
how ever, this w ould be a serious com prom ise of the origi­
nal com position (see Illustration 7).
4. Lenses are m uch sm aller than anam orphic, result­
ing in a sm aller, m ore lightw eight and portable cam era
package. This smaller size allows the camera to fit in smaller
places than the large anam orphic optics allow (this is one

23
of the reasons the form at w as chosen for Top Gun; the cam ­
eras w ere able to fit in the aircraft cockpits).
5. O ften claim ed to be m ore com patible w ith 70mm
than anam orphic. Some have this im pression because Su­
per 35 is a straight blow-up to 70mm, w hile anam orphic has
to be unsqueezed w hen enlarged to 70mm.
This w ould be true if Super 35 had an equivalent nega­
tive area to anam orphic. As it stands, anam orphic's greater
negative area m akes up for any possible loss of resolution
w hen unsqueezed to 70mm. As a result, 70mm prints from
Super 35 appear significantly grainier than those from an­
am orphic negatives.
6. Claim ed to be a sim pler video transfer by just d o ­
ing a 4-perf frame extraction, resulting in dram atic increase
in top and bottom areas over the original 2.35 com position
(See Illustration 7). In practice this never w orks, since a full
frame extraction is such a distortion of the original com po­
sition (for example, close-ups becom e m edium shots). A
panned and scanned video transfer is w h at ends up being
done for the bulk of the film w ith a few full-fram ed extrac­
tions w here appropriate (Ferris Bueller's Day O ff is an ex­
ample).

B. D isa d v an ta g es of S u p er 35 C o m p o sed fo r 2.35

A spect Ratio
1. Most notable is the small negative area. Anam orphic
2.35 has an increase in negative area of m ore than 60%. It
also has slightly less negative area than standard 1.85 p h o ­
tography. The difference in negative area becom es m ost
p ronounced after 35m m d u p e negatives are m ade. A n­
am orphic dupe negs are m ade w ith contact printing, w hich
in itself tends to lessen the appearance of grain. Super 35
d upe negs involve an optical step during w hich the image
is blow n up, then squeezed to produce an anam orphic im ­
age for release prints. Because of this optical step, grain in
the negative tends to be m ore sharply resolved, m aking it
m ore objectionable.
2. For best quality, all dissolves and fades m ust be done
w ith A & B printing in the laboratories. W hen these effects
are do n e by an optical h o u se they becom e excessively
grainy in release prints.
3. Because of the optical step involved, com posite
prints cannot be struck until after dupe negatives have been
made.

24
Illustration 10 - Super 35 Aspect Ratio 2.35:1. Above Left: The scene as
it appears on the negative, positioned within the FULL aperture frame.
Above Right: The scene as it appears on a print for projection, after being
blown up & "squeezed" to m ake room for the optical soundtrack.

4. A gain, because of the optical step involved, origi­

nal negative com posite prints cannot be struck. Actually,
it is technically possible, b u t can only be done w ith com ­
plex p ro c e d u re s a n d such a hig h risk of failure th a t it
d oesn't m erit subjecting the original negative to the han ­
dling involved.
5. M ore difficult to preview because of a special p ro ­
jection m ask required for th e Full A pertu re w ork print.
Since Super 35 uses the area reserved for a soundtrack in
the w ork p rin t stage, m any theaters cannot be adapted to
project the format.
6. M ain title opticals m u st be done w ith the "double
IP" m ethod to m aintain quality, doubling the expense of
such opticals.
7. E diting eq uipm ent m u st be ad a p te d to show the
soundtrack area.
8. Because of the sm all negative area, m any cinem a­
tographers lim it choice of negatives to slow er speed stocks
(i.e., 5245, 5248), or overexpose high-speed negatives I-V2
to 2 stops for better grain quality, often negating the advan­
tage of the high-speed negative.
9. V ideo transfers usually involve p anning and scan­
n ing because of the w ide-screen aspect ratio. This is also a
p an and scan of a m uch smaller negative area than anam or-
phic 2.35, resulting in a low er quality video transfer. This
becom es m ost evident in letterbox versions of a film and
particularly on HDTV.
10. There is potential for m ore expensive visual effects,
if a decision is m ade to have coverage beyond the 2.35 com­
position, allow ing for full fram e video transfers. M atte
shots, m iniatures, etc., m ight be com prom ised on full frame
transfers if the im age isn't protected com pletely to 1.33 (see
Illustration 7).

25
 The author ivishes to thank Marti/ Katz for making him zvrite this in the
first place, and Harrison Ellenshazo, Stephen H. Buruni, ASC, Skip Nicholson
and Evans Wet more for their help in bringing greater clarity to the article and
keeping hint honest. Also, thanks to Trici Venola for the use of her computer
graphic of the Taj Mahal.

35mm Blowups to 70mm Prints

Aspect Ratio 2.2:1
The asp ect ratio of 7 0m m p rin ts (a n d 6 5 m m cam era
negative) is 2.2:1. Since 3 5 m m film s are n o t u su a lly p h o to ­
g ra p h e d in this asp ect ratio, th e y m u s t a d a p t their c o m p o ­
sition to fit w ith in this area. In this illu stratio n of a 7 0m m
fram e, the g ra y area rep re se n ts a m ag n etic so u n d track .

Aspect Ratio 1.85:1

W hen 1.85:1 film s are blow n u p to 70m m , the full
height of the 70mm frame is utilized. All 1.85 picture infor­
m ation is m aintained w ith black burned into the unused
area of the frame.

M ost theaters have black screen m asking (black cur­

tains) that they use to cover areas of the screen that d o n 't
have any im age on them. In a 1.85 70mm print, although
the black area does not contain any picture inform ation,
theaters m ust be careful not to close their screen m asking
over the black area on the screen. W ere they to do so, the
m asking m ight cover speakers placed behind the screen
that are utilized for 70mm soundtracks. The only exception

26
to this rule are theaters that have acoustically transparent
m asking (all THX 70mm theaters have transparent m ask­
ing)-

A spect R atio 2.35:1

The im age below has a 2.35:1 aspect ratio.

W hat follows are exam ples of the options, and poten­

tial com prom ises, available to ad a p t a 2.35:1 com position
for 70mm release.
M ost often, film labs will enlarge the 2.35 im age to fill
the entire area of the 70mm frame. A lthough the height of
the 2.35 com position is not affected this w ay (i.e., all N orth-
South picture inform ation rem ains intact), inform ation is
lost on the right and left sides of the com position.
The fram e below graphically illustrates w hat inform a­
tion is lost w hen 2.35:1 is blow n up to fill the entire 70mm
frame.

2.35 to 70m m P rin ts C o n tin u e d

The following illustration show s how the im age actu­
ally appears on the 70mm p rin t an d w hen projected in the
theater after being blow n u p to fill the entire 70mm frame.
The alternative m ethod for blow ing u p 2.35:1 im ages
to 70mm is to m aintain the full w idth of the aspect ratio.
This is accom plished by fitting the 2.35 area w ithin 70mm 's

27
2.2 area and burning black above and below the picture,
effectively giving the film thicker fram e lines. A num ber of
films have been released in this m anner in recent years,
including Superman, The Untouchables, an d Star Trek IV.
In this example, the area that w ould be a thick black
frameline is crosshatched for clarity in this illustration. It
w ould not appear this w ay in an actual 70mm print.

28
 Cameras
65mm
A rriflex 765 - 31
C inem a P roducts CP-65 33
Fries 865 34
M itchell Reflex TODD-AO 36
MSM 8870 37
P anavision A C /S P C 39
P anavision System-65 39
P anavision Panaflex System-65 43

35mm
A aton 35m m 45
A aton 35-11 46
A rriflex 535 47
A rriflex 535B 50
A rriflex 35-3 52
A rriflex 35BL-4s 54
Arriflex 35-3C 56
Arriflex 35-2C 57
C inem a P roducts FX35 59
C inem a P roducts XR35 61
F eathercam CM35 62
IMAGE 300 35m m 63
M itchell N C, NCR, BNC,
BNCR (35mm); FC, BFC (65mm) 64
M itchell S35R (M ark II) 66
M itchell 35m m S tan d ard an d H igh Speed 67
M oviecam S uper 35m m 69
P anavision P latinum Panaflex 70
P anavision GII G olden Panaflex 74
Panavision Panaflex-X 74

29
35mm continued
Panaflex Panastar H igh-Speed 74
Panavision Super R-200° 76
Photo-Sonics4B/4C 79
Photo-Sonics 4ER 79
U ltracam 35mm 80
VistaVision
MSM 8812 81
W ilcam W-7 82
Wilcam W-9 83
Wilcam W -ll 85

16mm
A aton XTRplus 86
Arriflex 16SR-2 88
Arriflex 16SR-3 93
Arriflex 16BL 95
Arriflex 16S/B, 16S/B-GS, 16M /B 97
Bolex 16mm 99
Bell & H ow ell Filmo 70 101
Minicam 16mm (GSAP) 102
Cinem a Products CP-16, CP-16A 102
Cinem a Products CP-16R, 16R /A 104
Cinem a Products GSMO 105
Eclair ACL 107
Eclair CM-3 (16/35m m ) 108
Eclair N PR 109
Mitchell Professional HC, HSC 111
Mitchell Reflex, SSR-16, DSR-16 113
Panavision Panaflex 16mm 114

30
65mm Cameras
Arriflex 765

M ovem ent: The 765 uses advanced m icroprocessor

control technology to link two quartz-controlled DC m o­
tors in a direct drive configuration to control shutter and
film transport. N o belts or m echanical couplings are used
in the drive system. D ual registration pins, triple-pin pull­
d o w n claw s and user-adjustable pitch control assure im­
age quality to optical p rinter standards.
S p eed R ange: Q uartz-accu rate sync at 1 5 /2 4 /2 5 /
29.97/30/60/75 fps on-board; 2-100 fps w ith the CCU; 24
fps reverse; and 1 fps w ith the 765's Rem ote C ontrol Unit.
R un-up tim e is less than 1 second at 24 fps.
S h u tte r Rotating, m icroprocessor-controlled silicon
m irror shutter, mechanically variable from 15° to 165°, plus
144°, 172.8°, a n d 180°.
Reflex V iew finder: The view finder has a built-in op­
tical tu rret that perm its on-the-fly selection of either 80:20
or 100:0 v id eo /v iew in g ratios, and has a sw itchable ND.6
contrast view ing glass, A rriG low illum inated fram e lines,
an d a finder extender w ith built-in 2X im age magnification.
A short finder (for portable operation) and a video finder
are also available. A w ide-angle eyepiece w ith m anual iris
closure, 8X m agnification, and 2± diopter adjustm ent is
standard.
Cam era C ontrol U nit (CCU): The CCU rem otely turns
the 765 on an d off, a n d also activates speed changes, from
up to 100 feet away.

31
 Lens M ount: 64mm diam eter Maxi-PL (Positive Lock)
lens m ount; flange focal distance of 63.5mm; designed for
ARRI Maxi-PL prim e and RTH Cooke zoom , w ide-angle
and telephoto lenses.
D rive: M icroprocessor-controlled 24V DC m otor in
direct-drive configuration to shutter and movement. Power
input via a 3-pin connector: pin 1 is (-), p in 2 is + 24V. O p ­
eratin g te m p e ra tu re ran g e is -4°F to +122°F (-20°C to
+50°C).
O perating N oise Level: 25 dBa at 24 fps; 28.5 dBa at
30 fps.
Indicators: In-finder displays: out-of-sync and film-
end. Digital LCD Tachom eter and Footage Displays: cam ­
era left/right; audible and visible out-of-sync; low battery;
and feet/m eters footage display.
M agazines: 400' (160m) an d 1000' (300m) displace­
m ent w ith m icroprocessor-controlled torque motors. Mi­
croprocessor samples and adjusts feed/take-up tension and
all other functions continuously. A utomatic connection and
data transfer to camera via m ulti-plug p in plug. M echani­
cal and digital LCD counters.
Lenses: A R R I/Z eiss 65m m fo rm at lenses inclu d e
30m m , 40m m , 50m m , 60m m , 80m m , 100m m , 110mm ,
120mm, 150mm, 250mm, 350mm, 2X M utar Extender, and
a 38-210mm zoom. M axim um aperture ranges from T-1.8
to T-4.2 for prim e lenses, and T-6.2 on the zoom.
M atte Boxes: The 765's 6.6x6.6 Swingaway Production
M atte Box covers all 65mm form at lenses. H as tw o fully
rotatable 2-filter stages. G eared filter frames.
Electronic Accessories: 1. V ariable Speed and Sync
U nit (VSSU): The VSSU m o d u le allow s rem o te sp eed
changes betw een 6 and 100 fps non-crystal; provides syn­
chronization w ith external PAL or NTSC video signal (50/
60 Hz) via up to 100' BNC cable. 2. Video O ptics M odule
(VOM): Color and B & W CCD video tap cam eras, w ith
flicker reduction and iris control.
A d d itio n a l A c c e sso rie s: 2-S p eed fo llo w fo cu s;
bridgeplate support system for CG balance an d m ou n t for
m atte box, follow focus, servo zoom d rive, an d heavy
lenses; finder extender and leveling rod; barney and heated
barney; A rri G eared H ead.

32
Cinema Products CP-65

This cam era, designed in conjunction w ith Wilcam, is

intended to m eet the exacting needs of Showscan cinem a­
tography (60 fps) b u t operates at conventional speeds as
w ell. P h o to g ra p h ed a p e rtu re is sta n d a rd 5-perf 65m m
(2.072" x 0.906").
M ovem ent: Com pensating link, w ith dual registration
pins an d four pull-dow n claws. Retractable register pins
33
and 2-axis stroke adjustm ent that perm its tuning the m ove­
m ent for m ost silent operation. Removable aperture and
pressure plates for ease of cleaning.
Shutter: 170° fixed-opening focal plane shutter.
Speed Range: 1-72 fps, forw ard or reverse, by 4-de­
cade digital dial that is crystal accurate at all selected speeds
up to 2 decimal digits. Single-frame operation u nder con­
trol of external intervalom eter also available.
Reflex V iewing System: Rotating m irror reflex image
through ground glass, w ith provision for film clip insertion,
to a 360° erect image orientable viewfinder. Easily attached
eyepiece extender w ith autom atic leveler also available.
Built-in video tap for high-resolution CCD chip camera also
included.
Lens Mount: Q uick-acting bayonet lock for specially
m ounted CP-65 lenses.
Lenses: A complete series of specially m ounted prim e
lenses varying from 24 to 1200mm, as well as high-quality
zoom lenses, are available.
Sound Blimp: The cam era's self-blim ped design p er­
mits sync-sound shooting at 24 fps. At Showscan speed of
60 fps, a lightw eight com posite m aterial sound blim p is
provided to m eet exacting sound level requirem ents of sync
sound filming.
Magazines: 1000-ft. m agazines and 2500-ft. individual
su p p ly an d take-up cassettes are available. M agazine
blimps for both sizes are also available.
Special Features: Cam era can be externally controlled
for phase locking as required by process photography and
3-D filming.

Fries M odel 865 65mm/8-perf.

This is a large-form at 65mm 8-perforation cam era de­
signed to m eet the requirem ents of new form ats for spe­
cial venue productions. Photographed aperture is 2.072" x
1.450"
Movement: D ual registration pins and six pull-dow n
claws. A cam and eccentric m ounted on a single shaft ac­
tuate the pull-dow n and operate the register pins. Rem ov­
able aperture and pressure plates for ease of cleaning.
Shutter: 170° fixed opening blanking shutter.
Speed Range: 2-72 fps forw ard or 2-30 fps reverse. All
speeds crystal controlled.
Reflex V iew ing System: Rotating m irror reflex im ­
age. Viewfinder is orientable through a full 360° and self-
34
corrected through approxim ately 180°. Built-in video tap
for high resolution CCD chip cam era also included.
Lens Mount: Universal bayonet type w ith a large port
diam eter. Special m ounts available u p o n request.
Lenses: A com plete series of H asselblad lenses is
available.
Drive: Internal 30 VDC crystal controled
Magazines: 500ft. and 1000ft. displacem ent magazines
w ith torque m otor take up and hold back.
Special Features: Valve w hich allow s the operator to
direct light to the view ing system, or to the video assist or
com bo w hich splits the light betw een both view ing and
video assist.

35
 W eig h ts: C am era b o d y 45 lbs., 1000 ft. 13 Vi lbs.
A ccessories: S ta n d a rd A rri m a tte box.

Mitchell 65mm Reflex TODD-AO

(FILM TAKES UP EMULSION SIDE OUT)

M ovem ent: D ual registration pins. Four pull-dow n

claws. A djustable pull-dow n stroke. Removable aperture
plate w ith built-in m atte slot. A perture 2.072" x .9055" Speed
range 12 fps-32.
S h u tte r Focal plane 175°.
R eflex V ie w fin d e r: Pellicle b ea m sp litte r (shock
m ounted) view s m ore than full aperture area. H igh m ag­
nification for critical focusing; contrast view ing filters.
External V iew finder: Large erect im age view finder
calibrated for different focal-length lenses. C alibrated for
any tw o aspect ratios. Parallax correcting cam s for all fo­
cal-length lenses.
Lens M ount: Single m ount w ith quick-release flange
T-stop calibration allows for m irror absorption. Accepts all
Todd-A O fixed focal-length and zoom lenses. All lenses
geared for m anual follow-focus control.
Drive: Internal 28V DC m otor, solid-state speed con­
trol.
S peeds: 12, 18, 20, 22, 24, 28, a n d 32 fps. M an u al
threading knob provided. Belt pack batteries. Rectifier unit
36
110V AC-28V DC. C am era w ill also accept extern ally
m ounted m otors for special purposes.
Magazines: 350' lightw eight m agnesium displacement
type; rem aining footage indicator; positive clutch drive
1000' m agazine also available.
Features: Weight: 27 p o u n d s w ith 350' of film. Shoul­
der su p p o rt and han d grip or tripod m ount. D ual gelatin
filter slot in front of film aperture. H eating system . Film
ru n o u t indicator. Remote control.
Accessories: Z oom lenses: 60-150mm, 100-300mm,
an d 65-390mm. U nderw ater blim p w ith internal battery
an d externally controlled film speed, stops and focus; de­
signed for 50' dep th or less. Built-in exposure meter.

MSM M odel 8870 65mm/8-perf.

Movement: MSM Monoblock high-speed, dual-regis-
ter pins, claw engages six perfs. S hrinkage adjustm en t
changes both stroke an d entry position. Indexable loop-
setting sprockets have independent locking keeper rollers.
V acuum backplate assures film plane accuracy, rem oves
w ith o u t tools for cleaning. A pertu re an d m ovem ent re­
m ove easily for cleaning an d lubrication. A perture size
2.072" w ide x 1.485" high. Frame-rates from tim elapse to 60
fps forw ard, also to 30 fps reverse.
S hutter: Focal plane shutter, m anually variable from
172.8° to 55° w ith stops at 144° and 108°.
Viewfinder: Spinning m irror reflex. Interchangeable
g round glasses w ith register pins for film clips. Finder ro­
tates 360° w ith erect image; im age can be m anually rotated
for unusual setups. Finder show s 105% of frame, m agni­
fier allow s critical focusing at center of interest. Single le­
ver controls internal filter and douser. H eated eyepiece has
large exit pupil and long eye relief. H igh resolution B & W
or optional color CCD video tap is built into cam era door
w ith sw ingaw ay 50/50 beam splitter. View finder rem oves
com pletely for aerial or underw ater housing use.
Lens Mount: MSM 75m m diam eter x 80m m flange
depth.
BNC-style lens m ount is vertically adjustable 7m m for
flat or dom e screen com position. M ount accepts m odified
Zeiss (Hasselblad), Pentax, M amiya, and other large-format
lenses. 15mm m atte rods are on ARRIBL centers for acces­
sory compatibility.

37
 M a g a z in e s: 1000' d is p la c e m e n t m a g a z in e s u s e the
M SM TiltLock m o u n t. M ag azines lock to th e cam era w ith
a p a ir of 8 m m h a rd e n e d p in s, a n d can tilt a w a y fro m th e
o p erato r to allow easier cam era thread ing . O p tio n a l m in i­
m u m profile 1000' coaxial m ag azin es u se sam e m o u n t w ith ­
o u t tilt feature. Both m a g azin es o p e rate b id irection ally at
all cam era speeds. A p o sitive cam lock secu res th e m a g in
ru n n in g p o sitio n a n d sw itch es p o w e r to th e m o to r a n d
h eater contacts in the m agfoot. E x p a n d in g core h u b s h av e
integral D C serv o m o to rs co ntro lled b y film ten sio n in b o th
directions, w ith soft s ta rtu p to e lim in ate slack. T ig h tw in d
rollers g u id e film w in d in g for s m o o th so lid ro lls a t a n y
cam era angle. N on-contact ligh t tra p s feature in frared end -
of-film sensors.
F eatures: C rystal sync fro m 5 to 60 fps in .001 incre­
m e n ts. S ta tu s LED s fo r p o w e r, h e a t, lo w b a tte ry , m a g
38
ready, buckle, and speed sync. Tw o illum inated LCD foot­
age counters. Digital battery v o lt/am p meter. Circuit break­
ers for cam era, m ag, heat, an d accessories. C ontrol p ort
allow s operation from handheld rem ote or interface w ith
com puters an d external accessories.

Panavision 65mm AC (Auxiliary Camera)

SPC (Speed Camera)
M ovem ent: AC: C om pensating link, dual registration
pins, four pull-dow n claws. Low noise level.
SPC: D ual registration pins and four pull-dow n claws
ensure sam e degree of steadiness as AC model.
Both M odels: M ovem ent has m atte slot, rem ovable
aperture and pressure plates that can be rem oved for clean­
ing. T im ing m arks p ro v id e d for reassem bly. A p ertu re
2.072" by 9.055".
S peed Range: AC: Stop-m otion to 32 fps.
SPC: 16 fps-72fps.
S hutter: AC: Variable 50°-200°, forw ard or reverse.
SPC: Variable 0°-170°, forw ard or reverse, segm ents
calibrated to 10°.
Focusing: Rack over for critical focusing and lineup.
Erect im age telescope built-in, variable magnification, con­
trast view ing filters, interchangeable ground glasses, slot
for mattes.
V iew finder: Large erect im age nonreflex viewfinder.
C am operated parallax correction.
L enses: Q uick-acting b ay o n e t lock for P anav isio n
lenses. Lenses do n o t rotate.
D riv e : Both ca m e ra s ac cep t all M itchell m o to rs.
P anaspeed m otor has 24 fps crystal sync and m ay be v ar­
ied from 12 fps-32 fps. O perates on a 36V battery. For high
speed, a precisely controlled m otor capable of 12 fps-72 fps
is provided. It operates on tw o 30V batteries.
M a g a z in e s: 500' a n d 1000' d o u b le cham ber. 500'
bipack m agazine available for special effects.

Panavision System-65 65mm

M ovem ent: D ual pilot p in registration ensures pro-
cess-plate im age steadiness. Four pull-dow n claws. Pitch
adjustm ent to optimize camera quietness. Entire m ovem ent
m ay be rem oved for servicing.
A perture plate: Removable for checking and cleaning.

39
 Shutter: Focal plane shutter w ith infinitely variable
opening and adjustable in-shot. M axim um opening: 180°;
minim um : 40° w ith adjustable m axim um and m inim um
opening stops. A digital display allows adjustm ents in '/io°
increments. Micrometer adjustm ent allows critical synchro­
nization w ith com puters, TV m onitors and HM I lighting
at unusual frame-rates. M anual and electronic remote-con-
trol units available.
Reflex system : Reflex rotating m irror is standard and
is independent of the light shutter system.
O ptical view finder system : H igh magnification opti­
cal system. The view finder tube is orientable and gives a

40
constantly u p right im age through 360°. Short, Interm edi­
ate and Long view finder tubes are available. System incor­
porates an optical m agnifier for critical focusing an d pic­
ture com position, a contrast viewing filter and a light-proof
shutter. W ide-range ocular adjustm ent w ith m arker bezel
to note individual settings. A built-in "Panaclear" eyepiece
heater ensures mist-free viewing. A djustable eyepiece lev­
eling link-arm is supplied w ith every Panahead to keep the
eyepiece position constant w hile tilting. A n eyepiece d i­
opter to suit the operator's ow n eyesight can be provided
on request.
G ro u n d G lasses: Interch an g eab le g ro u n d glasses
available w ith any m arking, or com bination of m arkings.
"P anaglow " illum inated reticle system w ith brigh tn ess
control is standard. G round glasses w ith finer or coarser
texture available on request. Provision for a cut fram e to be
placed in the view finder system for optical fram e align­
ment.
Lens M o u n tin g System : Panavision positive clam p
lens m o u n t for m aintaining critical flange focal d ep th set­
ting. All lenses are p inned to ensure p roper rotational ori­
entation.
Lenses: A w ide range of color-m atched lenses, rang­
ing from a distortion-free 24m m to 400mm. M ost are T-2
or T-2.8. Also available are a 60-360mm T-6.3 zoom and 35
an d 45m m pivoting lenses for slant focusing. In addition,
m any of the m id-range Prim o and Zeiss lenses, and the long
focal length C anon an d N ikon lenses, can be used w ith a
special adaptor. All lenses checked an d calibrated by MTF.
All lenses have w idely spaced lens focus calibrations an d
low im age veiling glare. Lenses are supplied w ith adequate
length iris rods for m atte box and filter support. Focus con­
trol can be used from either side. Zoom s are supplied w ith
an d electronic zoom control u n it as standard.
M atte Boxes: A standard m atte box incorporating a
sunshade, provision for two 4 x 5.650" filters w hich can be
individually slid u p and dow n. Special m atte boxes incor­
porating m ore filter stages, w ith provision for sliding (mo­
torized if required), rotating a n d /o r tilting an d for taking
6.6" square filters are optional. Panavision can also supply
special sliding diffusers, diopters and all m anner of im age
control filters, etc., to use in their m atte boxes.

41
 Camera M otor A 24-volt m otor runs the camera at any
speed from 4-30 fps. Cam era speed is crystal-controlled at
all frame rates and m ay be adjusted at 1 fps increments.
Special sync boxes are available to synchronize the cam era
w ith a m ains pow er supply, com puters, video signals, or
process projectors in shutter phase synchronization. Inter­
nal heaters ensure that cam eras m ay be used at sub-zero
tem peratures w ithout special preparation.
DBA Rating: Less than 25db w ith film and lens, m ea­
sured 3 feet from im age plane.
Magazines: 1000' and 500’ m agazines are available.
Both can be used on the top of the cam era for m inim um
camera length or at the rear for m inim um cam era height.
Optical accessories: A lm ost all Panaflex 35mm front-
of-lens optical accessories and filters, etc., can be used on
the System-65 cameras.
Batteries: Camera, magazines, heaters and accessories
all operate off a single 24V N i-Cad battery.
Camera support equipm ent: "S u p e r P a n a h e a d "
geared head incorporates a 60° tilt range w ith a built-in
w edge system to allow the operator to select w here that
range is, anyw here betw een the cam era pointing directly
up or directly dow n, and three gear ratios in both the pan
and tilt m ovements. A sliding base unit enables a cam era
to be quickly attached and detached and to be slid back­
w ards and forw ards on the head for o p tim u m balance.
"Panapod" tripods, w ith carbon fiber legs, are available in
a range of sizes.
V ideo A ssist Systems: S tate-of-the-art CCD video
systems are available in B & W or color.
Environmental protection equipment: All System-65
cameras and m agazines have built-in heaters for operation
in any tem perature. H eated covers are available to give
additional protection to lenses, especially zoom lenses.
O ther covers are available to protect the camera, m agazines
and lenses. Spinning-glass rain deflectors are available for
use in storm conditions. A n autobase is available to secure
the camera in conditions of vibration, high "g" forces and
other stressful and dangerous conditions. A water-box is
available to protect the camera in shallow w ater conditions;
a hazard box protects the camera from explosions, collisions
and other dangerous situations.

42
Panavision Panaflex System-65 Hand-
holdable
Movement: D ual pilot pin registration ensures pro-
cess-plate im age steadiness. Pilot pins register in the same
perforation holes (im m ediately below the bottom frame
line) as optical p rin ters. F our p u ll-d o w n claw s. E ntire
m ovem ent m ay be rem oved for servicing.
Aperture plate: Removable for checking and cleaning.
S hutter: 170° Fixed-opening focal plane shutter.
Reflex System: Two m odels are available — one has
a rotating m irror, the other a sem i-silvered fixed reflex
m irror for flicker-free viewing, w hich is especially suitable
for Panaglide, Steadicam, Louma and rem ote cam era op­
eration.
Optical viewfinder system: H igh m agnification opti­
cal system. The view finder tube is orientatable and gives a
constantly u p rig h t im age th ro u g h 360°; short an d long
view finder tubes are available for h an d h e ld and tripod
usage. System incorporates an optical m agnifier for criti­
cal focusing and picture com position, a contrast viewing
filter and a light-proof shutter. W ide-range ocular adjust­
m ent w ith m arker bezel to note individual settings. A built-
in "Panaclear" eyepiece heater ensures mist-free viewing.
Adjustable leveler link arm supplied w ith every Panahead
to keep eyepiece position constant w hile tilting the camera
up or dow n. An eyepiece diopter to suit the operator's own
eyesight can be p rovided on request.
G round G lasses: In terchangeable g ro u n d glasses
available w ith any m arking, or com bination of markings.
"P anaglow " illum inated reticle system w ith brightness
control is standard. G round glasses w ith finer or coarser
texture available on request.
Lens M ounting System: Panavision positive clam p
lens m o u n t for m aintaining critical flange focal d ep th set­
ting. All lenses are p inned to ensure p roper rotational ori­
entation.
Lenses: Lenses are interchangeable w ith the System-
65 Studio Camera.
Lens Control: Focus control w hich can be used from
either side of the camera. Zoom lenses are supplied w ith
an electronic zoom control unit as standard.
Matte Boxes: A stan d ard m atte box incorporating a
sunshade, provision for tw o 4 x 5.650" filters w hich can be
individually slid u p and dow n. Special m atte boxes incor-

43
(Note: The extension u n it is used o n ly fo r to p-m aga zine configuration.)

porating m ore filter stages, w ith provision for sliding (mo­

torized if required), rotating a n d /o r tilting and for taking
6.6” square filters are optional. Panavision can also supply
special sliding diffusers, diopters an d all m anner of im age
control filters, etc., to use in their m atte boxes.
Cam era m o to r A 24-volt m otor is used to run the cam ­
era at any speed from 4-72 fps. The m otor is crystal con­
trolled at all speeds and m ay be adjusted in 1 fps incre­
ments. Special sync boxes are available to synchronize the
camera w ith a m ain pow er supply, w ith com puters, w ith
video signals and w ith process projectors in shutter phase
synchronization. Internal heaters ensure that the cam eras
m ay be u sed at sub-zero te m p eratu res w ith o u t special
preparation.
M agazines: 1000' an d 500' m agazines are available.
1000' reverse running m agazines available on request.
M agazine loading: Same as Panavision PSR 200° cam ­
era.
O ptical accessories: Interchangeable w ith System-65
Studio camera.
Batteries: The cam era, heaters and accessories all op­
erate off a single 24V Ni-Cad battery. Belt batteries are avail­
able for hand-holding.
Cam era su p p o rt equipm ent: L ightw eight System-65
H and-holdable cam eras are ideal for use w ith Panaglide
and Steadicam floating cam era rigs and on rem otely con­

44
tro lle d ca m e ra cranes. T hey can also be u se d w ith a
"Panatate" 360° turn-over rig.
V ideo A ssist System s: State-of-the-art, CCD video
systems are available in B & W or color. Flicker-free images
are possible w ith the pellicle reflex system.
E nvironm ental protection equipm ent: Same as Sys­
tem-65 above.

35mm Cameras
Aaton 35mm Handholdable
This extrem ely com pact cam era —7 kg (15.4 lbs.) w ith
120 m eters (400 feet) of film — is designed for hand h eld
sm all-cam era situations w here traditional 35mm cameras
w ould be too bulky or aw kw ard. The film channel is ad ­
justable: Academ y, 1.85:1, or Techniscope.
M ovem ent: The m ovem ent of the A aton 35 is a linear
stroke, w ith the in /o u t m ovem ent controlled by a cam co­
axial w ith the claw shaft (U.S. patent no. 3806016). The se­
curity p rovided by the claw 's linear pull-dow n, followed
by non-shifting w ith d raw al from the perforation at the
dead point, m akes a registration pin system unnecessary
— the claw tip itself ensures this function. The vertical
steadiness of this pull-dow n m ovem ent is enhanced by the
perfect lateral film positioning ensured by a spring-loaded
side pressure guide.
S h u tte r Reflex m irror shutter, single blade, 180° open­
ing.
Focusing: Through-the-lens view ing and focusing, 6X
magnification. A uto erect image. Swiveling view finder for
perfect eye-to-shoulder distance adjustm ent.
Lenses: Panavision, A rri PL or A aton m ounted lenses
can be installed. The A aton m ount, because it has the short­
est flange focal distance of the industry, can receive almost
all the best still-photography lenses, like the Leica R, Nikon
an d Canon-AF.
M otors: A sm all direct-drive brushless m otor (1500
rpm ) runs the m echanism . A utom atic stop in view ing p o ­
sition. A second m otor in the cam era body drives the m aga­
zine through an independent m agnetic clutch. The A aton
battery (12V, 1.8 Ah) fits directly onto the cam era body.
M agazine: 400' displacem ent-type m agazine is p re ­
threaded and allow s quick changing. It is autom atically
locked into position w hen placed on the cam era body and
is released by lifting a lever on the m otor side of the cam ­
45
era. The feed and take-up rolls com pensate for each other
in size, while the shaft of each roll shifts position as the film
is exposed. The electronic counter registers in feet and
meters.
V ideo A ssist: A sm all hig h-resolu tion CCD video
camera attached to the side of the cam era only bleeds off
30% of the light from the viewfinder.

Aaton 35-11
M ovem ent: Linear-stroke single claw; self registering
(U.S. patent no. 3806016). The vertical steadiness of this
m ovem ent is enhanced by the perfect lateral film position­
ing ensured by a spring-loaded side pressure guide. Hair-
free gate has air circulation channel to keep hair out.
Shutter: True 180-degree front surface m irror facili­
tates 60Hz HMI and video m onitor roll-bar elimination.
Stops in viewing position. M ay be inched for aperture in­
spection.
V iew finder: Reflex from shutter, 6X magnification,
auto erect image, interchangeable ground glass. Swiveling
viewfinder for perfect eye-to-shoulder distance adjustment.
Lens M o u n t: P anavision, A rri PL or N ik o n in ter­
changeable m ounts. 35mm to Super 35 form at conversion
in five m inutes in the field.
Drive: Brushless crystal sync 12V m otor for 24,25, and
29.97 or 30 fps. Variable control 6 to 54 fps. M axim um speed
with external control is 32 fps. Circuit board and m otor m ay
be rem oved and replaced in tw o minutes. Slim battery (12V
1.8Ah) fits directly onto the camera body. A second m otor
in the camera body drives the m agazine through an inde­
pendent magnetic clutch.
M agazines: 122m (400') pre-threaded displacem ent-
type m agazine for instant changing. The feed and take-up
rolls com pensate for each other in size, w hile the shaft of
each roll shifts position as the film is exposed. The electronic
counter transm its feet or meters to the cam era body.
Features: D igital control display: footage, voltage,
speed, ISO, m agazine footage, low battery and out-of-sync
warnings. The key-code com patible, A atonC ode time re­
cording system prints large and rugged time matrixes on
the edge of the film, ensuring perfect sync w ith SMPTE time
of audio recorders. 1 p p m TCXO internal clock, initialized
w ith RS232 or SMPTE signals. N egatives from the A aton
35-11 are fully mixable w ith Panavision, Moviecam and Arri
BL A atonC ode-equipped cameras.
46
 A ccessories: Lightw eight w ide-form at sw ing-aw ay
matte-box; tw o 4 x 5.6 and one 138mm rotating stages. Also
accom m odates Panavision mattes. Lightw eight and zero-
back lash follow -focus system . CC D v id e o assist w ith
m anual iris control delivers extremely sharp images.

Arriflex 535

The Arriflex 535 is a com pletely integrated cam era

system. Its microprocessor control technology perm its shut­
ter angle an d speed changes while running — at the cam­
era or remotely.
M ovem ent: M ulti-link film transp ort w ith dual-pin
registration conforming to optical printer standards, and
dual pull-dow n claws. Easily rem oved for changing to a 3-
perforation pull-dow n. Adjustable pitch control. Universal
aperture plate has both interchangeable form at masks and
a behind-the-lens gel filter holder. G round glasses and fi­
47
ber-optic focus screens for all aspect ratios available.
S hutter: M icroprocessor-controlled variable m irror
shutter. C ontinuously adjustable from 11° to 180° w hile
running, in .01° increments, at any camera speed. Exposure
is '/is of a second at 24 fps w ith a 180° shutter. The 535's
pro g ram also perm its sim u ltaneous fram e r a te /s h u tte r
angle effects, such as p ro g ram m ed speed changes w ith
precise exposure compensation.
V ie w fin d e r Swingover Viewfinder fully operational
from either camera left or cam era right. Permits om ni-di­
rectional reflex view ing w ith constant im age correction
side-to-side and upright. Program m able ArriGlow for low-
light filming. N ine pre-program m ed illum inated formats,
an optional custom ized form at m odule an d fiber-optic fo­
cus screens. Switchable ND.3 an d ND.6 contrast viewing
glasses, a variety of in-finder inform ation LEDs, and a 12"-
15" variable finder.
Lens M ount: PL (Positive Lock) lens m ount, 54mm
diameter, w ith relocatable optical center for easy conver­
sion to the Super 35 format. Flange focal distance is 52mm,
and im age sharpness is guaranteed d u e to the rigid m e­
chanical connection between lens m oun t and film plane.
Both Super Speed an d S tandard lenses w ith PL m ounts
may be used. PL zoom and telephoto lenses should be used
w ith a bridgeplate system.
L en ses: T he 535 u tiliz es th e full ra n g e of: Z eiss
Superspeed — 18mm, 25mm, 35mm, 50mm, 65mm, and
85mm T-1.3s; Zeiss S tan d ard — 10mm, 12mm, 14mm,
16mm, 20mm, 24mm, 28mm, 32mm, 40mm, 50mm, 85mm,
100mm, 135mm T-2.1s; and 60mm, 180mm, and 300mm T-
3.0s; Arri A nam orphic — 32mm, 40mm, 50mm and 75mm
T-2.3s, an d 100mm an d 135mm T-3.0s; A rri M acro —
16mm, 24mm, 32mm, and 40mm T-2.1s; 50mm and 100mm
T-3.0s and 200mm T-4.3. RTH Cooke and Angenieux zoom
lenses.
M o to r Microprocessor-controlled 24 V DC m otor that
operates w ith quartz accuracy at 24 /25 /29.97/30 fps on­
board, and at 3-50 fps w ith the Cam era Control Unit (CCU),
Remote Unit (RU), or the Variable Speed Unit (VSU). It also
operates at 24/25 fps reverse w ith the CCU, an d at 1 fps
crystal accurate w ith its phase button. 50/60 H z is standard.
External Sync U nit (ESU) is designed for m ulti-cam era,
video, or projector interlock. Pow er inp ut is through a 3-
pin connector: Pin 1 is (-), and Pin 2 is +24V. O perating tem ­
perature range is -4°F to +122°F (-20°C to + 50°C).
48
 M agazines: 400' and 1000' coaxial, each w ith two mi-
croprocessor-controlled torq ue m otors. M icroprocessor
sam ples an d adjusts fee d /ta k e -u p tension an d all other
fu n ctio n s c o n tin u o u sly . M echanical a n d d ig ital LCD
counters are built-in.
M atte Boxes: The 535 utilizes a 19mm diam eter rod
Cam era Support System. The Support System includes a
full range of m atte boxes, bridgeplate, 2-speed follow fo­
cus, and lens supports. 15mm rod adapters are available
u p o n request.
1.6.6 x 6.6 Production M atte Box: covers lenses 12mm
and up, as well as m ost presently used zooms. Interchange­
able two, four, or six filter stages, rotatable 360 degrees,
sw ing-aw ay for changing lenses. G eared filter frames.
2. 5 x 6 P rodu ction M atte Box: covers fixed lenses
14mm on up, as well as m ost presently used zooms. Two
filter stages, sw ing-aw ay for changing lenses. G eared fil­
ter frame.
3.4 x 4 Production Matte Box: covers lenses 16mm and
up. Two and four filter stages, rotatable 360 degrees, swing-
aw ay for changing lenses. G eared filter frames.
4.4 x 4 M atte Box: (for use w ith 35-3 an d 16SR systems
only) covers lenses 16mm an d up. Two filter stages, m ounts
on Arri lightw eight support.
5. 4 x 4 Lightw eight M atte Box: m ounts directly to the
front of any 80mm front diam eter lens. Two filter stage with
rem ovable rubber lens shade.
Indicators: In-finder Displays: LEDs in the viewfinder
allow the operator to m onitor various cam era functions,
battery status, and program m able film-end w arning. Digi­
tal LCD Tachom eter an d Footage Displays: cam era le ft/
right; audible and visible out-of-sync w arning; visible film
jam; film-end; error codes; im proper m ovem ent position;
im proper m agazine m ounting; and disengaged rear film
guide indicators.
E lectronic A ccessories: V ariable Speed U nit (VSU)
m odu le m ounts directly to the 535, an d perm its cam era
speed changes betw een 3 an d 50 fps, non-crystal. Shutter
Control U nit (SCU): m ou nts directly to the cam era and
perm its cam era shutter angle changes betw een 11° and
180°. Remote Unit (RU): operational rem otely from up to
60', p ro v id e s an V S U /S C U (variable s h u tte r /v a r ia b le
speed) com bination. The RU links the SCU an d VSU to
perm it m anual adjustm ent of the frame rate while the 535's
microprocessor varies the shutter angle — all to ensure a
49
constant depth-of-field and exposure. Video Optics M od­
ule (VOM): provides flicker reduction and iris control. With
Selectable Beam Splitter, facilitates video view ing u nd er
difficult conditions. SMPTE Time Code M odule plugs in to
utilize on-board time code generator, and provides full
SMPTE 80-bit time code capability. Electronic Sync Unit
(ESU): The ESU, operational remotely from u p to 60', pro ­
vides synchronization with an external PAL or NTSC video
signal (50/60 Hz), another camera or a projector, or com­
puter or video m onitor via a m onitor pick-up. It also con­
tains a phase shifter, pilotone generator, and selectable di­
vision ratio betw een an external source and the cam era's
fram e rate. C am era C ontrol U nit (CCU): provides inte­
grated control over all electronic functions.
Accessories: 2-Speed follow focus w ith 1:1 or 1:.06
ratios; b ridgeplate su p p o rt system for CG balance and
m ount for m atte box, follow focus, servo zoom drive, and
heavy lenses; hand-held rig for shoulder operation of the
cam era; finder ex ten d er an d leveling rod; b arn e y an d
heated barney; A rri G eared H ead; an d director's view ­
finder w ith PL m ount.

Arriflex 535B

The Arriflex 535B is the lightw eight version of the 535,

designed for h and held and Steadicam cinem atography.
(Refer to the Arriflex 535 section for full 535 specs.)
Movement: The 535B has the sam e m ulti-link film
transport, w ith dual-pin registration that conforms to op­
tical printer standards, and dual-pin pull-dow n claws as the
535. It has an adjustable pitch control. The 535B operates
at crystal-accurate speeds from 3 to 60 fps.

50
 S hutter: The 535B has a m anually adjustable m irror
shutter, variable from 11° to 180° in 15° steps, and 144° and
172.8°.
Lens M ount: The A rri 54m m PL lens m ount, w ith a
relocatable optical center for easy conversion to Super 35.
Flange focal distance is 51.98 - 0.01mm.
Lenses: Same as 535.
Motor: The 535B has a microprocessor-controlled 24V
DC m otor that operates from 3-60 fps, variable in 0.001 in­
crements at crystal accuracy. It features on-board program ­
mable speeds of 24,25,29.97 and 30 fps, and variable crys­
tal speeds from 3-60 fps. Speeds are continuously variable
w hen the Remote Unit (RU-1) is used. Speeds can be pro­
gram m ed from the on-board LCD, w ith the Remote Unit
(RU-1), and w ith the Cam era Control Unit (CCU), A rri's
standard off-camera program m ing unit. The 535B's pow er
input is through a 3-pin connector: Pin 1 is (-), and Pin 2 is
+24V. Operating tem perature range is -4°F to +122°F (-20°C
to +50°C).
V iew finder: The 535B has a lightw eight Swingover
Viewfinder that pivots on two axes, w ith full left or right
side viewing, and a fully upright im age no m atter w here it
is placed. It can be used w ith the new Arri flicker-reduced
CCD black & w hite and color video assists, and be easily
set up for anam orphic use. Adaptable for left- or right-eyed
view ing w ith a built-in telescopic extender, and has quick-
change beam splitters for B & W or color CCD video, and
slide-in m asks for illum inated in-finder form at markings.
The entire finder is easily rem oved w ithout tools, and ac­
cepts a 100% video m odule for Steadicam use.
M agazines: Standard 535 400' and 1000' coaxial m aga­
zines.
Electronic Features: At the LCD, the user can pre-set
cam era sp e ed an d tim e code inform ation, an d disp lay
frame rate, film stock, battery voltage, and time code and
user bits. The CCU (Camera Control Unit) can be used to
set an d ru n these 535B cam era functions. A n additional
LCD display can be add ed on cam era right. The LCD also
indicates film jam, film end, im proper m ovem ent position,
m agazine im properly m ounted, and rear film guides dis­
engaged. If the 535B is not ready for operation, its running
control lam p illuminates red. Time Code: The 535B utilizes
the sam e plug-in TC m odule as the 535. It records SMPTE
R P 136 Form C, and has an 80-bit integrated TC generator.
TC crystal accuracy is p lu s/m in u s lp p m (0-50 degrees C).
51
 Electronic Accessories: VSU, RU, and time code m od­
ule (see 535); Video Optics M odule (VOM) —Video m oni­
toring is an integral p art of the 535B's design. The 535B can
accom m odate both B & W an d color CCD cameras, and
attached to the VOM both provide flicker reduction and iris
control.
M atte Boxes: See 535.
A d d iti o n a l a c c e s s o rie s : 2 -S p e e d fo llo w fo cu s;
bridgeplate suppo rt system for CG balance an d m oun t for
m atte box, follow focus, servo zoom drive, an d heavy
lenses; hand-held rig for shoulder operation of the camera;
fin d er ex ten d e r a n d lev eling ro d ; b arn e y a n d h ea te d
barney; A rri G eared H ead and A rri G eared H ead 2; and
director's viewfinder w ith PL mount.

Arriflex 35-3 High Speed MOS

M ovem ent: O ne registration p in and dual-pin pull­
dow n claw. Film channel incorporates a pressure p a d at the
back of aperture area. A perture plates and ground glasses
for all aspect ratios are interchangeable.
S h u tte r Rotating, front surface coated m irror shutter
system, w ith variable shutter: 180°, 172.8°, 144°, an d 135°.
Variable shutter from 15° to 135° in 15° increments is avail­
able for earlier cameras, and is standard on 35-3 130 fps
models. The 15° to 180° shutter is constructed of lightweight
silicon crystal. Exposure is ’/48th of a second at 24 fps w ith
180° shutter.
Reflex V ie w fin d e r Four interchangeable doors w ith
v ie w fin d e rs are available: S ta n d a rd d o o r w ith fixed
viewfinder and m ou nt for video tap; offset finder door for
use w ith 400’ coaxial shoulder magazine; pivoting finder
door, pivots 210°; new pivoting finder door w ith optical
adapter to attach video camera. All have adjustable Super
Wide Angle eyepiece w ith m anual iris closure. Finder ex­
tenders available are 9" standard, 9" anam orphic, and 12.2"
standard w ith ND.6 contrast view ing glass.
Lens M ounts: 54mm diam eter PL m ount. Flange fo­
cal distance is 52mm. Super Speed an d S tandard lenses
w ith PL m ount, those w ith Arri Bayonet (41mm diameter),
and Arri Standard lens m ounts w ith PL adapter m ay be
used. PL and non-PL zoom and telephoto lenses should be
used w ith Bridgeplate Support System.
M o to r D rive: 12/24V DC m otor, w ith quartz-con-
trolled sync at 2 4 /2 5 /3 0 fps, 50/60 Hz. A n on-board vari­
able speed dial m ay be used to adjust cam era speed from
52
4 to 50 fps at 12V DC. The cam era is continuously variable
from 4 to 100 fps (130 fps on the 35-3130 fps camera) at 24V
DC w ith a Variable Speed Unit. The 5 0 /60Hz EXB-2 Exter­
nal Sync Control m ay be used to interlock the 35-3 w ith a
video source, projector or another camera. A 4-pin pow er

53
connector is located in the rear of the electronics housing.
Pin 1 is (-); Pin 4 is 12V (+). O perating tem perature range
is -13°F to +122°F (-25°C to +50°C).
D isp la y s: A n electro nic ta ch o m e te r a n d foo tage
counter. A n external red LED located below the counter
indicates w h en a low m em ory battery condition exists. A
red LED to indicate an out-of-sync condition an d a green
LED to indicate variable sp eed m od e are visible in the
viewfinder
M agazines: 200', 400', an d 1000' displacem ent mags;
400' lo w p r o f il e , c o a x ia l s h o u l d e r m a g a z in e fo r
handholding.
Lenses: Full range of Zeiss Superspeed, Zeiss stan­
d a rd , A rri A n am o rp h ic, A rri M acro, RTH C ooke an d
Angenieux zoom lenses. See Arriflex 535 Lenses section for
details.

Arriflex 35BL-4s

M ov em en t: 35BL-1 th ro u g h BL-4 cam eras feature

dual-pin registration and du al pull-dow n claws that ad ­
vance the film through a fixed-gap film channel. The 35BL-
4s has a technologically advanced m ovem ent that includes
an adjustable pitch control. A perture plates an d ground
glasses for all aspect ratios are interchangeable betw een all
35BL models.

54
 S h u tte r Rotating, front surface coated m irror shutter
system, w ith variable shutter: 180°, 172.8°, 144°. Exposure
is Vis of a second at 24 fps w ith 180° shutter. 35BL-1 and
35BL-2 cam eras have 180° fixed shutter.
Reflex V iew finder: 35BL-4s and BL-4 viewfinders are
a full stop faster and brighter than earlier 35BL cameras,
and feature a larger exit pupil, ArriGlow illuminated frame
lines, and a high aperture 12.5" finder extender w ith swing-
in contrast viewing filter and variable magnification u p to
2X. The finder rotates 90° above, an d 90° below level w ith
the image always upright. A n adjustable Super W ide Angle
eyepiece w ith m anual iris closure and 6.5X magnification
is standard on 35BL-4s and BL-4 cameras. A n adjustable
eyecup allows the operator to select the optim um eye-to-
exit pupil distance. Finder extenders available for the 35BL-
4s and 35BL-4 include a 12.5" standard w ith switchable con­
trast view ing filter, and for the 35BL-3,35BL-2, and 35BL-
1, a 9" standard, and 9" Anamorphic.
Lens M ount: 54mm diam eter PL m ount, switchable
to Super 35 format. Flange focal distance is 52mm. Super
Speed an d Standard lenses w ith PL m ount, those w ith Arri
Bayonet (41mm diameter), and Arri Standard lens m ounts
w ith PL adapter m ay be used. Both PL an d non-PL zoom
an d telephoto lenses should be used w ith a bridgeplate
system. Early 35BL cameras have Arri bayonet mount. BNC
m oun t available for 35BL-3 only. 35BL-2 and BL-1 cameras
require lens blim ps for silent operation.
M otor D rive: 12V DC m otor w ith quartz-controlled
sync at 2 4 /2 5 /3 0 fps, 50 or 60 H z for all 35BL models. A
V ariable S peed C o n tro l accessory ex ten d s th e reco m ­
m ended speed range from 5 to 40 fps on the 35BL-4s, 35BL-
4, 35BL-3, an d 5 to 50 fps on the 35BL-2. The 35BL-1 will
operate u p to 100 fps w ith the HSU-100 speed control, spe­
cially m odified m agazines, and tw o 14.4V batteries. Multi-
camera interlock is achieved w ith the EXS-2 5 0/60H z Ex­
ternal Sync Unit. Pow er in p u t through a 4-pin connector.
Pin 1 is (-); Pin 4 is +12V. O perating tem perature range is -
4°F to +122°F (-20°C to + 50°C).
Indicators: A n LED electronic tachometer and footage
indicator an d an audible out-of-sync w arning are built-in.
A red LED near the footage counter indicates low footage,
mem ory, battery.
M agazines: 400' an d 1000' coaxial. The 35BL can be
h a n d h e ld w ith e ith e r m a g az in e. M echanical footage

55
counters are integral, and 35BL-4s m agazines have an ad­
justable pitch control.
Lenses: Full range of Zeiss S uperspeed, Zeiss stan­
d a rd , A rri A n am o rp h ic, A rri M acro, RTH C ooke an d
Angenieux zoom lenses. See 535.
Accessories: 2-Speed follow focus; bridgeplate su p ­
port system for CG balance and m ount for m atte box, fol­
low focus, servo zoom drive, a n d h eav y lenses; video
a d a p te r for sim u lta n e o u s op tical a n d v ideo view ing;
SMPTE tim e code; fin d e r e x te n d e r a n d lev elin g rod;
barney and heated barney; Arri G eared H ead; director's
viewfinder w ith PL m ount.

Arriflex 35-3C

M ovem ent: Single pin claw w ith extended dwell-time

to assure accurate film positioning du rin g exposure. Film
gate com ponents are precision finished steel, an d h ard
chrome plated. Full aperture is standard, w ith other formats
available.
Shutter: Rotating reflex mirror shutter system, variable
from 0° to 165°, in 15° increments. Exposure is ’/ 52n d of a
second at 24 fps w ith a 165° shutter.
Reflex Viewfinder: 6.5X Super W ide Angle eyepiece
for increased side-to-side viewing; interchangeable doors
include fixed view finder w ith m o u n t for videotap, 210°
pivoting v iew finder w ith or w ith o u t video, an d offset
viewfinder door for use w ith 400-ft. shoulder magazine.
Lens M ount: 54mm diam eter PL m ount. Flange focal
distance is 52mm. Super Speed and Standard lenses w ith
56
PL m ount, those w ith A m Bayonet (41mm diameter), and
A rri Standard lens m ounts w ith PL adapter, m ay be used.
Both PL an d non-PL zoom an d telephoto lenses should be
used w ith a special 3-C Bridgeplate Support System.
M o to r D rive: F orw ard or reverse ru n n in g 12V DC
h an d g rip m otor w ith quartz-accurate sync at 24/25 fps,
w ith EXB variable speed accessory to adjust speed range
from 5 to 50 fps. M ulti-cam era interlock is achieved w ith
the 5 0 /6 0 H z EXB sync control accessory. P ow er in p u t
through a 4-pin connector. Pin 1 is (-); Pin 4 is 12 V (+).
O perating tem perature range is -13 F to +122 F (-24 C to +50
C ).
M agazines: 200’ forw ard operation only, 400' forward
or reverse; an d 400' m odified 35-3 sho u ld er m agazines
available.
Lenses: Full range of Zeiss Superspeed, Zeiss stan­
d a rd , A rri A n am o rp h ic, A rri M acro, RTH C ooke an d
Angenieux zoom lenses (see Arriflex 535 Lenses Section for
details).
Accessories: Finder extenders including 9" an d 12.2"
non-anam orphic, and 9" anamorphic; leveling rod; 2-speed
follow-focus; special 35-3C bridgeplate su p p o rt system for
CG balance and m o u n t for m atte box, follow focus, servo
zoom drive, an d heavy lenses; video adapter for sim ulta­
neous optical and video viewing; Pilotone generator for 24/
25 fps, 50/60 H z shooting; director's view finder w ith PL
mount.

Arriflex 35-2C
Description: The 35-2C series consists of m ultipurpose
35m m cameras. They are used handheld, and w ith appro­
priate accessories, for alm ost every type of m otion picture
production application.
35-2C/B: Standard 2C featuring the Arri parallax-free
view finder system, a precision film transport system w ith
a m axim um speed of 48 fps, a three-lens m o u n t turret, and
an interchangeable m otor-drive system.
35-2CGS/B: Standard 2C features plus Pilotone output
and startm arking system.
35-2CV/B: Standard 2C features plus variable shutter,
adjustable from 0° to 165°.
35-2CHS/B: High-speed m odel w ith 80 fps m ovem ent
and tachometer. A 32V DC m otor w ith variable speed con­
trol is included w ith the camera.

57
 (FILM TAKES UP EMULSION SIDE IN)

35-2CT/B: S tandard 2C w ith T echniscope gate an d

two-perforation pulldow n film transport system.
Movement: Single-claw w ith extended dw ell-tim e to
assure accurate film positioning d uring exposure. A cad­
em y aperture is standard, w ith other form ats available.
Shutter: Rotating reflex m irror shutter system w ith
180° opening. Exposure is Visth of a second at 24 fps.

58
 Reflex Viewfinder: 6.5X W ide A ngle eyepiece and
parallax-free viewing.
Lens Mount: Three-lens turret w ith tw o Arri Standard
and one A rri Bayonet m ount. All Arri Standard and Bayo­
net lenses th at cover the full 35m m form at can be used.
Zoom an d telephoto lenses should be used w ith a special
2C Bridgeplate Support System.
Motor Drive: 32V DC highspeed han dgrip m otor for
20 to 80 fps operation is standard; other m otors include 16V
DC governor m otor for 24/25 fps operation, 24-28V DC
variable m otor for 20 to 64 fps; 16V DC variable m otor for
8 to 32 fps. O perating tem perature range is -13 F to +122 F
(-24 C to +50 C). Magazines: 200' forw ard operation only,
400' forw ard or reverse.
Lenses: Full range of Zeiss Superspeed, Zeiss stan­
dard, RTH Cooke and Angenieux zoom lenses w ith Bayo­
net or S tandard m ounts. M atte Boxes: Bellows an d light­
w eight versions.
Accessories: Servo zoom drive; camera door (Anamor-
phic available); periscope finder; finder extender; and flat
m otor base to convert cam era to flat-base configuration for
m ounting on flat surface or inside blim p housing.

Cinema Products FX35

Special effects cam era featuring pin-registered steadi­

ness to 120 fps an d co m p uter control interface. C an be
handheld.
Movement: C am -driven dual-pin pull-dow n. D ual­
p in registration in M itchell position. A djustable stroke
length an d entry position. Exit and entry buckle trips. For­
w ard an d reverse operation, .980" X .735" standard aper­
ture w ith provision for hard mattes.
Shutter Butterfly reflex w ith focal plane cup. A djust­
able 180°/172.8o/1 4 4 °/9 0 o/4 5 o/0°. Stops in viewing posi­
tion. Internal phasing control to sync w ith TV equipm ent.

59
 Reflex V iew finder: Erect, b rig ht im age, orientable.
Fine-grain interchangeable viewing screens. Precision reg­
ister pins for m atte alignment. Three view ing filters. 360°
adjustable eye piece; extender available. O ptional video
assist.
Lens M ount: BNCR standard, PL optional; anam or-
phic locating pin. O ptional ad apter for A rri stand ard or
bayonet-m ounted lenses.
D rive: Self-contained, 12 to 32V DC m otor; synthe­
sized crystal control from 1 to 120 fps in 0.01 fps steps. (Re­
quires 24 to 32V for over 64 fps). O ne fps button for thread­
ing. A udible/visible out-of-sync indicator.
M agazines: FX 35 QUAD (quick acting displacement)
400' (forw ard/reverse), 1000' (forward only). Feature steel
toe, single latch cover, footage indicator, anti-spill brake,
easily cleaned light trap. A dapter for Mitchell magazines.
Features: C an be run from personal com puter. Feed­
back: status information, alarms. Shutter an d digital shaft
coder quadrature and all control functions. Designed to be
as ste a d y as an o p tical p rin te r. D isp lay m o d u le over
viewfinder swivels for operator or assistant; show s speed,
footage, cam era mode, battery voltage, current, an d low
battery alarm. Optional 10-foot extension cable.
Accessories: Matte boxes, filters, lens control systems,
video assist, time code, view finder exposure m eter, com­
puter interface module.

60
Cinema Products XR35
Lightweight Studio Camera

Lightw eight blim ped silent studio camera.

Movement: Standard Mitchell pin-registered com pen­
sating link; Cinem a Products' independent adjustm ent of
stroke length and entry position. Removable aperture plate
w ith built-in m atte slide for various formats. Timing m arks
for reassem bly after cleaning. Inching knob.
Shutter: Focal plane, continuously variable 5° to 180°;
control and lock on rear panel.
Reflex Viewfinder: Rotating mirror, stops in viewing
position. Fine-grain interchangeable screens. Standard or
de-anam orphic optics. High-low magnification relay lens,
two contrast filters, built-in closure. Large eyepiece w ith
diopter adjustm ent and lock.
Lens Mount: BNCR w ith anam orphic locating pin.
Drive: Internal crystal-controlled motor assembly con­
tinuously variable 4 to 32 fps. Fps indicator and control
knob. P ushbutton for sync speed, selector switch for 24 or
25 fps ±15 p p m in 0°-140° F tem perature range. Visible/
audible out-of-sync warning. Circuit breaker, pow er indi­
cator, running indicator lights, 30V battery pack.
Magazines: 1000’ QUAD (quick acting displacement).
L igh tw eight, steel toe p late, velv et rollers, sn ap latch
m ounting, single latch cover. Footage indicator, anti-spill
brake. M agazines are installed on the cam era through a
"clam shell" opening in the blim p housing w hich provides
m axim um access w ithout requiring side or headroom clear­
ance.
Features: Built-in focus control system w ith right and
left side knobs, magnetic calibration discs, brake, auxiliary
drive; m ounted on front housing. Six station filter wheels
accepting standard gelatin filters. Lightw eight sw ingaw ay

61
 (FILM TAKES UP EMULSION SIDE OUT)

m atte box. Illum inated level, lens light and interior thread­
ing lights. LED footage counter in feet or meters. Built-in
carrying handles. Com plete cam era system (less lens an d
film) w eighs 93 pounds.
Accessories: M atte boxes, filters, view finder and ap ­
erture mattes, video assist, time code.

Feathercam CM35
L ightw eight (10 p o u n d s) h a n d h e ld pin -reg istered
camera w ith snap-on m agazines.
M ovem ent: C am -driven d ual pull-dow n, dual-regis­
ter pins. Six-inch-long film gate. Loop-form ing threading
system. Simple maintenance.
Shutter: Rotating m irror, 180°, stops in view ing posi­
tion.
Reflex V iew finder: Right or left eye. Extension avail­
able.
Lens M ount: O ptional an d interchangeable BNCR,
Nikon, Arri (new or old).
Drive: Variable 4 to 48 fps built-in 24V m otor; 24/25
fps crystal sync, soft start-up to elim inate slack. O ptional
single-frame drive. 24V battery, on-board or external. LED
fps/footage (or meters) counter w ith m emory.
M agazines: 500' coaxial snap-on. D oes n o t require
prethreading. Mechanical footage counter.
62
 Accessories: Video assist, bridge plate, m atte box, pis­
tol grip.

IMAGE 300 35mm

35m m highspeed (300 fps) pin-registered reflex cam­

era.
M ovem ent: Epicyclic; six pulldow n claws; two regis­
ter pins in Mitchell position. Dynamically balanced. Frame-
to-frame register 0.0005" or better. Full (silent) aperture.
Shutter: Beryllium rotating tw o-blade mirror; 120°.

63
 R eflex V iew finder: B right u p rig h t im age; in te r­
changeable ground glasses; variable magnification; video
tap; light trap prevents accidental fogging.
Lens M ount: BNCR; Panavision available.
Drive: Built-in m otor and circuitry; m axim um speed
in three seconds. Self-braking; will stop in five feet from 300
fps. Requires 115V AC, 50/60 Hz, 30A starting, 18A ru n ­
ning. Ten pushbutton-actuated speeds, 24 to 300 fps.
Magazines: Coaxial 1000' feed and takeup magazines
are identical and separately m ounted; takeup can be re­
m oved w ithout rem oving the feed magazine. Gear driven,
differentially controlled. Automatic drive engagem ent and
supply overrun brake. Footage-used counter for acetate or
polyester base.
Features: Sync pulse for strobe light, sync at all oper­
ating speeds. Matte box iris rods com patible w ith Arriflex.
Footage counter w ith memory. Remote control input jack.

Mitchell NC, NCR, BNC, BNCR (35mm);

FC, BFC (65mm)

The NC camera differs from the "stan d a rd " m odel in

that it uses a mechanically different and quieter m ovem ent
and has other features w hich make it quieter. NC, BNC, FC,
BFC are rack-over models. NCR, BNCR are reflex models.
NC model has a four-lens turret, the others a single lens
mount. B m odels are blim ped versions.
Movement: Dual-register pins, four-prong pull-down;
adjustable stroke. Timing m arks on shutter and m ovem ent
facilitate rem oval an d reassem bly. Rem ovable ap erture
plate w ith built-in m atte slot. 35mm full .980" x .735" aper­
ture. Speed range: single frame to 32 fps. Slot for du al gel
filters.
Shutter: Focal plane 175° m axim um variable to 0° in
10° increments. Phase and opening indicator on back of
64
camera. Some m odels have autom atic four-foot fade in or
out.
Reflex V iew finder: R otating m irror. V iew ing tube
sam e on rack-over an d reflex. Interchangeable g ro u n d
glasses, variable magnification, film clip /m atte slot, con­
trast view ing filters. A djustable focusing eyepiece.
V iew fin d e r: External large screen erecting finder.
Parallax correction coupled by cam to lens focus knob.
Lens M ount: Four-lens turret, NC only; flange depth
1.695". Single m oun t all others: 35mm flange d ep th 2.420";
lenses can be centered on full or A cadem y aperture.
M ag azin es: 400', 1000', 1200' d oub le com partm en t
sound insulated. N C m agazines will not fit standard cam­
era b u t standard m agazines m ay be used on N C models
w ith adapter; not recom m ended for sound shooting.
D rive: Dem ountable m otors for all types of shooting;
synchronous m otors are sound insulated. Crystal sync 30V
DC w ith 50/60 H z signal, m irror positioning circuit and
audible offspeed indicator.
Accessories: Film m atte punch. M atte boxes for rotat­
ing and sliding diffusion and filters. Director's finder w hich
takes cam era lens m ounts.

65
w hich cam era bod y racks over for focusing a n d critical
lineup.
Note: There are several versions of modifications avail­
able for special applications.
M ovem ent: H igh Speed: D ual registration pins. Dual
forked pull-dow n claws engage four perforations sim ulta­
neously. Removable aperture plate has built-in m atte slot.
Full Aperture: .980" x .735" Academ y A perture Mask: 868"
x 631". Speed range: Single frame to 120 fps (160 fps can be
achieved b u t is not recom m ended). S tandard m ovem ent
cannot be used for high-speed work. N ot possible to con­
vert sta n d a rd to h ig h -sp ee d cam era by in terch a n g in g
movements.
S hutter: 170° m axim um . V ariable in 10° calibrated
segments to 0° m anually, forw ard or reverse.
Focusing: Variable magnification erect image focusing
telescope built into the camera. Through-the-lens ground
glass critical focus an d view ing w h en cam era is racked
over. Built-in contrast viewing filters for color and m ono­
chrome emulsions. Interchangeable g round glasses. Any
aspect ratio outline available. Cam era focus tube has built-
in matte slot and perm its the m aking of perfect m atch dis­
solves.
Lenses: Four-lens turret. Positive index type, w ith ris­
ing and falling front. Mitchell-designed heavy-duty rotary-
type lens mounts. Flange depth: 1.695". Standard and wide-
angle matte boxes provide for use of glass mattes, gauzes,
hard mattes, glass filters, Pola screen, diffusers, variable
diffuser attachment, etc.
M otors: Variable (wild) motors: 12V DC (8 to 24 fps),
110V AC or DC (8 to 24 fps), H igh Speed. 110V AC or DC
rheostat controlled (24 to 128 fps). Synchronous (sound)
motors: 110V, 60-cycle, 1 phase AC; 220V, 60-cycle, 3-phase
AC; 220V, 3-phase interlocking AC; 220V, 3-phase A C/96V
DC M ulti-duty (Synchronous at 220V AC only). 50-cycle
motors available on request. A nim ation motor: Stop-mo-
tion,110V AC.
Magazines: 400', 1000' and 1200' double compartment-
type magazines.
V iew finder: Large erect viewfinder calibrated for dif­
ferent focal-length lenses. Available w ith dual calibrations
for any two aspect ratios. Parallax-free follow-focus attach­
m ent available.

68
Moviecam Super 35mm

Movement: C om pensating link w ith dual pilot pin

registration and dual pull-dow n. Interchangeable aperture
plates for all standard aspect ratios.
Shutter: 180° ro tating m irro r variable to 45°. Cali­
brated at 90°, 144°, 172.8°. Stops in view ing position.
Reflex Viewfinder: Rotatable 360° m aintaining erect
image. 12" extension tube w ith built-in 2.4X magnification
available. Large exit pup il has heated rear element. Eye­
piece adjustable. A nam orphic view ing available. Illum i­
nated fram e lines. Integral video assist; external video
pow er unit includes 1 V4" monitor.
Lens Mount: BNCR.
Drive: Microprocessor-controlled motor, 12 to 32 fps
in one-frame increments. Crystal sync. 24V DC or 110/220V
AC.
Magazines: 500' and 1000' displacem ent-type torque
m otor drive. Built-in heater.
Features: Below 20 dBa sound level. Built-in automatic
slate. Plug-in circuit boards field replaceable. Built-in cam­
69
era heaters. Footage and frame rate digital display forw ard
and reverse. H a n d h e ld a n d stu d io follow -focus for all
lenses.
W eight: 29 p ou nds w ith 500' of film and 50mm lens.
A ccessories: "M oviespeed" attachm ent allow s p ro ­
gram m able speed changes from 1 to 50 fps forw ard and 12
to 32 fps reverse du rin g shooting, w ith fully autom atic ex­
posure com pensation. Time base code attachm ent. Syn­
chronizer for flicker-free HMI shooting, filming from TV
m onitors or process ph otography. C om p u ter diagnosis
attachment for troubleshooting circuit boards. Matte boxes.

Panavision Platinum Panaflex 35mm

M ovem ent: D ual pilot pin registration ensures pro-
cess-plate im age steadiness. Pilot pins register in the same
perforation holes (im m ediately below the bottom fram e
line) as optical printers. Double pull-dow n claws. Pitch and
stroke controls for optim izing cam era quietness. 4-perf
m ovem ent is standard, 3-perf is available. M ovem ent m ay
be rem oved for servicing.

A perture Plate: Removable for checking and cleaning.

Full-frame aperture is standard, aperture m attes are used
for all other frame sizes. A special perforation locating pin
above the ap ertu re ensures trouble-free an d rap id film
threading.
A perture Mattes: Interchangeable aperture m attes are
available for A cadem y, A nam orphic, S up er 35, 1.85:1,

70
1.66:1, and any other as required. Special h ard m attes are
available on request.
Shutter: Focal plane shutter, infinitely variable and
adjustable in-shot. M axim um opening: 200°, minimum: 50°
w ith adjustable m axim um an d m inim um opening stops.
A digital display allow s adjustm ents in Vw° increments.
M icrom eter ad ju stm en t allow s critical synchronization
w ith com puters, TV m onitors and HMI lighting at unusual
fram e rates. M anual an d electronic rem ote control units
available.
Behind-the-lens Filtering: Behind-the-lens gel filter
holder.
Reflex System: Reflex rotating m irror is standard and
is independent of the light shutter system. Interchangeable
semi-silvered fixed reflex m irror for flicker-free view ing is
optional.
Optical View finder System: H igh m agnification op­
tical system. The view finder tube is orientable and gives a
constantly up rig ht im age through 360°. Short, Interm edi­
ate and Long view finder tubes are available. System incor­
porates an optical m agnifier for critical focusing and pic­
ture composition, a de-anam orphoser, a contrast viewing
filter an d a light-proof shutter. W ide-range ocular adjust­
m ent w ith m arker bezel to note individual settings. A built-
in "Panaclear" eyepiece heater ensures mist-free viewing.
A djustable eyepiece leveling link-arm is su p p lied w ith
every P anahead to keep the eyepiece position constant
while tilting the camera. Entire optical viewfinder system
m ay be rem oved an d replaced w ith a video view finder
disp lay for lig h tw eig h t cam era configuration (e.g., for
Panaglide, Steadicam, Louma, rem ote cam era usage). An
eyepiece diopter to suit the operator's ow n eyesight can be
pro vid ed on request.
Ground G lasses: Interchangeable g ro u n d glasses
available w ith any m arking, or com bination of markings.
"P anaglo w " illum inated reticle system w ith brightness
control is standard. G round glasses w ith finer or coarser
texture available on request. Provision for a cut frame to be
placed in the view finder system for optical im age m atch­
ing. Frame cutters are available to suit negative or positive
perforations.
Lens M ounting System: Panavision positive clamp
lens m o u n t for m aintaining critical flange focal depth set­
ting. All lenses are pinned to ensure pro per rotational ori­

71
entation. (Note: this is particularly im portant w ith anamor-
phic lenses.) Iris-rod sup port is supplied.
Lenses: Exceptionally w id e range of spherical, an-
am orphic and specialty lenses is available. All are checked
and calibrated by MTF. Prim o lenses are all color m atched
and range from a distortion-free 10mm to 150mm. Primo
zoom lenses are equal to Primo lenses in image-look and
optical performance. All Prim o lenses have w idely spaced
lens focus calibrations an d have been especially designed
for low veiling glare. Physically long lenses are supplied
w ith adequate length iris rods for m atte box and filter su p ­
port, ultra wide-angle lenses are supplied w ith a suitable
sun-shade an d m atte box.
Lens Control: A lightw eight focus control w hich can
be used from either side of the camera is standard; an in­
terchangeable "Studio" focus control unit is optional, as are
electronic remote focus and aperture controls. Zoom lenses
are supplied w ith an electronic zoom control unit as stan­
dard.
M atte Boxes: A standard m atte box incorporating a
sunshade, w ith provision for two 4 x 5.650" filters w hich
can be individually slid up and dow n. Special m atte boxes
incorporating more filter stages, w ith provision for sliding
(motorized if required), rotating a n d /o r tilting and for tak­
ing 6.6" square filters are optional. Panavision can also sup­
ply special sliding diffusers, diopters and all m anner of
image control filters, etc, to use in their m atte boxes.

72
 Cam era Motor: A 24-volt motor is used to ru n the cam­
era at any speed from 4-36 fps and is crystal controlled at
all speeds an d m ay be adjusted in Moth fps increm ents.
Special sync boxes are available to synchronize the camera
w ith a m ains pow er supply, w ith com puters and video sig­
nals an d w ith process projectors to ru n in shutter phase
synchronization. Panaflex cameras m ay be used at sub-zero
tem peratures w ithout special preparation.
DBA Rating: Less than 20 dB w ith film and lens, m ea­
sured 3' from the im age plane.
M agazines: 2000', 1000', 500' an d 250' m agazines are
all available. All can be used on the top of the cam era for
m inim um cam era length or at the rear for m inim um cam ­
era height and for good balance w hen hand-holding (20001
m agazines can be used in the top position only). 1000' re­
verse run nin g m agazines available on request.
M agazine Loading: See diagram.
H and -holdability: H andles and a shoulder-rest are
pro vid ed for hand-holding the camera. In this configura­
tion the cam era is best used w ith a 500' or 250' magazine
fitted at the rear. The w eight of the cam era in hand-held
m ode, w ith a 500' m agazine an d film, is approxim ately 27
lbs.
Im age C ontrast Control: "Panaflasher" light overlay
u nit an optional accessory.
O ptical Accessories: Front-of-lens optical accessories
include an exceptionally w ide range of color control filters,
diffusion filters, fog filters, low-contrast filters, black, white
and colored nets, full-cover and split diopters, lo w /h ig h
angle inclining prisms.
Batteries: Camera, magazines, heaters and accessories
all operate off a single 24V N i-Cad battery. The norm al
battery complement is two x cased units w ith built-in charg­
ers. Belt batteries are optional.
C am era S u p p o rt E q u ip m e n t: "P an a h ea d " geared
head, incorporates a 60° tilt range w ith a built-in w edge
system to allow the operator to select w here that range is,
anyw here betw een the cam era pointing directly up or di­
rectly dow n, and three gear ratios in both the p an and tilt
m ovem ents. A sliding base u n it enables a cam era to be
quickly attached and detached and to be slid backw ards
and forw ards on the head for optim um balance. "Panatate"
tum -over m ount allows 360° camera rotation about the lens
axis while at the same time perm itting nodal p an and tilt
m ovem ents. N odal adapter available to m ount a Panaflex
73
nodally on a Panahead. "P anapod" tripods w ith carbon
fiber legs are available in a range of sizes.
V ideo A ssist System s: State-of-the-art, CCD video
systems are available in B &W or color.
Environm ental Protection E quipm ent: All Panaflex
cam eras an d m agazines have built-in heaters to enable
them to be operated in any am bient temperature. H eated
covers are available to give additional protection to lenses,
especially zoom lenses, to keep their operation sm ooth in
intensely cold conditions. O ther covers are available to
protect the camera, m agazines and lenses from heat and
du st and from rain and w ater. Spinning-glass rain deflec­
tors are available for use in storm conditions. A n autobase
is available to secure the cam era in conditions of vibration
high "g-forces" and other stressful and dangerous condi­
tions. A water-box is available to protect the camera in shal­
low w ater conditions, a hazard box to protect the camera
from explosions, collisions and other dangerous situations.
T im e Code: The A atonC ode code system encodes ev­
ery frame w ith a SMPTE time code w hich is readable by
both com puter and hum an.

Panavision GII Golden Panaflex

Very similar to the P latinum Panaflex. Incorporates
m ost of the features and operates w ith m ost of the acces­
sories listed for that camera.

Panavision Panaflex-X
Similar to the GII G olden Panaflex b u t has a fixed
viewfinder system and is not hand-holdable.

Panaflex Panastar High-Speed

M ovem ent: Dual pilot p in registration ensures pro-
cess-plate image steadiness. Pilot pins register in the same
perforation holes (im m ediately below the bottom frame
line) as optical printers. F our p u ll-d o w n claw s. Entire
m ovem ent m ay be rem oved for servicing.
T hreading Diagram: See below.
A perture Plate: Same as Platinum Panaflex.
A perture M attes: Same as Platinum Panaflex.
Shutter: Focal plane shutter w ith infinitely variable
opening and adjustable in-shot. M aximum-opening: 180°,
minimum: 40° w ith adjustable m axim um and m inim um
opening stops. A digital display allows adjustm ents in Vio°
74
increments. Micrometer adjustm ent allow critical synchro­
nization w ith com puters, TV m onitors an d HMI lighting
at unusual frame rates. M anual and electronic rem ote con­
trol units available.
Reflex System: Same as Platinum Panaflex.
O p tical V ie w fin d e r System : S am e as P la tin u m
Panaflex.
Ground Glasses: Same as Platinum Panaflex.
Lens M ounting System: Same as Platinum Panaflex.
Lenses: Same as P latinum Panaflex.
Lens Control: Same as Platinum Panaflex.
Matte Boxes: Same as Platinum Panaflex.
Camera M otor A 24-volt motor is used to run the cam­
era at any speed from 4-120 fps and is crystal-controlled at
all speeds and m ay be adjusted in 1 fps increments. Spe­
cial sync boxes are available to synchronize the camera with
a m ain pow er supply, w ith com puters, w ith video signals
and w ith process projectors in shutter phase synchroniza­
tion. Panastar cameras have internal heaters and m ay be
used at sub-zero temperatures.
Magazines: 1000' and 500' m agazines are available. Ei­
ther can be used on the top of the cam era for m inim um
camera length or at the rear for m inim um camera height
Panastar reverse running type magazine threading

and for good balance w h en hand-holding; 1000' reverse

running m agazines available on request.
H an d-holdability: H andles an d a shoulder-rest are
provided for hand-holding the camera. In this configura­
tion the camera is best used w ith a 500' m agazine fitted at
the rear. The w eight of the camera in hand-held mode, with
a 500' magazine and film, is approxim ately 26 lbs.
Image C ontrast Control: Same as Platinum Panaflex.
O ptical Accessories: Same as Platinum Panaflex.
Batteries: Same as Platinum Panaflex.
C a m e ra S u p p o rt E q u ip m e n t: S am e as P la tin u m
Panaflex.
V ideo A ssist Systems: Same as Platinum Panaflex.
Environm ental Protection E quipm ent: Same as Plati­
nu m Panaflex.

Panavision Super R-200° 35mm

M ovem ent: Dual pilot pin registration. Double pull­
dow n claws. Pitch control to optimize camera quietness.
Entire m ovem ent may be rem oved for servicing.
A perture Plate: Removable for checking and cleaning.
Full-frame aperture is standard, aperture m attes are used
for all other frame sizes. A special perforation locating pin
above the ap ertu re ensures trouble-free an d rap id film
threading.

76
 Aperture Mattes: Interchangeable a p e rtu re m attes
a re a v a ila b le fo r A c a d e m y , A n a m o rp h ic , S u per-35,
1.85:1,1.66:1, TV transm itted an d any other aperture re­
quired. Special hard m attes are available on request.
Shutter: Focal plane shutter w ith infinitely variable
opening and adjustable in-shot. M axim um opening: 200°;
m inim um : 50° w ith adjustable m axim um an d m inim um
opening stops. A digital display allows adjustm ents in '/io°
increments. Micrometer adjustm ent allows critical synchro­
nization w ith com puters, TV m onitors and HMI lighting
at unusual frame-rates. M anual and electronic rem ote con­
trol units available.
Reflex System: Reflex rotating m irror is standard and
is independent of the light shutter system. Interchangeable
semi-silvered fixed reflex m irror for flicker-free view ing is
optional.
Behind-the-lens Filtering: Provision for a behind-the-
lens filter gel.
Optical V iew finder System: Fixed optical system.
System incorporates an optical magnifier for critical focus­
ing and picture composition, a de-anamorphoser, a contrast
view ing filter and a light-proof shutter. W ide-range ocu­
lar adjustm ent w ith m arker bezel to note individual set­
tings. A built-in "Panaclear" eyepiece heater ensures mist-

77
free viewing. An eyepiece diopter to suit the operator's ow n
eyesight can be provided on request.
G round Glasses: Same as Platinum Panaflex.
Lens M ounting System: Same as Platinum Panaflex.
Lenses: Same as Platinum Panaflex.
Lens Control: Same as Platinum Panaflex.
M atte Boxes: Same as Platinum Panaflex.
Cam era M o to r 24 or 36V m otors are used to run the
camera at any speed from 4-36 fps w ith crystal control at
24 and 25 fps. Special sync boxes are available to synchro­
nize the camera with a m ain pow er supply, w ith com put­
ers and video signals and w ith process projectors in sh ut­
ter phase synchronization. May be used at sub-zero tem­
peratures w ithout special preparation.
DBA Rating: Less than 24 dB with film and lens, mea­
sured 3' from the image plane. Magazines: 1000' and 400'
magazines are available. The 400' m agazine can be used,
together w ith a special low -profile m agazine cover, for
m inim um camera height.
O ptical Accessories: Same as Platinum Panaflex; see
page 70.
Batteries: Camera, heaters and accessories all operate
on either a 24V or a 36V Ni-Cad battery. The norm al bat­
tery com plem ent is two x cased units w ith built-in charg­
ers.
C am era S u p p o rt E q u ip m e n t: "S u p er P an a h e a d "
geared head incorporates a 60° tilt range w ith a built-in
w edge system to allow the operator to select w here that
range is, anyw here between the camera pointing directly
78
up or directly dow n, and three gear ratios in both the pan
and tilt movements. A sliding base unit enables a camera
to be quickly attached and detached and to be slid back­
w ard s and forw ards on the head for optim um balanced
"P anapod" tripods, w ith carbon fiber legs, are available in
a range of sizes.
V ideo A ssist System s: State-of-the-art, CCD video
system s are available in B & W or color.

Photo-Sonics 35mm 4B/4C

Rotary prism reco rding cam era d esigned for high
speed full format 35mm photography.
Film T ransport: Continuous.
Frame Rate: High-speed system: 500 to 2500 fps in 500-
frame intervals. Low-speed system: 250 to 1250 fps in 250-
frame increments. Special low-speed motor, 125 fps-625 fps,
available on request.
A perture Size: Full-frame 35 mm.
Film Specifications: B & H .1866" perforations.
Shutter: Rotary disc, 72° fixed shutter. 36°, 18° or 9°
shutter available on request.
V ie w fin d e r Fries orientable. Boresighting is accom­
plished through the taking lens using ground film.
Lens M ount: N ikon or BNCR.
Drive: H igh-speed 208 VAC, 3 phase, 60 Hz, Y-con-
n ected sy n c h ro n o u s speed m otor. S urge at m ax im um
frame rate 60 a m p s/e a c h phase; running 30 a m p s/e a c h
phase. Low speed 115VAC, single phase, 60 Hz, synchro­
nous speed motor. Surge at m axim um frame rate 40 am ps;
running 20 amps.
M agazine: 1000'.
Film Cores: Film m ust be w oun d on dynamically-bal-
anced alum inum film cores prior to use in this camera.
Accessories: Video assist on-axis, parallax-free, shut­
tered video camera or off-axis side m ounted.

Photo-Sonics 35mm-4ER
High speed, (6 to 360 f.p.s.) pin register studio record­
ing camera.
M o v e m en t Intermittent with 12 pull-dow n arms, four
registration pins and a vacuum back.
S h u tte r A djustable rotary disk type w ith increments:
5° betw een 5° an d 50°; 10° betw een 50° and 120°.

79
 Reflex V iew fin d e r 4ER incorporates a reflex viewing
system in conjunction with a Jurgens/A rriflex orientable
viewfinder system and shuttered CCD video tap.
Lens M ount: BNCR, Panavision or Photo-Sonics.
Drive: Built-in motor and circuitry. Requires 208 VAC,
single phase, 60 Hz, SCR, solid state. Surge at m axim um
frame rate 35 amps; running 20 amps.
Magazines: 1000-foot capacity with built-in light traps.
Features: 200-watt heater. Sync pulse for strobe light
synchronization. G roun d glass w ith A cadem y, TV safe
action and 1.85:1.
W eight: 125 p ounds w ith 1000-foot m agazine loaded.
Accessories: Arriflex 5 x 6 Matte Box w ith H ard Matte
set. Arriflex 6x6 Matte Box w ith H ard M atte set. Diopters
for close focus: + 1 /2 , +1, +2, +3 set.

Ultracam 35mm
Sound level 20 ±1 dB at three feet with film and 50mm
lens.
M ovem ent: Full aperture: .985" x .736". Single claw,
dual registration pin, com pensating link, using tungsten
counter-balance for m inim um possible vibration. A uto­
matic film location by spring-loaded pin. Pitch adjustm ent
com pensated for 3X more change in stroke length at end
of stroke than at start. Entire m ovem ent can be removed
for cleaning; coupling is keyed for correct alignm ent on
replacement.
Shutter: Focal plane 175° on sam e shaft w ith mirror.
Reflex V iew finder: Rotating tw o-blade half-spced
mirror. 41°30' to perm it short back focus lenses. Eyepiece
rotates 360° using prism to provide erect image. All surfaces
high efficiency for bright image, exit pupil 10mm. 6X to9X
true zoom magnification. Anamorphic correction available.
Interchangeable ground glasses. Internal diopter accommo­
dation. Right or left eye operation. Video assist on bayonet
mount.
Lens M ount: SBNCR.
Drive: Internal 28V DC optically encoded. 8,12,16,18,
20,24,25,30, and 32 fps and by a 10V P-P external pulse of
60X fram e rate. C rystal sync ±15 p p m over 0° to 130° F
range. 50/60 H z and frame rate ou tp u t pulse.
Weight: 31 lbs. w ith 400’ of film and 50mm lens.
M ag azin es: 500' an d 1000' d isplacem ent. Built-in
torque m otor and electric brake. Either size will m ount on
camera top or rear.
80
 Features: Quick-release balance plate. Built-in follow-
focus. LED counter feet/m eters m ay be preset to any read­
ing; battery operated memory. Built-in heater. Swing-away
m atte box; rotating feature accepts various size filters w ith
tw o stationary stages and tw o rotating stages.

Vista Vision Cameras

MSM M odel 8812 35mm/8-perf VistaVision

M ovem ent: MSM Monoblock high-speed, triple reg­

ister pins, claw engages four perfs. Shrinkage adjustm ent
changes both stroke and entry position. Indexable loop-
setting sprockets have independent locking keeper rollers.
V acuum backplate assures film plane accuracy, removes
w ithou t tools for cleaning. A perture and m ovem ent re­
m ove easily for cleaning and lubrication. A pertu re size
1.485" w ide x .992" high. Frame-rates from time-lapse to 72
fps forw ard, to 30 fps reverse.
Shutter: Focal plane shutter, m anually variable from
172.8° to 55° w ith stops at 144° and 108°.
V ie w fin d e r Spinning m irror reflex. Interchangeable
ground glasses with register pins for film clips. Finder ro­
tates 360° w ith erect image, image can be m anually rotated
for unusual setups. Finder show s 105% of frame, m agni­
fier allows critical focusing at center of interest. Single le­
ver controls internal filter and douser. H eated eyepiece has
large exit pupil and long eye relief. H igh-resolution B & W
CCD videotap is built into camera doo r with sw ingaw ay
50/50 beam splitter. V iew finder rem oves com pletely for
aerial or underw ater housing use.
Lens M ount: BNC lens m ount. 15mm m atte rods are
on Arri BL centers for accessory compatibility.
M agazines: 1000’ and 400' displacem ent m agazines
operate bidirectionally at all cam era speeds. A positive

81
camlock secures the mag in running position and switches
pow er to the m otor and heater contacts in the magfoot.
Expanding core hubs have integral DC servom otors con­
trolled by film tension in both directions, w ith soft startup
to eliminate slack. Tightw ind rollers guide film w inding for
smooth solid rolls at any camera angle. Non-contact light
traps feature infrared end-of-film sensors.
Features: Crystal sync from 5 to 72 fps in .001 incre­
m ents. Status LEDs for pow er, heat, low battery, m ag
ready, buckle, and speed sync. Two illuminated LCD foot­
age counters. Digital battery vo lt/am p meter. Circuit break­
ers for camera, mag, heat, and accessories. Control port
allows operation from handheld rem ote or interface with
com puters and external accessories.

Wilcam W-7 VistaVision High Speed

VistaVision, 8-perforation 35mm designed for opera­
tion at 200 frames per second.
Registration: 3 dual-register pins.
Film T ransport: 2 claw pins. T ransport claws never
enter the registration pin perforations.
S h u tte r: Beryllium m irro r w ith tu n g sten co u n ter
weights.
V iew finder: Rotating mirror. Uses servo m otors for
constant erect image while the eyepiece is being rotated.
Lens M ount: BNCR

82
 Lenses: 14mm f/2.8 Canon, 19mm f/2.8 Lcitz, 24mm
T-1.4 Canon, 28mm T-1.8 Zeiss, 35mm T-1.4 Zeiss, 50mm
T-1.4 Zeiss, 85mm T-1.4 Zeiss, 135mm T-1.8 Zeiss, 35-140
f/1.4 Vivitar zoom. Also 200mm, 400mm, and 600mm.
Magazines: 1000-foot.
Magazine Drive: Gear-driven through torque motors
perm anently m ounted on the camera body.
Matte Box: W ilcam 4 x 5.65 also sta n d ard Arriflex 6
x 6.
Weight: 110 p ounds w ith 50mm lens and film.

Wilcam W-9 VistaVision Lightweight

VistaVision, 8-perforation 35mm designed for general
purpose use. M axim um speed 100 frames per second.
 Registration: 3 dual-register pins.
Film T ransport: 2 claw pins. T ransport claw s never
enter the registration pin perforations.
S h u tte r 180° Beryllium m irror w ith tungsten counter­
weights.
V ie w fin d e r Rotating mirror. Uses servo m otors for
constant erect im age w hile the eyepiece is being rotated.
Lens M ount: BNCR.
Lenses: 14mm f/2.8 Canon, 19mm f/2.8 Leitz, 24mm
T-1.4 Canon, 28mm T-1.8 Zeiss, 35mm T-1.4 Zeiss, 50mm
T-1.4 Zeiss, 85mm T-1.4 Zeiss, 135mm T-1.8 Zeiss, 35-140
f/1.4 Vivitar zoom. Also 200mm, 400mm, and 600mm.
M agazines: 1000-foot.
M agazine Drive: Torque m otors m ounted on each

84
 M atte Box: W ilcam 4 x 5.65 also sta n d a rd Arriflex 6
x 6.
W eight: 37 pounds w ith 50mm lens and film.

Wilcam W -ll VistaVision Sound Speed

V ista V isio n 8 -p e rfo ra tio n 35m m . D e sig n e d for

soundstage production shooting. Runs at 24, 25, an d 30
frames per second, all crystal sync. Virtually silent in op­
eration w ithout relying on extensive blimping. Noise level
in operating condition w ith a prim e lens is 25 dB at 3 feet
in front of the camera lens.
R egistration: 3 dual-register pins. 2 pairs in conven­
tional location, 1 pair .050 w ide perforations trailing.
Film T ransport: 2 claw pins. T ransport claws never
enter the registration pin perforations.

85
 Shutter: Half-speed, 144 degrees. Beryllium m irror
driven by second motor, phase-locked to camera motor.
V iew finder: High-efficiency ground glass w ith locat­
ing pins for film clip. A utom atic im age erection w ith
manual override for odd-angle viewing. 10X magnifier for
critical focusing. Built-in Sony CCD video camera.
Lens M ount: BNCR.
Lenses: Available BNCR lenses: 14mm f/2.8 Canon,
19mm f/2.8, Leitz, 24mm T-1.4 Canon, 28mm T-1.8 Zeiss,
35mm T-1.4 Zeiss, 50mm T-1.4 Zeiss, 85mm T-1.4 Zeiss,
135mm T-1.8 Zeiss, 35-140 f /1 .4 Vivitar zoom. Also 200mm,
400mm and 600mm.
M agazines: 1000-foot. Supply on right side of camera,
take up on rear.
M agazine Drive: Hysteresis clutch w ith sensing arm s
in camera body for correct film tension.
Battery Voltage: 36 volts.
C urrent: 3 amperes.
Follow focus: O n left side of camera. Detachable.
M atte Box: W ilcam 4 x 5.65 also sta n d ard Arriflex 6
x 6.
W eight: 60 p ounds with 50mm lens and 1000 feet of
film.

16mm Cameras
Aaton XTRplus

Ergonom ically designed stan d ard 16 and S uper 16

camera for studio and docum entary use, featuring time
code and video assist. Sound level 19dB. (Anton XTRplus
specific features appear in italics.)
M ovement: Linear-stroke single claw; self registering.
Lateral and vertical registration system ensures a position­
ing of the film better than 2.5mm in all three axes. Hair-free
gate with air circulation channel pulls hair out.
Shutter: True 180-degree front surface m irror facili­
tates 60Hz HMI and video-m onitor roll-bar elimination.

86
Stops in viewing position. M ay be inched for aperture in­
spection.
V iew finder: Reflex from shutter. Ultra-bright view ­
finder. Fiberoptic im aging finder field is 120% of standard
16mm frame. Swiveling auto erect im age eyepiece with 10X
magnification. 20cm or 40cm extensions and left-eye ex­
te n d er available. Field interchan geable S tl6 /S u p e r 16
ground glass w ith Aatonite m arkings available on option.
Built-in light meter display in viewfinder also indicates low
battery, out-of-sync an d before-the-end and end-of-film
warnings.
Lens M ount: Aaton positive lock ring m ount, Arri PL
or Panavision Prim o m ounts. A aton m oun t also accepts
Arri Bayonet or any reflex-type lens w ith A aton adapter.
Standard to Super 16 format conversion in five minutes.
Drive: Brushless crystal sync 12V m otor for 23.98,24,
25, 29.97 & 30 fps. Variable control form 3 to 60 fps crystal
controlled to ‘moo fps. Built-in TV bar eliminator. (24,25,30
fps plus 6 to 54 fps in 12 steps, no built-in T V bar eliminator on
XTRplus.) Electronic base and m otor m ay be rem oved and
replaced in tw o minutes. Slim battery (12V 1.8 Ah) fits di­
rectly onto the camera body.
Magazines: 122m (400ft) coaxial. Feed chamber loaded
in dark and loop threaded in daylight. Fourteen to fifteen-
perforation loop length. Twistless film threading and hair-
free gate eliminates pressure m arks and em ulsion pile-up.
Magnetically driven takeup w ith electronic and mechani­
cal counters. M emo-m ag indexes for m agazine ID recog­
nition.
 Features: Back-lighted digital control display: footage,
speed, voltage, ISO, time code, magazine elapsed time (no
back-light nor elapsed time on XTRplus display). M emo-m ag
allows magnetic recognition by the camera body of 7 dif­
ferent magazines (3 on XTRplus). Counter in camera pro­
vides LCD display of rem aining footage — for short-ends
load or m ulti-em ulsion shoot. Keycode com patible and
frame-accurate time code m arking in SMPTE matrixes and
hum an readable numbers, lp p m TCXO internal clock for
8-hour autonom y. Bottom of camera-to-lens optical axis
distance is 105mm to make the XTRplus com patible with
35mm camera accessories (109.2mm on XTRplus).
Accessories: Lightw eight w ide-form at sw ing-aw ay
matte box: two 4 x 5.6 and one 138mm rotating stages. Also
accommodates Panavision mattes. Lightweight and w ith­
out play foliow-focus system. Totally incorporated black &
white or color CCD video assist: the combination of con­
cave viewing screen and exclusive relay lens with manual
iris control delivers the clearest and sharpest im ages —
requires no set-up time. LTR Model: superseded by XTRs,
LTRs are differentiated by the magazine mechanical drive,
no LCD counter and no CCD video-assist compatibility.

Arriflex 16SR-2
Description: The Arriflex 16SR-2 is a silent 16mm pro­
duction cam era, featuring a narrow , sym m etrical body
design and a unique, patented swing-over viewfinder. The
16SR-2's unique design allows the user to operate from ei­
ther side of the camera. The 16SR-2 features a pin-registered
film transport and fixed-gap channel, a fiberoptic viewing
screen, patented orientable sw ingover viewfinder, APEC
TTL m etering system , auto shu tter stop, and preset iris
activator. It is widely used internationally for feature films,
television production, TV commercials, music videos, na­
ture and wildlife films, docum entaries, and for industrial
and scientific film production.
Versions:
1 .16SR-2E: Standard 16SR without APEC, preset lens
activator or automatic exposure control. These features may
be retrofitted.
2 . 16SR-2: Standard 16SR, with APEC (Arri Precision
Exposure Control).
3. 16SR-2 A utom atic: Same as S tandard 16SR with
APEC, but also includes servo-activated, fully autom atic

88
 (FILM TAKES UP EMULSION SIDE IN)

exposure control. Exposure is adjusted automatically at any

speed from 5 to 75 fps.
4 /5 . 16HSR-2 H ighspeed A utom atic, and 16HSR-2E
Highspeed (w /o APEC): O perate up to 150 fps and require
gray finish 16SR H ighspeed m agazines. O n the A utom atic
version, exposure is adjusted autom atically from 10 to 150
fps w ith lenses equipped w ith auto-iris capability.
6 /7 . S u p e r 16 16SR-2 a n d S u p e r 16 16H SR-2
H ighspeed S tandard and H ighspeed 16SR cam eras: All
A rri ac ce sso ries m ay be u se d w ith o u t m o d ific atio n .
H ighspeed camera requires grey finish highspeed m aga­
zines.
M ovem ent: Pin-registered, com pensating link film
transport, w ith fixed-gap film channel. The 16SR-2 operates

89
from 5 to 75 fps with external variable speed control. The
16HSR-2 Highspeed (and the 16HSR-1 H ighspeed version)
operates from 10 to 150 fps w ith external variable speed
control. The m ovem ent does not require threading as the
loop is preset w hen the m agazine is loaded. Switches lo­
cated in the camera base of early versions lock in crystal
speeds of 24 and 25 fps, 50 and 60 Hz, and in later SR cam­
eras, 30 fps, 72 Hz. All 16SRs can be modified w ith a 30 fps
kit.
Sw ingover V iew finder: Rotating m irror-shutter sys­
tem with 180° opening ('Ah sec at 24 fps), with high aper-
ture/parallax-free viewing, and 10X magnification at the
eyepiece. The sw ingover reflex viewfinder is centrally lo­
cated, and sw ings w ithin a 190° arc to either side of the
camera for left- and right-side operation. The finder also
rotates 360° parallel to the cam era on either side, and
swings out 25° for additional operator comfort. It features
a fiber-optic viewing screcn, a red out-of-sync LED, and an
APEC exposure indicator.
Lens M ount: Steel bayonet lens m ount (41mm diam ­
eter), w ith built-in auto-iris facility. Flange focal distance
is 52mm. W hen used w ith an auto-iris lens, the iris will
open to full aperture w hen camera is turned off and close
dow n to a preset aperture when the camera is activated. All
Arri 16mm or 35mm format standard and bayonet m ount
lenses covering the 16mm form at can be used. Long or
heavy lenses m ust be used w ith the bridgeplate support
system.
APEC: Through-the-lens Arri Precision Exposure Con­
trol system. Provides continuous exposure inform ation
(match-needle mode) on a 4-stop indicator displayed in
view finder. For film sp eeds ASA 16-1000. An optional
servo-operated autom atic exposure control system (with
manual override) for complete autom atic exposure control
with auto-iris lenses is available.
M otor Drive: Quartz-controlled 12V DC motor for 24/
25/30 fps, 5 0/60/72 H z operation. A variable-speed acces­
sor)' extends the speed range from 5 to 75 fps (on the 16HSR
Highspeed, from 10 to 150 fps). Multi-camera interlock is
achieved w ith the FSZ-II sync control accessory. Pow er
input through a 4-pin connector. Pin 1 is (-); pin 4 is +12V.
Modular plug-in electronics boards contain circuitry con­
trolling all electronic functions, including a built-in start-
marking system, out-of-sync light, Pilotone output and pre­

90
wiring for SMPTE 80-bit time code. Operating tem perature
range is -4° F to +122° F (-20° C to +50° C).
Magazines: 400’coaxial; normally accepts 100' and 200'
daylight loads; 400' daylight reels m ay be used if 1/8" is
milled off the reel's edge. Loop is formed during loading
for quick m agazine change. Grey finish H ighspeed m aga­
zines m u st be used on 16HSR, 16HSR-2 H ighspeed and
16SR Super 16 H ighspeed cameras.
S u p er 16: Both 16SR-2 and 16HSR-2 H ighspeed cam­
eras are available in Super 16. The w ider Super 16 format
(7.5mm x 12.3mm) required repositioning the optical axis
1mm to the left. The lens m ount, fiber screen, viewfinder,
tripod m ounting hole and accessory shoe w ere moved ac­
cordingly. The shutter opening of the Super 16 camera is
172.8°. The APEC exposure system is stan d ard on both
cameras, but auto-iris exposure control is not available. The
following bayonet-m ounted lenses will w ork in the Super
16 form at: Z eiss 16 form at S u p ersp eed p rim es 12mm,
16mm, and 25mm T-1.3; Zeiss 35 format Superspeed primes
18mm, 25mm, 35mm, 50mm, and 85mm T-1.3 and 135mm
T-2.1; Zeiss 35mm Standard prim es 10mm, 16mm, 20mm,
24mm, 28mm, 32mm, 40mm, 50mm, 85mm, 100mm, and
135mm T-2.1; an d 60m m , 180mm , an d 300m m T-3.0.
A ngenieux 16-44mm T-1.3 an d 15-150mm T-2.3; RTH
Cooke 10.2-54mm T-2.8. All 35mm format zoom lenses will
cover Super 16.
M atte Boxes: See Arriflex 535 Matte Box section for
details. Accessories: 2-speed follow-focus w ith 1:1 or 1:.06
ratios; b ridgeplate su p p o rt system for CG balance an d
m ount for matte box, follow focus, servo zoom drive, and
heavy lenses; lightweight support, on-board batteries, left
and right grips for handheld operation of the camera; finder
extender; SMPTE time code generator; High-speed unit for
o p e ra tio n of S ta n d a rd 16SRs u p to 75 fps o r 16HSR
Highspeed u p to 150 fps; Arri Geared H ead; and director's
viewfinder w ith PL mount.

Arriflex Super 16
Tw o versions of the 16SR-2camera are available in the
Super 16 format: the 16SR-2 (5-75 fps) and the 16HSR-2
H ighspeed (10-150 fps). N orm al operation and functions
ofboth are virtually the sam e as with standard 16SR-2cam-
eras.
The height of the Super 16 aperture in the 16SR-2 is
identical to that in regular 16SRs, b u t the aperture is 2mm
91
wider, pushing into the left perf area on the negative. The
Super 16 aperture is 7.5 X 12.3mm, and the aperture of regu­
lar SRs is 7.5 X 10.3 mm. This necessitates the reposition­
ing of the optical m iddle axis of lens m ount, viewfinder,
tripod thread an d accessory holder by 1mm to the left.
Single-perf film m ust be used.
The 16SR-2's spinning mirror shutter has a 172.8° shut­
ter opening. Super 16 SRs have the sam e exposure meter
system as in regular 16SRs, b u t the autom atic exposure
control feature cannot be installed.
Because of the w ider aperture area covered, some stan­
dard 16mm lenses will vignette. The following 41mm Steel
Bayonet M ount lenses can be used for Super 16 production:

16mm Format
Superspeed Primes
12mm Zeiss D istagon T-1.3
16mm Zeiss Distagon T-1.3
25mm Zeiss Distagon T-1.3
50mm Zeiss Planar T-1.3

Zoom Lenses
ll-66m m Angenieux T-2.6
11.5-138mm Angenieux T-2.3
15-150mm A ngenieux T-2.3
16-44mm Angenieux T-1.3
10.4-52mm Cooke Varokinetal T-2.8
10-30mm Cooke Varokinetal T-1.5

35mm Format
Superspeed Primes
18mm Zeiss Distagon T-1.3
25mm Zeiss Distagon T-1.3
35mm Zeiss Distagon T-1.3
50mm Zeiss Planar T-1.3
65mm Zeiss Planar T-1.3
85mm Zeiss Planar T-1.3

Standard Primes
16mm Zeiss Distagon T-2.1
20mm Zeiss Distagon T-2.1
24mm Zeiss Distagon T-2.1
28mm Zeiss Distagon T-2.1
32mm Zeiss Planar T-2.1
40mm Zeiss Planar T-2.1
92
 50mm Zeiss Planar T-2.1
60mm Zeiss Macro Planar T-3.0
85mm Zeiss Planar T-2.1
100mm Zeiss Planar T-2.1
135mm Zeiss Planar T-2.1
180mm Zeiss Sonnar T-3.0
300mm Zeiss Tele-Apotessar T-3.0
(w ith 2X rang e e x ten d er
bccom cs 600mm T-6.0)

Zoom Lenses: All 35mm form at zoom lenses w ith

41mm steel bayonet m ount will cover Super 16.

Time C ode Note: 16SR-2 Super 16 cam eras are time

code compatible.

Arriflex 16SR-3

Silent 16mm production camera system for both Stan­

dard 16 and Super 16 production. In two versions:
1 .16SR-3 Standard (Standard 16 and Super 16)
2 . 16HSR-3 Highspeed (Standard 16 and Super 16)
M ovem ent: Pin-registered com pensating link, with
fixed-gap film chan nel. 5-75 fps S tan d a rd ; 10-150 fps
Highspeed.
Shutter: Variable (manually) rotating m irror shutter;
90°, 135“, 144°, 172.8°, 180° shutter openings. Shutter open­
ing indicated on LCD display durin g electronic inching
mode.

93
 Reflex View finder: Swingover Viewfinder sw ings in
a 190° arc for full left- or right-side operation, w ith fully
upright image in any position. With CCD video assist and
flicker-reduction electronics attached, viewfinder swings in
a 120° arc. Finder is equipped w ith ArriGlow — steplessly
adjustable illuminated frame lines for both Standard 16 and
Super 16. The finder also has w arning indications for asyn­
chronous camera speed, film-end and low battery. NOTE:
the 16SR-3 Super 16 aperture can be m asked for the Stan­
dard 16mm frame. No additional aperture is needed.
Lens M ount: Standard 54mm Arri PL m ount will take
any 35mm format PL m ount lens. A dapters available for
41mm bayonet and standard m ount lenses.
Drive: Built-in crystal-controlled 24V EXT motor. O n­
board program m able speeds of 24,25,29.97 and 30 fps, and
variable crystal speeds from 5-75 fps in the Standard cam ­
era, or 10-150 fps in the H ighspeed 16SR-3, variable in 0.001
increments at crystal accuracy. Speeds are continuously
variable w hen the Remote Unit (RU-1) is used. Speeds can
be program m ed from the 16SR-3's on-board LCD, w ith the
Remote U nit (RU-1) or w ith the C am era C ontrol U nit
(CCU), A rri's standard off-camera program m ing unit.
M agazines: 400-foot coaxial. Standard 80-bit SMPTE
time code m odule built in. Existing 16SR-2 m agazines can
be used. 16SR-3 magazines w ithout time code are available.
T im e Code: Integral 80-bit SMPTE time code. Record­
ing m odule built into 16SR-3 magazines. Fully complies
with SMPTE RP 114 standard.
V ideo Assist: Takes Arri Vi" black & w hite or color
CCD video assist, and Arri AFP-2 flicker reduction elec­
tronics for bright, flicker reduced images. Adjustable for
Standard 16 and Super 16, w ith the full im age of either for­
m at on the monitor. Changing beam splitter ratio for color
or B & W is easy, and requires no adjustment.
LCD Display:
a. set/d isp lay frame rates
b. set/d isp lay film counter
c. display m irror shutter opening (during electronic
inching mode)
d. set/d isp lay time code and user bits
e. display TC sensitivity readout
f. battery voltage and low-battery w arning
g. film-end and asynchronous camera speed
The CCU can be used to control or set m ost of the
above functions.
94
 System C o m p atib ility : A w ide variety of Arriflex
35mm accessories can be used w ith the 16SR-3, such as:
ESU-1, External Synchronizing Unit; RU-1, Remote Unit;
RS-3, Remote Switch; HE-3, H eated Eye Cup; the standard
cam era handgrip; CCU-1, Cam era Control Unit; an d the
AFP-2 Anti-Flicker Processor.
Lenses: With its 54mm PL lens m ount, the 16SR-3 uti­
lizes the full range of 35mm format and 16mm format Zeiss
Superspeed, Zeiss Standard, Arri A nam orphic an d Arri
Macro lenses, and RHT Cooke and Angcnieux zoom lenses.
M atte Boxes: The 16SR-3 uses the Arri 19mm rod
Cam era Support System. The Support System includes a
full range of matte boxes (6.6x6.6,5x5, and a variety of 4x4),
bridg eplates, 2-speed follow -focus, and lens sup ports.
15mm rod adapters are available on request. The 4x4 Pro­
duction Matte Box is ideal for the 16SR-3. Its sw ingaw ay
design covers lenses 16mm and up, has interchangeable
two- and four-frame geared filter stages, is fully rotatable,
and accepts m ost Support System accessories.
G eared Heads: The 16SR-3 w orks with both the Arri
G eared H ead, and the Arri Geared H ead 2.

Arriflex 16BL

M ovem ent: Registration pin operates through a vari­

able speed range of 5 to 50 fps, forward or reverse, w hen
used w ith appropriate m otor and speed controls.
Reflex V iew finder: Rotating m irror-shutter system
w ith fixed 180° opening ('/is sec at 25 fps), h ig h-aperture/
parallax-free viewing, 10X magnification at the eyepiece.
A n offset finder accessory is available for handheld cam­
era applications for additional operator comfort.
Lens M ount: Steel Arri Bayonet m ount (lens housings
are required to maintain m inim al camera operating sound
levels). All Arriflex Standard or Bayonet m ou nt lenses that
cover the 16mm form at can be used w ith lens housings.

95
 1 6m m ARRIFLEX 16BL
DOUBLE-SYSTEM
(FILM TAKES UP EMULSION SIDE IN)

16mm ARRIFLEX MODEL 16BL

SINGLE-SYSTEM SOUND
(FILM TAKES UP EMULSION SIDE IN)

Standard zoom and telephoto lenses should be used with

the Bridgeplate Support System.
APEC: Exposure control system, m eters behind the
lens and displays continuous exposure information (match-
needle mode) in the viewfinder.
M otor Drive: Two motor-drive systems are available.
The quartz-controlled m otor provides cordless sync-con-
trol and automatically stops the shutter in viewing position.
Its speed range is 6, 12, 24 (quartz-controlled) and 48 fps.
The Universal m otor is transistorized and governor con­
trolled. A Variable Speed Control accessory will drive the

96
Universal motor from 10 fps to 40 fps. Magazines: 200', 400'
(forward and reverse), and 1200’ (forward only) magazines.
L e n se s: F ix ed focal le n g th S ta n d a rd a n d Z eiss
S uperspeed lenses. Zeiss, A ngenieux an d Cooke zoom
lenses.
M atte Box: Bellows type; available for all 16BL lens
housings.
A ccessories: U niversal Lens H ousing for use w ith
fixed focal length lenses w hen minimal camera operating
sound level is required (accepts 3x3 or a 94mm diam eter
filter); interchangable TV ground-glass; fiber-optic screen
available; offset finder; finder extender; zoom drive; 12V
DC quartz m otor for 6, 12, 24 and 48 fps; Variable Speed
Control for 10 to 40 fps operation w ith universal motor;
plug-in Single-System Sound Module; and Single-System
Record Amplifier.

Arriflex 16S/B; 16S/B-GS; 16M/B

A rriflex 16S/B: Features pin-registered film transport

system operating to 75 fps, 100-foot internal daylight film
spool loading, with top-loading 400-foot magazine, reflex
viewfinder system, divergent three lens-m ount turret, and
motor interchangeability.
Arriflex 16 S/B-GS: Pilotone sync-generator and start-
marking system built-in.
Arriflex 16M/B: The 16M camera is configured differ­
ently and has no internal daylight spool film load capac­
ity. 200-, 400- and 1200-ft. 16M magazines are available for
this camera. It accepts all of the accessories in the 16S sys­
tem except the m agazines and power-cables.
M ovem ent: Registration pin, operates through a vari­
able speed range of 75 fps (with appropriate tachometer),
forward or reverse. The 16S, 16M and 16BL m ovem ents are
identical.
Reflex V iew finder: Rotating m irror-shutter system
w ith 180° opening (!4< sec at 24 fps), high-aperture/paral-
97
 1 6m m ARRIFLEX S /B SERIES
(FILM TAKES UP EMULSION SIDE IN)

16m m ARRIFLEX 16M

(FILM FAKES UP EMULSION SIDE IN:

lax-free viewing, 10X image m agnification at the eyepiece.

An interchangeable ground glass or fiber-optic screen, and
an optional APEC exposure control indicator, are located
w ithin the viewfinder system.
 Lens Mount: The 16S and M cam eras have divergent
three lens-m ount turrets w ith two stan dard and one steel
bayonet-lock m ounts. A ny Arriflex standard or bayonet-
m ount lens that covers the full 16mm form at m ay be used.
Zoom and telephoto lenses require use of the Bridgeplate
Support System.
APEC: Exposure control system , m eters behind the
lens and displays continuous exposure information (ma tch-
needle m ode in the viewfinder, 16S only).
Motor Drives: Quartz-regulated, governor-controlled,
synchronous, and variable-speed m otors are available for
16S and M cameras. M otor specifications are listed in the
accessory column.
16S Magazines: 200- and 400-ft. torque m otor-driven
m agazines are available for 16S cameras. The torque m o­
tor drive is essential w ith 16S m agazines, and is in ter­
changeable w ith all 16S m agazines of the same film capac­
ity.
16M Film Magazines: 200-, 400- and 1200-foot m aga­
zines are available for the 16M cameras. These magazines
are gear-driven and do not require torque motor drives. The
1200-foot m agazine operates in forw ard direction only.
Lenses: F ixed focal le n g th S ta n d a r d a n d Z eiss
Superspeed lenses. Zeiss, Angenieux, and Taylor H obson
Cooke zoom lenses in Arri Standard or Bayonet mount.
Matte Box: (16S/M ) w ith adjustable bellows, one ro­
tating and one stationary filter stage. Accepts 3x3,3x4, and
4 x 4 glass filters. A 94mm round Polarizing screen can also
be used. Lightw eight sunshade an d filter holder (rubber)
for 16S or 16M, accepts 3 x 3 filters.
Accessories: Fiber-optic screen; periscope viewfinder;
finder extender; 12V DC quartz-m otor for 24/25 fps 50/
60Hz, variable speeds 5 to 75 fps, and single-frame forward
and reverse capability and pilotone output; 8V and 12V DC
governor m otor for 24 fps forw ard operation only; 8V or
12V DC variable m otor for 5 to 40 fps forw ard or reverse
operation; 110V A C /60 H z synchronous m otor and in-line
pow er supply for 12V, 24 fps operation; bridgeplate sup­
port system; adapter for microscope stand and microscope
optical link.

Bolex 16mm (All Models)

Movement: Single-claw pull-down. Trailing claw sys­
tem assuring maximum picture steadiness w ithout need for
registration pin. A perture plate m ade from hard chrom ed
99
steel. Gate has autom atic threading device that loops the
film and inserts it into gate an d aro u n d sprockets. Rear
pressure plate can be rem oved for cleaning gate. Automatic
loop former prevents loss of loop.

Shutter: Bolex spring-driven cameras (H-16 Rex 5 and

H-16 SBM) have 135° variable shutter which can be opened
or closed while camera is running. It can be locked at 'A,
Vi and can be o p e n e d a n d closed a u to m atica lly w ith
Rexofader accessory. Shutter speeds 12-64 fps, single-frame.
Bolex electrically driven cameras (H-16 EBM an d H-16 EL)
have fixed 170° shutter. Shutter speeds electronically con­
trolled 10-50 fps.
Focusing: All cam eras have flickerless focusing and
parallax-free viewing through prism reflex finder. Image
is magnified 14X in eye-level finder and m ay be continu­
ously viewed in filming or stopped position.
Lenses: H-16-Rex 5 has 3-lens tu rre t for C -m o unt
lenses, other m odels have large Bolex bayonet m o unt suit­
able for heavy zoom and telephoto lenses. A dapter for C-
m ount lenses and accessories available. Full line of Switar,
Vario Switar and A ngenieux zoom an d standard lenses,
matte box, extension tubes, A spheron wide-angle adapters
etc, available.
Drive: Spring-driven cameras will expose 16 Vi of film
on one winding. Variable-speed m otor and electronically
stabilized m otor suitable for sync pulse and crystal sync

100
available for spring-driven cameras. H-16 EBM and H-16
EL have 10-50 fps electronically regulated m otors built in.
H-16 EL has single-frame and electric rew ind, instant start
and stop. All m odels accept 400' m agazine w ith take-up
motor.
Magazines: All cameras accept 100' Daylight Loading
Spools, w hich can be ejected w ith built-in lever device. 400'
m agazine w ith self-contained take-up m otor available.
Features: Footage and frame counters ad d and sub­
tract. Spring m otor m ay be disengaged. Full 100' film re­
wind. A udible scene-length signal clicks every 28 frames.
Single-frame exposure button for instantaneous or time
exposures. All cam eras have filter slot behind the lens.
H-16 EL has built-in through-the-lens silicon light m eter
w ith shock-proof LED indicators in the VF.
Accessories: A utom atic Rexofader fading device for
H-16 REX and SBM available for 40-frame fades. Camera
grip, barney blim p, exten sion tu bes for m acrocinem a­
tography. U nderw ater housing for EL and EBM, matte box,
cable releases, tripods, m onopod, shoulder brace.
Note: M any other accessories, such as anim ation m o­
tors, m icroscope attachm ents and tim e-lapse units, are
available from other firms.

Bell & H ow ell 16mm Filmo 70

Com pact, spring-w ound 100' daylight loading 16mm
camera. Accessory 400' m agazine an d electrical m otor for
m odels 70HR an d 70SR.
Movement: C am -operated single claw. Spring-loaded
edge guide and pressure plate. Relieved aperture plate.
Shutter: 204° (models before SN 154, 601: 216°)
Viewfinder: O utside finder tube, 3-lens turret, paral­
lax correcting eyepiece.
Focusing: Magnified central im age on ground glass
w hen objective lens turret is rotated 180°. Safety latch pre­
vents cam era running w hen in focusing mode.
Lens Mount: Three-lens turret, geared to finder lens
turret. C m ount.
Drive: Spring-driven, governor-controlled drive ex­
poses 22' per w ind at 8 fps-64 fps (model 70SR at 128 fps
only). M odels 70SR an d 70HR have optional battery or AC
motors.
Magazines: M odel 70SR an d H R use optional 400'
com partm ent-type m agazines (electric m otor shou ld be
used for m agazine operation).
101
 Features and Accessories: H and backw ind for dis­
solves. S tandard dial footage indicator, optional digital
Veeder. Single-frame drive. Replacement shutter for less
than 204°. Filter slot modification. External large image
viewfinder.

Minicam 16mm (GSAP)

Movement: Intermittent, single pull-dow n claw, cam
actuated.
Shutter: 133° fixed.
Focusing: Boresight alignm ent tool available as o p ­
tional accessory.
Lens Mount: Supplied to accept lenses in "C " m ount
or Arriflex M ount configuration.
Motor: Integral, 24V DC. A djusted for 24 or 48 fps.
Magazine: Uses pre-loaded Eastm an K odak m ag a­
zines, 16mm x 50', in all popular emulsions.
Other Features: Light w eight (less than 2Vi lbs). Ideal
"point-of-view" camera. W idely used for skiing, auto rac­
ing, sky diving or installations hazardous to camera equip­
ment.
Accessories: "C " m ount front plate; Arriflex M ount
front plate; Battery, Ni-Cad, rechargeable; adjustable cam­
era tool; boresight alignment tool; pow er plug; pow er cable;
carrying case; u nderw ater housing; battery charger.

Cinema Products CP-16 & CP-16A

16mm n e w s /d o c u m e n ta ry /s in g le /d o u b le system
sound cameras.
Movement: Sinusoidal, interm ittent movement. Self-
engaging single-claw film pull-dow n with precision lapped
surfaces for quiet, long-life reliability. Film accurately
guided over a series of stainless steel balls to guarantee in­
focus, scratch-free pictures (w ith no em ulsion pickup).
Stainless steel pressure plate, ground lapped w ith recessed
center area, easily removable for cleaning.
Shutter: 173°; (optional 144°).
Viewfinder: The CP-16 w as designed for specific use
with Angenieux zoom lenses w ith built-in reflex viewfind­
ers. Viewfinders are available in various lengths for shoul­
der or tripod operation, and provide ground spot focusing
in the center of the clear view ing area. TV reticle markings
define safe action area. H orizontal, 22'/i° & 45° angle eye­
piece position.

102
 Lens Mount: Type "C ".
Drive: Plug-in 20V battery drives crystal sync built-in
motor. 24 fps ± 15 p p m over 0°-140° F; interchangeable
pulley for 25.
Magazines: 400' snap latch. A dapter for Mitchell 400'
and 1200' magazines.
Sound Recording System: CP-16 and C P-16/A cam­
eras operate w ith 3XL-type record/playback head assem ­
blies. The C P-16/A features the C rystasound built-in am ­
plifier system, a self-contained recording system complete
with tw o low -impedance dynam ic m icrophone inputs, one
600-ohm line inp ut, VU m eter, h ead p h o n e m onitoring,
switchable AGC and auxiliary mixer input. A provision for
w ireless receiving is also available. A n auxiliary mixer,
model 6C, provides 6 channels of m icrophone input. The
auxiliary m ixer is com plete w ith VU m eter, sw itchable
AGC, and h eadphone monitoring. The mixer, built-in am ­
plifier and wireless units are all pow ered from the camera's
Ni-Cad battery (model NC-4).

103
 F eatures: W eighs 15.8 lbs. w ith 400' film an d 12-
120mm zoom. 16.8 lbs. w ith sound amplifier. Out-of-sync
w arning light and battery indicator. Filter slot.
Accessories: An AC pow er supply, single and mul- -
tiple chargers, sound pream plifier, m icrophones, front-
m ounted VU meter, m ik e/lite bracket, lighting kits, fluid
head tripods, quick-release shoulder and tripod m ount,
plus a line of Angenieux zoom lenses an d a w ide range of
carrying cases.

Cinema Products CP-16R & CP-16R/A

Reflex 16mm n e w s /d o c u m e n ta ry /s tu d io s in g le /
double system sound cameras.
M ovement: Sinusoidal, interm ittent m ovem ent, self-
engaging single-claw film p u ll-d o w n . Film accurately
guided over a series of stainless-steel balls to guarantee in­
focus, scratch-free pictures (w ith no em ulsion pickup).
Stainless-steel pressure plate, ground lapped w ith recessed
center area, easily removable for cleaning.
Shutter: Focal plane 170° (optional 144°).
Reflex V iew finder: Rotating m irror integral w ith fo­
cal plane shutter. Stops in view ing position. Fiberoptics
screen m arked w ith TV safe action, projection, and 35mm
blow-up lines. Adjustable focusing eyepiece 12X magnifi­
cation, 90° click stop rotation; optional 360° rotatable right
or left eyepiece. Erect image.
Lens M ount: Thread-locking bayonet. A dapters for
Arri or Nikon mounts.
Drive: 20V plug-in battery drives built-in crystal-con­
trolled motor 24 or 25 fps sync speed ± 15 p p m over 0-140°
F. Standard speeds 12,16, 20, 24, 28, 32 and 36 fps. Pulley
change 24 to 25 makes range 12.5,16.5,21, 25,29,33.5 and
37.5 fps.

104
 Magazines: 400' snap latch. A dapter for Mitchell 400'
and 1200' magazines.
Sound Recording System: The CP-16R and CP-16R/
A cameras have been designed to accept Crystasound 3XL-
type magnetic record/playback heads. The CP-16R/A fea­
tures the Crystasound built-in am plifier system, a self-con-
tained recording system complete with tw o low-impedance
dynam ic m icrophone inputs, one 600-ohm line input, VU
m eter, h eadphone monitoring, switchable AGC and aux­
iliary mixer input. A provision for wireless receiving is also
available. An auxiliary mixer, m odel 6C, provides 6 chan­
nels of m icrophone input. The auxiliary mixer is complete
with VU meter, switchable AGC, an d headphone m onitor­
ing. The mixer, built-in am plifier and wireless units are all
pow ered from the cam era's Ni-Cad battery (model NC-4).
Features: Filter slot. Battery test. Viewfinder indicator
LED for b attery , out-of-sync, film ru n o u t, so u n d VU.
W eight w ith 10-150mm zoom, 400’ film, battery: 17.4 lbs.
Accessories: Finder 7" extension. Cinevid-16 video
assist, bayo net m ou nted. A utom atic or sem i-autom atic
exposure system w ith view finder display. Zoom control
system . P o w e r s u p p ly /c h a rg e r. S h o u ld e r a n d trip o d
mounts.

Cinema Products GSMO 16mm

Movement: A high-precision, single-claw, sinusoidal
registration m ovem ent w ith a curved film gate for m ini­
m um pull-dow n time. The interchangeable film gate as­

105
sembly w ith its floating pressure plate and h ard chrome-
edge film guid es is located in the cassette-type coaxial
magazine.

Shutter: Rotating m irror 180° stops in viewing posi­

tion. (144° shutter for TV filming applications optional.)
Reflex View finder: Fiberoptic viewing screen marked
with TV safe action, 16mm projection, and 35mm blow -up
lines. Two viewfinder options; both have 12X magnifica­
tion, high-efficiency optics, focusing eyepieces. D ual-pur-
pose viewfinder provides 32 adjustable view ing positions;
m ay be e x te n d e d 7" for trip o d o p e ra tio n . O p tio n a l
viewfinder pivots for left or right eye and provides 360°
rotation. Erect image. Optional 7" extender.
Lens M ount: Single-thread locking bayonet w ith lo­
cating pin. Optional adapters for Arri and Nikon m ounted
lenses.
Drive: 20V plug-in battery drives crystal-controlled
motor; speeds of 12, 16, 24, 25, 32, 48 and 64 fps or alter­
nate speeds of 12, 20, 24, 25, 30, 48 and 64 fps. Accuracy +
30 ppm over 0°-140° F.
M agazines: Quick-change, rugged, cassette-type co­
axial magazine contains interchangeable film-gate assem ­
bly. Automatic loop forming device. (Preloaded magazines
can be changed instantly w ithout touching film.) 100' and
106
400' capacities. 400' m agazine features "film rem aining"
m anual indicator.
F eatures: Illum in ated digital film counter (feet or
m eters) w ith m em ory. Full-fram e auto slating. External
battery test. LED out-of-sync and low-battery indicator in
viewfinder. W eight w ith 400' load and 17.5-70mm zoom
lens: 12.44 lbs.
Accessories: Exposure control system with display in
viewfinder. Remote speed control w ith continuously vari­
able speed from 12-64 fps. Zoom control system. AC pow er
supply, battery charger. Quick-release shoulder and tripod
m ounts. Video assist.

Eclair ACL 16mm

M ovem ent: The claw m ovem ent is a w edge-shaped

claw controlled by an eccentric and a fixed cam and ren­
dered positive by the use of a counter cam. The steadiness
of the im age is excellent, w ith a tolerance of less than one-
thousandth of frame height. Lateral steadiness is assured
in the gate by a fixed side bar and a spring-loaded guide.
Image sharpness is ensured by a spring-loaded pressure
plate w hich forms part of the front of the ACL magazine
and which maintains the film perfectly against the aperture
during the exposure.
Shutter: Focal plane 175°.
Reflex V iew finder: Oscillating mirror, low-loss opti­
cal system, fine-grain ground glass. Image magnification
12X. Focusing eyepiece will rotate through 360° parallel to
the camera.
Lens M ount: U niversal Type C. O utside thread for
various adapters.
Drive: 12V DC crystal-controlled m otor at 24 or 25 fps
directly on shutter shaft. Variable-speed capability 12 to 40
fps. O ptional 115V sync motor.
M agazines: Snap-on 200' coaxial. P reth read ed for
quick change; as soon as core load film or daylight spools
are inserted in feed side of m agazine and film is passed
107
through light trap to takeup side, the rem ainder of load­
ing operation m ay be carried on in daylight. Film rem ain­
der dial.
Features: Autom atic start mark. Pilotone o u tp u t 50 or
60 Hz. Weight: 7.7 lbs.

Eclair CM-3 16/35mm

M ovem ent: Pull-dow n claws are m ounted on sliding
cam-driven plate. M ovem ent has two sets of ratchet-type
pull-down claws; one on each side for 35mm and a centered
claw for 16mm. Ease of ad ju stin g claw stroke p erm its
adapting camera to either norm al four-perforation pu ll­
dow n or tw o-perforation pull-dow n for Techniscope, or
single-perforation pull-dow n for 16mm operation. Claw
m ovem ent stroke may be changed by sliding cam, w hich
is reached through opening in aperture plate. N o disassem­
bly or special tools required. Registration and steadiness
achieved by double rear pressure plate and very long side
rails. Top plate keeps film flat in focal plane, bottom plate
holds film at edges only, to keep it properly aligned for pull­
dow n claws. A perture plate is m ade of one piece of steel,
hand-polished and undercut to prevent scratching. A per­
ture plate is part of camera body proper, pressure plates are
built into magazine. Raised area in center of aperture por­
tion of pressure plate eliminates breathing.
S hutter: 200° variable front-surfaced m irror reflex
shutter rotates at 45° angle between lens and film plane.
Center of shutter is below aperture, thus describing a hori­
zontal w iping m otion across film. Shutter m ay be varied
to 35° by turning knob on left side of camera body.
Reflex V iew finder: Through-the-lens focusing and
viewing. Lens may be follow-focused w hile viewing. Ex­
tra fine-grained ground glass presents brilliant image even
under low-light levels or w hen lens is stopped-dow n. 360°
rotatable eyepiece for right or left eye. Adjustable mattes
for various aspect ratios.
Lenses: T hree-lens div erg en t cam-lock tu rret w ith
Cam erette CA-1 lens m ounts. CA-1 lens m o u n t is large
diam eter brass bayonet-type. D ivergent turret perm its
m ounting 5.7mm focal length and longest telephoto lenses
w ithout optical or physical interference.
Drive: Motors are m ounted on side of camera and may
be changed in a few seconds. Basic m otor is 6-8V DC rheo­
stat-controlled variable speed type (also available for 24V
power). O ther motors: 6, 12 and 24V DC transistor-con-
108
trolled regulated m otors with variable-speed or constant-
speed operation with 50 or 60 H z sync pulse outputs. 115V
60 H z and 220V three-phase, 60 H z AC motors for synchro­
nous sound shooting. H and-drive also available for 1,8 or
16 pictures per turn.
M agazines: 200', 400' an d 1000' displacem ent-type
m ag azines allow ra p id ch anging. M agazin es are pre-
loaded with a fixed loop (which may be set from outside
at any time). Automatic footage counter. Removal of m aga­
zine allow s inspection and cleaning of aperture plate and
film channel. For Techniscope operation, T-Type magazine
operates at either 45' per m inute or 90' per m inute by merely
changing gears.
Features: Built-in tachometer. Sliding mattes for film
aperture and viewfinder for 16mm. Techniscope or other
w ide-screen ratios. D ovetail a d a p te r for in stan t tripod
clam ping has tw in m atte-box rods for m o unting m etal
matte box. Two filter stages, one rotatable and removable,
for use w ith extra-w ide-angle lenses. A dditional mattes
may be positioned in front of m atte box to protect the lens
from being struck by back-light.
Accessories: Lightw eight m agnesium tripod. Entire
tripod bow l and m ovem ents can be lifted from legs and
clamped to table edges, doors, ladders, etc. Sound blimp.
O ne door allow s sliding cam era o u t on rails for instant
magazine change, and automatically connects follow-focus,
lens d iap h rag m and external eyepiece. Cam era m ay be
used w ith all anam orphic an d zoom lenses, in or o u t of
blim p. Full in stru m en tatio n capabilities available w ith
single-frame pulse and intervalom eter operation. Aquaflex
u n d e rw a te r h o u sin g for both 35m m T echniscope and
16mm.

Eclair NPR 16mm

Blimpless, silenced camera.

109
 M ovem ent: Film is advanced by desm odrim ic cam
movement. Quiet m ovem ent is achieved by wedge-shaped
claw which slides into perforation w ith a w edging motion.
Film is pulled dow n and registered upon bench-type reg­
istration pin which begins m oving into position before film
has stopped. Extra-long rear pressure plates and side guide
rails steady film. Raised areas in center of aperture portion
of pressure plate eliminate possibility of breathing or focal
shift.
Shutter: 180° high reflectance front-surfaced m irror
reflex shutter, centered on m otor shaft below aperture, ro­
tates at 45° angle betw een lens and film plane. Shutter ro­
tation delivers h orizon tal expo sure action an d lessens
"skipping" problem s on fast-moving subject m atter or fast
horizontal camera movement.
Focusing: Parallax-free through-the-lens focusing and
viewing. Image magnified 12X. Critical focusing possible
even at low light levels, or w ith stop-dow n lens, because
of extremely fine-grain ground glass and high-gain m irror
and low-loss optical system.
Lenses: Standard two-position turret has one Camer-
ette CA-1 lens m ount and one "C " m ount. Turrets avail­
able with two CA-1 m ounts, or w ith two "C " mounts. Any
lens from 5.7mm focal length may be used w ithout affect­
ing sound level of camera. CA-1 is a bayonet m oun t w ith­
out springs or other loose-fitting adjustm ents. Lenses by
Angenieux, Kinoptik, Taylor H obson Cooke an d som e
Berthiot optics can be supplied in CA-1 m ount.
M otor Drive: S tandard m otor is 12V DC transistor-
controlled regulated 24 fps type. M otor generates 60-cycle
sync pulse w hen operating exactly at 24 fps and maintains
speed accuracy w ithin 2/m of 1% (indicated by ru n n in g
light). M otor has high torque and operates at 1440 rpm to
turn shutter shaft directly, so that no noise is caused by
gearing down. Also available: variable speed (wild) 12V DC
m otor (0-40 fps); synchronous (sound) 110V AC, 220V AC
single or three-phase m otors for operation from m ains or
from crystal-controlled pow er packs for cordless synchro­
nous operation. All sync m otors are available for 25 fps 50
cycle (European TV) operation. Motors are interchangeable
w ithout tools.
M agazines: 400' instant changing coaxial m agazine
has prethreaded loop and m ay be snapped on and off in­
stantly. Entire film aperture and film channel m ay be in­
spected and cleaned w hen magazine is removed. No torque
110
m otors required for takeup. Each m agazine takes either
core loads or daylight spools of 100', 200' or 400’ capacity.
Separate footage counters provided for core and daylight
spool loads. As soon as core load film is engaged in sprocket
wheel of m agazine feed chamber, rem ainder of threading
operation m ay be carried on in daylight. M agazine has
noisem aking clutches and loop guards to disengage drive
and w arn of malfunction.
V iew finder: Double 360° swiveling viewfinder; shows
more area than film aperture. Inside inner rectangle out­
lines full aperture. Inaccuracies in alignm ent of viewfinder
do not affect accuracy of g round glass positioning. Eye­
piece adjusts for either left- or right-eye operation and has
full diopter com pensation w ith autom atic opening and
closing light-trap.
Features: Built-in autom atic clapper for start-m arks
w ith bloop modification for use w ith N agra ’A" magnetic
tape recorder and other oscillator markers. Cam era m ay be
used w ith any tape recorder w ith sync pulse recording fa­
cility. Matte box w ith adjustable bellows and two-stage fil­
ter holder w ith rod and long lens supports. Noise Level:
29.5 dB at 3'.

Mitchell 16mm Professional, HS & HSC

M ovem ent: Dual pilot pins. Dual claw pull-dow n as­

sures optim um registration. Removable aperture plate has
built-in filter slot. Pressure plate removable. Timing m arks
on shutter and m ovem ent perm it easy rem oval of entire
mechanism for cleaning, elim inating danger of im proper
insertion. Speed range: Professional Model single-frame to
128 fps; HS & HSC single-frame to 400 fps. All models will
run 1200' roll of film at m axim um frame rates.
Shutter: Professional Model: 0° to 235°. HS and HSC:
0° to 140°. Both ad justable w hile ru n n in g (not reco m ­
m ended above 150 fps on HS and HSC models).

I ll
 Focusing: Professional and HS Models: variable m ag­
nification, erect image focusing telescope built into camera
door. T hrough-the-lens g ro u n d glass critical focus and
view ing w hen cam era is racked over. Built-in contrast
view ing filters for color an d m o n o ch ro m e film. Inter­
changeable g ro u n d glasses w ith different aspect ratios
available. HSC model: uses 10X prismatic boresight look­
ing through aperture plate opening in register plate.
Lenses: Professional and HS Model: Four-lens turret,
positive index type. Flange depth 0.900", Mitchell-designed
heavy-duty precision rotary-type lens m ounts w ith built-
in follow-focus gear ring. "C " type Mitchell adapter avail­
able, perm its use of "C ” m o unted lenses on 16 Mitchell
turret. HSC: has single-hole lens board on camera body.
Uses lenses in M itchell m o u n ts. M itchell " C " m o u n t
adapter for lenses in standard "C " m ounts available.
Motors: Professional, HS and HSC Models: up to 128
fps. Variable (wild) motors: 12V DC, 110V AC or DC. H igh­
speed motors: 110V AC or DC (48 to 128 fps), 24V DC (16
to 64 fps). Synchronous (sound) motors: 110V, 60-cycle. 1-
phase AC; 220V, 60-cycle, 3-phase AC; 220V A C/96V DC
Multi-Duty (synchronous at 220V only). 50-cycle m otors
available on request. Animation motor: Stop-m otion 110V
AC. HS & HSC: 115V 60-cycle AC (12 fps to 400 fps). Has
solid-state variable speed control.
Magazines: Professional, HS & HSC Models: 400' and
1200' double com partm ent-type m agazines. M agazines
accept 100' or 200' daylight spools or 400' or 1200' lab loads.
Brake recom m ended on feed side w h en ru n n in g high
speed.
V iew find er: Professional, HS M odel: Large, erect
viewfinder calibrated for different focal length lenses pro­
vides sharp, bright im age and accurate field for ease of
composition. Parallax-free follow-focus attachm ent avail­
able. Special tracking and monocular finders available for
sports and instrum entation filming. HSC: 10X prism atic
boresight.
Special Features: Professional and HS Model: Veeder
footage and frame counters. Camera base has incorporated
spirit level. Calibrated tachometer built into back of cam ­
era. Built-in buckle trip operates if film fails to take-up. HS
& HSC: H ave end-of-run switch.
Accessories: Com plete jine of accessories available,
including soimd blimp (400' or 1200' magazine top), follow-

112
focus attachm ent, m atte box, sports finders, close-up de­
vices, tripods, pip timers, du al timing light, cases.

Mitchell 16mm Reflex, SSR-16 Single

System, DSR-16 D ouble System Sound
Cameras

M ovem ent: Single claw, single (or double for double

system sound) registration pin. A djustable stroke. Three
sprockets. Removable aperture plate has built-in filter slot.
M ovem ent rem ovable w ithout losing timing. Speed range
16-64 fps. Alternate non-metallic and steel gears for quiet­
ness. Guides and locks interlocked w ith com partm ent door.
Shutter: Focal plane 170° separate from mirror.
Reflex V iew finder: R otating m irror. G ro u n d glass
tinted outside film aperture area. Interchangeable ground
glasses. Dovetail on cam era for outside finder.
L ens M ount: 3-lens d ivergen t turret. Flange d ep th
2.047".
D rive: V ariety of dem ountable m otors, no tools re­
quired.
M agazines: 400’ and 1200' double com partm ent, de­
signed for quietness.
S o u n d R ecord ing Features: The SSR-16 contains a
sound head for m agnetic recording on pre-striped film.
Record and playback head is contained internally in the
camera box behind the m ovem ent. Extremely high quality
of the recording system and cam era allows w ow an d flut­
ter characteristics of less than 0.3% and 0.4%, respectively.
The mixer-amplifier allows the use of two low -im pedance
microphones. System is all solid-state, contains VU meter,
bias adjustm ent, individual and master m onitoring control
for m icrophones; po w er supp ly is self-contained, using
alkaline nickel cadm ium batteries w ith a built-in charger.
It produces 30 volts DC an d charger operates on 115 volts

113
AC 50/60 Hz. Recording heads and mixer-amplifier m ade
by RCA. The SSR-16 also contains a pic-sync generator for
recording double-system lip-sync sound. The D SR16 is for
double system lip-sync sound work. H as sam e features as
the SSR-16 except RCA recording system is deleted and pic-
sync generator is used. Both models available for use on 50
H z power. O perating noise: 36 dB at 3'.
Blimp: An extremely versatile blim p is available for
soundstage work. Through-the-lens reflex viewing is ex­
tended through the blim p door. (Same as S35R blimp.) Flat
front door w ith rem ovable sun sh ad e for use w ith fixed
focal length lenses is easily exchanged for extension hous­
ing w hen using zoom lens. External focus and zoom knobs
on both sides, view ing w indow s for lens scales, footage
counter and tachometer dials. Five internal lights at strate­
gic points. Threading knob for motor. Electrical panel has
lighted switch. Buckle trip will turn out light.

Panavision Panaflex 16mm Camera System

M ovem ent: Pilot pin registration ensures optim um
image steadiness. Entire m ovem ent may be rem oved for
servicing.
A perture Plate: Removable for checking and cleaning.
Normal 16mm aperture plate is standard, Super 16 is avail­
able.
Shutter: Focal-plane shutter w ith infinitely variable
opening and adjustable in-shot. M axim um opening 200°,
m inim um 50° w ith adjustable m axim um and m inim um
opening stops. A digital display allows adjustm ents in '/io°
increments. Micrometer adjustm ent allows critical synchro­
nization w ith com puters, TV m onitors and HM1 lighting
at unusual frame-rates. Manual and electronic remote-con-
trol units available.
Reflex System: Reflex rotating m irror is standard and
is independent of the light shutter system. Interchangeable
semi-silvered fixed reflex m irror for flicker-free viewing is
optional.
Behind-the-lens Filtering: Provision for a behind-the-
lens filter gel.
O ptical V iew finder System: H igh magnification op­
tical system. The viewfinder tube is orientable and gives a
constantly upright image through 360°. A short viewfinder
tube is provided for hand-holding operation and a norm al
length for tripod m ounted use. Viewfinder tubes m ay be

114
sw ung out to suit left- or right-eye viewing. System incor­
porates an optical magnifier for critical focusing and pic­
ture composition, a contrast viewing filter and a light-proof
shutter. W ide-range ocular adjustm ent w ith m arker bezel
to note individual settings. A built-in "Panaclear" eyepiece
heater ensures mist-free viewing. A djustable leveler link
arm supplied with every Panahead to keep eyepiece posi­
tion constant while tilting the camera up or dow n. An eye­
piece diopter to suit the operator's ow n eyesight can be
provided on request.
Ground Glasses: "Panaglow " illum inated reticle sys­
tem w ith brightness control is standard. G round glasses
with finer or coarser texture available on request.
Lens Mounting System: Panavision positive clamp
lens m ount for maintaining critical flange focal depth set­
ting. All lenses are pinned to ensure proper rotational ori­
entation.
Lenses: S p ecially d e s ig n e d a n d m a n u fa c tu re d
Panavision-16 lenses to suit the 16mm image format. All
lenses checked and calibrated by MTF. Panavision 16mm
lenses are all color-matched and range from a distortion-

115
free 8mm to 135mm (lists are available). A w ide range of
P anavision-engineered long-focus and zoom lenses by
other m anufacturers are also available. All lenses have
widely spaced lens focus calibrations and exceptionally low
image veiling glare. Physically long lenses are supplied
with adequate-length iris rods for matte box and filter su p ­
port.
Lens Control: A lightweight focus control w hich can
be used from either side of the camera is standard; an in­
terchangeable "Studio" focus control unit is optional, as are
electronic remote focus and aperture controls. Zoom lenses
are supplied with an electronic zoom control unit as stan­
dard.
M atte Boxes: A standard m atte box incorporating a
sunshade, provision for two 4 X 5.650 filters which can be
individually slid up and dow n. Special m atte boxes incor­
porating more filter stages, w ith provision for sliding (mo­
torized if required), rotating and tilting — and to take 6.6"
square filters — are optional. Panavision can also supply
special sliding diffusers, diopters and all m anner of im age
control filters, etc., to use in their m atte boxes.
Camera motor: A 24-volt motor is used to run the cam­
era at any speed from 4-36 fps, is crystal-controlled at all
speeds and m ay be adjusted in !/io fps increments. Special
sync boxes are available to synchronize the cam era w ith
a m ain po w er su pply, w ith com puters, w ith video sig­

116
nals an d w ith process projectors in sh u tter p h ase sync.
Panaflex-16 cameras may be used at sub-zero temperatures
w ith little special preparation.
C am era noise: Less than 20 dB w ith film an d lens,
m easured 3' from the image plane.
M agazines: 1200' and 400' film m agazines are avail­
able. Either can be for m inim um cam era height and for
good balance w hen hand-holding.
H and-ho ldability: H andles and a shoulder-rest are
provided for hand-holding the camera. In this configura­
tion the camera is best used w ith a 400’ m agazine fitted on
the rear.
O ptical Accessories: Front-of-lens optical accessories
include an exceptionally w ide range of color control filters,
diffusion filters, fog filters, low-contrast filters, black, white
and colored nets, full-cover and split diopters, lo w /h ig h
angle inclining prisms.
Batteries: Camera, magazines, heaters and accessories
all operate off a single 24V Ni-Cad battery. The norm al
battery com plem ent is two x cased units with in-built charg­
ers. Belt batteries for hand-holding are optional.
Cam era Support Equipm ent: A special 16mm version
of the "Panahead"geared head is available for the Panaflex-
16. A sliding base unit enables a camera to be quickly at­
tached an d detached and to be slid backw ards and for­
w ards on the head for optim um balance. "Panatate" turn­
over m ount allows 360° camera rotation about the lens axis
while at the sam e time perm itting nodal pan and tilt m ove­
ments. "Panapod" tripods, with carbon-fiber legs, are avail­
able in a range of sizes.
V ideo A ssist System s: State-of-the-art, CCD video
systems are available in B & W or color.
E nvironm ental Protection E quipm ent: All Panaflex-
16 cameras and m agazines have built-in heaters to enable
them to be operated in any am bient tem perature. H eated
covers are available to give additional protection to lenses,
especially zoom lenses, to keep their operation sm ooth in
intensely cold conditions. O ther covers are available to
protect the camera, m agazines and lenses from heat and
dust and from rain and w ater. Spinning-glass rain deflec­
tors are available for use in storm conditions. An autobase
is available to secure the camera in conditions of vibration,
high "g" forces and other stressful and dangerous forces.
A water-box is available to protect the camera in shallow
water conditions, and a hazard box can be used to protect
117
the camera from explosions, collisions and other danger­
ous situations.
T im e Code: The A atonC ode system encodes every
frame with a SMPTE time code w hich is readable by both
com puter and hum an being.

118
 Film
Color
Since the Sixth Edition of this m anual w as published,
several im portant advances in color film technology have
been m ade by all m anufacturers m arketing in the United
States. A major breakthrough in em ulsion technology has
resulted in the developm ent of new films w ith increased
sensitivity, greater exposure latitude, im proved speed-to-
grain ratio, better definition and im proved storage life. The
cinem atographer now has a choice of a variety of negative
and reversal cam era films balanced for both daylight and
tungsten light sources.
Except for direct projection of the processed camera
film, color negative is the preferred cam era film for origi­
nal cinem atography in all form ats except Super 8mm. In­
stances of films used for "direct projection" are travel lec­
ture photography, instrum entation photography and some
docum entary photography (availability of laboratory facili­
ties for processing the film chosen m ay also be a factor in
film selection). A lthough the use of negative film means
m ore care in handling the original camera film, better color
quality d u e to the incorporation of color m asking in the
negative em ulsions is the rew ard. Color negative film is
available in low, m edium and high-speed em ulsions bal­
anced for tungsten (3200°K) light sources and in low-and
high-speed em ulsions balanced for daylight. If tungsten-
balanced film is used in daylight a Kodak W ratten 85 or Fuji
LBA-12 or equivalent filter should be on the camera and
the exposure index reduced by % of a stop. If daylight bal­
anced film is used in tungsten light, a Kodak W ratten #80A
should be used, b u t this practice is not recom m ended be­
cause it requires the exposure index to be reduced by two
stops.
Color reversal cam era films, w hich w hen processed
result in a positive im age on the original film, are also su p ­
plied in em ulsion types balanced for tungsten or daylight
light sources. The same conversion filters recom m ended for
use w ith color negative can be used w ith the same adjust­
m ent in exposure index. If single-system sound is desired,
check w ith the film manufacturer. Some of these films can
be supplied with magnetic striping.

119
Black & White
A variety of black & w hite em ulsion types are avail­
able from the film m anufacturers. M any are special-pur-
pose films designed for scientific or instrum entation use.
The cinem atographer should be aw are of these films and
the possibility of using one or m ore of them if a desired
effect cannot be achieved with conventional motion-picture
emulsions. For pictorial use, panchrom atic em ulsions in
several speed ranges are available in 35 and 16mm nega­
tive and 16mm reversal films. The reproduction of colored
objects in terms of shades of gray varies w ith different types
of film.
The cinem atographer can control tonal values to get a
technically correct rendition of the subject or to exaggerate
or suppress the tonal differences for brightness, contrast or
other effects by the use of filters. B & W negative films of
low or m edium speed are m ost desirable for sharpness and
fine grain, and have ample sensitivity for general use. H igh­
speed film is useful for low "available light" situations or
for high-frame-rate photography. Because of the current
low frequency of use of black & white as com pared to color,
it is especially im portant to establish working exposure in­
dexes relative to the processing laboratory. B & W process­
ing is not as standardized as color processing, differences
in chemistry, developing time, an d tem perature result in
changes of contrast as well as exposure index.

ASA: Exposure Indexes

While ASA film speeds do not apply directly to m o­
tion-picture films, expo su re m eters calibrated to ASA,
ANSI, or ISO standards specify exposure indexes (El) re­
lated to film speeds (film speeds are calculated m athem ati­
cally from sensitometric exposures; exposure indexes are
num bers useful to the cinem atographer in determ ining or
specifying exposure in a given instance). All film manufac­
turers furnish El num bers related to commercial exposure
meters as a recom m endation for a starting point in deter­
mining optim um exposure.

Film Selection: Color Negative

For norm al high key cinem atography select the film
w ith an ASA num ber m ost consistent w ith the light level

120
and f-stop to be utilized; in general, slower films are sharper
and less grainy than faster films. If econom y in illum ina­
tion or sm all f-stop for d epth of field is a factor, use of a
faster (higher El) film is indicated.
For any special "look" or low-key cinem atography,
experim entation or experience is needed. Generally, use of
an El low er than the m anufacturer's recom m endation will
produce finer grain, higher color saturation, and a slight
increase in sharpness at the expense of loss of highlight
detail and flattening of whites; use of a higher El than rec­
om m ended will show m ore grain, low er color saturation,
loss of sharpness an d loss of shadow detail. Relative posi­
tion on a particular laboratory printer scale is also a factor
to be considered w hen determ ining an EL

Color Reversal Film

Since color reversal films are intended for direct pro­
jection, there is less exposure latitude (compared to nega­
tive film) for a usable film, both for actual d en sity/exp o­
sure rang e an d lack of o p p o rtu n ity to shift densities in
transferring to a print.
Selection of an El should therefore be m ade based on
the use to w hich the film will be put. If an El higher than
the m anufacturer's recom m endation is required, forced
developm ent m ay be used w ith a com prom ise in im age
quality.

Edge Numbers
These num bers, also referred to as footage or key nu m ­
bers, are sequentially prin ted by the film m anufacturer
along one edge of the film outside the perforations. The
num bers on 35m m film m anufactured prio r to 1990 are
located every 16 fram es (12 inches apart); on 16mm film
they are every 20 frames (6 inches apart) or every 40 frames
(12 inches apart). The num bers are applied d urin g m anu­
facture either by photographic exposure (visible only after
processing) or printed w ith a visible ink on the base side
of the film. All 16mm an d 35mm camera original color film
is latent-image edge-num bered. B & W 16mm and 35mm
camera original film is ink edge-num bered.
Several changes in the form at for edge num bers
were introduced during the latter part of 1990. In conform­
ance w ith SMPTE standard SMPTE 254, 35mm film now

121
 COMPARISON of FILM SPEEDS

ASA/EI BSI/JSA DIN GOST SCHEINER

3 3 6 2.8 16°
4 3 7 3 .6 1 7°
5 5 8 4 .5 10°
6 6 9 5.8 1 9°
B 8 10 7.2 20°
10 10 11 9 21°
12 12 12 11 22°
16 16 13 14 23°
20 20 14 18 24°
25 25 15 23 25°
32 32 16 29 26°
40 40 17 36 27°
50 50 10 45 28°
64 64 19 58 29°
00 80 20 72 30°
100 100 21 90 31°
12 5 125 22 11 2 32°
160 160 23 144 33°
200 200 24 100 34°
250 250 25 225 35°
320 320 26 208 36°
400 400 27 360 37°
500 500 28 450 38°
650 650 29 576 39°
800 800 30 720 40°
1000 1000 31 900 41°
1250 1250 32 1125 42°
1600 1600 33 1440 43°
2000 2000 34 1800 44°
2500 2500 35 2250 45°
3200 3200 36 2880 46°

F o r all p r a c t i c a l p u r p o s e s A S A / B S A / J S A / E I a r e t h e s a m e .
The DIN s y s t e m is c a l c u l a t e d L o g 10 . In t h e p a s t
DIN s p e e d s w e r e w r i tt e n w ith t h e s p e e d n u m b e r f o ll o w e d b y
/ 1 0. ( e x a m p l e : 2 / 1 0 )
T h e S c h e i n e r s y s t e m is o b s o l e t e . It w a s d i s t i g u i s h e d b y 0
follo w ing t h e n u m b e r .
T h e G O S T S y s t e m w a s u s e d in t h e U S S R .

122
has b oth hum an -read ab le edge nu m b ers an d m achine-
readable inform ation printed as a latent im age on its edge
at the time of m anufacture. In addition to an increm enting
num ber, a zero-frame reference m ark, consisting of a filled
circle approxim ately 0.025 to 0.030 inches (0.64 to 0.76 mm),
is printed adjacent to the digit of the hum an-readable edge
num ber that is closest to the tail of the film. The frame im­
mediately above the zero-fram e reference m ark is the one
referenced by that edge num ber. The num bers are printed
so that the center line of the zero-frame reference is aligned
w ith the center-line of a perforation. The spacing from one
key num ber to the next is 64 perforations. A mid-foot hu ­
m an readable and a mid-foot machine-readable edge n u m ­
ber is printed halfway betw een each key num ber. The m id­
foot hum an-readable edge num ber consists of a zero-frame
reference m ark and the adjacent edge num ber that is nearer
the head end of the roll plus an offset in perforations that
is alw ays 32 perforations. All characters of the mid-foot
edge num ber are approxim ately 'A size. A similar system
currently u nd er study by a SMPTE standards committee
has been proposed for 16mm.

Film Perforations
Pitch
Pitch is the distance from the leading edge of one per­
foration to the leading edge of the next and is expressed in
decimal inches. Motion picture perforations are commonly
referred to as having either "long" or "short" pitch. W hen
films are being printed, the original cam era film and the
unexposed print film pass together over a curved printing
sprocket for exposure. Since the print film is on the outside,
the difference in diam eter is accom m odated by giving a
shorter pitch to the camera original on the inside.

16mm Films
16mm camera films are supplied w ith either a row of
perforations along one edge or w ith a row along both edges.
M ost 16mm cam era films are furnished w ith tw o row s of
perforations for use in "silent" type cameras. Those w ith
one row are in ten d ed for use in single-system cam eras
w here sound and picture are sim ultaneously recorded, ei­
ther optically or by m eans of magnetic striping on the film.

123
 Reversal-type 16mm camera films intended for projec­
tion are usually supplied in long pitch (.3000). Negative or
reversal type film intended for subsequent release printing
is usually supplied w ith short pitch (.2994).

Standard 16mm perforations

SMPTE 109-1986-2R-.2994
110-1986-1R-.2994
SMPTE 109-1986-2R-.3000
110-1986-1R-.3000

35mm Films
35mm m otion picture films are supplied w ith perfo­
rations of tw o basic shapes an d w ith either long or short
pitch. Bell & Howell or BH indicates negative and K odak
Standard or KS indicates positive. Negative perforations are
designed to insure a steady im age d u ring exposure in a
camera-type pull-dow n an d registration mechanism. Posi­
tive perforations have a shape intended to reduce cracking
w ith repeated projection. "N egative" or "positive" perfo­
rations describe the shape of die perforation and not the
type of film involved.

Standard 35mm perforations

SMPTE 93-1992- BH-.1866
93-1992- BH-.1870
139-1986- KS-.1866
139-1986- KS-.1870

65mm Films
65mm film used for original photography and dupli­
cating is perforated KS-.1866. W hen first introduced this
film w as perforated long pitch because only step-printing
was available. W ith the advent of continuous contact print­
ing facilities, the negative and duplicating films are now
perforated w ith short pitch.

Standard 65mm
SMPTE 145-1988-KS-.1866

70mm Films
Release printing from 65mm negative or interm ediate
is on 70mm film w hich is perforated the same as 65mm b ut
is an additional 5mm wide. The additional w idth is equally
124
divided on each side of the perforations to accom modate
m agnetic sound tracks. In addition to the standard 70mm
film form at tw o oth er form ats are available for special
venue processes.

Standard 70mm
SMPTE 119-1988-KS-.1870

70mm Type I
ANSI PH 1.20-1963- 0.234

Perforations for this stand ard are 0.13 x 0.08 in size

w ith a pitch of 0.234.

70mm Type II
ANSI PH 1.20-1963 -KS-.1870

Perforations for this standard are the sam e size and

pitch as SMPTE 119 b u t w ith an "E" dim ension of 0.079 +
0.004 instead of 0.215 + 0.003.

Film Handling and Storage

Film raw stock is sensitive to heat, radiation and mois­
ture, and m ay be contam inated by gases or dirt. The fol­
lowing precautions are suggested w hen handling or stor­
ing raw stock.
1. Store in a cool (55° F/13° C or lower), clean area for
short periods and in a deep freeze (0° F /-1 80 C) for peri­
ods longer than six m onths. Relative hum idity should be
50 percent or less to avoid rusting of cans and or possible
dam age to labels an d cartons.
2. Do n o t sto re w h ere chem ical co n tam in atio n is
present, either gas or liquid. Fum es, such as those from
am m onia, form aldehyde, hydrogen sulfide, illum inating
gas, m ercury, m otor exhaust, solvents, sulfur dioxide, can
dam age photographic emulsions.
3. A void X-rays or radiation of any kind. Raw stock
should not be stored or shipped near radioactive m ateri­
als. For exam ple, Eastm an K odak states "to protect film
stored 25 feet aw ay from 100 m illigram s of rad ium , 3'/2
inches of lead m u st be placed aro u n d the radium ."
4. Film should not be stored near exhaust or heating
pipes, or in direct sunlight com ing through a w indow even
if the room is air-conditioned.

125
 5. Allow time for film to reach loading-room tem pera­
ture before opening container to avoid condensation.
6. Keep the loading room a n d /o r changing bag clean.
7. Clean m agazines outside the loading room and be
sure the outsides of film cans are clean before taking them
into the loading room.
8. Bag and seal exposed film in original or similar con­
tainers.
9. Process exposed film as soon as possible. If it m ust
be held more than a day before processing or shipping, seal
the film from m oisture and store as cold as possible. (A
deep freeze is appropriate.)
10. If raw stock or exposed film is to be shipped by
commercial carrier, it should be tightly w ound on cores.
The outside shipping container should be labeled conspicu­
ously: "Keep aw ay from heat or X-ray." Stock labels are
available for this purpose.

Processed Film Storage

Though this is not usually the responsibility of the cin­
em atographer, the following inform ation m ay be useful:
1. Condition the film at 20 to 30 percent relative h u ­
midity at room tem perature (optim um relative hum idity
is 25 percent).
2. W ind film em ulsion in on cores or reels. (Do not use
PVC containers, cores, or reels.)
3. Store flat.
4. Store at tem perature of 50° F/10° C or lower.

(Ref: ANSI IT9.11, SMPTE RP 131 Eastman Kodak Co. publication H-l.)

126
 FILM DATA CHART

ASA/ISO
Balance Em ulsion Type Edge Tungsten Daylight
C o lo r N egative F ilm s Day Tung 35mm 16mm ID El Filler El Filler
Agla XT 100 X XT 100 XT 100 N 100 80 85
Agla XT 320 High Speed X XT320 XT320 H 320 200 85
Agla XTS 400 High Speed X XTS400 XTS400 S 400 250 85
Eastman EXR 50 D X 5245 7245 K 12 80A 50
Eastman EXR 100 T X 5248 7248 M 100 64 85
Eastman EXR 200 T X 5293 7293 200 125 85
Eastman EXR 500 T X 5296 7296 J 500 320 85
Eastman HS Day X 5297 7297 C 80 80B 250
Fujicolor F-64 X 8510 8610 N10 64 40
Fuiicoior F-64 D X 8520 8620 N20 64
Fujicolor F-125 X 0530 8630 N30 125 80
Fujicolor F-250 X 0550 0650 N50 250 160
Fujicolor F-250 D X 8560 0660 N60 64 250
Fujicolor F-500 X 8570 8670 N70 500 320
• LBA-12 or 05
” LBB-12 or 0OA
C o lor R eversal F ilm s
Eastman Ektachrome Day X 5239 7239 VND 40 BOA 160
Eastman Ektachrome Tung X 7240 VNF 125 80 85B
Eastman Ektachrome
HS Day X 7251 VXD 100 80A 400
Easlman Ektachrome
HSTung X 7250 VNX 400 250 65B
Kodachrome 25 Movie Film X 7267 6 80A 25
Kodachrome 40 Movie Film X 7270 40 25 05
B lack and W hite
N egative F ilm s
Agla Pan 250 H 200 • 250

Easlman Plus-X 5231 H 64 • 80

Eastman Plus-X 7231 PXN 64 80
Easlman Double-X 5222 C 200 250
Easlman Double-X 7222 DXN 200 250

Fuji FG 71112 FG 64 80
Fuji RP 72161 RP 64 80
' See liller section for
B&W Photography.

Black and W hile

Reversal F ilm s
Easlman Plus X Reversal 7276 PXR 40 50
Eastman Tri-X Reversal 7278 TXR 100 125

Super B Filins
BSW Kodak Plus-X & Tri-X Reversal as above, Color Kodachrome 25 & Kodachrome 40 as
above.

127
1 28
Agfa FILMS
AGFA XT-100 COLOR NEGATIVE FILM (35mm/16mm)

DESCRIPTION EXPOSURE IN D EX
I DAY I FILTER I TUNG. I FILTER I ID
I 64 I 84 I 100 I - IM
This is a medium-speed color negative tilm with very fine grain, wide exposure latitude,
high sharpness and failhlul color rendition. Designed for general cinematography, this film
lends itself to both indoor and ouldoor use.

EXPOSURE TABLE FOR TUNGSTEN LIGHT (24 frames per second 170° shutter opening)
Lens Aperture I f/1.4 i f/2.0 | 1/2.8 I f/4.0 | f/5.6 I f/8.0 i f/11
Footcandles | 25 | 50 | 100 | 200 | 400 800 | 1600
required
AGFA XT-320 HIGH SPEED COLOR NEGATIVE FILM XT 320 (35mm / 16mm)

DESCRIPTION EXPOSURE IN D EX
I DAY I FILTER I TUNG. I FILTER I ID
I 200 | 85 | 320 I - | H
This is a high-speed color negative film with excellent speed-to-grain ratio, wide exposure
latitude, high sharpness and faithful color rendition, that is intended for use in cinematography
at low light level conditions.

EXPOSURE TABLE FOR TUNGSTEN LIGHT (24 frames per second 170° shutter opening)
Lens Aperture I f/1.4 I f/2.01 f/2.0 | f/4.0 I f/5.6 I I/8.0 i f/11
Footcandles | 10 | 20 | 40 | 00 | 160 | 320 | 640
required
 Agfa FILMS
AGFA XTS-400 HIGH SPEED COLOR NEGATIVE FILM (35mm/16mm)

DESCRIPTION EXPOSURE INDEX

DAY FILTER TUNG. FILTER ID
| 250 | 85 | 400 | | S

This is a high-speed color negative film with excellent speed-lo-grain ratio, wide exposure
latitude, high sharpness and faithful color rendition lhat is intended for use in cinematography
at low light level conditions.
EXPOSURE TABLE FOR TUNGSTEN LIGHT (24 frames per second 170° shutter opening)
Lens Aperture I f/1.4 I 1/2.0 1 1/2.8 1 f/4 .0 1 1/5.6 I f/8.0 i i/11
Footcandles 6 12 | 25 | 50 | 100 200 | 400
required

AGFA PAN 250 NEGATIVE FILM (35mm/16mm)

DESCRIPTION EXPOSURE INDEX

DAY FILTER TUNG. FILTER ID
| 250 | ‘ | 200 | ‘ | H

This is a high-speed panchromatic negative film with line grain, high resolving power and wide
exposure latitude. Designed for general cinematography, this film lends ilself to both indoor and outdoor use.
EXPOSURE TABLE FOR TUNGSTEN LIGHT (24 frames per second 170° shuller opening)
Lens Aperture I f/1.4 I f/2.0 I 1/2.8 1 f/4.0 1 f/5.6 1 f/8.0 | f/11
Footcandles 12 | 25 50 | 100 | 200 | 400 | 800
required
'See filter section for B&W photography.

129
130
EASTMAN F IL M S
EASTMAN EXR COLOR NEGATIVE FILM 5245 (35mm/65mm) 7245 (16m m )

DESCRIPTION EXPOSURE IN D E X
I DAY I FILTER I TUNG. I FILTER I ID
I so I - I 12 I boa I k
This is a low speed, daylight-balanced color negative film with wide exposure
latitude, micro-fine grain, very high sharpness, and high resolving power.

EXPOSURE TABLE FOR DAYLIGHT (24 frames per second 170° shutter opening)
Lens Aperture f/1.4 | f/2.0 | f/2.8 i f/4.0 | f/5.6 | i/8.0 | 1/11 i f/16
Footcandles 50 I 100 1200 1400 I 800 I 1600 I 3200 I 6400
required

EASTMAN EXR COLOR NEGATIVE FILM 5248 (35mm/65mm) 7248 (16m m )

DESCRIPTION EXPOSURE IN D EX
I DAY 1 FILTER iTUNG i FILTER , ID
64 85 100 | - | M

This is a medium speed color negative film with wide exposure latitude,
micro-fine grain, very high sharpness, and high resolving power.

EXPOSURE TABLE FOR TUNGSTEN LIGHT (24 frames per second 170° shutter opening)
Lens Aperture f/1.4 i f/2.0 i f/2 .8 1 f/4.0| f/5.6 | f/8.0 | f/11.0 | f/16.0
Footcandles 25 I 50 I 100 I 200 I 400 I 800 I 1600 I 3200
required
 EASTMAN F IL M S
EASTMAN EXR 200T FILM 5293 (3 5 m m /6 5 m m ) 7293 (1 6 m m )

DESCRIPTION EXPOSURE IN D EX
I DAY I FILTER IT U N G .I FILTER I ID
I 125 I 85 I 200 I - I L
This is a color negative film with optimum speed for grain extended latitude, reduced
contrast, micro-fine grain, very high sharpness, high resolving power, and superior color.

EXPOSURE TABLE FOR TUNGSTEN LIGHT (24 frames per second 170° shutter opening)
Lens Aperture 1/1.4 I f/2.0 I f/2.0 I f/4.0 I t/5.6 I f/8.0 I f/11 I f/16
Footcandles 5 I 25 150 I 100 200 400 | BOO I 1600
required

EASTMAN EXR 500T FILM 5296 (3 5 m m /6 5 m m ) 7296 (1 6 m m )

DESCRIPTION EXPOSURE IN D E X
I DAY I FILTER I TUNG. I FILTER I ID
I 320 I 85 I 500 I - I J
This is a high-speed color negative film with wide exposure latitude, micro-tine grain,
very high sharpness and high resolving power.

EXPOSURE TABLE FOR TUNGSTEN LIGHT (24 frames per second 170° shutter opening)
Lens Aperture 1/1.4 I f/2.0 I f/2.8 I f/4.0 I f/5.6 I f/8.0 If/11 I f/16
Footcandles 5 10 120 140 ISO | 160 1320 I 640
reauired
 EASTMAN F IL M S
HIGH SPEED DAYLIGHT COLOR NEGATIVE 5297 (3 5 m m /6 5 m m ) 7297 (1 6 m m )

DESCRIPTION EXPOSURE IN D E X
I DAY I FILTER I TUNG. I FILTER I ID
I 250 I - I 60 I 80B I C
This is a high-speed color negative film with wide exposure latitude that is intended
for use without filters in daylight, with HMI lights, or with mixtures of natural and artificial light.

EXPOSURE TABLE FOR DAYLIGHT (24 frames per second 170° shutter opening)
Lens Aperture 1/1.4 I f/2.0 11/2.0 1f/4.0 lf/5.6 1 f/8.0 1 f/11 I 1/16
Footcandles 10 I 20 140 |0O 1160 I 320 I 640 I 1280
required

EASTMAN EK TAC HR O M E FILM (D A Y LIG H T) 5239 (35m m ) 7239 (1 6 m m )

DESCRIPTION EXPOSURE IN D E X
I DAY I FILTER ITUNG. I FILTER I ID
I 160 I - I 40 I 80A IV N D

This is a moderate speed daylight-balanced color reversal film designed for use under
low-level illumination or for high speed photographic applications. The processed film is
balanced for direct projection or television display.

EXPOSURE TABLE FOR DAYLIGHT (24 frames per second 170° shutter opening)
Lens Aperture f/1.4 f/2.0 f/2.8 f/4.0 f/5.6 1/8.0 f/11
Footcandles 16 32 63 I 125 250 500 I 1000
reauired
 EASTMAN F IL M S
EASTMAN EK TAC HR O M E FILM (Tungsten ) 7240 (1 6 m m )

DESCRIPTION EXPOSURE IN D EX
I DAY I FILTER I TUNG. I FILTER I ID
I 80 | 85B | 125 | - | VNF
This is a moderate speed color reversal film designed for news and d o c um en tary
applications. The processed film is balanced lor direct projection or television display.
EXPOSURE TABLE FOR TUNGSTEN LIGHT (24 frames per second 170° shutter opening)
Lens Aperture |f/1.4 I f/2.01 f/2.81 1/4.01 f/5.6 1 f/8.0 1 1/11
Footcandles | 20 | 40 80 | 160 | 320 | 640 1250
required
EASTMAN EK TAC HR O M E HIGH SPEED FILM (D aylight) 7251 (1 6 m m )

DESCRIPTION EXPOSURE IN D EX
.DAY I FILTER , TUNG. , FILTER , ID
400 - 100 80A VXD

This is a high-speed daylight-balanced color reversal film designed tor use un der
daylight illumination or a variety of HMI, xenon and mercury discharge lamps w ithout
nitration. The exposure index of this film can be increased to El 800 (daylight) or higher
by extended time of developm ent. The processed film is balanced for direct projection or
television display.
EXPOSURE TABLE FOR DAYLIGHT (24 frames per second 170° shutter op ening)
Lens Aperture |f/1.4 I f/2.01 f/2.8 I f/4.0 I f/5.6 I f/8.0 I f/11
Footcandles | 6.3 | 1 2 .5 1 25 I 50 | 100 I 200 I 400
required
 EASTMAN F IL M S
EASTMAN EK TAC HR O M E High Speed Film (Tungsten ) 7250 (1 6 m m )

DESCRIPTION EXPOSURE IN D EX
I DAY I FILTER I TUNG, i FILTER | ID
| 250 | 85B | 400 - | VNX

This is a high-speed color reversal film designed lor use under low-level illum ination
when sup plem ental lighting is unavailable or undesirable. The exposure index of this
film can be increased to El 800 (lungslen) or higher by extended time of de velopm ent.
The processed film is balanced for direct projection or television display.

EXPOSURE TABLE FOR TUNGSTEN LIGHT (24 frames per second 170° shutter opening)
Lens Aperture f/1.4 I 1/2.0 11/2.8 11/4.0 1 f/5.6 1 f/8.0 1 1/11
Footcandles 6.3 I 12.5 I 25 I 50 I 100 I 200 | 400
required
 EASTMAN FILMS
EASTMAN PLUS-X NEGATIVE FILM 5231 (35mm) 7231 (16mm)

EXPOSURE INDEX ID
DESCRIPTION DAY I FILTER I TUNG. I FILTER |(35mm) |(16mm)
80 | | 64 | * |H | PXN
This is a medium-speed panchromatic film designed lor general production use, both
outdoors and in the studio.
EXPOSURE TABLE FOR DAYLIGHT (24 frames per second 170° shutter opening)
Lens Aperture f/1.4 I f/2.0 I 1/2.8 1 f/4.0 1 1/5.6 1 f/8.0 1 f/11
Foolcandles 40 | 80 | 160 | 320 | 630 1250 | 2500
required
*See filler section for B&W photography.

EASTMAN DOUBLE-X NEGATIVE FILM 5222 (35mm) 7222 (16mm)

EXPOSURE INDEX ID
DESCRIPTION DAY I FiLTER I TUNG. I FILTER I (35mm) I (16mm)
250 | | 200 | | C | DXN
This is a high-speed panchromatic negative film designed for use under adverse lighting conditions
and where greater depth of field Is required without Increasing the illumination. This film has medium
graininess. As with other negative, the granularity increases with the density of the image resulting In
increased graininess in the projected print. Avoid overexposing, especially when using in the 16mm format.

EXPOSURE TABLE FOR DAYLIGHT (24 frames per second 170° shutter opening)
Lens Aperture f/1.4 I f/2.0 I f/2.8 I f/4.0 I f/5.6 I f/8.0 If/1 1
Foolcandles 13 | 25 | 50 I 100 I 200 | 400 I 800
required
*See filter section for B&W photography.
 EASTMAN F IL M S

136
EASTMAN PLUS-X REVERSAL FILM 7276 (1 6 m m /S u p e r 8 m m )

DESCRIPTION EXPOSURE IN D EX
I DAY I FILTER ITUNG. I FILTER I ID
| 50 | * I 40 | * | PXR
This is a low-speed panchromatic reversal film designed for general
production use both outdoors and in the studio when sufficient light is available.

EXPOSURE TABLE FOR DAYLIGHT (24 frames per second 170= shutter opening)
Lens Aperture 1/1.4 | f/2.0 i f/2.8 | f/4.0 | f/5.6 I f/0.0 | f/11
Footcandles 63 I 125 I 250 I 500 1 1000 I 2 0 0 0 1 40 00
required
* See filter section for B&W photography.

EASTMAN TRI-X REVERSAL FILM 7278 (1 6 m m /S u p e r 8 m m )

DESCRIPTION EXPOSURE IN D E X
I DAY I FILTER ITUNG I FILTER I ID
I 200 I * I 160 I * I TXR
This is a high-speed panchromatic reversal film suitable for general
motion picture photography.

EXPOSURE TABLE FOR DAYLIGHT (24 frames per second 170° shutter opening)
Lens Aperture 1/1.4 i f/2 .0 1 f/2.8 | f/4.0 i f/5.6 i f/8.0 | f/11 I
Footcandles 16 I 32 I 63 125 I 250 I 500 I 1000
required
 EASTMAN F IL M S
KO D A C H R O M E 25 MOVIE FILM (D A Y LIG H T) 7267 (16 m m /S u p e r 8 m m )

DESCRIPTION EXPOSURE IN D E X
I DAY I FILTER ITUNG I FILTER I ID
I 25 I - I 6 I 80A I
This is a low -speed, daylight-balanced color reversal film designed for general
motion picture photography outdoors. The processed film is balanced for direct projection.

EXPOSURE TABLE FOR DAYLIGHT (24 frames per second 170° shutter opening)
Lens Aperture f/1.4 I i/2.01 f/2.81 f/4.0 I f/5.6 I f/8.0 If/11
Footcandles 100 I 200 I 400 I 800 1 1600 3200 I 6400
required

KO D A C H R O M E 40 MOVIE FILM (Tungsten ) 7268 (1 6 m m /S u p e r Bm m )

DESCRIPTION EXPOSURE IN D E X
I DAY I FILTER I TUNG. I FILTER I ID
I 25 1 85 1 40 I - I
This is a moderate speed, color reversal film designed for news and d o cum en tary
applications. The processed film is balanced for direct projection or television display.

EXPOSURE TABLE FOR TUNGSTEN LIGHT (24 frames per second 170° shutter opening)
Lens Aperture f/1.4 I f/2.01 f/2.8 I f/4.0 11/5.6 I f/8.0 If/11
Footcandles 60 I 125 I 250 I 500 I 1000 2000 I 4000
required

137
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 FUJI F IL M S
FUJI FG PANCHRO M ATIC NEGATIVE FILM 71112 (35mm )

DESCRIPTION EXPOSURE IN D E X
I DAY I FILTER ITUN G . I FILTER I ID
I 80 I * I 64 I * I FG
This is a medium-speed panchromatic negative film with fine grain and high definition.
Designed for general cinem atography, both indoor and outdoor filming with mixtures of
natural and artificial illum ination.
EXPOSURE TABLE FOR TUNGSTEN LIGHT (24 frames per second 170° shutter opening)
Lens Aperture f/1.4 I f/2.0 I f/2.8 11/4.0 I f/5.6 I f/8.0 I i/11
Footcandles 40 I 00 I 160 I 320 I 640 I 1 2 5 0 1 2500
required
'See filter section for B&W photography.

FUJI RP PA NCHRO M ATIC NEGATIVE FILM 72161 (1 6 m m )

DESCRIPTION EXPOSURE IN D E X
I DAY I FILTER ITUNG. I FILTER I ID
| 80 | - I 64 | - | RP
This is a medium-speed panchromatic negative film with fine grain and high definition,
suitable for general cinem atography. This lilm is designed for rapid processing w here
fast access is re q u ire d ..
EXPOSURE TABLE FOR TUNGSTEN LIGHT (24 frames per second 170° shutter opening)
Lens Aperture f/1.4 I f/2.0 I f/2.8 Iİ/4.0 I f/5.6 I f/8.0 If/1 1
Footcandles 40 180 1160 1320 1640 I 1250 I 2500
required
*See filler section for B&W photoaraDhv.
 Lenses
L enses m ay be classified as n o rm a l, te le p h o to /
retrofocus, zoom, anam orphic and auxiliary.
N orm al lenses are compactly m ounted com binations
of glasses, assembled so they m ay be m ounted in a camera
approxim ately one focal length from the image plane, or
film. N orm al lenses of long focal length tend to be bulky,
therefore telephoto lenses are designed w ith negative glass
elements arranged in a m anner that perm its the telephoto
lens to be m ounted closer to the image plane than its focal
length w ould indicate. W hen cam era design, because of
beam splitters or reflex shutters, does not perm it short fo­
cal length norm al lenses to be m ounted w ithin one focal
length of the film, the retrofocus or inverse telephoto lens
design is used: a lens of short effective focal length b u t long
back focus. Zoom lenses are a combination of the above,
with the added feature that one or more elements m ay be
moved in relation to the others. This provides not only a
multiple num ber of focal lengths w ithin one body, but p er­
mits changes of focal length, and therefore im age size, d u r­
ing cinematography.
Anamorphic lenses are com posed of the above types
of lenses, in combination w ith either a cylindrical or pris­
matic element to com press the horizontal image, provid­
ing for a w ider aspect ratio w ithin the confines of the stan­
dard motion-picture frame. Nearly all present anam orphic
lenses have a com pression ratio, or squeeze ratio, of 2:1.
(Other squeeze ratios have been used in the past, and there
is at least one on the horizon contem plating the use of a
different squeeze ratio.)
Auxiliary lenses are positive tele-extenders and nega­
tive w ide-angle adap ters, both of w hich alter the focal
length of prim e or zoom lenses, and sim ple elements u su ­
ally referred to as "diopters" or "split-field diopters."

Selection of Lenses
Photographic and projection lenses are designed to
com prom ise aberration and distortion to a m inim um in a
specific frame area. Lenses designed for cine use will not
generally fill a still-cam era fram e, nor w ill still-cam era
lenses necessarily be as sharp as cine lenses in the smaller
frame size. Likewise, design com prom ises are m ade to al­
low large diaphragm opening w ith acceptable b u t not nec­
142
essarily o p tim u m sh arp n ess; b etter sh a rp n e ss m ay be
found if such a lens is stopped dow n a notch or two.
O ne w idely quoted evaluation is M odulation Trans­
fer F unction (MTF), an objective m easure of sharpness.
W hile a useful m eans of com parison, it does not account
for all distortions or aberrations (to be useful, MTF m ust
be m easured in the corners as well as in the center of the
lens field). In sim ple terms, MTF com pares the contrast of
a lens w ith its resolving pow er. The resultant graph plots
the MTF in percent versus the line frequency (lines per
mm). The higher the curve and the flatter it is, the greater
is the contrast of the resulting im age and the m ore uniform
the im age quality.

Testing
Some suppliers and some independent agencies have
test equipm ent and will help in evaluation. While it is be­
yond the scope of this m anual to discuss lens design in
greater depth, it should be pointed out that the cinematog­
rapher should take particular note of aberrations w hich are
most evident at wide-open apertures and diffraction which
limits the smallest useful aperture. Photographic testing is
tedious, time-consum ing and costly; the use of such a fa­
cility w hen available can be helpful. Q ualities to be ob­
served, preferably in com parison w ith a lens of kno w n
quality, include im age sharpness at center an d corners,
contrast an d flare, im age distortion, and uniform ity of ex­
posure (vignetting).

Care and Maintenance

W hen not in use, lenses should be kept capped, and
w hen transported, kept in a p ad d ed case. Shocks and vi­
bration m ay jar the elements loose (this includes high-fre­
quency vibration such as from an aircraft engine). W hen
filming outdoors under dusty conditions, protect the lens
with a filter. If no filter is required, use a clean optical glass
or a UV filter (filters, of course, should be m ade of first-
quality o ptical glass). It is less expensive to replace a
scratched or m arred filter than a front lens element.
Lenses should be inspected periodically for physi­
cal condition, including lens surface exam ination w ith a
magnifying glass to look for fine scratches, loose glass ele­
ments, and loose mechanical elements such as focus scale
rings, iris diaphragm s, and zoom lens linkage and cams.
143
 N ever d e a n a lens w ith dry tissue or fabric. Tiny abra­
sive particles m ay cause scratches. The safest procedure is:
1. Blow off loose d u st w ith "canned air." (If "a ir" is
not available, a clean, very soft camel hair brush m ay be
used; to remove all residual oil from the brush, first w ash
it in ether or pure grain alcohol and shake it out so that it is
thoroughly dry. Keep the brush in an air-tight container.
U nder no circumstances should the brush ever touch skin.
If it does so inadvertently, w ash it again w ith ether or al­
cohol.) Do not blow dust off w ith the mouth. Next to dried
fingerprints, saliva is the hardest thing to rem ove from a
lens surface w ithout scratching it.
2. If necessary to remove sm ears from the lens surface,
fold a lens tissue and dam p en the folded edge w ith lens-
cleaning fluid. Carefully w ipe the lens surface w ith a cir­
cular motion, starting at the center and w orking tow ard the
edges. If this will not remove the smear, take a new , clean
piece of lens tissue and repeat the procedure using p ure xy­
lene or p ure grain alcohol (not rubbing alcohol). Be careful
not to touch the lens m ount w ith the xylene or alcohol. If
you do, discard the lens tissue and start over. Xylene is p ar­
ticularly useful in rem oving oil or oily fingerprints from
lenses. If it leaves a slight sm ear after removing an oily spot,
repeat the action using alcohol.
Fingerprints, or any contacts w ith skin, leave a residue
which may perm anently etch the lens surface. N ever clean
camera lenses w ith silicone-coated lens tissue or cloth.

Removing Lens Retainer Rings

The cinem atographer, unless skilled in lens repair,
should avoid disassembly of lenses. If, in emergency, it is
necessary to do so in die field, the ring m ay generally be
easily unscrew ed if the lightest fingertip grasp, w ith the
least possible pressure, is applied. The m ore pressure ap­
plied, the greater the expansion of the ring on the sides
opposite the fingers. Such pressure causes expansion of the
ring and makes removal very difficult, if not impossible.
A particularly stub born ring m ay often be rem oved by
applying a drop of carbon tetrachloride or a similar solvent.
The same technique m ay be used in rem oving filter retain­
ing rings.

144
Condensation
W hen equipm ent, including lenses, is taken from a
cool, dry environm ent to a w arm , moist environm ent, con­
densation will occur on the cold surfaces. This particularly
applies w hen m oving from an air-conditioned environ­
m ent to the outdoors. A few m inutes should be allowed for
the equipm ent to w arm u p and the condensation to disap­
pear before photographing. Visual inspection should suf­
fice to determ ine w hen this takes place.

Understanding an MTF Chart

by Bern Levy

For many, evaluating a lens has usually been a m atter

of being aw are of the m anufacturer's past record and the
experience of others w ho have used that type of lens. To
those m ore technically inclined, the use of a test chart indi­
cating resolving p ow er, in lines p er m illim eter, m ay be
considered a criterion of lens quality. H ow ever, resolving
pow er value can be very subjective and does not necessar­
ily indicate the true value of a lens. Resolving pow er alone,
regardless of its accuracy, can be misleading. Lens m anu­
facturers now utilize a m ethod of lens testing that assesses
the actual capability of a given lens.
This m e th o d is referred to as M odulation Transfer
Function, or MTF. Scientifically, MTF is defined as a func­
tion that describes the m odulation of a sinusoidal object as
the frequency increases. In sim pler terms, MTF com pares
the contrast of a lens w ith its resolving power. The relation­
ship of sharpness, plus the ability to reproduce an image,
gives a lens the property to produce a quality image. It is
the result of this com parison that forms the MTF curve. As
the spatial frequency (the distance of one black & w hite line
pair) of the test chart increases, the image pattern is reduced
in contrast. This change in contrast or "m odulation" is the
basis for the MTF m ethod of evaluating a lens.
Since the M odulation Transfer Function is a m ethod
of quantitatively m easuring the lim its of resolution of a
given area and the ability to reproduce an im age of a given
area, a single MTF curve only indicates the response for the
specific conditions tested. The param eters for test data nor­
mally include focal length, aperture, object distance, light

145
 NARROW ANGLE ____ MID ZOOM WIDE ANGLE

146
TYPICAL M. T.F. OF 3:1 ZOOM LENS FOR 16 mm. FORMAT MEASUREMENT CONDITIONS: OBJECT AT œ, FULL APERTURE, WHITE LIGHT
color tem perature and the im age field radius as well as the
spatial frequency of the test chart. In order to fully com pre­
h end the perform ance of a lens, a n um ber of MTF curves
m ust be generated to cover a m ultitude of points w ithin
these test param eters.
To interpret the MTF curve, w e m ust first understand
that the horizontal axis of the chart norm ally indicates the
spatial frequencies in cycles per millim eter and the verti­
cal axis provides the m odulation transfer factor or contrast
values w ith a m axim um of 100%. The basic criteria for in­
terpreting an MTF curve are that the higher the curve and
the straighter it is, the greater the contrast of the image and
the more uniform the im age quality. W hereas no lens can
deliver 100% contrast, an MTF chart show ing a relatively
flat curve above 70% w ould indicate an excellent lens. C on­
sideration m ust be m ade for the higher frequencies (right
side of the horizontal axis) as even a high-quality lens can­
not render an MTF (contrast) of m ore than 50% at a fre­
quency of over 50 cycles.
M ost MTF charts will show two curves: one for tan­
gential lines (broken) and another for radial lines (continu­
ous). Telephone lines can be considered tangential lines and
telephone poles can be interpreted as radial lines. The op­
tical aberration astigmatism show s u p as sharp poles w ith
out-of-focus wires. An MTF chart show ing a m arked dis­
tance betw een radial and tangential curves will clearly in­
dicate that the lens suffers from astigmatism. Diversely, a
chart ind icatin g the tw o lines ru n n in g very close will
specify a lens w ith very slight astigmatism.
From the view point of MTF, lenses can be roughly
classified into two groups: high contrast w ith limited reso­
lution, and low er contrast w ith greater resolution. W hat is
appropriate for one is not necessarily correct for another.
TTie film em ulsion characteristics or the limiting frequency
of a television cam era tube will dictate the preferable type.
The one w ith the best contrast properties in the frequency
range to be recorded may be considered ideal.

147
 Modem Telephoto Lenses
by William J. Turner
& Chris C ondon

The term "telephoto lens" is generally used to describe

any lens, regardless of its optical configuration, w hich
magnifies the image at least 50% m ore than the norm al lens
on any specific camera. The term "true telephoto" refers to
lenses designed for physical com pactness, yet having an
effective focal length (EFL) longer than the physical dis­
tance of the optics from the im age plane. This type of lens
employs a negative rear optical component. The term "tele­
lens" is becoming m ore com mon than "telephoto" lens.
Many of the telephoto lenses in use today (over 180mm
EFL) were originally designed for use w ith 35m m single­
lens reflex still cameras. Several major still cam era m anu­
facturers, in efforts to satisfy the unique telephoto lens re­
quirem ents of professional spo rts p h o to grap hers, have
designed superior quality, high-speed and zoom lenses
using newly com pounded, low dispersion optical glass (in
some cases crystal substances such as fluorite). T hrough the
use of state-of-the-art com puter-aided optical design tech­
niques, these lenses achieve a degree of color correction,
sharpness and contrast far superior to those previously
attainable in high-speed lenses.
Most of these lenses are very fast for their focal length.
The Canon 300mm and 400mm f/2.8 lenses have become
quite popular. The now discontinued N ikon 300mm f /2
has become an industry-standard lens. Aside from their tra­
ditional uses in the fields of docum entary, new s, sports,
wildlife, and surveillance cinematography, telephoto lenses
are used increasingly in the shooting of commercials and
action films. A m ong the advantages of tele-lenses are dra­
matic close-ups, cam era unobtrusiveness, greater safety,
technical practicality, pictorial effect and novelty. M ost of
these lenses also feature internal focusing. Com panies such
as Century Precision Optics have modified these lenses for
the exacting requirem ents of professional cinem atography
by converting the rear section an d re-calibrating the iris in
T-stops.
Som e lenses are m o re extensiv ely m o d ified w ith
larger, more visible footage scales, precision integral follow-
focus gears, and special m ounting brackets. The basic op­
tics, however, are never changed.
148
Techniques
Tele-lenses tend to isolate the m ain subject from the
background and foreground due to their inherently shal­
low depth-of-field. They also appear to com press objects
at v ariou s distances from the cam era, an d m ay be em ­
ployed to bring the background closer to the subject. A tele­
lens also slows the apparent advance of a subject m oving
to w ard the cam era. It is m uch easier to track an object
m oving laterally across a field w ith a tele-lens, because it
will rem ain in view for a longer period of tim e and still
retain a large im age size. It is often advisable to m ove fur­
ther back, use a long tele-lens an d m ake a slow p an that
films a large im age for a greater length of time, rather than
m ove in close to the subject's line of travel w ith a short fo­
cal length lens.
Several unique problem s sometimes arise w hen shoot­
ing w ith tele-lenses. Increasing the im age m agnification
also results in increased effect of camera vibration, thermal
effects of atmospheric refraction (heatw aves), atmospheric
dust, vapors and ultraviolet radiation reflected from the
same. H ow ever, new techniques have resulted in better
image quality even under these adverse conditions. Follow­
ing are a n um ber of corrective tele-lens techniques that of­
fer solutions to these problems. For example, camera vibra­
tion d u e to vibrating m otor drive, unbalanced shutter or
other mechanical characteristics can be m inim ized. While
such vibration m ay have little or no detectable effects w ith
w ide-angle or norm al lenses, it can be highly magnified
w hen using long focal lengths. A solid tripod and a lens
cradle should always be used. M ost professional cameras
have sufficient magnification in their reflex focusing sys­
tems so that any vibration effect can be observed in the
viewfinder image. The tele-lens should first be focused in
with the camera operating, and focus should be com pared
with the cam era at rest to detect any adverse vibration ef­
fect.

Filters & Tele-lenses

Several types of filters can im prove color in tele-lens
shots. The m ost useful are Skylight 1A, 2A, 2B and 2C; also
the U V 15, UV 16, U V 17 and others of com parable charac­
teristics. Proper filtering of black & w hite films will greatly
aid in m inim izing atm ospheric haze. Yellow, orange, and
red filters im prov e definition an d can increase contrast
149
because they filter out violet and ultraviolet light. Dramatic
haze penetration can be recorded w ith heavy red filters
such as W ratten 25 and 29. The greatest haze penetration,
far beyond visual rendition, can be produced w ith infra­
red sensitive film and any of the following W ratten filters:
72B, 8 7 ,88A and 89A. (See "Infrared Cinem atography.")
A w ord of caution regarding filters em ployed in front
of long focal length, high-perform ance lenses: the filter's
optical quality m ust m atch that of the lens on w hich it is
used. Any lack of optical flatness will introduce aberrations
which can ruin the image. For this reason, it is strongly rec­
om m ended never to use any untested filter, especially with
long focal length lenses.
It is becoming increasingly com mon to use glass filters
at the back of telephoto lenses. In some cases, the filters are
used via a filter holder that is inserted into a slot at the rear
of the lens. In other cases, the filters are m ounted in the
camera adapter itself at the rear of the lens. There are many
advantages to using the filter at the rear of the lens. Filters
are m uch sm aller an d less costly. The m ost com m on sizes
are 40.5 m m and 48 mm. Used behind the lens, the quality
of the filter is not as critical as in front of the lens. Standard
commercial filters are typically of more than sufficient qual­
ity for use behind the lens w ithout causing degradation of
the image. Recently, filter stages have been added behind
many telephoto lenses. These stages allow rectangular fil­
ters to be rotated and translated, not only allowing the use
polarizing filters, b u t hard-edge graduated filters as well.
These filters are com monly used in two sizes: 2" x 3" and
45 x 70 mm.
To maintain the accuracy of the focus calibrations (and
any focus m arks that may be m ade during the course of the
shot), the num ber and thickness of filters used behind the
lens m ust rem ain constant. This m eans that clear filters
m ust be used w hen no colored or effects filters are in place.
The filters being used m ust also be of exact thickness to
avoid shifting the predeterm ined focus of the lens. Both
Tiffen and H arrison are currently m anufacturing these rect­
angular filters to a consistent thickness.
The use of the multiple filters behind the lens can cre­
ate another problem. Clear filters are norm ally not anti-re­
flection coated. The actual light loss caused by an uncoated
clear filter is only % of a stop and, typically, can be ignored.
Clear filters are said to cause "no light loss." H ow ever,
using three (3) uncoated filters behind the lens results in
150
three (3) losses of Vi each, adding u p to at least 'A stop. This
loss, therefore, m ust be taken into account w hen figuring
the exposure (especially w ith m ultiple clear filters).
The best solution to the "heat w ave" problem is to
shoot during the early m orning hours. A high dow nw ard
camera angle will sometimes minimize heat w aves by less­
ening the am ount of ground level atm osphere that the lens
m ust shoot through.
Focus collimation of long focus lenses can be affected
significantly by tem perature extremes. Lenses w hich are
adjusted at room tem perature may not be in focus in high
desert tem peratures d u e to therm al expansion of m ount
com ponents. Focus should always be checked in the field
under actual or sim ulated production conditions. In cold
climates, condensation of m oisture and cem ent separation
can be m inim ized by gradual exposure to environm ental
extremes.
T-stop calibration of tele-lenses is the sam e as for short
focal length lenses. However, it should be kept in m ind that
intervening haze actually lightens distant objects. The re­
sulting aerial perspective (a gradual lightening of objects
at increasing distances) will often result in an ap p aren t
overexposure w hen a distant object is isolated in a telephoto
shot. Many cinem atographers are, therefore, un der the im­
pression that tele-lenses are calibrated differently and re­
quire less exposure. Actually, the small portion of the dis­
tant scene being filmed is lighter in tone and lacks contrast
because of atm ospheric conditions.
To counterbalance the lack of contrast usually encoun­
tered in long-range filming, special em ulsions m ay be cho­
sen for use w ith high-pow er tele-lenses. Sometimes the film
can be developed to a slightly higher gam m a (if sufficient
footage is involved to m ake this practical). Finally, because
tele-lenses tend to magnify lateral image blur to an unnatu­
ral degree, it m ay be advisable to overcrank the camera
somewhat.

Lens Extenders (Multipliers)

A lens extender, w hich consists of a m ulti-elem ent
optical attachm ent, m ay be positioned behind a prim e lens
to increase its focal length. These m ay be successfully used
w ith m any types of tele-lenses. It is a simple, inexpensive
w ay to further extend the focal length of tele-lenses. Extend­
ers of better quality can render acceptably sharp images;
however, they should be stopped dow n for best definition.
151
 Lens extenders have an exposure increase factor cor­
responding to their pow er. A 1.4X extender will increase
the focal length of the lens 1.4X and require a 1-stop increase
in exposure. Example: a 300mm f/2.8 lens becomes 420mm
f/4 w ith a 1.4X extender. A 2X extender will double the
focal length of the lens and require a 2-stop increase in ex­
posure. Example: A 400mm f/2.8 lens becomes a 800mm
f/5.6 with a 2X extender.
Since tele-extenders already cause a light loss, the dim
image may be difficult to focus and view. Effective aper­
tures are rarely faster than f / 8 or f /1 1, or even f/16. Extend­
ers can be com bined for greater magnification. The pow er
should be multiplied to obtain the w orking power. For in­
stance: two 2X extenders can be combined to form a 4X unit,
which w ould have an exposure factor of 16 and require a
4-stop increase in exposure.

Catadioptric or Reflective Systems

Reflective optical systems em ploying m irrored optical
surfaces enable long focal lengths to be folded inside of a
com pact assembly, thus saving space and weight. These
systems usually combine reflective surfaces and refractive
correcting lenses. The color correction is good and normally
requires no correction for using infrared sensitive film.
Because of the necessity of using the entire light path, an
iris diaphragm usually cannot be incorporated in these
systems. Neutral density filters or a reduced shutter open­
ing may have to be used to reduce exposure. Careful com­
parative tests are advisable to determ ine the suitability of
these lenses for the intended purpose.
These lenses typically have a secondary reflective sur­
face either on the back surface of the front correcting ele­
ment, or as a separate element m ounted inside the lens. The
light is then reflected back through a hole in the prim ary
mirror at the back of the lens and onto the film. The block­
ing of the center of the lens by the secondary m irror results
in the out-of-focus highlights and points being rendered on
the film as rings (or donuts). This effect should be noted and
this type of lens should not be used if this will be a prob­
lem. In many cases, these out-of-focus rings are desired and
are the main reason for using the m irrored lens. It should
be noted that mirror lenses typically have a T-num ber ap ­
proximately one (1) stop slower than the actual f-number.
Exposure tests should be run prior to use, or the lens should

152
be calibrated on equipm ent capable of m easuring the ac­
tual T-stop of the lens.
The prim ary requirem ent for achieving m axim um re­
solving pow er and finest im age quality w ith a tele-lens is
careful focusing. Long focal length lenses possess inher­
ently shallow depth-of-field characteristics. This is a law of
physics and cannot be changed; therefore, some m eans of
focusing through the lens m u st be em ployed. Secondly,
camera steadiness m ust be assured by rigid lens m ounting
and absence of vibration. Thirdly, the finest quality filters,
carefully chosen to fit the filming conditions, should be
em ployed. A long lens shade is essential. It should be care­
fully designed so as not to restrict the angular coverage of
the lens. It m ust also have a totally non-reflective interior,
as should all surfaces of the lens m o unt that are exposed
to the im age-form ing light.
M odern telephoto lenses have proven to be one of the
m ost useful tools for creative cinem atography, often ren­
dering subject details, com pression, and selectiveness that
m ight otherw ise have been impossible.

Zoom Lenses
by Bern Levy

In o rder to understand w hy w e use a zoom lens, it is

best to first understand w hat a zoom lens is. By definition
a zoom lens is a precision o p tical/m e ch a n ica l system ,
w hich can change its field of view w ith o u t noticeably
changing its aperture or focus. This is m ade possible by the
use of complex cams and followers controlling precisely
designed and m anufactured optical com ponents.
T oday the zo om lens is u se d m ainly as a variable
prime, m eaning that the zoom lens carries w ithin it an in­
finite num ber of focal lengths w hich can be utilized for the
specific com position required. The cinem atographer has
available almost every conceivable focal length and aper­
ture found in fixed focal length lenses. Cine zoom s have
ranges u p to 25X now , w ith focal lengths of 7.5mm to
625mm and apertures as high as f/11 currently available,
leaving very few requirem ents for fixed focal length lenses.
In addition to these properties, the zoom lens can achieve
special effects by ever-changing the field of view, otherwise
know n as zooming.
153
 Those characteristics w hich we consider im portant in
selecting a fixed focal length lens are equally im portant in
selecting a zoom lens. In addition to ap erture an d focal
length, w e m ust consider zoom range, m inim um focusing
distance, correction, etc. in determ ining w hich zoom lens
is suitable for your purposes. Equally im portant are your
ow n requirem ents for this lens. Is extremely close focusing
necessary? Is high aperture im portant? Will you be shoot­
ing close-ups indoors? O r mostly outdoors from long dis­
tances? All aspects m ust be considered.
O ne lens may allow better operational flexibility than
another lens and therefore reduce the dem ands on the cam­
era. As an example, a close-focusing lens may cut produc­
tion time as com pared to a lens th at requires the use of
close-up attachments. A lens w ith a large zoom range may
reduce the n um ber of times the cam era is repositioned.
Reliability of the lens has a direct relationship to the m anu­
facturer. The past record of the lens design as well as the
m anufacturer's reputation in the marketplace m ust be con­
sid ered. A re service facilities available? Is the facility
equipped w ith proper instrum entation and personnel? Will
parts be available?
A nother pertinent consideration is w hether to p u r­
chase a new or used zoom lens. As the zoom lens is a m e­
chanical system, the age and previous use of the lens will
determ ine w hether a used lens, at a lower cost, has a value
over a new lens at a higher cost. Are the zoom and focus
mechanisms smooth? W hat is the appearance of the coat­
ing? Are the front and rear elem ents scratched? The an­
swers to these questions will help determ ine the value of a
zoom lens.

Mechanics of Zoom Lenses

Perhaps the single m ost im portant factor in preparing
a zoom lens for use is the mounting procedure. Unlike fixed
focal length lens, a zoom will not perform correctly if not
seated properly in the camera. The distance from the seat
or flange of the lens m ount to the film plane (known as the
flange focal distance) is hypercritical. If not set to the pre­
scribed dim ension (17.52mm for S tandard "C " m ount,
40.0mm for Aaton, 52mm for Arriflex Standard, 38.1mm for
CP, 48mm for Eclair) out-of-focus im ages will result w hen
zooming from long focal lengths to short focal lengths. This
phenom enon is a result of the depth of focus, the lens-to-

154
film tolerance being greater at the long focal length than at
the short focal length. To avoid m ounting problem s, both
the lens m ount and camera socket should be cleaned be­
fore inserting the lens into the camera. It m ust be pointed
out that professional zoom lenses m ust be adjusted to an
extremely small tolerance specified by the lens m anufac­
turer, w hich could be as precise as .01mm (.0004") of the
flange focal distance, and therefore, a small particle of dirt
m ay actually interfere w ith the p ro p er seating of these
lenses.
W hile some zoom lens diaphragm s are graduated in
both f- and T-stops, exposure should only be set on the T
scale. Because the large num ber of optical elem ents in a
zoom lens affects the transmission of light through the lens,
there is a difference between the geometric aperture (f-stop)
and the photom etric aperture (T-stop).
Zooming, or the changing of focal length, results in the
changing of im age size at the film plane w ithout varying
the subject-to-lens distance. This can be accomplished by
either mechanical or electrical m eans. W hile m ost zoom
lenses rely on the m anual turn in g of the zoom barrel, a
more controlled and therefore m ore consistently accurate
rate can be achieved by the use of electrical m otor drives.
In some cases, this is not preferred. While some cinematog­
raphers prefer to actually rotate the zoom barrel directly by
h an d (they claim that this m e th o d gives them a m uch
greater control), others prefer an electrical servo system
with a rate control to provide a dam pening effect. TTiis al­
lows the operator to start the zoom very slowly and then
accelerate to the desired m axim um speed. The situation can
also be repeated, in reverse, to end the zoom slowly. This
dam pening effect is desirable as it tends to make the zoom
m ovem ent itself less noticeable. R egardless of w hether
turning the zoom barrel by hand or by motor, it is suggested
that the lens be zoom ed the entire focal length range before
actually m aking a take in order to distribute the lubrication
within the zoom cams and bearings. This will result in a
much sm oother zoom effect, eliminating irregular m ove­
ments or hang-ups.
Before attem pting to focus a lens, the viewfinder eye­
piece m ust be adjusted to your vision. It is recom m ended
that the lens actually be defocused prior to setting this eye­
piece. Y ou m u s t re a liz e th a t in this p r o c e d u re , the
viewfinder is being set to adjust the focus of your eye to the
ground glass view ing system of the camera only. The lens
155
is not considered as part of this system. The view finder
should be adjusted so that only the grain of the ground
glass is sharp. At this point, the eyepiece should be locked
in position so that it will not be m oved accidentally during
use.
W hen attem pting to focus, the lens should always be
set at its longest focal length an d at full aperture, as these
conditions establish the m inim um depth of field for a zoom
lens and provide m axim um sensitivity. Similarly to zoom ­
ing, the focus barrel should be turned throughout its en­
tire range in order to distribute the lubrication for a smooth
effect before m aking a take. For "grab" shots, one should
know the hyperfocal distance of the lens. To review, the
basic rule is that w hen the lens is focused on the hyperfo­
cal distance, the depth of field extends from half the hyper­
focal distance to infinity, providing the m axim um focus­
ing range for a possible "grab" shot (see tables on pages 174-
200 ).

Do's and Don't's

It should be our aim to create pictures that do not bring
attention to the mechanics involved in the production of the
picture. We m ust rem em ber that w e are operating a mo-
tion-picture camera and not a moving picture camera. We
m ust realize that every zoom m ovem ent, like every cam ­
era movement, should have a motivation. The zoom should
not be used merely because it is available. The fact there is
a zoom lens on a cam era does not necessitate utilizing the
lens for the zoom effect. The "trom boning" technique in­
vented by 8m m am ateurs and propagated by profession­
als around the w orld should be avoided unless that p ar­
ticular effect is required in the production.
Basically, a zoom lens contains an infinite series of fo­
cal lengths. We should consider the zoom as a variable
prime lens using it in m uch the sam e m anner as fixed fo­
cal length lenses. W hen a specific focal length is called for,
the zoom lens should be set for that specific focal length and
the scene sh o t ju st as if a fixed focal le n g th lens w as
m ounted on the camera.
O n the other hand, w hen the production calls for a
searching or revealing effect, the zoom lens is capable of
handling this technique. The searching technique w as in­
herited from broadcast television coverage of baseball and
other major sports. It starts w ith an overall wide-angle shot

156
of the arena. U pon the decision of the team involved to en­
act a sensational play, the lens is zoom ed in to a tight shot
of the player at the center of the action. The opposite type
of zoom m ovem ent, "revealing" the subject, is Used more
often in commercials and theatrical films as it can impose
trem endous im pact if carried out correctly. In this type of
zoom m ovem ent, the zoom lens is first set at the long focal
length to provide a narrow angle of view and, upon cue, is
zoom ed to a wide-angle position to reveal another object
to accent the plot.
An intimacy w ith a m oving subject can be achieved by
zoom ing at the sam e rate as the subject is m oving either
tow ard or aw ay from the camera. This method keeps the
subject size the sam e even though the subject is in motion.
The effect is heightened by the changing of perspective in
that w hile the subject size rem ains relatively constant
th ro u g h o u t the sequence, the b ackgro und relationship
changes according to the distance from the subject to the
background. The perspective changes only because the
distance betw een the lens and the subject is changing. The
focal length of the lens is not the controlling factor in de­
term ining perspective. The focal length of the lens deter­
mines the angle of view, w hich provides us w ith the re­
quired w idth and height of the picture.
The zoom lens can also be used to introduce speed. A
very fast zoom from a w ide angle to a tight shot of a speed­
ing subject will accelerate the m ovem ent of that subject.
Inanimate objects can be m ade to appear to m ove by proper
zoom movements. The changing of image size in a given
sequence can actually create the illusion of movement.

Zoom Lens Flexibility

There are a num ber of attachm ents available for zoom
lenses to increase their flexibility. These attachm ents can be
used to fu rth er change the angle of view , w orking d is­
tances, color and contrast, as well as protect the lens. One
of the m ost com m only used front-m ounted attachm ents is
the close-up lens (sometimes referred to as a diopter). These
attachm ents fit on the front of a zoom lens, perm itting a
closer than norm al focusing range, as well as the full use
of the zoom. Its prim e limitation is that focusing to infinity
is not possible.
One of the m ost recent front-m ounted attachm ents is
a unit to increase the focal length of a zoom. This telephoto
attachment, while increasing the focal length, m ay reduce
157
the zoom range w hereas it is limited by its front diam eter
to a m edium -w ide angle.
As an example, a 15-to-l zoom is reduced to a 6-to-l
because of this phenom enon. A nother front-m ounted at­
tachment perform s the opposite function. A retrozoom , or
wide-angle attachment, will decrease the focal length; how ­
ever, in this case, the zoom range is not affected. An addi­
tional benefit of the wide-angle attachment is that it reduces
the m inim um focusing distance.
The most im portant reason for utilizing front m ounted
attachm ents is that the geometric aperture (f-stop) is not
affected, degradation of im age quality is minimal and a
normal focusing range to infinity is maintained.
On the other hand, rear m ounted attachments, such as
range extenders, not only m ultiply focal lengths, they also
affect aperture and existing aberrations. As an example, a
2X range extender m o u n ted on the rear of a 25-250mm,
f/3.2 lens will double the focal length (50-500mm) as well
as the aperture (f/6.4). A berrations w hich may not have
been noticeable on film are magnified 4X due to the geom ­
etry involved, creating an im age of questionable quality.
W hen sufficient light is available, such as during outdoor
sporting events, the iris is stopped dow n at least halfway
and these aberrations are reduced, generally resulting in ac­
ceptable images.
While rear-m ounted filters do represent a less expen­
sive m ethod of light filtration, it m ust be pointed out that
they also elongate the back focal distance of a lens to a di­
mension '/>the thickness of the filter material. As tolerances
for m ounting professional zoom lenses are m easured in
hundredths of a millimeter, this extension of the back fo­
cal distance of a zoom m ay seriously affect its image qual­
ity. Of course, cameras w hich are m anufactured w ith fil­
ter slots have adjusted flange focal distances w hich com­
pensate for this elongation. This deviation then dem ands
that even though a filter is not used, a UV or clear optical
flat of equivalent thickness to the norm al filter material
m ust be inserted in the optical path in order to com pensate
for the increased back focal distance.
Front filters, how ever, do not require any adjustm ent
of the back focal distance and are therefore recom m ended.
If no color filtration is required, a light UV can serve to in­
crease the "snap" of a picture as well as serve as an inex­
pensive protective device for the front elem ent of a zoom
lens.
158
Cine Zoom Lenses on Video Cameras
N ow that the video m edium has progressed to state-
of-the-art eq u ip m en t, w here gam m a an d other picture
qualities are controllable enough to provide the "film look,"
cinem atographers are finding a need for a greater variety
of lenses to render the same quality images they have ph o ­
tographed on film. U nfortunately, professional television
equipm ent m anufacturers have not produced m any "ex­
trem e" type lenses and therefore there is an urge to utilize
the great variety of cine lenses on video cameras.
Cine lenses may be used successfully on black & white
and single-tube color cameras. As m ost professional pro­
ductions w ould utilize a prism -type camera, w e m ust re­
fer to this type of m echanism as being limited in its capa­
bility to accept cine lenses. The prism or beam splitter that
breaks u p the w hite light com ing from the lens into the
three prim ary colors requires an elongated back focal dis­
tance of a given lens in order to com pensate for the glass
in the prism. Whereas some extreme cine lenses do not have
this extra back focal length, it is not possible to utilize them
on professional video cameras. D epending upon the size
of the actual prism in the camera, it has been found that
focal lengths of 15mm and longer can be used successfully
on m ost 2/3-inch prism -type cameras. Extreme w ide-angle
and high-aperture lenses cannot be used. Several optical
adapters are currently available to enable you to utilize cine
lenses on video cameras. The users of these devices report
low-quality im ages in addition to bulkiness an d high cost,
negating their original concept.

Lens Maintenance
U ser m aintenance is principally lim ited to keeping
glass surfaces clean. N o adjustm ents should be m ade to a
zoom lens except by a qualified technician. As most major
lens m anufacturers m aintain their ow n service centers or
appoint service representatives, it is best to limit any repairs
to this group. This is extremely im portant, as only a trained
technician, w ho know s the effects of the adjustm ents and
works w ith the proper tools and m easuring instrum ents,
can properly carry out a zoom lens repair.
Should m aintenance be required, it is extremely im ­
portant to realize that the service facility can not rectify the
problem unless it is clearly indicated to them. Prior to ship­
ping a lens to a service facility, it is essential that the prob­
159
lem be docum ented, clearly indicating all aspects of the
difficulties encountered. If necessary, a test film, show ing
the problem, should accom pany the lens. Terms such as
"the lens isn 't sh a rp " or "it d o e s n 't w o rk " sh o u ld be
avoided. Specific details should be indicated, such as, "the
lens goes soft at a specific focal length," "the iris blades stick
at f/? " or "the lens has been d ropp ed" and possibly "the
lens has been immersed in sea w ater." By giving these de­
tails, the service technician will be able to attack the prob­
lem and solve it quickly, resulting in a lower cost to you.
Last but not least, the lens should always be packaged
properly. Do not attem pt to ship a lens, w hether to a ser­
vice center or otherwise, w ithout having proper packaging
insulation surrounding it to a depth of at least 2". Just as
im portant, it is essential that the lens be packaged so that
there is absolutely no m ovem ent of the lens or any parts
packaged therein. By adhering to these few rules, your
zoom lens should provide you with excellent service over
the years.

Lens Formulas
Hyperfocal Distance
Hyperfocal distance of a lens represents a special case
of depth of field in which objects at infinity, as well as the
nearest possible objects, are photographed with acceptable
sharpness. Therefore, if a lens is focused at the hyperfocal
distance, all image points betw een one-half that distance
and infinity will not exceed a specific circle of confusion,
or expressed more simply, will be acceptably sharp.
The formula for hyperfocal distance (using inches or
fractions thereof) is:
F F = focal length of lens
H= f = f/sto p num ber
f x Cc Cc = circle of confusion

The circle of confusion for the hyperfocal distance can

be briefly described as the image of a point situated out­
side the focused distance plane that will therefore not form
the image of a point in the film plane, b u t a blurred circle
of a diam eter Cc.
Acceptable sharpness in past editions has been calcu­
lated as a .002 inch image of a point ("Circle of confusion"),
for images on 35mm film. Because of larger magnification

160
in present-day theaters, m anufacturers have been using
.001 inches in recent years, and these new tables follow that
practice (.0006 inches (.015mm) is used in the 16mm tables).
To read depth of field for larger or sm aller circles of confu­
sion, use the colum n u nd er a smaller or larger lens f-stop.
Acceptable sharpness is affected not only by the geom etry
of the cone of light im aging a point object; it is also affected
by:
1. The im aging quality of the lens both on-axis and off-
axis at the plane of best focus.
2. The im aging quality at large and small, as compared
to interm ediate iris diaphragm apertures.
3. Diffusion or flare, w hether intentional or not.
4. The im aging quality of the films and printing m eth­
ods used (negative, interm ediate, and print).
5. Viewing conditions.
6. Object illum ination and contrast.
If for any of these reasons the sharpness of the best
image is less than the arbitrarily established norm , the ap­
parent d epth of field will be affected also. If the exit pupil
of the lens, d u e to asym m etry, is not the sam e as the indi­
cated f-stop, the d ep th of field will be affected.
Because depth of field has no sharply defined limits,
the distances in the tables have been "round ed off" to fig­
ures com patible w ith the distance.

Depth of Field
The depth of field of a lens is the range of acceptable
sharpness before and behind the plane of focus obtained
in the final screened image. It should be understood that
the determ ination of d epth of field involves a subjective
sensation that requires taking into account the condition
under w hich the final projected im age is viewed. The fol­
lowing tw o form ulas are for calculating the depth of field
w ith the help of the hyperfocal distance and the circle of
confusion.

Depth of Field Calculations

First: Calculate the hyperfocal distance
(definition above)
(The tables are calculated
for Cc = .001" (.025mm) for 35mm film,
= .0006 (0.15mm) for 16mm film)

161
 Second: Using H, calculate near and
far depth-of-field limits

H xS
DN camera to near limit = -----------------
H + (S-F)

H xS
DF camera to far limit = -----------------
H - (S-F)

H = Hyperfocal distance
S = Distance from camera to object
F = Focal length of lens
Depth Total = DF-DN

When the object distance is less than 10 times the lens

focal length, depth of field is very small, and tables are more
appropriately combined and stated in terms of image m ag­
nification, rather than focal length and subject distance. (See
"Extreme Closeup.")

Depth of Focus
The d ep th of focus should be clearly distinguished
from the previously explained d epth of field. The depth of
focus is an infinitely small range behind the lens at the fo­
cal plane within which the film is positioned during expo­
sure. This is m ost critical, particularly w ith short-focus
lenses. If the film moves out of this precise position, either
forward or backw ard, it will cause unsharp images pro­
duced by an increase of the diam eter of the circle of confu­
sion. The circle of confusion, in other w ords, is no longer
an acceptably sh arp p o in t b u t a larg er circle w hich is
blurred. Precise placem ent of the film in the film aperture
is a most im portant consideration for motion picture cam ­
era designers to avoid film buckling or breakage, or other
mechanical problem s such as variable pressure plates or
poor registration, causing displacem ent of the film behind
the lens during actual exposure. Each frame m ust be held
securely in position and in perfect register in the exact fo­
cal plane and remain absolutely motionless during expo­
sure. For close approxim ation the formula for dep th of fo­
cus for a lens at a given f-stop is plus or minus:

162
 focal length x f-stop
D epth of focus = -----------------------------
1000

Lens Angle and Field of View

Field of view m ay be calculated by substituting film
aperture size for im age size; the field of view is then the
object size. (Lens single m ay be calculated with the aid of a
table of tangents or a pocket scientific or slide-rule calcula­
tor; see tangents table.)
For 2:1 anam orphic lenses, the field or object size is
double in the horizontal dimension.

A = A perture (height or w idth) in inches

f = focal length of a lens in inches

'A A
Tangent Vi viewing angle = ------
f

The tangent o f '/: viewing angle can be converted to

degrees by consulting a tangent table. M ultiply this angle
by tw o to obtain the full viewing angle. For Cinemascope,
or other two times squeeze w ide screen processes, the for­
mula is sim ply the aperture divided by the focal length of
the lens, since 2 times Vi equals 1. O ther squeeze ratios
should use the following formula:

A x Squeeze Ratio
Tangent Vi viewing angle = ------------------------------
f

U sing the above sketch one may calculate camera dis­

tance, object size, lens focal length or image size if any three
are known.
O = object size in front of camera
D = distance from object to lens of camera
F = focal length of lens used
A = im age size
and: a = lens angle w hen A = film aperture size
O = field of view w hen A = film aperture size

163
 F D

These com ponents are connected together by the follow­

ing basic formulas:
O D

A F

and that, in other terms, leads to the following four basic

formulae:
OxF object size x focal length
D = ------- ; Distance = -----------------------------------
A aperture size

DxA distance x aperture size

O = -------- ; Object size = -----------------------------------
F focal length

DxA distance x aperture size

F = ---------; Focal length = -----------------------------------
O object size

FxO focal length x object size

A = -------- ; A perture s iz e = -----------------------------------
D distance

All dim ensions m ust be converted to the sam e units: feet,

inches, meters or millimeters. (One inch equals 25.4 milli­
meters; one millimeter equals .0394 inches.) N ote that D is
measured to the lens (front principal point). Most cameras
and lens scales are calibrated to the distance from the film
plane (because lenses to be m ounted on the camera are of
various sizes). This convention should pose no problem
w hen the object distance is greater than about 10 times the
lens focal length. (See "Extreme Closeup Photography.")

164
Lens Aperture
F-stop or f-num ber is the ratio of the focal length of a
lens to the diam eter of the entrance pupil. (Approximately
the aperture diaphragm size in a symm etrical lens).
T-stop is a m easure of the light transmission of the lens.
It is related to f-stop by the efficiency of light transmission.
A lens w hich transm itted 100% of the light enterin g it
w ould have the sam e f-stop and T num ber.
To com pensate for backlash in the mechanism, always
set a lens diaphragm by m oving from the w idest opening
to the desired aperture. This m ethod takes up any backlash
that may be present and provides the most accurate setting.
(Reference: ANSI PH 22.90.)

Lens Displacement When Focused Closer

Than Infinity

d = lens displacem ent from infinity position

f = focal length of lens in inches
a = distance focused on in inches

P
d = ------
a-f

EXAMPLE: The displacem ent of a 50mm (2 inch) lens

focused at 10 feet (120 inches):

22 4
d = -------- = ---------=0.031"
120-2 118

Extreme Close-up
In photographing subjects at a distance closer than the
camera lens m ount scale will allow, three options are open:
1. W hen available, extension rings or bellows m ay be
used betw een the camera lens and the flange.
2. Supplem entary lenses (commonly know n as "diopt­
ers") m ay be m ounted in front of the lens or screwed into
filter holders on the lens.
3. Lenses especially designed for photom acrography
may be em ployed. (The term "m acro" is loosely defined;
Kodak uses it w hen the scale is greater than 1:1, while many
lenses are sold for "m acro" for use do w n to 1:1 or 1:2.
165
Lenses used for general cinem atography are designed and
corrected for subjects m any feet from the camera; "m acro"
lenses are corrected for whatever scale they are sold for, and
w ould be expected to deliver a better image at that scale
than a conventional lens with extension rings.)
The choice between extension rings or diopter lenses
is determ ined by convenience, w ith a slight preference for
the use of prim e lenses and extension rings. Im age aberra­
tion du e to close focusing of prim e lenses and du e to the
"simple lens" structure of diopters is m inim ized in each
case by stopping dow n to f /8 or f/11. While a macro lens
may be corrected for a larger aperture, depth of field (about
'/inth of an inch at f/8 at scale 1:2) m ay be a limiting factor.
D epth of field at a given f-stop depends solely on the scale
factor (copy ratio or image size divided by subject size), not
on the use of extension tubes or diopters, nor on the lens
focal length. Therefore, it is preferable to use a long focus
lens to allow m ore room for lighting.

Extension of Prime Lens

As the prim e lens is m oved forw ard, less light is trans­
mitted because the effective T-stop is progressively dim in­
ished by its distance from the film. At a subject-to-lens dis­
tance of about 10 focal lengths (field width of 8” for 35mm,
or 4" for 16mm) this begins to become noticeable. The table
show s the am ount of illum ination increase requ ired to
maintain full exposure in terms of im age scale factor.
By convention, most camera lens distance scales are
calibrated at a subject distance m easured from the film
plane because lenses of differing sizes are involved. The
following close-up tables are calculated on subject-to-lens
distance (to the front "principal point"; for practical p u r­
poses, the iris diaphragm , which is not necessarily the cali­
brated diaphragm ring).

Diopter Lenses
By definition, "diopter" is the m easure of the pow er
of the lens expressed as the reciprocal of the focal length in
meters (1000 divided by the focal length of the lens in mil­
limeters). The term is commonly used by cinematographers
to refer to supplem entary lenses used in close-up photog­
raphy. The lenses are generally of a weak meniscus form
and are m arked w ith the n um ber indicating the diopter
power: +‘A , +1, +2, etc.

166
 W hen a prim e lens is set at scale focus infinity, and a
diopter lens is m ounted in front of it, a subject will be in
focus on the film plane if positioned at a distance from the
diopter lens equivalent to the focal length of the diopter lens
(2 meters for a Vi diopter lens, 1 m eter for a 2 diopter lens,
etc.). Two diopter lenses m ounted close together m ay be
used an d the pow er is the sum of the pow ers of the two
lenses. W hen tw o diopter lenses are com bined, the high­
est pow er should be closest to the prim e lens. Plus diopt­
ers should be placed in front of the prim e lens with their
convex (outw ard curve) side tow ard the subject. If an ar­
row is engraved on the rim of the diopter lens m ount, it
should point tow ard the subject.
H ighest screen quality results w ith low er-pow er di­
opters. It is better to use a longer focal length prim e lens
and a less pow erful p lus-dio pter lens than to em ploy a
higher po w er diopter on a short focal length prim e lens.
Plus diopter lenses shorten the focal length of the prim e lens
and change its focus scale. The tables give typical figures
for these factors. Because the prim e lens is used "on scale"
it is not necessary to increase exposure for close-ups pho­
tographed in this manner.

Depth Of Field For Close-up Photography

W hen the object distance is less than 10 times the lens
focal length, depth of field is very small, and tables are more
appropriately combined and stated in terms of im age m ag­
nification, rather than focal length and subject distance. The
difference in near and far d epth also becomes small, and
depth is stated in the table as the total zone of probable
acceptable sharpness. Geom etric calculation of depth of
field for asymmetrical lenses (retro, tele, and zoom) is also
to be taken as an approxim ate guide in these zones, because
each has been designed for a specific range w hich may or
may not include extreme close-up.

167
Extreme Closeup Lens Formulas

1000
Power in diopters = ----------- (= "P")
F(mm)
image size image distance from lens
Magnification "m " = ----------- = -----------------------------
object size object distance from lens

Com bining "diopter" lens w ith prim e lens

F x 1000
P F = focal length prime lens
F,= --------------- millimeters F = effective focal length,
F + 100 0 (combination)
P

Total depth of field in terms of "m":

2C N (l+m )
q ______________ C= diameter of circle of confusion
1 ^ 2 N= t/num ber

Exposure factor for extended prim e lenses:

El(close-up)
Exposure Factor = ---------------- = (1 + m)2
El(normal)
N, = indicated or
Nc calibrated
Lens stop corrected for m: N = ------ lens stop
1+m ^ = cn]cu|atec) or
"normal"
lens stop

Stop change = 6.6 log (1+m) ;

Not all of these formulas are rigorous.

Some have very small factors discarded for practicality.

Split-Field Diopter Lenses

Split-field diopter lenses are partial lenses, cut so that
they cover only a portion of the prim e lens. They are gener-
168
ally cut in half, although they m ay be positioned in front
of the prim e lens so that more or less than half is covered.
They m ay be com pared w ith bifocals for hu m an vision, in
w hich the eye may focus near and far. They have an ad­
vantage over bifocals, how ever, in that they m ay be focused
sharply on both near and far subjects simultaneous!}/.
The d epth of field of the prim e lens is not extended.
The split-field diopter lens sim ply perm its focusing on a
very close subject on one side of the frame, while a distant
subject is photographed norm ally thro ugh the uncovered
portion of the prim e lens. Generally, the area in betw een
will not be in focus. There are instances, such as using a
zoom lens w ith a small aperture at the wide-angle position,
w hen sharpness m ay extend all the w ay from the ultra­
close-up to the distant subject. The split diopter-equipped
lens possesses two distinct depths of field: one for the close
subject (which m ay be very shallow or possess no depth
whatever), and another for the distant subject (which will
be the norm al d epth of field for the particular focal length
lens and f-stop in use). It is im portant, therefore, to exclude
subject m atter from the m iddle distance because it will cre­
ate a situation w here the foreground is sharp, the middle
distance is out of focus and the distant subject is sharp!
Split-field diopter lenses require ground-glass focus­
ing to precisely line up both foreground and background
subjects and visually check focus on each. This is particu­
larly im portant w ith zoom lenses, w hich m ay require cam­
era m ovem ent during the zoom.
Very unusual effects are possible that w ould otherwise
require tw o separate shots to be later combined in an opti­
cal printer via a m atting process. M aking such split shots
in the camera perm its viewing the scene as it will appear,
rather than w aiting for both shots to be optically printed
onto one film.
The proper pow er split-field diopter lens is positioned
in front of the taking lens on the same side as the near ob­
ject, so that it is sharply focused on one side of the frame.
The uncovered portion of the conventional or zoom lens is
focused in the usual m anner on the distant subject. (Note:
Use the "Plus Diopter Lenses Focus Conversion Table" to
find near an d far focusing distances w ith various pow er
diopter lenses.) A zoom lens m ay be em ployed, either to
obtain an interm ediate focal length not available with con­
ventional lenses, or to zoom during the shot. Study the shot

169
through the focusing viewfinder at the f-stop to be used for
filming.
The edge of the split diopter lens should be positioned,
if possible, so that it lines up w ith a straight edge in the
background, such as the com er of a room, the edge of a
colum n or a bookcase. Elim inating the edge m ay prove
difficult under certain conditions, particularly w ith a zoom
lens, because the edge will shift across the frame slightly
when the lens is zoomed. It is wise to leave space between
the foreground and background subjects so that they do not
overlap and so that each is rem oved from the lens edge.
This will minimize "blending." The split diopter need not
be lined up vertically — it may be used horizontally or at
any angle to cover a foreground subject on top, bottom ,
either side or at an angle across the frame. Lighting may
be em ployed to lighten or d ark en the background area
w here the split occurs, to m ake it less noticeable.
Split-field diopter shots cannot be filmed on the run.
They require precise subject placement, camera position­
ing and balanced lighting to record an acceptable result
w ithout a telltale blur between. They have limited use and
will not replace elaborate setups that require optical print­
ing, process background projection or mattes. They may be
used for simple combination shots w here the cinem atog­
rapher is allowed the time required for a precise lineup of
the various elements involved.
Diopter and split-field diopter lenses may be ordered
custom -m ade in a com pound construction w hich can be
more highly corrected than sim ple single-lens elements.
Such com pound lenses consist of two or more elements and
are rather thick, so they require a special retaining ring.

Special Purpose Lenses

Swing Shift Lens
The Clairm ont Swing Shift Lens System consists of a
m ulti-axis m oveable lens b o ard receiver attach ed to a
Arriflex style PL lens m ount by a rubber bellows. Specially
modified lenses are attached to the receiver board by two
captive screws. The assembly is able to move the entire lens
in the following directions: tilt up and dow n, sw ing side
to side, shift position and focus right to left, or up and
down. T ilting/sw inging the lens plane alters the focus; tilt­
ing/sw inging the film plane alters the shape. By com bin­
ing the various param eters of m ovem ent, different an d
170
unusual effects can be accomplished, such as increased or
decreased depth of field, selective planes of focus, reposi­
tioning of im age w ithout changing placem ent of the cam­
era, and correction or addition of im age distortion. The fo­
cal len g th s available are 20m m , 24m m , 28m m , 35mm,
50mm, 60mm, an d 80mm.

Panavision 45mm T2.8 Slant-Focus Lens

The plane of focus of this lens can be tilted in any di­
rection (including vertical and diagonal) as well as horizon­
tal by adjusting the rear lens rotating mount.
If the lens focus is set on an object near the center of
the field of view, the plane of focus can be tilted so that
objects (left side of frame a n d /o r right side of frame) located
along this tilted plane of focus will also be sharp.
If there is not an object near the center of the field of
view, m easure the distance to the near and far object and
set the focus at an average betw een the two distances. The
plane of focus can now be tilted so that the tw o objects will
be brought into focus. In all situations, an object near the
center of the field of view should still be in focus after tilt­
ing the lens.
D ue to the tilting nature of this lens, it cannot be used
with a Panaflex follow-focus. For the initial focus and any
change in focus, eye focusing is necessary. This lens accepts
a 1.4X Prim o extender w ith negligible change in perfor­
mance and no change in operation. The focal length be­
comes 63mm w ith a m axim um aperture of T4.0. If filters
are used w ith this lens they should (w henever possible) be
glass filters in front of the lens. If needed, the lens does ac­
cept a 40.5mm rear filter.

Continental Camera Systems Remotely-

Controlled "Pitching Lens" f/3.9 Optical
Relay
Concept: A system to remotely control a prim e lens
that is m ounted at the end of an optical relay tube. In nor­
mal configuration the 18" tube extends dow nw ard from the
camera. The prim e lens is m ounted at right angles to the
tube and can tilt 15° up to 90° dow n. The entire system ro­
tates 380°. This allows lenses such as Nikkor or Arriflex to
get into very small areas. Use of an anam orphic element
betw een the en d of the relay tube and cam era allow s a
spherical lens to produce an anam orphic im age on film.
171
Because focus is controlled in the relay tube, it is possible
to continuously follow-focus from 'A inch to infinity, thus
greatly extending the norm al focus range of m ost prim e
lenses. The system may also be m ounted vertically (as in a
submarine) or extended straight out in a horizontal posi­
tion.
Clear length of relay: 18" M axim um diameter: 3"
Control of Lens: Control console w ith built-in video
monitor. Pressure-sensitive joystick for p an and tilt opera­
tion. System pow er requirem ents 110V, 220V or 24V DC.
Cameras: Arriflex IIC, Norelco PCP90 (video), Mitchell
R35, Lightweight Technicolor VistaVision equipped w ith
Nikon mount.
Focus: Remotely controlled from hand-held unit. Fo­
cus speed is proportional to focus com mand.
T a k i n g F o r m a ts : 1 6 m m , 3 5 m m a n a m o r p h ic ,
VistaVision.
Optics: Nikon m ount through adapter rings can use
a w ide assortm ent of Nikkor an d Arriflex lenses from 7.2
m m to 100mm. Speed of system is f/3.9 to f/32. Prime lens
is set w ide open and aperture is controlled in the relay sys­
tem.
S uspension: Standard dolly w ith small jib arm and
C.C.S. balanced cross arm at camera end of jib. Large tele­
scopic billboard cranes and C hapm an "Titan" cranes can
be used.

Kenworthy Snorkel Camera Systems

A remote image-taking system with operator and cam­
era com ponents rem oved from shooting area. The camera
looks into a periscope-like optical relay tube that extends
dow nw ard below the camera and ends w ith a small front-
surfaced mirror. Since the mass of the camera w ith opera­
tor is rem oved from the shooting area, considerations of
scene staging are concerned only w ith the small end (1 -V\"
x l-'/j" at the mirror) of the tube. The tilting m irror is re­
motely controlled, as are other functions such as pan, fo­
cus, roll, zoom and iris. The m irror system perm its m ore
intimate shooting (due to its small size) th an do add-on
right-angled lens periscopes. It also perm its tilting up in
constricted situations because the mirror, rather than the
tu be/cam era combination, does the tilting. The system al­
lows viewpoints in tight quarters reachable from overhead,
or from very low viewpoints or in m iniature sets. Pans and

172
tilts are on system nodal point. A n ad d e d waterproof tube
perm its underw ater or transition shots.
There are two systems available:
The Kenw orthy N ettm an Snorkel features fast optics
and lightw eight, interchangeable form ats, an d carries a
shorter tube for use on lightweight dollies. The cameras are
butterfly VistaVision, 65mm, and 16mm film and 2/i " video
cameras. Cam era lenses are used.
The type B Kenw orthy Snorkel is designed for shoot­
ing actors w ith dialogue at m oderate lighting levels. It car­
ries a longer tube (48" or 66") which perm its more overhead
clearance for deeper penetration into four-walled sets or
water tanks. This system uses 35mm only: Arriflex, Mitchell
Mark II, Panaflex or other similar cameras. The Panacam
is used for video. System lenses are used on the Type B;
28mm & 50mm T8 for film, 13mm T5.6 for video. Both sys­
tems can use anam orphic lenses. Type B requires a camera
crane.
W ith both system s a console is u sed w ith a video
m onitor and pan, tilt and lens controls.

Dynalens
A n optical stabilizing device m ounted on the camera
optical axis for com pensating for im age motion due to vi­
bration of the camera.
A pair of gyro sensors detect rapid m otion and drive
two gim bal-m ounted glass plates, betw een which is a liq­
uid-filled cell. O ne plate moves around a vertical axis and
the other around a horizontal axis in a m anner which de­
viates the light path opposite to the vibratory m ovement,
causing the im age to stay still relative to the im age recep­
tor (film or video).
A low-frequency-response manually operated poten­
tiometer on the control m odule adjusts the frequency sen­
sitivity of the unit so controlled panning or tilting may be
done.
The D ynalens is available in 2.3" diam eter for 16mm
film or sm all video cam eras and 3.8" an d 8" for larger for­
m at cam eras. The m axim u m useful an g u lar dev iatio n is
+ 6 °.

173
 35mm CAMERA DEPTH-Of-FIELD. HYPERFOCAL DISTANCE 8 FIELD OF VIEW

174
LENS FOCAL LENGTH: 9.8mm CIRCLE OF CONFUSION = .001' (1/1000 )
HYPER­ FIELD OF VIEW
FOCAL 12.41' 0.86' 6.20' 4.43' 3.10' 2.22' 1.55' 1.13' 0.70' 0.56' 0.39' (w/projecled image)
DISTANCE
1.85:1 AR TV HEIGHT
1/1 (/1.4 1/2 f/2.8 1/4 1/5.6 1/8 1/11 1/16 1/22 1/32
(.B25"x.446"| (.594")
LENS NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAH NEAR NEAR NEAR ANA 2.39:1 AR
FOCUS
(FEETI FAR FAR FAR FAR FAR FAR FAR FAR FAR FAR FAR (1.676"x.700")
6'10" 5 7" 4' 5" 3' 5" 2' 7 ' 2' 1' 5" V r V O’ 3 2 ’ 0- '.17- r 23' 0"
15 INF INF INF_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _INF
_ INF INF INF INF INF INF INF 65' 0 " x 2 7 ' 2"
5' V 4 ’ 1” 3' 3" 2- 6, 2’ r 5" V r 1' O' 2 5 ’ 7' < 1 3 '1 0 ’ 18' 5"
6- r
12 367' INF INF INF INF INF INF INF INF INF INF 5 2 ’12"x2V 9"
5- 6 ’’ 4- 0" 3 ’10- 3' 1" 2' 4" 110' 1' 4 ” 1’ 0" O' 9" O' 6” O' 5" 21' 4">.ir 6" 15 4 ’
10 52- INF INF INF INF INF INF INF INF INF INF 43' 3 "a 18" 1"
5 ’ 3- 4- 6" 3' 8 ” 3- O ’ 2' 4" 1' 9" V 4” T 0“ O' 9" O' 6" O' 5" 19’ 2 “x 1 0 ’ 4 ” 13’10~
9 33' INF INF INF INF INF INF INF INF INF INF 39' 0"x 16’ 3 ’’
4 10’’ 4' 3" 3’ 6” 2 10- 2’ 3” 1' 9 ” V 4" r 0" O' 9" O' 6" 0 4" 17' O' x 9- 3 “ 12' 3 ”
8 23' 82' INF INF INF INF INF INF INF INF INF 34' 6"x 14’ 6"
4 ’ 6" 311" 3' 4" 2' 9 ” 2 ’ 2" 1' 0" r 3” Î 0" O' 0” 0’ 6'' 0 ’ 4" 14'11"x 8 ’ 1" 10' 9"
7 16' r 33' INF INF INF INF INF INF INF INF INF 30' 3 ”x 1 2 ' 0"
1- r
4' 0" 3' 7 ” 3' 1" 2 ’ 7" 2' 1" r 3- 0 'ir O' 0" O' 6" 0 ’ 4" 12' 9 ’’x 6'10” 9' 2"
6 |11' r 19' 104’ INF INF INF INF INF INF INF INF 25’ 1 r X 10' 9"
3' 7 ” 3 ’ 2" 2' 9" 2' 4 ” 1*11" V 6" 1’ 2" 0'11" 0' 0" O’ 6" O' 4" 10' 7"x 5' 9 “ 7' 0"
5 0' 5 ” 11' 6 ” 26’ INF _ _ _ _ _ _ _INF ___
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _INF INF INF INF INF INF 21' 6' x 9' 0 “
3 ’ 0" 2 ’ 9" 2 ’ 5" 2' 1” r 9” r 5" V r 0*1 r O’ 0” O’ 6" O' A" 0' 6'x 4' 7" 6' 1"
4 5 '1 1 ’ 7’ 3” 11' 3 K 4V INF INF INF INF INF INF INF 17' 3"x T 2"
2 ’ 5" 2' T 2’ 0” 11 0 " 1’ 6 “ 1' 3" 1' 0 ” 0 '1 0 ” o- r 0’ 6” O' 4 ” 6' 4"x 3 ’ 5" 4’ T
3 1Ï 5 ” 4 ’ 6" 5 ’ 10" _ _ _ _ _ _ _9'_ _3"_ _ _ _ _ _ _92'
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _INF
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _INF
__ INF INF INF INF 12 '1 0 ’ x 5 ’ 5"
r e v r vu' V 6” r 4V r 2 'y 1’ v2” 0 ’1 r O' 9" O’ 7" O' 5" O' 4- 4 ’ 3"x 2 ’ 3 ” 3' 0"
2 2' 4 ’/?" 2’ V 2 ’1 1 Vi" 3 ’ 8" 5' 0" 21’ INF INF INF INF INF 0- 6"x 3 ’ T
 35mm CAMERA DEPTH-OF-FIELD. HYPEHFOCAL DISTANCE & FIELD OF VIEW
LENS FOCAL LENGTH: İÜ İM I) CIRCLE OF CONFUSION = .001" (1/1000")
HYPER- FIELD OF VIEW
FOCAL 29.06' 20.76' 14.53' 10.38' 7.27' 5.19" 3.63' 2.64' 1.82' 1.32' 0.9V (w/projected Image)
DISTANCE

1/1 1/1.4 r/ 2 1/2.8 f/4 1/5.6 1/8 1/11 1/16 1/22 1/32 1.85:1 AR TV HEIGHT
(.825"x.446") (.594")
LENS NEAR NEAR NEAR
FOCUS NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAH NEAR NEAR ANA 2.39:1 AR
(FEET) FAR FAR FAR FAR FAR FAR FAR FAR FAR FAR FAR (1.676"x.700")
15' 12' 10' 8' 6' 4' 3' 3' 2 1' 1' 41'10'x22' 7- 30' 2"
30 INF INF INF INF INF INF INF INF INF INF INF 85' 0"x35' 6-
1110" 10' 2" 0' T 5' 4' 3' 2 2' 1’ 1' 2710"x 15' 1" 20' 1"
20 64' 547 INF INF INF INF INF INF INF INF INF 56’ 7"x23' 8"
9'11" 0' 9" T 5” 6' 2“ 5' 4' 3' 2' 2' 1 V 2011"x1V 3" 15' O’
15 3V 54’ INF INF INF INF INF INF INF INF INF_________42' 5"x17' 9"
7' 5" 6' 9 " 511" 5’ 1" 4' 3" 3' 5" 2' 8" 2' 1" V 6" r 2" 0'10’ 13'11” x 7' 6" 10' 0"
10 15' 3" 19' 3" 32' 274' INF INF INF INF INF INF INF 20’ 3"x1110"
6' 3" 5' 9" 5' 2" 4' 6" 3 '10- 3' 2" 2' 6- 2’ 0" 1' 6" 1' 2 " O'10” ir rx 6' 0“ 8- 0"
8 11' 0" 13' 0 " 10' 35' INF INF INF INF INF INF
IN F ________ 22’ 7"x 9' 5"
5' 8" 5' 3" 4' 9" 4’ 2 " 3' r 3’ O' 2' 5“ 111" V 5" v r 010" 9’ 9' x 5' 3" 7' 0"
7 g. 3„
10- r 13’ 6" 21’ 191' INF INF INF INF INF INF 19' 8"x 8' 3”
5' 0" 4' 8" 4' 3" 310" 3' 3" 2' 9" 2' 3“ 110" T 5" 1’ 1" 010" 0' 4''x 4' 6" 6' 0"
6 7' 7" 8' 5" 10' 3" 14' 3" 34' INF INF INF INF INF INF 161 rx T 1"
4' 3" 4- V2" 3' 9" 3' 5" 3' 0" 2' r 2' r 1' 9" r 4" V r O' 9" 611"x 3' 9" 5' 0”
5 6' 0" 6’ 7" T T 9' 0" 16' 137' INF INF INF INF INF 14' 1"x 511"
3' 6%" 3' 4" 3‘ 1V?" 21 r 2' T 2' 3" 111- V 7" 1' 3” 1’ 0" O' 9" 5' 6"x 3' 0" 4' 0"
4 4' 7 Vi” 41 V j" 5' 6" 6' 6" 811- 17' INF INF INF INF INF 11' 4' 8"
2' B 3a - 2' 712" 2 6" 2’ 4" 2' 1V?" 111" 1' 8'' V 5" 1' 2" 01 r O' 8" 4' 1"x 2' 3" 3' 0"
3 3' 4 Vi" 3' 6" 3' 9Vs" 4' 3" 5' r T 1" 17' INF INF INF INF 8' 4"x 3' 6"
110V r 93r 1' 9" 1’ 0 ’/<" 1’ T 1' 5" 1' 4" 1’ 2" 011" 010" 0' 8" 2' 9"x 1' 6" 2 0"
2'13V 2' V'2 2' 3 3*" 2' 5 3/d" 211" 3' 3" 4' 5" 0' 3" INF INF INF 5' 7"x 2' 4"

175
12
 35mm CAMERA DEPTH-OF-FIELO. HYPERFOCAL DISTANCE & FIELD OF VIEW

176
LENS FOCAL LENGTH: 2 0 m m CIRCLE OF CONFUSION = .001" ( 1 / 1 0 0 0 " )
HYPER­ FIELD OF VIEW
FOCAL 5 1.67' 3 6.90’ 25.83' 1 8 .4 5 ' 12.92' 9 .2 3 ' 6 .4 6 ' 4 .7 0 ' 3 .2 3 ' 2 .3 5 ’ 1.6 1’ (w/projecled image)
DISTANCE
1.85:1 AR TV HEIGHT
1/1 1 / 1 .4 1 /2 1 / 2 .8 1 /4 1 / 5 .6 1 /8 1/1 1 1/16 1/22 1/32 (,8 2 5 " x .4 4 6 " ) (.594")
LENS NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR ANA 2.39:1 AR
FOCUS
(FEET) FAR FAR FAR FAR FAR FAR FAR FAR FAR FAR FAR (1.676 "x .700")
22' 19- 16 13- 10' 8' 6' 4' 3 2' 2 4 Î1 0 V 2 2 ' 7" 30' 2"
4 0 177- INF INF INF INF INF INF INF INF INF INF 85' 0"*35' 6 "
19' 17' 14- 11 9' 7' 5' 4' 3' 2’ t 31' 4”> 17' O’’ 22' 1"
3 0 72' ¡160' INF INF INF INF INF INF INF INF INF 63' 9" <26' T
14' 5“ 13' 0" 11 3' 10' 8' 6' 5' 4' 3‘ 2' 2 20'11"xir 4" 15- 1"
2 0 33 44' 89 INF INF iNF
INF ________ INF INF INF INF 42' 5" * 17' 9M
11- 8 ' 10' 8" 9’ 6" 0' 3" 6*1 r 5' 9“ 5' 4' 3‘ 2' 2' 15' 8“> S' 6" 1 1 '3 ”
15 21' 1" 25' 36' 80’ INF INF INF INF INF INF INF 3 1 10"x 13‘ 3"
0' 5" 710" 7' 3" 6' 6" 5' 0" 410- 311" 3' 2" 2' 5" 1' 11" V 5" 10' 5" - 5' 8" T 6’’
10 12' 5" 13' 9" 16' 4" 22' 44’ INF INF INF INF INF INF 21' 2'v 8' 10"
611" 6- 7" 6 I'­ 5' 7" 4i r 4' 3" 3' T 3’ O' 2' 4" 110- V 4- 8' 4"x 4' 6” 6‘ 0”
8 9‘ 6" 10' 3" ll' 7" 14' 2" 21’ 60' INF INF INF INF INF 161 V> 7 V
5' 4 V 5’ 2" 410" 4' 6" 4' I'­ 3' 0" 3’ 1" 2' 0" 2' r r 8" 1' 3" 6' 3"x 3' 4" 4' 6"
6 6- 9 V 7' 2” 71 O’’ 811" ll' 2" 17' 05' INF INF INF INF 12- 0" < 5' 3"
4' 6V 4' 5" 4’ 2 12" 311" 3- r 3' 3" 210 " 2- S” 2' 0" r r r 3" 5' 2"v 210" 3’ 9"
5 0. r 1011 INF INF INF INF 10' 6“x 4' 5"
5' 6" 5' 9" 6' 2" 610" 22'
3- V 210 " 2' 6" 2- 2" 1' 9” 1' 6" 1' 2" 4, 2... 2' 3' 3' 0”
3' 8' 2" 3' 7 V 3' 5 V 3' 3 ’?
4 4' 4" 4' 5 V 4' 9" 5' 1” 5' 9" 7- 1” lO’ 6" 27' INF INF INF 0' 5“\ 3' 6"
210" 2' 9 V t 0V 2' T 2' 5" 2- 3" 2 V 110“ r r r 4- 1' 1" 3’ 1”x 1' 0' 2' 3"
3 3' 2 V 3' 3 V 3' 4 3i" 3’ T 311 4- 5" 5' r 8- 4" 42' INF INF 6’ 3" < 2' 7"
1 11 V 110V 110V r 9'?’’ V 8V V 7V 1' 6 V 1- 5” 1' 3" r r 01 r 2' O' x 1- 1" 1- 6"
2 3' 6" 5' 3" 13' INF 4. 2- x r 9-
2' 1” 2' 1 V 21 2 ' 2- 3" 2' 4 V 2- 6 V 211'
 35mm CAMERA DEPTH-OF-FIELD. HYPERFOCAL DISTANCE 8 FIELD OF VIEW
LENS FOCAL LENGTH: Z5mm CIRCLE OF CONFUSION = .001" (1/1000")
HYPER­ FIELD OF VIEW
FOCAL 80.73' 57.66' 40.36' 28.83’ 20.18' 14.42' 10.09' 7.34' 5.05' 3.67' 2.52’ (w/pro|ected image)
JUSHM CL
1/4 1/11 1/22 1/32 1.85:1 AR TV HEIGHT
r/i 1/1.4 f/2 1/2.8 1/5.6 1/8 1/16 (.825"x.446") (.594")
LENS NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR ANA 2.39:1 AR
FOCUS
(FEET) FAR FAR FAR FAR FAR FAR FAR FAR FAR FAR FAR d.676'x.700")
31- IT 22- 18- 14- 11' 8’ 6' 5' 3' 2' 4 1 Ï 0 - X 2 2 ’ 7" 30' 2”
50 131 376 INF INF INF INF INF INF INF INF INF 85' 0"x35' 6"
19' 1" 17' 5” 15' 5” 13' 1V 9' 7' 6’ 4' 3' 2' 2 0"irxir 4" 15' r
25 36' 44’ 65' 186’ INF INF INF INF INF INF INF 42' 5 ”x 17' 9"
12' 8" n r lo ir 910’ 8' 7" T A" 6' 0” 5’ 4’ 3’ 2’ 12’ 6"* 6' 9" 9- 0"
15 18’ 5'' 20- 3" 23'10 31' 58’ INF INF INF INF INF INF 25' 5"x10‘ 7"
10' 5 ” 9'11" 9' 3’’ S' 6" 7' 6" 6' 7” 5’ 6" 4' 7” 3' 7” 2' 10- 2' 0" 10’ 0”x 5’ 5“ 7' 2“
12 14’ r 15' 2” 17' r 20' 7- SO­ 72' INF INF INF INF INF 20’ 4 'x 8' 6”
8’i r 8’ 6" 8’ 0" 7' 5" 6' 8" 5 'i r 5' 0" 4’ 3” 3' 4" 2 ’ 8" 2' 0" 8' 4”x 4’ 6’’ 6' 0“
10 11’ 5” 12' 1’’ 13' 3" 15' 4” 19'10" 33' INF INF INF INF INF 16’1V’x 7' 1"
7' 3 V?" 7' 6' 8” 6' 3” 5’ 9" 5' 2" 4’ 6" 3’10 3' 1" 2' 6" n r 6’ 8"x 3' r 4' 9"
8 8'10'/2’’ 9’ 3” 10’ 0" 11’ r 13' 3" 18' 0" 39' INF INF INF INF 13' 6"x 5' 8"
5’ 7 ” 5' 5’’ 5' 2 V 5' 0” 4' 8" 4' 3” 3’ 9" 3' 4’’ 2' 9" 2’ 3" 1’ 9’’ 4' 0"x 2’ 8’’ 3’ 7"
6 6' 6" 6' 8 V 7' 1” 7' 7" 8’ 7“ 10' 3- 14’10" 33’ INF INF INF 10’ 1"x 4' 3”
4’ 8 V 4' V k u 4' 5’-2" 4’ 3” 4' 0" 3’ 9” 3' 4” 3' 0” 2' 6’’ 2’ 1" 1’ 8" 4’ 2"x 2' 3" 3' 0”
5 5’ 4" 5’ 5 V 5' 8’2" 6' 1” 6' 8" 7' 8" 911’’ 16' 553’ INF INF 8’ 5"x 3' 6"
3' 9 V 3' 9" 3’ 7 V 3' 6" 3’ 4” 3' i v 210 2’ 7 " 2' 3” n r 1’ 7" 3’ 3”x 1’ 9" 2’ 4"
4 4' 2 V 4' 3 Vi" 4’ 5 V 4‘ 7V2” 5' 0" 5’ 6” 6' 7” 8' 9” 19' INF INF 6' 8’ x 2'10"
2'103V 2'10 Vi" 2' 9 V 2' 8 V 2- 7 V 2' 6" 2’ 3 V 2’ 1V 1'11’’ 1’ 0" 1’ 4" 2’ 5' x 1' 4" 1' 9"
3 3' I V 3' 2” 3’ 3" 3' 4IV' 3’ 6" 3’ 9' 2’ 4’ 3" 5- r 7' 5" 16’ INF 5’ O’x 2’ V
V11V2" n n v 111" n o ’r 1' 9 V V 9" 1' 8” r 6v r 5" 1’ 4" r r r 7"x o 10" V 2"
2 2' V 2' 3/4’’ 2' 1 2' W 2' 23«" 2' 3 V 2’ 6" 2' 9" 3' 4" 4’ 5" 9- 0 ' 3’ 3”x V 4"

177
 35mm CAMERA OEPTH-OF-FIELD. HYPERFOCAL DISTANCE & FIELD OF VIEW

178
LENS FOCAL LENGTH: 3 5 m m CIRCLE OF CONFUSION = .001" (1 /1000 ")
HYPER- FIELD OF VIEW
FOCAL 1 58.23' 113 .02' 79.11' 5 6 .5 1 ’ 3 9 .5 6 ’ 28.26' 19.78' 14.38' 9 .8 9 ’ 7.19' 4.94' (w/projected image)
DISTANCE
1.85:1 AH TV HEIGHT
1/1 1/1.4 1/2 1/2.8 1/4 1/5.6 1/8 I/ll 1/16 1/22 1/32 (,8 25"x .446") (.594")
LENS NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR ANA 2.39:1 AR
FOCUS
IFEETI FAR FAR FAR FAR FAR FAR FAR FAR FAR FAR FAR (1 .6 7 6 " x .7 0 0 "l
38' 35' 31' 27- 22- 18- 14 11 - 8 6' 5' 29 1C -16 2 21 6
50 73 go- 136 434 I INF INF INF INF INF INF INF 60 8"-25- 4 '
2v r 2 0- 6" 19 O' 17' 4” 15' 4' 13’ 11 ' 9' T 6' 4' 1411” ' 8 ' 1" 10 9"
25 29' 8 " 32' 1" 37' 45' 68 ’ 217' INF INF INF INF INF 30- 3 "- 12' 8 “
13 8 " 13' 3" 12 ' r 1110' 1010" 910" 0- 6’ r 4" 6' 0" 410- 3' 8" 011" ■ 4'10" 6' 5“
15 16 7" 17' 3“ 10- 6 " 20' 5” 24' 2" 32' 62' INF INF INF INF 10’ 1” - 7’ 7"
ill 2" 11 0 1 0 " 10' 5" 9i r 1 9' 3" 0’ 5" 7' 6 " 6 ' 7" 5' 5" 4' 6 ” 3’ 6" 7’ r - 310" 5' r
12 113' 0" 13' 5" 14 2 15' 3" 17' 3'' 2010“ 31’ 72' INF INF INF 14' 6 " • 6 ' 0"
4' 2" 3- 4" SU - . 3. T 4 3-
9' 5" 9' 2' ?" 811 0- 6" 0' O’’ 7’ 5" 6' 0" 511" 5’ 0”
10 10' 0" 1011V 1V 5" 12' 2 ” 13' 5" 15’ 6 ” 20’ 33' INF INF INF 12' 1"x 5’ 0"
7, Q.„. 4. g.. . 2 r 3. 5..
7' 7 V T 5V 7' 3" ' 6 ' 0" 6 ' 3" 5’ 0” 5' 2" 4' 5" 3' 9" I 3’ 1"
8 8' 5V 8' 7V 01 r 9' 4" ! 10 ' ÇT_ _ _ _11
_ ' 2" 15' 5- 10 ' 42' INF IINF 9’ 7-x 4’ 0"
5' 9 V ' 5' 8 V 5' V 5' 5" 5' 2 V 41T 4' 7~ 4' 3" 3' 9” 3' 3“ 2' 9" 3’ 6 "* 111" 2 ' 6"
7. r ?. r
6 6 ’ 3" I 6 ' 4" 6' 6' 6’ 8 V 0' T 10' 3" 15' 3” 36 INF 7- 2” 3' 0"
21 r
410V 4' 9 V 4' 8 V 4 T 4’ 5 V 4' 3" 4- O' 3' 9“ : 3’ 4" 2' 6" 211" • r 7" 2' r
5 5' 2'' 5 2V 5' 4" 5' 6 " 5' 0 V 6' r 6' 0" 7' 8 " 110 ' 1" 16 INF 511"- 2' 6 "
! 310 V 310 V 3 9V 3’ 9" 3' 7 V 3’ 6 " 3' 4" 3' 1 V 210" 2’ 7" 1 2' 3" 2 - 4" - r 3" r 8"
4 1 4' I V 4' 1 V 4' 2 V 4' 3 V 4' 5 V 4 0' 5' 0" 5' 6 " 6 ‘ 9" 9' 0" 2Î 4' 9 ' *: 2' O'
21 i v 211" 210 V 210 V 2 9V 2 ' 0 12 2' 7V 2 ’ 6" 2' 3 V 2 1V 110 V 9"> 01 r 1' 3"
3, r 7 , 7 ..
3 3' 3.." 3' r 3' 1 V 3' 3" 3' 4 V 3' 6V 3' 9' ?" 4' 4” 5’ 2" 3' 6 " v 1' 6 "
1 2' 0 " 11IV 111V 111V 110V 110V 1' 9V r 9" 1' 8 " 1' 6V r 5" T 2"x 0' 7" 0 1 0”
2 2' V 2' V 2’ V 2' 34" 2’ 1 V 2 1V 2' 2V 2' 3 V 2 6” 2’ 9" 3' 4" 2 ’ 3". V 0"
 35mm CAMERA DEPTH-OF-FIELD. HYPERFOCAL DISTANCE & FIELD OF VIEW
LENS FOCAL LENGTH: 4 0 m m CIRCLE OF CONFUSION = .001" (1/1000 )
HYPEB- FIELD OF VIEW
FOCAL 206.67' 147.62' 103.33' 73.81' 51.67' 36.90' 25.83' 10.79' 12.92' 9.39' 6.46' (w/projecled image)
_Q1SIANCE_
f/1 1/1.4 f/2 1/2.8 f/5.6 1/8 1/11 f/16 f/22 f/32 1.85:1 AR TV HEIGHT
1/4 ( 825'x.446") (.594")
LENS NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR ANA 2.39:1 AR
FOCUS
(FEET) FAR FAH FAR FAR FAR FAH FAR FAR FAR FAR FAR (l.676"x.7001
40- 3" 37' ,34' 30' 25- 22- 17- 14’ 10’ 8' 6' 26' 2"* 14- V 18-10"
50 66' 76 97' 155- INF INF INF INF INF INF INF 53' 1"\22' 2 '
22' 4' 21' 5' '20 2” 10- 0" 116 10 15' 13' 11' 9' T 5’ 13- 0” v 7' 0" 9- 5"
25 20' 5" ,30' 1" 133 0" 38' 140' IT 775' INF INF INF INF 26 6'x 11’ 1"
14' 0" 13' 0" 1?'1" 12 6" '11' 0" 10' 0’ 9' 6" 0' 4" 611 5' 9" 5' 7' 9" * 4’ 3" 5’ 7 "
15 16' 2" 16' 0" 17- 6" 1810 121' 2 " 25' 36’ 74’ INF INF INF 1510” x 6' T
11' 4" ir V 10' 9" 10' 4" 9' 9" 9' r 8' 3” 7' 4" 6' 3" 5' 4" 4' 3" 6' 3"v 3' 4" 4' 6"
12 12' 0’i ‘ 113' 0" 13' 7" 14' 4" 15' T 17' 9” 22' 33' 169' INF INF 12' 8'x 5' 3"
9' 6':" 9' 4 ’ ?" 9’ 1';" 810" 0' 5" 71 r 7’ 3“ 6' r 5' 0” 4*10' 3'11” 5' 2" - 2' 9" 3' 9"
10 10 6" 10- 0" 11' 0" 11' 7" 12' 5’' 13' 0" 16' 4” 21' 44' INF INF 10' 6'x 4' 5"
7' 0V 7' r T 5" 7’ 3" 611 6' T 6' 2" 5' 0" 5' O’’ 4' 4” 3' 7" 4' r> 2' 3“ 3' 0"
8 0' V 8' 5 V 0' 8" 9' 0” 9' 5” 10' r 11' 7" 1311" 21' 54' INF 0' 4’ x 3’ 6"
510" 5 9V 5' 8 ' 5' 6 V 5' 4 V 5' 2" 411" 4- 7- 4' 2” 3’ 8" 3' 2" 3' 1"* V 8" 2‘ 3”
6. 2„
6 6' 3” 6’ 4 V 6' 6r2 6' 9 V r 2" 710" 010" 11- 2" 17' 05' 6' 3 ”> 2' 7”
410’?'' 410V 4’ 9 V 4’ 0 V 4' 6 3a” 4’ 5" 4' 2 V 4' O' 3’ 0“ 3' 4" 210" 2' 7"'< V 5" 110"
5’ 4 V 8. 2 " 5' 2" ' 2' 2"
5 5' 1V 5' 2" 5’ 3" 5’ 6 V 5' 9 V 6' 2” 6' 9" 10’ 8" 22' 1"
311" 310V 310V 3' 9 V 3' 8 V 3' 7 V 3' 5 V 3' 3 V 3' 0” 210" 2' 6" 2’ O’ - 1' V r 6"
4 4 V 4' 1 V 4' 1 V 4' 2 V 4' 5 V
4’ 4”____________ 4 8V 5' 1" 5' 9" 611 10' 6" a r> r 9"
211V 211V 211" 210’ ? 210" 2' 9*4“ 2' 8 V 2' 7 V 2' 5 V 2’ 3 V 2' V t 6" ' 10" r r
3 3' V 3' V 3' 1 3’ 1 V 3' 2" 3' 3 V 3' 4 V 3' 6 V 311" 4' 5" 5‘ 7" 3' 1’ x r 3"
1113J" 111V 111V 111V 111V 110V 110V 1' 9 V 1 8V 1’ 7 V 1- 6 V VO'-. 6" 8“
2 2 ’V 2’ V 2' 11" 2' V 2' 1" 2' 1 V 2' 2 " 2' 2 V 2' 4 V 2' 6 V 210V 2' 0"> 10“

179
 35mm CAIHERA DEPTIH-OF-FIELD. HYPEHFOICAL DISTANICE & FIEU9 OF VIEW

180
LENS FOCAL LENG1 H: 50mrn 1CIHCLE OF CONFUSION = .001" (1/1000 )

322.92' 230.66' 161.46' 115.33'j 80.73' 57.66' 40.36' 29.36' 20.18' 14.66' 10.09' « w » va ,
M 1/16
1/1 1/1.4 1/2 1/2.8 ,/4 1/5.6 1/8 1/11 1/22 1/32
.AK*, VS?
NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAH ANA 2.39:1 AR
FAR FAR FAR FAR FAR FAR FAR FAR FAR FAR FAR (1.676"x.700")
43' 4" 41' 1" 38' 35' 31' 27' 22- 19- 14 11- 8’ 20ÏTX1V 3’ 15' 0"
59' 2" 64’ 72' 88’ 131' 376' IN F INF INF INF INF 42' 5"x17' 9"
«50J
23' 2" 21' 8" 20- 7" 19’ r 17’ 5'' 15' 5" 14’ 11- 9' 7' 10’ 5"x 5' 8" 7' 6-
25 27' 1" 29' T 31'11" 36’ 44’ 66' 168' INF INF INF 21’ 2"x 8'10"
14' 4" 14’ 1" 13' 9" 13' 3“ 12’ 8" in r io*i r 91 r 1 8’ 7' 7' 5" 6' 0” 6' 3"x 3' 4" 4' 6"
15 15' 9" 16’ O’ 16' 6” 17' 3" 18’ 5" 20’ 3" 2310" 31' 58’ INF INF 12’ 8"x 5' 3’
11' 63/4" 1V 5" 11' 2” 10-10" 10’ 5" 9’11" 9’ 3” 8’ 6” 7’ 6" 6' 7’’ 5' 6" 5' 0"x 2' 8" 3' 7"
12 12' 5Vi" 12’ 8" 1211V2" 13' 5" 14' 1" 15’ 2" 17' r 20’ 4" 30’ 66' INF 10’ 1'x 4' 3"
9- m 9’ 7" 9- 5" 9' 2Vi" 8’11" 8' 6” 8' O'' 7' 6" i 6’ 8" 5'11" 5' 0" 4' 1"x 2' 3" 3' 0"
10 10- ViC 10’ 5V2" 10’ 8” m w 11- 5" 12’ 1" 13' 3" 15' 2 ” 1910" 31' INF 8’ 4"x 3' 6"
I 7' 93.V’ I 7' 8%" I 7' 7V?" I 7' 6” I 7' 31/2" I 7’ Vi" I 6' 8" 6’ 3’’ i 5’ 8" I 5’ 2" 4' 6" 3’ 3"x 1’ 9" 2' 4"
8 8' 2V?" 8' 3 Vï" ' 8' 5" 8' 7'' 8'10V2" 9' 3" 10' o- 11' 0" 13' 3" 17' 7~ '39' 6’ 8"x 2' 9"
5'103/4'' 510V4" 5' 9V2" 5' BW 5' 7“ 5' 2Vf I 5' 0” 4' 8" 4’ 3'' 3’ 9” r 2' 5"x 1' 4" 1* 9"
6 6' VIS_______________________________________
6’ 2" i 6' 23/i" 6' 4- 6’ 53/j" l i e r r 7' 6" 8’ 6“ 110' 2" 14’10" , 5' 0"x 2' 1"
4'11" 4'103/i" 4'10 V4" 4' 9’/2" 4' 8V2'' 4' 7" 4' 5Vi" 4’ 3" 4’ 0" 1 3’ 9“ 3' 4" 2’ 0''x 1' 1” 1' 6"
5 5' 1" 5’ IV4" 5' 2" 5' 23/4" 5’ 4" 5’ 5V 5' 8 V2" 1 6’ 0" 6' 8" 7' 7" 9 'ir 4’ 1"x 1' 9“
3'10‘/2" 3 , g„
3'11 V2" 311V*" , 310V 3' 9VS 3' Vk” I 3’ 6 VV' 3' 4” , 3’ 13i" 2' 10'' 1' 7"x 010" 1’ 2"
4 4' W 4’ VS i 4’ r / r 4' 1%" 4’ 2W 4' Vk* 4 ’ 5IV' 4' 7V2- 5’ 0" I 5’ 6" 6' 7” 3' 3"x 1’ 4"
2'113/4“ ' 21W 2 'm ' 2’i r 2103/4" 2'10'/4" 2' 9 Vi” . 2’ 83/4" 2' 7 VS I 2’ 6" 2' 3 Vi” r 2"x O’ 8" 010"
3 3' V4" 3' V2" 1" 3' 1V2"
3' VS__________________________________
3’ 2” 3' 3" I 3’ 4" 3' 6“ , 3’ 9" 4' 3" 2’ 5"x 1’ 0"
2' 0" 111%" rm - 111%" 111'/2’' 111‘/4- 111” 110’/?’' 1' 93/4" 1' 9'' V 8" 0' 9"x 0’ 5" 0' 7"
2 2’ 0" 2’ V4" I 2' 2' Vi* 2’ ‘/2’' 2' 3/4" 2’ 1l/4" 2' 1V4" 2’ 23/4" 2’ zv s 2' 6” 1' 7"x 0’ 8"
 35mm CAMERA DEPTH-OF-FIELD. HYPERFOCAL DISTANCE & FIELD OF VIEW
LENS FOCAL LENGTH: 85mm CIRCLE OF CONFUSION = .001" (1/1000 )
HYPER- FIELD OF VIEW
FOCAL 933.23’ 666.59’ 466.62 333.30' 233.31 166.65' 116.65' 84.84' 50.33' 42.42' 29.16 (w/projecled image)
WSIAKE
1.85:1 AR TV HEIGHT
f/1 1/1.4 1/2 1/2.8 1/4 1/5.6 1/8 1/11 1/16 1/22 1/32
(.825"x.446") (.594")
LENS NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAH NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR ANA 2.39:1 AR
FOCUS
IFEETI FAR FAR FAR FAR FAR FAR FAR FAR FAR FAR FAR ll.676"x.700")
90- 4- 87- 82' '7 7 70- 63 54- 46- 37- 30- 23- 24’ 7 V 13' 3" 1 7 '0 '
100 112 118 127' 1143- 175' 250' 700 INF INF INF INF 49Ï1" • 20'10"
47' 6'' 46' 6” 45' 2" 43' 6" 41’ 2" 38' 35' 31 27' 23' 18' 12’ 3"- 6' 0" 0 10'
50 5210 54’ r 56' V İ5 8 10 64 71' 68’ 122' 350' INF INF 24'11" ■ 10' 5 ”
24' A 24' V 23' 9“ 23' 3" 22' r 21' 9” 20’ r ,19' 4“ 17- 6" 15' 9" 13 6' 1” . 3' 3' 4' 5"
25 25' 8 Y 25'111z" 26' 5" 127’ 0’ 28' O’ 29’ 5" 31'10” 35' 44' 61' 175' 12' 5” * 5' 2"
14 9” 14' 8’’ 14' 6 V 14' \ ' 14' r 13’ 9" 13' 4" ,12’ 9 ' 1111 11' r 911 3' 8' • 2' 0' 2 7"
15 15' 3' 15' 4 Y 15' 6 ” 15' 8 Y 16’ 0" 16' 6" 17' 3" 118' 3” 20 2" 23' 2 ’ 3011 7' 4” - 3' V
1V10' ! 11 9 Y 11' 8 Y tv r IV 5’' iv 2 Y 1011 ,10’ 6'' 911" 9' 4” 8’ 6" 211 • 1' T 2' 1"
12 12 2 " 12’ 2 V 12' 3 V 112' 5 Y 12' 8" 12 11 13' 4’’ 114' 0" 15' V 16' 9' 20' 5" 5‘10 • 2- 5"
9 10 V 910Y 9' 9 Y 9' e v 9’ T 9’ 5" 9’ 2 Y i 81V 8' 6" 8' V 7- 5" 2' 5" • 1' 4 ' 1' 9 ’
10 10 1 '/' 10' 1 V 10' 2 V 110 3 v 10' 5 Y 10' 7 Y 1 0 1 1 '’ İ1V 4" 12' V 13' r 15 3" 4 10'- 2- O’
711Y 7i r 710 Y 7' 9 V T 8V T 7Y 7' 6" , 7' 3'?" 7' Y ’ 6' 9" 6' 3" n r* v 0' v 4'
8 8' V 0' i y 8' 1 V I 8’ 2 Y 8' 3 Y 8’ 4 V 8’ V 1810- 9' 3" 91 0 ’' 1V O' 310 - V 7"
6 1 1 1?" 6 11'i 610V 6 1 0 ’ /' 6' 9 Y 6’ 8 V 6' 7 Y 16' 5'?" 6' 3 " 6' O’ 5' 8” V 8" • 0 1 r V 2'
7 7' 1f 7’ h " 7’ iv 1 7' V S ?• 2 Y 7' 3 V 7' 5 Y 1 7' 7 Y 7 1 V /' 8’ 5 9' 2" 3’ 4% V 5”
511 Y 511Y 51 r 510V 510 Y 5’ 9 Y 5' 8 Y , 5' 7 Y 5' 5 Y 5' 3" 5' 0" V 5 "* O' 9“ V 0"
6 6' Y 6' Y 6' V I 6' V S 6’ 2’ 6' 2 V 6' 4’’ 1 6' 4" 6' 8'?" 7 0’’ 7' T 210" ■ V 2“
411V 411Y 411Y 411Y 410 V 410Y 4' 9 Y 4 8V 4’ 7 Y 4' 5'.’" 4' 3" V 2 - 0' 8 ” 010'
5 5' Y 5' Y 5' 1f I 5' 1” 5' V S 5' I V 5’ 2 V 5' 3 V 5' 5 V 5’ 8" 6' O” 2' 4"* V 0"
311V 311V 311V 311' r’’ 3 1 1 '/ ' 310Y 3 1 0 ’ ?'' 3’ 9 Y 3' 9" 3' 8" 3’ 6 Y 01V . 0' 6" 0’ 8
4 4- 4' Y 4' Y | 4’ Y 4' 3 S 4’ V S 4' 1 Y 4- 2 Y 4' 3'?" 4' 5" 4' V f 110"* 0 10
 ... 35mm CAMERA DEPTH-OF-FIELO. HYPERFOCAL DISTANCE & FIELD OF VIEW

182
LENS FOCAL LENGTH: lOOmiTI CIRCLE OF CONFUSION = .001" ( 1 /1 0 0 0 " )
HYPER- FIELD OF VIEW
FOCAL 1292' 9 2 2 .6 2 ' 6 4 5 .8 3 ' 4 6 1 .3 1 ' 3 2 2 .9 2 ’ 2 3 0 .6 6 ' 1 6 1 .4 6 ' 1 1 7 .4 2 ' 80.73' 58.7V 40.36' (w/projected Image)
DISTANCE
1.85:1 AR TV HEIGHT
1/1 1 / 1 .4 1/2 1 / 2 .8 1 /4 1 / 5 .6 1 /8 1 /1 1 1/1 6 1/22 1/32 |.8 2 5 " x .4 4 6 " ) (.594")
LENS NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR ANA 2.39:1 AR
FOCUS
(FEET) FAR FAR FAR FAR FAR FAR FAR FAR FAR FAR FAR i1 .6 7 6 " x . 7 0 0 " )
92-10- 90- 3" 87' 82' 76- 70' 62' 54’ 45- 37- 29- 20-11-X11' 3" 15' 0"
100 108- 5- 112' iie - 128' MS 177' 263 674' INF INF INF 42' 5"x17' 9"
48' 2" 47' 5" 46' 5" [45' 1" 43' 4" 41’ r 38’ 35’ 131' 27’ 22’ 10' 5"x 5' 8" T 6“
50 52' 0" 5 210' 54’ 2" ,56' 1" 59 2" 64' 72’ 87' 113 r 337 INF 21' 2“ x 8 10"
24' 6 ’V' 24' 4" 24' 1" 23' 9" 23’ 2 " 22’ 7" 21' 8” 20’ 7” 19' 1” 17' 6" 15’ 5" 5’ 2"x 2’ 9" 3' 9”
25 2 5 ’ 6" 25' 8 7 " 26' 0" 26' 5" 27' 1" 28’ 0” 29' 7" 31’ 9" 36' 44' 66’ 10’ 6"x 4' 5"
19' 8 ’2” 19- 7" 19’ 5" 19’ 2" 18 10" 18' 5" 17*10" 17’ 1" 16’ 0” 14'1 r 13’ 5" 4' 1"x 2' 3" 3' 0”
20 20' 3 V 20' 5 V 20’ 7 7 " 20-11" 21' 4" 2 iir 22-10" 24' r 26’ 7” 30’ 40' 8’ 4"x 3' 6"
14'10" 114' 9" 14’ 8" 114' 6 V 114' 4" 14' r 13’ 9” 13' 4 ' 112' 8" in r lio n " 3’ rx 1’ 8" 2’ 3"
15 15' 2 V 15' 3" 15’ 4 V 15’ 6’’ 15' 9” 16' 0" 16' 6" 17' 2" 18' 5” 20’ 2 “ 23' 10’’ 6’ 3"x 2’ 7"
11*103V' 1010V 11' 9 V 1V 8 7 " 11’ 6 V 11' 5” 11’ 2 " i0 'ir 10' 5’’ 10’ 0” 9' 3" 2' 5"x 1' 4" 1’ 9"
12 12’ 1 V 12' 2 V 12' 3 V
12' 2 " ____________________________12’ 5 7 " 12' 8" 12 1 1 V 13’ 4“ 14' 1” 15- 1” 17’ 1" 5' 0” x 2' 1"
911" i 910V 910V 9’ 9 V f . 9' 8 V 9’ 7" 9' 5" 9’ 2 Y 8*11" 8' 7" I 8’ 0" 2' 0"x 1' 1" V 6"
10 10’ r hO ’ 1Vi- 10’ 2" 10’ 2 V 110’ 3 V 10’ 5 y 10' 8" 1011" 11’ 0" 12' 0” 113’ 3" 4' rx r 9"
7117" I 711V I 710V 710 V 1 7’ 9 V 17’ 8 V 17’ V : f 17’ 6" 7’ 3 7 " I T 7' I 6’ 8" 1’ 7"x 010" 1' 2”
8 8' 7 " 8' 3i ” 8’ 1 V 8’ 1 V 8' 2 7 ” 8’ 3 7 " 8’ 5" 8’ 7" 810' i f 9’ 3" 10' 0” 3’ 3"x V 4"
6117" 6117" 611" 610V 610 V 6’ 9 7 ” 6' 8 7 " , 6' 7'/4" 6' 5 7 " I 6’ 3" 6' 0" V 5"x O' 9" 1’ 0"
7 7' 7 " 7' 7 ' 7’ 1" 7' 1 V 7' 2” 7' 2 V 7' 3 V I 7’ 5 V 7’ 8" I 7117" 8' 6" 2’10”x 1’ 2"
511V 5117" i 5 1 1 V 51 r 5 1 0 V 5 1 0 V i 5' 9 V 5' 8 V f 5' 7" 5’ 5 7 " 1 5' 2 7 ” V 2"x O’ 8" 010"
6 6’ V 6’ V f _____________________________________________
I 6' V 6' r 6' i v 6’ 2" 16' 2 V 6’ 3 V 6' 5 V 6' 8” 1 7' r 2' 5"x 1' 0"
I 411V I 411V I 4117” 4117" i 411" 14 1 0 V 1410 V 14' 9 7 " 4' 8 7 ’’ 1 4’ 7 V 1 4' 5 7 " 1' 0” x 0' 6" 0' 8"
5 5’ V 5’ V 5' 7 ' 5’ V f 5’ 1" 5' 1 V 5' 2" 5' 2 V 5’ 4” 5' 5 V 5’ 8 7 ” 2’ 0"x 010"
 35mm CAMEHA DEPTH-OF-FIELD. HYPERFOCAL DISTANCE 8 FIELD OF VIEW
LENS FOCAL LENGTH: 1 5 0 m m CIHCLE OF CONFUSION = .001" (1/1000")
HYPER­ FIELD OF VIEW
FOCAL 2906- 2076' 1453' 1038’ 726.6’ 519.0’ 363.3’ 264.2' 181.6’ 132.1' 90.82' (w/projected image)
DISTANCE
1.85:1 AR TV HEIGHT
1/1 1/1.4 1/2 1/2.8 1/4 1/5.6 1/8 1/11 Í/16 1/22 1/32
(.825”x.446”) (.594”)
LENS NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR ANA 2.39:1 AR
FOCUS
[FEET) FAR FAR FAR FAR FAR FAR FAR FAR FAR FAR FAR I1.676'x.700”)
142' 8 " 140' 136 131’ 124' 116' 106' 96' 82' 70' 57' 20'H'v11'3" 150"
150 158' 2" 162 167' 175'_ ______189 211' 255' 1347’ 861' INF INF 42' 5"x17’ 9"
96' 0” 95' 5" 93' 7" 91' 3" ' 08' 04' 78' 73' 65' 1 57' 48’ 13'1 1 ’ x 7- 6 " 10’ 0"
100 103' 7" 105' 1” 107- 5” 11V , 116 124’ 138 16V 222' 1412’ INF 20' 3 -1 1 1 0 "
73’ 1" 72’ 5" 71’ 4” 6911'’ 68' 0” 65' 6 “ 62' 50' 53' 48' 41’ 10' 5" • 5’ 8 " T 6"
75 77' 0" 77 10“ 79' 1" 80 10’ 03- 8 " 06' 95' 105' 120 ' 174’ 431' 2 1 ' 2 "- 8 1 0”
49' 2" 4 8 1 0 ’’ 40’ 4’’ 47’ 0" ! 46' 9" 45' 7" 43 11’’ 42’ 1" 39' 36' 32' 6 1 1"> 3' 9" 5' 0"
50 5 0 10 '2” 51’ 3” 51’ 9“ 52’ 6 1' I 53' 0" 55' 4" 58' 0" 62’ 69' 00 * 111 ' 14' 1"> 510"
24' 9 Y 24' 0 Y 24' T 24' 5" 24' 2” 2310 23’ 5" 2210" 22 ' O’’ 2 V 0" 19’ T 3 - 5 "> 1 1 0 " 2' 6"
25 25' 2 V 25' 3 ’ ?’' 25’ 5 ’ *" 25' 7 Y 2510' 2 " 26' 3” 2610" 27' 7" 29' 0" 3010" 34’ 6" 7’ 0 "x 211
19 10v4 19' 9%’' 19' 0 34" 19' V f 19' 5'?" 19' 3” 19' 0" 10’ 7 ' 10 ’ 0 " 17' 4" 16’ 5” 2- 9 'x r 6 " 2 0”
20 20' 134" 20’ 2 , j ” 20' 3 Y 20’ 4 V 20’ 7" 20' 9 ’ 2’’ 2 V 2” 21 ’ 0 " 22 ’ 6 " 23' 7” 25' 0" 5’ 6 ''v 2' 4"
1710V 7'10’ V' 17' 9 ’ «" 17' 0 V ' 17' 6 V 17' 5’’ 17’ 2" 1610" 16' 5” 1510" 15’ 0" 2' 5"x 1' 4" 1' 9"
18 18' V S 18' 2 " 18' 2 3V' 18' 3%" 10’ 5 12" 18’ 0 " 101 r ?" 19’ 4" 20 ' 0 ” 2010" 22’ 5" 5' 0"> 2’ 1"
1411“ 1410V 1410’ 4" 14' 9 V 14’ 0 ’ ?-' 14' T 14' 5" 14' 2 Y 1310' 13' 6 ” 121 r 2 - 0 "-< r r v 6"
15 15’ 1" 15' 1 Y 15' 2" 15’ 2 V 15’ 4 ' 15' 5 'f 15’ 8 " 1511" 16' 4” 1611 10 ’ 0 ” 4' 1"x 1 9"
1 1 1 1 '?” 1111V 1 1 1 0 %” 1 Ï 10 V ir 9 V 11’ 8 V 11' 7 ’ 2" 11 ' 6 ” 11’ 3" 11 ’ 0 ” 10' 7" 1' 7"x 010" r 2"
12 12 ' 12 ’ 12’ V S 12' 1 V 12’ 2 Y 12' Z ' S 12’ 5” 12’ 7" 1210" 13’ 2" 1310” 3' 3"> 1’ 4"
911V 91IV 911Y 910% “ 910V 9’ 9%" 9' 8 V 9' V S 9’ 6 ” 9’ 3 Y ' 9' 0" V 4”x O’ 9" r 0"
10 10' V 10 ’ '2" 10' V 10’ 1 V 10 ’ 134" 10 ' 2 Y 10 ' 3'4" 10' 4 V 10' 7” 1 0 1 0 ’’ ir 3” 2 0 -x r 2 "
711V 711V 71V ?” 71V S 711" 710Y 710" 7' 9" 7- 8 " 7' 6 ' 2” 7' 4” r i"x o- r o- 9”
8 8 ’ TV' 8 ' >4" 8' Y 01 0 3 4” 0 1" 8’ 1 Y 0' 2 V 8 ' 3” 8' 4 V 0’ 6” 8 ' 9” 2 ’ 2" ' 0 1 1 "

183
 „„„ 35mm CAMERA DEPTH-OF-FIELD. HYPEHFOCAL DISTANCE 8 FIELD OF VIEW

184
LENS FOCAL LENGTH: 2 0 0 m m CIRCLE OF CONFUSION = .001" (1/1000 )
FIELD OF VIEW
516 7' 369 0' 258 3' 1845' 1292' 9 22 .62' 645 .63' 469 .7 0 ' 3 22 .92' Z34.8S' 161.46' (w/prolecled Image)
DISTANCE

1/1 1/1 .4 1/2 1/2.8 1/4 1/5 .6 1/8 1/11 1 /1 6 1/2 2 1/32
( .8 2 5 ^ .4 4 6 ') W
NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR ANA 2.39:1 AR
(FEET
& FAR FAR FAR FAR FAH FAR FAR FAH FAR FAR FAR (1 .6 7 6 "x .7 0 0 ")
192- 7" 190 186' 180’ 173' 164' 153' MO- 124- 108- ag- 20 H " x ir 3- 15- o-
200 208 1 " 211' 217' 224 237 255 290' 348- 525 INF INF 42- 5"* 17' fl­
98' r 97' 4" 96' 3" 94-10“ 92-10" 90' 3" 87' 82' 76' 70' 62' 10’ 5'x 5- 8 - 7- 6 "
100 102 0 - 102' 9" 104' 0" 105- 9- 108- 5" 112 ' 118' 127- 145 174' 263' 2 1 ' 2 • 8 13
73 11" 73' 6 " 72-10" 72' 1" 7011" 69- 4" 67' 2" 65 61' 57- 51' T 9-X 4' 3" 5' 7"
75 76' 1" 76' 7- 77' 3" 78' 2" 79' 7" 81' 8 " 84 IQ- 89' 98' HO' 140' 1510 • 6 ' 7 "
49- 6 V 49- 4" 49’ V 48' 8 " 48’ 2" 47’ 5" 46- 5" 45 2" 43' 4" 4 V 3" 38' 5' 2"x 2' 9- 3' 9"
50 50- 6 - 50- 8 V 51- 0" 51- 5" 52' 0 ” 52 10- 54' 2- 59- 2 " 64' 72' 10' 6 "x 4' 5"
2410V 24’ 10’ 24’ 9" 24’ 8 " 24- 6 V 24' 4- 24' 1" 23' 9" 23' 2 " 22' 7" 21' 7" 2 ’ 7"x 1' 5" no-
25 25' 1 V 25- 2" . 25' 3- 25’ 4 " 25- 6 " 25' 8 V 26' 0 " 26' 5" 27' 1" 28' 0 " 29' 7" 5' 2-'x 2- 2”
1911" 19'103V 19'1 0 V 19' 9 ' 2" 19' B V 19’ 7" 19’ 5" 19' 2 " 18-10- 18' 5" 17-10- 2' 0-x V 1" V 6"
20 2 0 ’ 1" 20’ 1V 20 ' 2 - 20' 2 V 20' 3 V 20’ 5 V 20’ 7 V 2 0 1 0 '; 21 - 4- 2 1 -10 " 2 2 -10 - 4' 1"< 1' 9"
1711V 17-11- 17'10,t" 17'10" 17- g. 17' 8 " 17' 6 " 17' 4" 17' V 16’ 9- 16’ 2 " 1-10-x V 0- 1- 4-
18 18- V 18- 1- 18- 1 V 18' 2 V 18- 3 " 18' 4 V 18’ 6 " 18' B V 19’ 1- 19' 6 ” 20' 3- 3' 8 • 1' 6 -
1 4 '1 1 V 14 '11 V 14'11" 14'10" 14' 9" 14' 8 " 14' 6 V 14' 4" 14' 1- 14' 13' 9- V 6 -x 0-10- 1- 1"
15 15- Vi- 15" = V _ 15’ r __ _ _ _ 15' 15' 2 V
_ _ _ I_V_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _15-
_ 3" 15' 4 V 15- 6 " 15- 9" 16 ' o r 16' 6 " 3' 1-x 1' 3"
ir m - 11 -11 V 11 -11 V 11 -11 - 11 -10 V 1 V10V 1V 9 V 11- B V il' 6V 11 ' 5- 11 ' 2 " 1’ 2-X O' 8 " 0'10-
12 12' V 12- V 12 ' V _ 12 ' 1 - 12 - 1 V 12 - 2 -- 12- 2 V 12' 3V- 12- 5 V 12 ' S'­ 1211V 2’ 5"x 1’ 0"
911V 91 13j" 911V 9 1 1 1? 9'11' 910V 910V 9' 9V2" 9* 8 V 9' 7" 9' 5" r O'x O' 6 " 0' 8"
10 10 ' V 10 ' ’V 10' V 10’ V 10 - r 10' 1 V 10 - 2 ” 10' 2 V 10* 3 V 10- 5 V 10 - 8- 2- 0“ * O'10"
8‘ 0 ” 711V 711V 711V 711V 711V 710V 7-10 V 7' 9 V T 9” T 7V 0' 9” x O' 5" 0' 7"
8- 0 ” 8 ' V," 8 ' 'V 8 ' -V 8' V 8' V 8' 1 V 0' 1 V 8' 2 V 8' 3 V 8 ' 5" V 7"x O' 8 "
8
 ... 35mm CAMERA DEPTH-OF-FIELD, HYPERFOCAL DISTANCE & FIELD OF VIEW
LENS FOCAL LENGTH: 4 0 0 m m CIRCLE OF CONFUSION = .001" (1 /1 0 0 0 ')
HYPEfl- FIELD OF VIEW
FOCAL 2 0 .6 6 7 ' 1 4.7 6 2 ’ 10.333' 7381' 516 7' 3690' 258 3' 1879' 1292' 939 .4' 645 .8' (w/projecled Image)
J1IS IA M C L
1.85:1 AR TV HEIGHT
1/1 1/1 .4 1/2 1/2 .8 f/4 1/5.6 1/8 1/11 1 /1 6 1 /2 2 1/3 2
(,8 2 5 "x .4 4 6 ") (.594")
LENS NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR ANA 2.39:1 AR
FOCUS
(FEET) FAR FAR FAR FAR FAR FAR FAR FAR FAR FAR FAR d .6 7 6 " x .7 0 0 " )
392' 5 " 389 385' 379' 371- 361' 346' 330' 305' 281' 1247- 2 0 1 1"x 11'3" 15 0
400 407 H " 411' 416' 423' 434' 449' '473' 508' 579' 697' INF 42' 5 • 17' 9
198’ r 197' 4" 196’ 2" 194' 9" 197' r 190' 106’ 101 ' 173' 165' 153' 10' 5"> 5' 8 " 7' 6”
200 20 2 - 0 ” 202- 9" 204' 0~ 205- 7“ 208- r 211 ,217 224’ 237' 254 290’ 21 ' 2"y 8 ' 10 ”
14811“ 148’ 6" 147 10' 147' O'' 145- 9” 144- 2" 1141' 9" 139’ 134’ 129' 122 ' 7' 9"x 4' 3’' 5' T
150 15Î 1” 151' 6" 152’ 2" 153' r 154' 6 ' 156' 4" ■ 159' 3" 163' 170' 178 195' 1510’ X 6 ' 7"
99’ 6 '.4 99' 4" 99' V 98’ 8 " 98' 1" 97' 4" 96' 3” 94 11” 92’10' 90' 5W 87' 5’ 2" y 2' 9" 3' 9“
100 100' 6” 100- 0 ” 101 ' O’ 101' 4“ 102 ’ 0 " 102' 9" 1104' 0” 105' 8 " 100' 5” 112 ’ 118’ 10' 6 ”> 4' 5"
74' 8 3i 74' 7 V 74' 5 V 74' 3” 7311 73’ 6 " I 72'11" 72' 2" 70‘11'' 69' 6 " 67' 2" 310"x 2‘ 1" 2’ 9-
75 75' 3 14 75' 4 ' 2" 75' 6 V 75' 9" 76’ V’ 76' r i 77’ 3" 70' 1" 79' 7” 01' 6 " 84'10" 7'10" < 3’ 3"
4 9 '1 0 'j 49'10" 49' 9" 49' 8 M 49' 6 ’ -" 49' 4“ i 49' V 48’ 0" 48' 2" 47' 6 " 46’ 5" 2’ 7'"-' V 5" V10"
50 50' 1 ’ : 50- 2" 50' 3" 50' 4" 50 6 " 50' 8 V I 51' 0" 51' 4" 52’ 0“ 5210’ 54' 2’’ 5' 2"< 2' 2"
34 11 Vj 34'11" 34'10’y 34 10' 34' 9" 34' 8 " 34’ 6 'V 34’ 4 V 34' r 33' 9" 33 2" r 9" * o n- r 3"
35 35' s* 35‘ 1” 35' 1 12" 35 2 35' 3” 35’ 4” 35' 5 V 35' 0" 35’11’ 2" 36' 4" 37' O' 3' T < 1 6”
2 4 'n 3', 24’ 1 1 'y 24*11 V 24*11" 2 4 '1 0 V 2410" 24’ 9" 24' 0" 24' 6 V 24' 4" 24' r V 3" < 0' 0" 011"
25 25' 25' V 25' V 25' 1" 25' 1 V 25 2 " 25' 3“ 25' 4“ 25' 6 ” 25' 8 ’’ 26' O' 2 ' 6 ” «■ 1' 1"
1 9 113i 1911V 19 n ’ i" 1 9 '1 1 V 19 11 19'10 V 1 9 10 V' 19' 9 ’ ?' 19' 8 ’ ?” 19’ 7" 19' 5' r O'* O' 6 " O' 0-
20 20’ ’•* 2 0 - 'V 20’ V 20' 2 0 ' 1" 20 ' 1 V 2 0' 2" 20' 2 V 20' 3 V 20 5 V 20’ 7V 2 ‘ 0' < 010'
17’ 113-i 17’ 113 171 I^V 17’1 1 V 17'11 ’ 4" 17'11" 1 7 '10 Y 17'1Q" 17' 9" 17' 8 ” 17' 6” O iO’v O’ 6 " O' 0”
18 10 ' 10’ V 10' '.V 10’ V 18' V 10 ' 1" 10 ' v r 18' 2 " 18' 3" 10' 4 V 18' 6" 1' 9” ' 0’ 9”
15- O'' 14HV 141 m " 14 1134" I 14’1 1 V 14 11':. 14 11 ' 1 4 '10 V 14*10" 14’ 9" 14’ 0" O' 9" - O' 5" O’ 6 “
15 15' 0” 15' ’.4“ 15' 15' V 15' V 15' V*" 15' 1" 15' V ï 15' 2 V 15' 3" 15 4V 1' 6 ' - O' 7“

185
:
 16mm CAMERA DEPTH-OF-FIELD. HYPERFOCAL DISTANCE & FIELD OF VIEW

186
LENS FOCAL LENGTH: 8mm CIRCLE OF CONFUSION = .0006" (6 /1 0 .0 0 0 ')
HYPER­ FIELD OF VIEW
FOCAL 13.78' 9.64' 6.89' 4.92' 3.4 4 ' 2.46' 1.72' 1.25' 0.86' 0.6 3' 0 .43' (w/pro|ecled Image)
DISTANCE

1/22 1/32 STD & TV

1/1 i/ 1 . 4 1/2 1/2 .8 1 /4 1/5 .6 1/8 1/11 1 /1 6
(.3 6 0 -X .2 8 6 ")
LENS NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR SUPER 16 1.85:1 AR
FOCUS NEAR
(FEET) FAR FAR FAR FAR FAR FAR FAR FAR FAR FAR FAR (.463 " x . 251")
9' T 5' 4’ 3' 2' 2' V r r 0' 30' 2"x22' B"
25 INF INF INF INF INF INF INF INF INF INF INF 36' 9-x19'11"
T r 5' 11" 5' 4’ 3' 2' 2’ 1* 1' r 0' 18’ r x i 3 ‘ r
15 INF INF INF INF INF INF INF INF INF INF INF 22' r x i n r

5' r 4' 5' 3' 0" 3' r 2’ 5" 111" 1' 5" 1' r O’ 9" 0’ 7" O' 5” 9' 7"x 7' 3"
8 19' 43' INF INF INF INF INF INF INF INF INF 11' 9"x 6 ' 4 '
4' 2" 3’ 9" 3’ 3“ I 2' 8" 2’ 2" r 9“ r r v cr 0’ 9" 0' T 0' 5" 7' 3''x 5' 5”
10' 7" 15* 4' 46' I INF INF INF INF INF INF INF INF 8 ' 9"x 4' 9-
6
3’ r 210" 2' 6 ' 2’ 3" no- 1' 6 " 1' 2 " 0 ' 11- O’ 9" O' 7" 0' 5” 4'10"x 3' 7"
4 5’ 8 ” 6 ’ 9" 9' 7- 21' iNF INF INF INF INF INF INF 5'10"x 3' 2"
2 ' 5 1/?'" 2’ 3 ’/2" 2 ' 1" i 1’10" 1' 7" 1’ 4" 1’ 1" O 'lr 0’ 8” 0' 6” 0' 5” 3’ 7"x 2' 8 "
3 3’10" 4’ 4" 5' 4" T 8" 23' INF INF INF INF INF INF 4’ 5“ x 2' 4“
1’ 9" 1’ 8 " r ew I 1’ 5" 1' 3" r 1" O il" 0’ 9" 0' 7- 0' 6" 0' 4' 2' 5” x 1’ 10"
2 2’ 4” 2' 6 " 2 ’ 10" I 3’ 4" 4' 9" 10 ’ 8 ” INF INF INF INF INF 2 ' 11” x 1' T

1’ 4%" r Vh" 1’ Z 3/*" 1’ 13/«“ 1' w 0" i r O' s w 0 ’ 0" 0' e w 0' 5" 0’ 4” V 9"x 1' 4"
1 .5 V 8 W' X 9%" I 'll" 2’ 2" 2' 8" 3’10" 12 ’ INF INF INF INF 2 ' 2 "x 1' 2 "

0 1 1 VV' 0 ’ 11 " 0 ' 101/2" 0 ' 10 " 0' 9 ’A" 0 ' ev?" 0' 7 Vi" 0’ 6V 0’ 5 V? 0’ 4 Vi’ O' 3Vj" 1' 2 "x 0 ' 11 "
1 r r 1' 1 1' 2 ” 1’ 3" 1' 5” V BY*" 2’ 5” 5' 0" INF INF INF V 5"x 0' 9"
 16mm CAMERA DEPTH-OF-FIELD. HYPERFOCAL DISTANCE 8 FIELD OF VIEW
LENS FOCAL LENGTH: 9 . 5 m i l l CIRCLE OF CONFUSION = .0006" (6 /1 0 .0 0 0 ")
HYPER­ FIELD OF VIEW
FOCAL 19.43' 13.88’ 9.7 1' 6.94' 4.8 6 ' 3.47' 2.43' 1.77' 1.21' 0 .88' 0 .6 V (w/pro|ecled Image)
DISTANCE

(/I 1/1 .4 1/2 1/2 .8 1/4 1 /5 .6 1/8 1/11 1 /1 6 1 /2 2 1/3 2 STD & TV
(.3 8 0 "x .2 8 6 ")
LENS NEAR
FOCUS NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR SUPER 16 1.85:1 AR
(FEET) FAR FAR FAR FAR FAR FAR FAR FAR FAR FAR FAR (,4 6 3 "x .2 5 1 ")
12' 9' 7' 5' A' 3' 2' 2' 1' 1' r 25' 4 "x19' 1-
25 INF INF INF INF INF INF INF INF INF INF INF 30H "x16' 9-
0' 6" T 3“ 51 r 5’ 4' 3' 2' 2' 1’ 1' V 15’ 3 ’ x1T 5"
15 66 ' INF INF INF INF INF INF INF INF INF INF 18’ 6" x 10' 1"
5' 0" 5' 1" 4’ 5" 3' 9" 3’ 0" 2' 5" 110 " 1' 5' 1’ 0 ” 01 0 " 0' r 8 ' 1"x 6' 1"
8 13' 7" 19' 45’ INF INF INF INF INF INF INF INF 9'10"X 5’ 4"
4' 7" 4' 2" 2- 0* 1’ 4" 1’ 0" O' 9" 6’ 1"x 4' 7"
3’ 9" 3' 3" 2’ T V 9" 0 ’ 7"
6 0' 0" 10’ 7" 15’ 0" 44' INF INF INF INF INF INF INF 7' 5''x 4' 0"
3' 4" 3 ’ Vh" 210" 2’ 6" 2 ' 2" 110 " ' Ï 6" 1’ 3” 0 11 " O' 9” O’ 6 " 4' 0"x 3' 0”
4 5' 0 “ 5' 7" 610" 9’5" 23' INF I INF INF INF INF INF 4 1 1'x 2’ 8"
2' 7 Vi" 2’ 5 ’/." 2 ’ 3V2" 2’1" 110 " 1' 7" V 4" 1' 1" 010" 0 ’ 0" 0’ 6" 3' 0"x 2' 3"
3 3' Vi"
6 310" 4- 4» 5'3" 710" 22 ' INF INF INF INF INF 3 ’ 0 ”x 2' 0"
V 9 3/i" 1' 9" r 8" 1'6 V2" 1' 5" 1' 3" 1' 1" 01 1 " 0' 9 ' 0 ’ 7" 0' 6" 2' 0”x r 6"
2 2' 2 3/i" 2' 4" 2' 6" 2'9V2" 3‘ 5" 4' 9 ” 11’ 4" INF INF INF INF 2' 5"x r 4"
1’ 4 3/4" 1’ 4V<" 1’ 3 ’/2" 1'2 3/4” 1’ 1%- 1' Vi" 011" 0 ’ 9 V2" 0 ' 8" O' 6 V2- 0 ’ 5" 1' 6"x 1' 1"
1.5 1' 7Vz" 1’ 0 ’/4" r 9 %" 111 " 2 ’ 2" 2' 7 V?" 3' 1" 911" INF INF INF no"x r 0"
O'H '/z" 0 1 1 V4" 0 11 " OIOV?" O' 10" O' 9%" 0 ’ 8 Vi" O’ 7 V r 0' 6 V2" 0 ’ 5'/?" 0' AVf V 0"x O’ 9"
1 1' V2" 1’ 1" V VU" r 2" 1’ 3 ” 1’ 4 3/4" V 8 V2" 2 ’ 4" 5’ 8" INF INF r 3"x 0 ’ 0"

187
 16mm CAMERA DEPTH-OF-FIELD. HYPERFOCAL DISTANCE & FIELD OF VIEW

188
LENS FOCAL LENGTH: 1 2 m m CIRCLE OF CONFUSION = .0006" (6 /1 0 .0 0 0 ")
HYPER­ FIELD OF VIEW
FOCAL 3 1 .0 0 ' 2 2 .14' 15.50' 11.07' 7 .75' 5.5 4' 3 .68' 2.6 2 ' 1.94' 1.41' 0.97' (w/projecled Image)
DISTANCE

1/2 2 1/32 STD S TV

1/1 1/1 .4 1/2 1/2 .8 1/4 1 /5 .6 1/8 1/11 1/1 6
(.3 8 0 "x .2 8 6 ")
LENS NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR SUPEH 16 1.85:1 AR
FOCUS
(FEET) FAR FAR FAR FAR FAR FAR FAR FAR FAR FAR FAR (,4 6 3 "x .2 5 1 ")
14' 12 ' 10 ' 8' 6' 5' 3' 3' 2' 1' 1' 20' 1"x15' 1"
25 129' INF INF INF INF INF INF INF INF INF IINF 24' 6 "x 13' 3"
10 ' 1” 8' i r 7' 8 ” 6 ’ 4" 5' 1" 4' 3' 2' 2’ 1' 1* 12' Ovx 9’ r
15 29' 46' 465’ INF INF INF INF INF INF INF INF 14' 0"x 711"
6 ' 4" 511" 5' 3" 4' 0" 3’11" 3’ 3" 2’ T 2 0" r 7" 1- 0 ” ;0 ' 10 " 6 ' 5''x 410"
8 10' 9" 12 ' 6 ” 16' 6 " 29' INF INF INF INF INF INF INF 7'10"x 4' 3"
5' V i' 4’ 9" 4' 4" 3*1 r 3’ 5 ' 211" 2' 4- I 'll - 1' 6 " 1’ 0 " 010" 4'10''x 3' 7"
6 T 5" 8 ’ 3" 9' 9- 13' 1" 27' INF INF INF INF INF INF 5'10” x 3' 2"
3' V h " 3’ 4 Vi" 3' 2" 2 *11 " 2’ 8 " 2’ 4” 2’ 0" r B" r 4” r O’ M " 3' 2"x 2' 5"
4 4' 7" 4'10’/2" 5' 5” 6 ' 3" 8 ’ 3’’ 14' INF INF INF INF IINF 3*11"x 2 1"
2' 9" 2’ 7 3,V' 2' 6" 2' 4 V i' 2 ’ 2" 1’ 11 " 1' 0" r 5" r 2" r 0" 0' 9" 2' 5"x 1' 9"
3 3' SW' 3’ 53/ / 3' 8 Vi" 4’ 1" 4 'ir 6 ’ 7" 13' INF INF INF INF 2 ' i i ”x x 7"

nov?" 1' 10 " 1' 9 V4" 1' 8 V4" V 7" 1’ 5 ’/2" Ï 4" 1' 2 " 1* 0 “ 0 ' 10 ” O' 8 ” r 7 "x r 2"
2 2 ' 1 3/«“ 2' Z \V 2 ' 3V2" 2’ 5 Vi" 2 ’ 8 V2"
3, p. 4' 2" 6 ' 11 " INF INF IINF 1' 11 "x 1' 0 “

V 5V4- 1' 4 V V 4 Vi" 1' 3 3V' 1’ 3" 1' 2 V t r V 0" 0 ' 10 " 0' 9'' 0' 7“ r 2 "x 0 1 1 "
1.5 1' 7" 1' 7 Va" r 8" V 9" 1’ 1 0 VV’ 2' Vi" 2’ 5 Vi" 3' 2" 6' 8" INF INF r 5"x O' 9’
0 *11 %" 011 Vi" 0'11 ’/«" 0 *11 " 0’ 10 3/4" O'lO’V' 0' 9 Vi" 0' 9“ O' 0" 0’ 7" '0' 6 " 0' 9'x O' 7'
V Vi' r vi- r 3/4" 1* v w 1’ 13/4- r 2 %- V 4 Vi" 1' 6 Vi' 2 ' 1" 3’ 5" INF O 'irx O' 6 "
1
 16mm CAMEHA DEPTH-OF-FIELD. HYPERFOCAL DISTANCE 8 FIELD OF VIEW
LENS FOCAL LENGTH: 1 6m m CIRCLE OF CONFUSION = .0006" (6/10.000 )
HYPEfl- FIELD OF VIEW
FOCAL 5 5 .1 V 39 .37' 27.56' 19.68' 13.78' 9.8 4' 6.B9' 5.01 3 .4 4 ’ 2 .5 V 1.7 2’ (w/pro|ected Image)
DISTANCE

1/1 1/1 .4 1/2 1/2 .8 1/4 1/5 .6 r/e i/1 1 1/1 6 1/2 2 1/32 STD & TV
(,3 8 0 "x .2 8 6 ")
LENS
FOCUS
NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR SUPEH 16 1.85:1 AR
(FEET) FAR FAR FAR FAR FAR FAR FAR FAR FAR FAR FAR (,4 6 3 "X .2 5 1 ")
26' 22- 18' 14' 11 ' 8' 6' 5' 3' 2' 2' 30' 2 'x2 2 ' B-
50 539' INF INF INF INF INF INF INF INF INF INF 36' 9"x19'11"
17' 2" 15' 4” 13' 11 ' 9’ T 5' 4' 3' 2' 2' 15’ 1"x1V 4“
25 46' 69' 270’ INF INF INF INF INF INF INF INF 10’ 4"x 91 r
12' O'' 10 ' 10 " 9' 9" 0' 6 ’' 7' 2" 5'11" 5' 4' 3' 2' 2’ 9' 0"x 6 ' 9”
15 20' 7" 24' 3" 33' 63' INF INF INF INF INF INF INF 11 ' Q"x 6 ' 0 ’
0' 6" 0- O'- 7' 4” 6' 0" 5'10" 5' 0" 4’ 1" 3' 4" 2' 7" 2' 0 " r 6” 6 ’ O'x 4’ 6 ”
10 12' 3" 13' 5" 15' 8 " 20 ' 36' INF INF INF INF INF INF 7’ 4"x 4' 0"
7’ 0" 6- 8" 6’ 2" 5’ 0" 5’ r 4’ 5” 3’ 0" 3' 1" 2' 5" n r 1’ 5" 4’ 9'x 3’ T
8 9' 4” 10 ' 0 ” 1V 3” 13' 6" 19' 43’ INF INF INF INF INF 5'10"x 3' 2“
5’ 5" 5’ 2 ' r 4’11" 4’ 7" 4- 2" 3’ 9" 3' 3“ 2' 9" 2’ 2" V 9” V 4" 3’ 7"x 2’ 8 "
6 6' 9" 7' V' 7’ 0” 0’ 0” 10’ 7 ” 15’ 4" 46’ INF INF INF INF 4' 4"x 2’ 4"
4' 7" 4’ 5*2" 4’ 3" 4’ 0" 3' 8 " 3' 4” 2 ' 11 ' 2' 6" 2’ r V 0” r 34” 3’ 0"x 2' 3"
5 5' 6 " 5' 9’’ 6 ’ 1" 6’ 0" 7’ 10" 10 ' 2 " 18’ INF INF INF INF 3’ 0"x 2' 0"
3' 0 V 3’ 7 V 3' 6 " 3' 4” 3- r 2 ' 10 '' 2' 6 ” 2' 3” no- v r 1' 2 " 2’ 5'x 1' 9"
4 4' 3 3.V' 4’ 5'/2" 4' 8 " 5’ 0'' 5’ 8 " 6 ' 9" 9' T 20 ' INF INF INF 211 x r 7"
2'10'V’ 2' 9Va" 2 ’ 8 ’ 2" 2’ 7'<” 2 ’ 5'<2" 2 ' 3 12" 2 ’ 1" n r V 7" V 4" V r V 9"x V 4”
3 3' 2" 3' 3” 3' 4 V 3' 6 '?" 3'10" 4’ 4" 5’ 4" 7' 6” 23' INF INF 2' 2’’x V 2"
1'1 T V n o v 1’ 10 'V' V 9 3.-" Î 9'' V 8 ’’ V 6 ’ 2" V 5” V 3" v iv r 0' i r 1' 2 "x 0 1 1 ”
2 2 r 2’ 1%" 2 ' 2" 2' 2 3V 2' 4" 2’ 6” 2'10 3’ 4” 4' 9" 911" INF V 5"x O' 9"

189
 16mm CAMERA DEPTH-OF-FIELO, HYPERFOCAL DISTANCE & FIELD OF VIEW

190
LENS FOCAL LENGTH: 2 5 m m CIRCLE OF CONFUSION = .0006" (6 /1 0 ,0 0 0 ")
HYPEH- FIELD OF VIEW
FOCAL £ 134.6' 96 .1 1 ' 6 2 .27' 4 8 .05' 3 3 .64' 2 4 .0 3 ’ 16.62' 12.23' 6.41' 6.12' 4 .20' (w/prolecled Image)

1/32 STD & TV

1/1 1/1.4 1/2 1 /2 .6 1/4 1 /5 .6 f/8 1/11 1 /1 6 1/2 2
(.380 " X . 286")

LENS NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR SUPER 16 1.65:1 AR
SS5 FAR FAR FAR FAR FAR FAR FAR FAR FAR FAR FAR (,4 6 3 "x .2 5 1 ")
33’ 29' 25’ 20 ' 16- 13' 10- T 5' 4' 19’ 3 " x 1 4 ’ 6"
60’
50 36' 104 195' INF INF INF INF INF INF INF INF 2 3 ’ 6 V 1 2 - 9"
19-10" 16- 5“ 14' 112' 10' 0' 6’ 5- 4' 9 ’ 7"x 7’ 3"
25 3210 '’ 0"r 33' 9” 52’ 98' !INF INF INF INF INF INF 11’ 9'x 6’ 4"
13' 0” 12’ 3" 11' 5" 10' 5" 9' 3" 7 11 " 6 ’ 9“ 5' 5" 4' 3' 5 ’ 9 V 4 ’ 4"
15 s,ç 17' 9” 19’ 4" 2110 " 27' 40' 139’ INF INF INF INF 7' O'x 3 ’10"
9- 'V 8’ 9" 8' 3" 7’ 9" 7- r 6' 3" 5’ 6” 4- 7" 3'10" 3' 0” 3'10’ x 2 ’11"
17 - 2„ INF INF INF 4- 0"x 2’ 6"
V
10 109 ’’ V9 /t" 11’ 2" 11’ 9" 12- 7" 14’ 3" 25' 55'
? 4 V2" 7' 2" 6 10 " 6’ 6 ’' 6- 0” 5' 5" 4'10” 4 ’ 1” 3' 6” 2’ 9" 3 ’ 1"x 2' 4"
8 87’’ 66 "V2" 8 ’ 9" 9' r 9' 7" 10’ 6" 12' 0" 15' 3” 23' 164' INF INF 3’ 9"x 2' 0"
5' 9" 5' 7 V 5' 6" 5' 4 ' 5' 1” 410" 4' 5” 4 ’ 0" 3' 6 ” 3' 0" 2 ’ 6" 2’ 3-x 1’ 9 '
6 6’ 3 V 6’ 4 V 6' 7" 6IO V 2'' 7' 4" 0' 0 " 9' 4" 11’ 9” 21' 317' INF 2’ 9"x 1’ 6"
4' 9” 4’ 7V 4' 6 V 4' 4" 4' IV?" 310“ 3’ 7"
3, T 2' 9" 2' 3" 1’11'x 1' 5"
? r 8- 5" 12' 4“ 27' INF 2' 4"x 1' 3"
5 4'5 ’ 92 VV 5’ 3 V 5’ 4V 5' 7" 510V 6' 4"
İ" 310" 3' 8 V 3 ’ 6V 3' 5'' 3' 3" 3' 0 " 2' 9" 2’ 5” 2’ 1" 1' 6"x V 2"
4 34 10V ’ 1V 2" 4' 2" ? r 4' 4 V 4 ’ 6 V2" 4' 9 V 5' 3'' 5 11 " 7- 8" 11’ V 02 ’ 110"x V 0”
211V 2 11 " 2 1 0 1/?" 2' 9 V 2' 9" 2 ’ 0" 2' 6V 2' 5" 2' Z'/2" 2' O'' 1’ 9" r 2 "x 01 0 "
3 3’ V 3' VA" 3' 1 V 3' 2 V 3’ 3 V 3' 5 V 3' 0“ 311V 2" 4' 8" 511 " 10’ 6" r 4"x O' 9"
n u r T 11 V 111 ” 110 V 11 0 '/*" r 9v 1' 8 V 1' 7V 1' 6" 1- 4 V 0' 9'x 0 ’ 7"
2 21'1 1VV 2' V 2' V 2' 1" 2 ' 1V2" 2' 2 Vi" 2’ 3V 2' 4 V 2' 7V 2 -1V / 2" 310” 0' 11“x 0 ’ 6"
 16mm CAMERA DEPTH-OF-FIELD. HYPERFOCAL DISTANCE & FIELD OF VIEW
LENS FOCAL LENGTH: 3 5 m m CIRCLE OF CONFUSION = .0006" (6/10.000 )
HYPER- FIELD OF VIEW
FOCAL 2 6 3 .7 ' 188.4' 131.9' 9 4 .18' 6 5 .93' 4 7 .09' 32.96' 2 3.97' 16.48' 12.0' 8.2 4' (w/projecled Image)
DISTANCE

1/1 1/1 .4 1/2 1/2.8 1/4 1/5 .6 f/8 1/11 1 /1 6 1/2 2 1/3 2 STD 8 TV
(.3 8 0 'x .2 8 6 " )
LENS NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR
FOCUS NEAR NEAR NEAR SUPER 16 1.85:1 AR
(FEET) FAR FAR FAH FAR FAR FAR FAR FAR FAR FAR FAR (,4 6 3 "x .2 5 1 ")
42' 0" 40' 36' 33' 28' 24- 20' 16' 12' 10' T 13' 9 "x10' 4"
50 62' 68' 81' 107' 207' INF INF INF INF INF INF 16' 9-x 9’ r
22-10" 22' r 21' 0" 19' 9" 10’ 2" 16’ 4" 14’ 12’ 10’ 6' 6' 6'10"x 5' 2“
25 27' 7" 28'10" 30'10'' 34' 0" 40’ 53' 104' INF INF INF INF 8' 4"x 4' 6”
4, 2„x 3, r
14’ 2 V 13'11" 13' 6" 12'11" 12’ 3" 11’ 5" 10' 4" 9' 3" 7'10" 6' 0" 5'
15 15’i r 16’ 4" 1611" 17‘10" 19' 5" 2 2 ’ 0" 20’ 40' 167' INF INF 5’ 0"x 2’ 9"
9 ’ 7 Vi" 9’ 6'' 9' 3 ' 2" 9' V 0’ 0” 0' 3" 7’ 0” TV 6' 3" 5' 5" 4' 6“ 2' 9’ x 2’ 1"
10 10’ 4 3/4" 10' 6 V 1010" 11' 2“ 11' 9" 12’ 0" 14’ 4" 17' 2" 25' 60' INF 3' 4”x no*
7’ 9" T 8" 7' 6 V T 4V 7’ 1 V 6'10" 6’ 5” 6 ’ 0" 5' 5" 410" 4' 1” 2’ 2"x 1' 8"
8 8’ 3" 8' 4 V 0' 6" 0' 9" 9' 1" 9' 7" 10’ 7" 12' 0" 15' 6" 24' 273’ 2’ 0"x 1’ 5"
5'10'/2’' 5' 93/4’ 5' 9" 5‘ 7 3/4'' 5' 6" 5’ A" 5' r 410" 4' 5" 4 ’ 0" 5' 6'' r 7”x r 3"
6 6' W 6‘ 2 V 6' 3V?" 6' 5” 6 ’ 7" 610“ 7’ 4” 8' 0“ 9‘ 5" 12’ 0" 22' 2’ 0”x V 1"
41V' 410V 4' 9 3V ’ 4 ’ 9" 4' 7 3j" 4 ’ 6 V4" 4' 4" 4’ 1 V 310" 3' 6” 3’ r r 4”x r o-
5 5' 1 V 5' I 3." 5' 2 V 5' 3 V 5' 5" 5' 7" 5 io v 6' A" T 2„ 8' 7” 12' 9" 1’ 0"x 011
311V4'' 31 r 310V 310" 3’ 9 V 3' 0 V 3 ’ 6 3/4" 3' 5" 3' 2 V i' 3’ 0" 2' 8" 1’ 1"x 010“
4 4 ’ 3/4" 4- y 4’ 1 V 4' 2 Vi" 4' 3" 4 ’ 4 V i' 4' e v 4' 9 v 5' 3" 6’ 0 ” T 9" V 4"x 0' 9"
211 % " 211V 211V4" 211" 2 ,1 0 1/2" 2' 9 3/i" 2' 9" 2' 8" 2' 6V 2’ 5" 2' 2 Vi" 010"x O' 7"
3 3' V 3' Vi" 3' 3.,- 3’ 1 V 3’ 1 V 3’ 2 V 3' 3 V2" 3’ 5 V 3' 0" 4‘ 0' 4' 9" 1’ 0"x 0' 6''
1113/4" 1113/4" 111V 111V 111V 111" 110% " 110V 1’ 9V 1’ 0 V 1’ 7 Vi” O’ 6"x 0' 5"
2 2’ V 2- v4» 2' V 2' V 2 ’ 3/j" 2 ’ 1" 2’ IV 2- 2 ’ 2 1/4" 2’ 3V 2’ 43/4" 2 ’ 7 Vi" 0 ’ 0"x O' A"

191
 16mm CAN(ERA DEPTIH-OF-FIELD , HYPEHFOI; al d is t a n CE & FIEL! ) OF VIEW

192
LENS FO CAL LENGT h: 50mn1 CIRI; le OF CO*
FIELD OF VIEW
5 38 .2' 38 4 .4 ' 269 .1' 192.2' 134.6' 96 .1 1 ' 67.27' 48.93' 33 .6 4 ' 24.46' 16.82' (w/projecled Image)
■H e
1/2 2 1/32 STD & TV
1/1 1/1.4 1/2 i/2 .8 1/4 1/5 .6 1/8 1/11 1 /1 6
(.3 8 0 "x .2 8 6 ")
LENS NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR SUPER 16 1.85:1 AR
FOCUS
(FEET) FAR FAR FAR FAR FAR FAR FAR FAR FAR FAR FAR (.463 " x . 251")
45’ 9" 44’ 3" 40’ 36' 33' 29' 25’ 20’ 16’ 13' 9' T x T 3"
50 55' 1" 57' 6 " 66’ 80' 104 195' INF INF INF INF 11' 9’’x6' 4"
23*11" 23' 6 ’ 22 *11 " 22 ' 2 " 21’ r 1910" 16- 3” 16’ T 14' 12 ’ 10- 4' 9 "x 3 ’ T
25 26' 3" 26' 9” 22’ 7" 30’ BM
20' 9"______ 33’ 9" 40’ 51' 97' INF INF 5'10"x3' 2”
14' 7" 14' 5 V 14' 2 V 13'11” 13’ 6 " 13’ 0" 12’ 3" 11 ' 6 ’’ 10' 5" 9’ 4" 711" 2 ' 10” x 2 ' 2 "
15 15' 5 V 15' 7 v 151012” 16' 3" 16 11 ' 17’ 9" 19’ 4" 21' 8 ’’ 27' 39’ 139' 3' e - x r n "
9' 9 V 9' 9” 9' 7 V 9’ 6 " 9' 3 V 9’ V 8 ’ 9" 8' 4- 7' 9" 7’ 1" 6 ’ 3" n r x r 5”
10 10 ' 2 Vj" 10' 3 V 10' 4 V 10’ 6 V 10' 9 V 11' 2 " 11’ 9" 12 ' T 14' 3” 16’11" 25’ 2' 4-xr 3"
7 io v 7'10“ 7' 9 V 7’ 8 'V r 6v r 4v T 2" 6'1 r 6' 6" 6' 0" I 5’ 5” 1' 6 ’'x 0 ' 2 "
8 8' 1 V
0, 2" 0' 3" 0’ 4 V 0’ 6” 8 ’ 9’' 9’ 1" 9' r 10' 6 " 1111" 115' 3" n o 'x r 0 "
511V 5'11" 510V 5’ 9 V 5' 9“ 5’ 7 V 5’ 6 ” 5' 4" 5’ 1" 4*10" 4' 5” r 2 " x 0 ’i 0 "
6 6' V 6 ' 1V 6’ 1 V 6' 2 V 6’ 3 V 6’ 4V 6 ’ 7" 6 ' 10 " 7' 4" 7 '11" 9’ 4" r 4 "x 0 ’ 9"
4 '11Vs" 41IV 4 11" 410V 4’ 9 V 4’ 9" 4' 7 V 4' 6 V2" 4' 4" 4' 2" 310" 0 ' 11" x 0 ’ 0 '
5 5' V 5' V 5' 1" 5' 1*2" 5’ 2 V 5’ 3 V 5’ 4 V 5' 7" 5'10' 2" 6 ' 3" 7’ 1" 1' 2’’x 0 ’ 7"
3'11 j/4" 3 1 IV 2" 311V 31 1” 310V 310" 3’ 9V." 3' 8 V 3' 6 V 3' 5'/2" 3’ 2 V 0' 9 'x O ’ 7"
4 4' v 4' v 4' V 4' 1” 4' 1 V 4' 2" 4' 3" 4' 4 V 4' 6 V 4’ 9 V 5’ 3" O 'ir x O ’ 6 "
211V 2 1 1 V*" 211V 211V 21 r v 211” 210V 210" 2' 9" 2 ’ 8" 2 ' 6 -/2" 0' 7"xO ’ 5”
3 3' V 3' V 3' V 3' V 3’ V 3' 1 V 3’ 1 V 3' 2V2" 3' 3V?" 3’ 5" 3’ 0" 0’ 8 ’’xO’ 4"
2’ 0" 2' 0" 2’ 0 ' 111V 111V 111V 111V 111" 110V 110 V V 9 V2" 0’ 4"x0' 3"
2' 0" 2' 0" 2’ 0" 2’ V 2' V 2’ V 2' V 2 ' 1" 2' 1 V 2’ 2 V 2’ 3 V 0' 5"xO' 3"
2
 16mm CAMERA DEPTH-OF-FIELD. HYPERFOCAL DISTANCE & FIELD OF VIEW
LENS FOCAL LENGTH: 8 5 m m CIRCLE OF CONFUSION = .0006" (6 /1 0 .0 0 0 ")
HYPER­ FIELD OF VIEW
FOCAL 155 5' 1111' 77 8 .7 ’ 5 5 5 .5 ’ 3 89 .9' 2 7 7 .8 ’ 194.4' 141 .4’ 9 7 .2 1 ’ 70.70' 48 .61' (w/pro|ected image)
DISTANCE

f/1 f /1 . 4 1/2 1/2 .8 1 /4 1 /5 .6 1/8 1/11 1 /1 6 1/2 2 1/32 STD « TV

(,3 8 0 "x .2 8 6 ")
LENS NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR
FOCUS NEAR NEAR SUPER 16 1.85:1 AR
(FEET) FAR FAR FAR FAR FAR FAR FAR FAR FAR FAR FAR (.4 6 3 "x .2 5 1 ")
94' 0" 9V 9" 89' 85' 80' 74' 66' 59' 49- 41' 33' 11' 4"x8' 6"
100 106-10- 10911” 115' 122' 135' 156' 206' 342' INF INF INF 13’10-x? 6"
40’ 5“ 47 10’ 47' 0" 4511" 44' 4" 42' 5" 40’ 37' 33' 29' 25' 5' 8"x4' 3"
50 51' 0” 52' 4" 53' 5" 54'11" 57' 4" 61' 67’ 77' 103' 171' INF 6'11"x3' 9"
24’ 7 V 24’ 5 1/?" 24' 2 V f 2311" 23’ 6 " 22'1 r 22' 2" 21’ 3" 1911“ 10' 6" 16’ 6" 2'10"x2' 1"
25 25' 5" 25’ 7" 2510" 26' 2" 26’ 9" 27' 6" 20' 0" 30’ 4" 39'
33' 8" ______ 51’ 3' 5 "x 1 ’10"
1410V 14' 9 V ! 14' 0 V 14' 7 V 14' 5 V 14’ 3" 1311" 13' T 13’ 0" 12' 5" 11' 6" 1' 0"X1' 3”
15 15' 1 V 15’ 2 Vi" | 15' 3 V 15' 5” 15’ T 1510V 16' 3" 16' 9” 17' 9" 19' 0" 21' 0" 2 0 "xî 1"
9*11V«- 911" 910V 9’ 9 V 9’ 9" 9' 7 V 9’ 6" 9' 4" 9' V 0' 9'' 0’ 4" 1' T 'xO lO "
10 10' V 10' 1" 10’ 1 V 10' 2 V 10’ 3" 10’ 4 V 10’ 6 V?" 10' 9" 11' 2" 11' 0" 12’ 0’ V 4"xO' 0"
711V 711 Vi" 711’ 710V 710" 7' 9 V 7' 0 V 7 6V 7' 4 V T 2V 610" O’ 1” xO' 0"
8 8' V 8’ V 0 ’ 1’ 0’ 1 V 0’ 2" 0' 3’ 0’ 4" 0' 5 V 0' 0 V 9’ 0" 9’ 7" v r x O ' 7”
611V 611" 6 H V 4" 61 r 610V 610" 6' 9 ' 6' 8" 6' 6 V 6' 4V 6’ 1V O’ 9"x0' 7"
7 T V4" 7' V 7' V 7' r 7’ 1 V 7’ 2 V T 3" T 4 Vi" T 6V 7' 9" 6’ 2" O ir x O ’ 6"
511V 511V 511V 511V4" 511" 510V 5’ 9 3/4" 5' 9" 5’ 7 V 5' 6V 5' 4" 0’ 0'xO ' 6"
6 6' V 6' V 6’ V 6’ V 6 ' 1" 6' 1 V 6’ 2 V 6' 3 Vi" 6' 4 V 6‘ 6V 61 0” Or 9'xO' 5"
411V 411V 411V 411V 411V 4 1 1” 4 IO V 2" 410" 4' 9" 4’ 0" 4' 6 V 0' 6 'x O ’ 5’
5 5’ V 5’ %’ 5' V 5' V 5' V 5’ 2 V 5’ 1V2" 5' 2 V 5' 3 V 5’ 4V 5’ 7' 0' 0"xO ’ 4”
4' 0" 4' 0" 311V 311V 311V 311V 3 1 1’ 31O V 310" 3’ 9V 3' 8 V 0' 5"xO' 4"
4 4' 0" 4' 0” 4' ’V 4' V 4' V 4’ V 4' 1’ 4’ 1 V 4’ 2" 4’ 3" 4' 4 V 0' 6"x0' 3’

193
 16mm CAMERA DEPTH-OF-FIELD. HYPERFOCAL DISTANCE 8 FIELD OF VIEW

194
LENS FOCAL LENGTH: lOOlMlI CIRCLE OF CONFUSION = .0006" (6 /1 0 .0 0 0 ")
HYPER- FIELD OF VIEW
FOCAL 2153' 1538' 1076' 768 .9' 5 38 .2' 3 8 4 .4 ’ 269 .1' 196.8' 134.6' 97.85' 67.27' (w/projecled Image)
DISTANCE
STD & TV
1/1 (/1 .4 1/2 1 /2 .8 1/4 1/5 .6 1/8 1/11 1 /1 6 1/2 2 1/32
(.380 " X . 286")

LENS NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR SUPER 16 1.85:1 AR
FOCUS
(FEET) FAR FAR FAR FAR FAR FAR FAR FAR FAR FAR FAR (,4 6 3 "x .2 5 1 ")
183' 177' 1169' 159' 146' 132' 115' 99' 80' 66' 50- 19' 3"x14' 6"
200 220' 230' 246' 270' 318' 417' 779' INF INF INF INF 23' 6"x 12' 9-
95' 7" 93*1 r 91' 6" 68' 84' I 79' 73' 66’ 57’ 49- 40- 9' 7” x 7' 3"
100 104-10" 106'11" 110' 115' 123' 135' 159’ 204’ 389’ INF INF 1V 9” x 6’ 4"
4010" 40’ 5" 47' 9" 47' 0" 45' 9" 44' 3" 42’ 2" 40' 36' 33' 29' 4' 9’ x 3’ T
50 51’ 2" 51' 0" 52' 5" 53' 6“ 55’ r 57' 6" 6V 67' 00' 103' 195' 5'10'x 3' 2"
24’ 8V?" 24’ 7 'A" 24' 5" 24’ 2'/f 231 r 23' 6" 2211" 22' 2’ 2V r 19' 11 " 10' 3” 2' 5"x V 9"
25 25’ 3V2" 25’ 5" 25' T 2510" 26' 3" 26’ 9" 27’ 7" 20’ 8” 30' 0" 33' T 40’ 2'11"x V 7"
1410%" 14’10%" 14’ 9V2" 14’ 0'/2" 14' 7" 14’ 5 lf f 14' 2 ’/*" 131 r 13' 6" 13' 0 ' 12’ 3" V 5” x V 1"
15 15' 1 '/*" 15’ 1%" 15’ 2 Vi" 15’ V t f 15' 5 %" 15’ 7Vi" 1510%" 16' 3" 1611' 17' 9- 19’ 4" V 9"x 011"
guv?“ 9'11Vi" 91 r 9 1 0 ’/2" 9' 9%" 9’ 9" 9' 7%" 9' 6" 9’ 3V2" 9’ 1" 8' 9" 0’11"x 0’ 0"
10 10' Vi° 10’ %■ 10' 1" 10' V / f 10' 2 ’A- 10' 3'/i" 10' 4% ' 10’ 6 Vi" 10’ 9 '/f 1V 2" 1V 9" V 2"x 0’ 7"
711% " 711V ?" 7'1 1V* 711" 7-10’/?" 710" 7' 9V4" 7’ 0V.T 7’ 6 Vi" 7' 5” 7' 2" 0’ 9” x 0' 7"
8 8' V." 8' Vi' 8' %- O' r 0’ V k n 0' T 0' 3"_______ 8' 4" 8’ 6" 8' 8 Vi" 9' r oi rx 0 ' 6"
511% " 511% - 51 1% ' 511 Vi­ 5 I I V 4" 511" 510Vİ" I 5’ 9%" 5' 9” 5' 7%" 5' 6" 0' 7” x 0' 5"
6 6' Vi" 6' 'A' 6' Vi" s' V f 6’ %- 6' 1'/i" 6’ V W 6' 2 Vi" 6' 3Vi" 6' 4%" 6' V 0' 8"x 0' 4”
I
 16mm CAMERA DEPTH-OF-FIELD. HYPERFOCAL DISTANCE & FIELD OF VIEW
LENS FOCAL LENGTH: 1 3 5 m m CIRCLE OF CONFUSION = .0006'' (6 /1 0 .0 0 0 ")
HYPER­ FIELD OF VIEW
FOCAL 3923' 28 0 2 ' 1962' 1401' 9 80 .9' 700 .6' 490 .4' 3 56 .7' 2 45 .2' 178.3' 122.6' (w/projacted image)
DISTANCE

1/1 1/1 .4 1/2 1/2 .8 1/4 1/5 .6 f/8 1/11 1/1 6 1 /2 2 f/3 2 STD & TV
(.3 8 0 "x .2 8 6 ")
LENS NEAR NEAR
FOCUS NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR SOPER 16 1.85:1 AR
(FEET) FAR FAR FAR FAR FAR FAR FAR FAR FAR FAR FAR (.463’"x.251 ")
190' 4" 187' 182' 175' 166' 156' 142' 128' 110' 94' 76 14' 3"xW 9"
200 211' 215' 223' 233' 251' 280' 336' 455' INF INF INF 17' 5"x 9' 5"
97' 6" 96' 7" 95' 2" 93' 4“ 90' 9“ 86 ' 03’ 70' 71' 64' 55' T î ’x 5' 4"
100 102' 7" 103' 0" 105' 4 ' 107' 0" 111 ' 117' 126’ 139' 169' 22 0 ’ 542' 0' 8 'x 4' 0"
49' 4V2" 49' 1 V2" 48’ 9 ' 40' 3" 47' r 46' 0" 45' 5" 43*10’' 41' 6 ” 39’ 36' 3' 6 "x 2’ 0"
50 50' 0 ' 5 0 'i r 51' 4’ 51'1Q" 52’ 0" 53'10" 55' 0" 50' 2” 63' 70’ 84' 4' 4"x 2’ 4"
24'10" 24’ 9 V 24' 8 V 24' 6 V 24' 4 ’/2" 24' 1V2" 23’ 9“ 23' 4" 22 ’ 0 " 2111" 2 0 ' 9" 1' 9''x 1' 4"
25 25’ 2“ 25' 2 V 25' 3 V 25' S'/?" 25' 8 '' 25'11" 26' 4 ' 2 6 'i r 27'10" 29’ r 31' 5" 2 ' 2 "x 1' 2"
14'11'/4" i4 'ir 1 4 '1 0 V 14'10" 14’ 9 14' 0 1/i" 14’ 6 V2" 14' 4 V2" 14' IV 2" 13’10" 13' 4” V 0"x 0' 9"
15 15' V 15' 1" 15' IV 2- 15' 2" 15' 2 V 15’ 4" 15' 5 V 15' 8 " 16' 0 " 16’ 4“ İ1 7 ' 1“ _ T 3''x O' 8"
9’11%" 9'1 1 9 ï 1 1/2' 9'111/*" 9'10 3/4" 9’1 0 V 9’ 9V2'' 9' 8 V 9' V h " 9’ 5 '/f 9' 3" 0 ' 8 'x 0’ 6"
10 lO' V a " 10 ' 'k H 10- v?- 10’ V 10 ' 1 %" 10 ’ 1 V 10 * 2 Vi" 10* 3 V f 10’ 5V r 10’ 7” 10' 10 '/2" 0'10"x 0’ 5"
7 '1 1 V 7’11 V 7 '1 1 V 7' m n 7 'm * 7'11" 7'10V2" T 9V 7' 9" 7' 0'' I 7' 6 " 0' 6 "x 0' 5”
8 0' Va” 8 ' V i" 8’ V 0 ' V2” 0' V 0 ' 1" 0’ Vh " 0' V k n 0' 3'/4" 0' 4 V 1 8 ' 6 ’/?" O' 8 "x 0' 4”
6' 0" 6' 0“ 5’1 1 V 5 '1 1 V 5’1 IV 2" 5 'n v i- 5 '1 1 V 5 '1 0 V 5 'IO V 5’ 9 '/if 5' 0 V 0' 5"x 0' 4"
6 6' 0" 6’ 0" 6 ’ '/*" 6 ' Vt" 6 ' ’/?" 6 ' Vi" 6 ' Va 6 ’ 1V4" 6 ' 13/4" 6’ 2 V 6' 3 V 0' 6 "x O' 3''

195
196
VistaVision Lens Table
Horizontal Vertical Equivalent focal lengths for other formats lor same field of view
Focal Field of Field of Horizontal Vertical
length Angle View Angle View 1.85:1 Ana 1.85:1 Ana
mm degrees @100’ degrees @100’ (.825") (2x.838") (.446") (.700")
28mm 67.9° 134.7' 48.4° 89.9' 16mm 32mm 13mm 20mm
35 56.6 107.8 39.6 71.9 19 40 16 25
50 41.3 75.4 28.3 50.3 28 56 21 35
85 25 44.4 16.8 29.6 47 96 38 60
100 21.4 37.7 14.3 25.2 56 113 45 71
150 14.3 25.1 9.6 16.8 03 169 68 106
Field of view at other distances is proportional (28mm at 43' is 134.7'x.43 = 57.9'). VistaVision field of view is based on full negative aperture (,991"x1.485") since it
is primarily used for special effects. Other formats are projection apertures.

(The depth-of-field, lens angle and field-of-view tables were computed by Michael Whitney and Philip Chen of Digital
Productions and edited by Percy Angress.)
VERTICAL ANGLE VS. EFFECTIVE FOCAL LENGTH
(Focal Length in Millimeters)
TRANSMITTED
OR
PROJECTED 0.189 0.260 0 .3 75 - 0 500 0.158 0.2 86 0.251 0.446" 0.594 0.700 0.991 0 .8 70 -
IMAGE
TV TV TV TV SUPER 16mm SUPER 35mm 35mm 35mm 35mm 65mm
ANGLE V V r IV." -8 -1 6 1.85:1 TV ANA VISTA
(DEGREES) TUBE TUBE TUBE TUBE 1.85:1 AR TRANS
AR

0.5 550 757 1091 1445 460 832 731 1298 1729 2037 2884 2532
0.7 393 541 780 1039 328 595 522 927 1235 1455 2060 1809
1 275 378 546 728 230 416 365 649 864 1019 1442 1266
1.5 183 252 364 485 153 277 244 433 576 679 961 844
2 138 189 273 364 115 208 183 325 432 509 721 633
2.5 110 151 218 291 92 166 146 260 346 407 577 506
3 92 126 182 242 77 139 122 216 288 339 481 422
3.5 79 108 156 208 66 119 104 185 247 291 412 362
4 69 95 136 182 57 104 91 162 216 255 360 316
4.5 61 84 121 162 51 92 81 144 192 226 320 281

5 55 76 109 145 46 83 73 130 173 204 288 253

6 46 63 91 121 38 69 61 108 144 170 240 211
7 39 54 78 104 33 59 52 93 123 145 206 181
8 34 47 68 91 29 52 46 81 108 127 180 158
9 30 42 61 81 25 46 41 72 96 113 160 140
10 27 38 54 73 23 42 36 65 86 102 144 126
15 18 25 36 48 15 28 24 43 57 68 96 84
20 14 19 27 36 11 21 18 32 43 50 71 63
25 11 15 21 29 9 16 14 26 34 40 57 50
30 9 12 18 24 7 14 12 21 28 33 47 41

35 8 10 15 20 6 12 10 18 24 28 40 35
40 7 9 13 17 6 10 9 16 21 24 35 30
45 6 8 11 15 5 9 8 14 18 21 30 27
50 5 7 10 14 4 8 7 12 16 19 27 24
55 5 6 9 12 4 7 6 11 15 17 24 21

60 4 6 8 11 3 6 6 10 13 15 22 19
65 4 5 7 10 3 6 5 9 12 14 20 17
70 3 5 7 9 3 5 5 8 11 13 18 16
75 3 4 6 8 3 5 4 7 10 12 16 14
80 3 4 6 8 2 4 4 7 9 11 15 13

85 3 4 5 7 2 4 3 6 8 10 14 12
90 2 3 5 6 2 4 3 6 8 9 13 11
95 2 3 4 6 2 3 3 5 7 8 12 10
100 2 3 4 5 2 3 3 5 6 7 11 9

196a
HORIZONTAL ANGLE VS. EFFECTIVE FOCAL
LENGTH (Focal Length in Millimeters)
TRANS­
MITTED OR
»ROJECTED 0.252 0.346" 0.5 0.667 0 .2 09 0.380 0.463 0.825 1.676 1.485 1.912
IMAGE
TV TV TV TV SUPER 16mm SUPER 35mm 35mm 35mm 65mm
ANGLE V,- V 1" IV." -B -16 1.85:1 ANA VISTA
(Degrees) TUBE TUBE TUBE TUBE l.B 5 :l AH
*n
0.5 733 1007 1455 1941 608 1106 1348 2401 4878 4322 5565
0.7 524 719 1039 1387 435 790 963 1715 3484 3087 3975
1 367 504 728 971 304 553 674 1201 2439 2161 2782
1.5 244 336 485 647 203 369 449 800 1626 1441 1855
2 183 252 364 485 152 276 337 600 1219 1081 1391
2.5 147 201 291 388 122 221 269 480 975 864 1113
3 122 168 242 323 101 184 225 400 813 720 927
3.5 105 144 208 277 87 158 192 343 697 617 795
4 92 126 182 243 76 138 168 300 610 540 695
4.5 81 112 162 216 68 123 150 267 542 480 618
5 73 101 145 194 61 111 135 240 488 432 556
6 61 84 121 162 51 92 112 200 406 360 463
7 52 72 104 138 43 79 96 171 348 308 397
e 46 63 91 121 38 69 84 150 304 270 347
9 41 56 81 108 34 61 75 133 270 240 309
10 37 50 73 97 30 55 67 120 243 216 278
15 24 33 45 64 20 37 45 80 162 143 184
20 18 25 36 48 15 27 33 59 121 107 138
25 14 20 29 38 12 22 27 47 96 85 110
30 12 16 24 32 10 18 22 39 79 70 91
35 10 14 20 27 8 15 19 33 68 60 77
40 9 12 17 23 7 13 16 29 58 52 67
45 8 11 15 20 6 12 14 25 51 46 59
50 7 9 14 18 6 10 13 22 46 40 52
55 6 8 12 16 5 9 11 20 41 36 47
60 6 8 11 15 5 8 10 18 37 33 42
65 5 7 10 13 4 8 9 16 33 30 38
70 5 6 9 12 4 7 8 15 30 27 35
75 4 6 8 11 3 6 8 14 28 25 32
80 4 5 8 10 3 6 7 12 25 22 29
85 3 5 7 9 3 5 6 11 23 21 26
90 3 4 6 8 3 5 6 10 21 19 24
95 3 4 6 8 2 4 5 10 20 17 22
100 3 4 5 7 2 4 5 9 18 16 20

196b
 Extreme Close Up
35mm DEPTH of FIELD and EXPOSURE FACTOR
vs.
Magnification or Field of View C ir c ie of Confusion = „ oov,

Magni­ DEPTH OF FIELD (Tolal: front + back. In Inches)

fication Field of Exposure T-Slop
Ratio View f/1 1/1.4 1/2 1 /2 .8 1/4 1/5.6 1/8 1/11 1/16 f/2 2 1 /32 Increase Increase
1.85:1 AR Factor
Dec. Frac.
| o.loo 1 /1 0 4 .4 6 " x 8 .2 5 " 0.22" | 0.31" 0.4 4" 0 .6 2" 0 .8 8" 1.23" 1.76" 2.42'' 3.52" 4.8 4" 7.04" 1.21 .27 |
1 0.111 1 /9 4 .0 1 x 7 .4 3 0.18 0.25 0.3 6 0.51 0 .72 1.01 1.44 1.98 2.89 | 3 .97 5.77 1.23 .30 1
| 0.125 I 1 /8 3 .5 7 x 6 .6 0.14 0.20 0.29 | 0.4 0 | 0.58 | 0 .8 ! 115 1-58 2.30 | 3.17 ] 4.61 1.27 >/3 I
| 0.143 I 1 /7 3.12x5.78 | 0.11 0.16 0.22 0 .3 1 I 0-45 | 0.63 | 0 .89 1.23 1.79 2 .46 3.58 1.31 .39 |
| 0.167 I 1/6 | 2 .6 8 x 4 .9 5 0 .08 0.12 0.17 0.2 3 0.34 0.47 0 .67 0.92 1.34 1.84 2.68 1.36 .45 |
| 0.2 00 1 /5 2 .2 3 x 4 .1 2 0.06 0.08 0.12 0.1 7 0 .24 0.34 0 .48 0 .66 0.96 !.3 2 -I.92 1.44 .53 |
| 0.2 50 1 /4 1 .7 8 x 3 .3 0 .04 0.06 0.08 0.11 0 .16 0.22 0 .32 0.44 0.64 | 0 .88 1.28 1.56 u |
| 0.333 I 1 /3 1 .3 4 x 2 .4 8 0.02 0.03 0.05 0.0 7 | 0.09 I 0.14 0 .19 0 .26 0.38 0 .53 0.77 1.78 .83 |
| 0.500 ] 1 /2 .8 9 x 1 .6 5 0.0 12 0.0 1 7 0.02 0.0 3 0 .05 0.07 0.10 0 .13 0.19 0.26 0.38 2.25 Vh |
| 0.6 67 2 /3 .6 7 x 1 .2 4 0.0 0 7 0.0 1 0 0.0 15 0.0 2 0 .03 0.04 0.06 0 .08 1 0-12 |r o . i T i 0.24 2.78 1.47 |
| 0.7 50 3 /4 .5 9 x 1 .1 0 0.0 0 6 0.0 0 9 0.0 1 2 0 .0 1 7 0.03 0.04 0.05 0 .07 0.1 0 0.14 0.20 3 .0 6 1% |
| 0.8 75 7 /8 ,51x .94 0.0 0 5 0.0 0 7 0.0 1 0 0 .0 1 4 0.02 0.03 0.04 0 .05 0.08 0 .1 ! 0.16 3 .52 I 1-81 I
1.0 1 /1 ,45x .83 0.004 0.0 0 6 0.0 0 8 0.011 0.0 1 6 0.03 0.03 0 .04 0.06 0.09 0.13 4.0 2.0

197
198
Extreme Close Up
16mm DEPTH of FIELD and EXPOSURE FACTOR
vs.
Magnification or Field of View CirciB 0| Coilfusjon =: 0 .0 0 0 6 "

Magni­ Field ol View DEPTH OF FIELD (Total: Iront + back, in inches)

fication (pro|ecled Image) Exposure T-Slop
Ratio .286”x.380" ,251"x.463" 1/1 1/1.4 1/2 1/2.8 1/4 1/5.6 1/8 1/11 1/16 1/22 1/32 Increase Increase
Factor
Dec. Frac. Std. 16 Super 16
0.100 1/10 2.86x3.80 2.51x4.63 I 0.13" I 0 .1 9 - J 0 .2 6" 0 .3 7" 0.53" ' 0.74" 1.06" r 1-45" 2.11" 2.90" 4.2 2" 1.21 I .27
0.111 1 /9 2.58x3.42 2 .2 6 x 4 .1 7 0.11 0.15 0.22 I 0.30 I 0.4 3 0.61 I[0.87 I 1.19 173 2.38 3.46 1.23 .30 1
0.125 1/8 2.29x3.04 2.01x3.70 0.09 0.3 5 0.48 0.6 9 0.9 5 1.38 190 2.76 1.27 V,
° - 12 ° - 1Z J 0 .24
0.143 2.0 X2.66 1.76x3.24 0.07 I 0.09 0.1 3 0 .19 0.27 1 0.38 0.54 ] 0.74 1.07 1.48 2.15 1.31 .39 1
1/7
0.167 1/6 1 .7 1 x 2 .2 8 1.50x2.78 0.05 0.07 0.1 0 0.14 I 0.2 0 0.28 f0.40 I 0.5 5 0.80 1.11 161 1.36 I .45
0.200 1/5 1.43x1.90 1.26x2.32 0.04 0.05 I 0.0 7 0 .10 0.14 0.20 I 0.2 9 f0 .4 0 0.58 0.79 1.15 1.44 .53 1
0.250 1/4 1.14x1.52 1.00x1.85 ____ I
I 0.02 _ _ _ 0.03 0.0 5 0 .07 10.1 0 0.13 0.1 9 0.2 6 0.38 0.53 0.77 1.56 I %
0.333 1/3 .859x1.14 .7 5 4 x 1 .3 9 0.014 0.02 I 0.0 3 _ _ _ 0_ .04
_ I 0 .06 0.08 I[ T l 2 0.-I6 0.23 0.32 0.46 1 1-78 I .83 1
0.500 1/2 .572x 760 .502X.926 0.0 0 7 0 .010 J 0.0 1 4 0 .02 I 0.03 0.04 0.06 I[ a o 8 0.12 0.16 0.23 2.25 l'/a 1
0.667 2 /3 .429X.570 .376X.694 0.0 04 0.0 0 6 0.0 0 9 0 .0 1 3 0.0 18 0 .03 0.0 4 [ 0.0 5 0.07 0.10 0.14 2.78 !.47 1
0.750 3 /4 .3 8 1 X. 507 .335X.617 0.0 04 0.0 0 5 0.007 I 0 .0 1 0 İ 0.0 15 0.02 I 0.0 3 0.04 \ 0.06 \ 0.08 0.12 3.06 1% 1
0.875 7 /8 .327X.434 .286X.529 0.003 I 0.004 II 0.006 I 0 .0 0 8 I 0.012 I 0 .0 1 6 0.0 2 0.0 3 0.05 0.0 7 0.09 3.52 I 181 I
1.0 1/1 .286X.380 .251X.463 0.0 02 0.0 0 3 0.0 05 0 .0 0 7 0.0 10 0 .0 13 |Ö Ö 1 9 [ 0.0 3 0.04 0.05 0.08 4.0 2.0 I
 PLUS DIOPTER LENSES
FOCUS CONVERSION TABLE
16m m o r 35 m m C am e ra
(MAY BE USED WITH ANY FOCAL LENGTH LENS)
NOTE: Position diopter lens in Iron) ol camera lens so Ihal arrow (it
inscribed on rim) points toward subject, or with convex (outward) curve
toward subject. When two diopters are used in combination, place highest
power nearest camera lens. The actual field size photographed depends
slightly on the separation between diopter and camera lens.

Power ol Focusing Distance Actual Distance

Supplementary on Lens Mount Focused on
Lens in Diopters in FEET in INCHES
From Diopter Lens
Inf. 78%
25 69V2
+ 1/2 15 64%
10 59%
6 51
4 431/4
Inf. 39%
25 34%
+ 1 15 32%
10 29%
6 25Vz
4 21%
Inf. 19%
25 181/2
+2 15 17%
10 16%
6 151/2
4 14
Inf. 13'/s
25 121/2
+3 15 12'A
(2+1) 10 117/b
6 111/8
4 10%
+4 Inf. 97/e
+5 Inf. 77/e
+6 Inf. 6Vz
+8 Inf. 5
+10 Inf. 4
199
 Camera Filters
by Ira Tiffen, ASC Associate M em ber

Cam era filters are transparent or translucent optical

elements that alter the properties of light entering the cam­
era lens for the purpose of im proving the im age being re­
corded. Filters can affect contrast, sharpness, highlight flare,
color, and light intensity, either individually or in various
com binations. They can also create a variety of "special
effects." It is im portant to recognize that, even though there
are m any possibly confusing variations and applications,
all filters behave in a reasonably predictable way. This sec­
tion is intended to explain the basic optical characteristics
of camera filters as well as their applications. It is a foun­
dation upon w hich to build through experience. Textual
data cannot fully inform. There is always som ething new.
In their most successful applications, filter effects blend
in w ith the rest of the image to help get the m essage across.
Exercise caution w hen using a filter in a w ay that draw s
attention to itself as an effect. Com bined w ith all the other
elements of image-making, filters m ake visual statements,
m anipulate em otions an d thought, and m ake believable
w hat otherw ise w o uld not be. T hey get the v iew er in­
volved.

Filter Planning
Filter effects can become a key p art of the "look" of a
film, if considered in the planning stages. They can also
provide a crucial last-m inute fix to unexpected problem s,
if you have them readily available. Where possible, it is best
to run advance tests for pre-conceived situations w h en
time allows.

Filter References
There are several filter m anufacturers w ho should be
contacted regarding available filter types an d nom encla­
ture. Filters of the sam e nam e, but of different m anufactur­
ers, may not have the same characteristics. The one ind us­
try standard is the W ratten system for filter colors. W ratten-
num bered filters have defined transm ission properties that
are at least cross-referenced by the various key suppliers.

200
Filter Factors
M any filter types absorb light, and this m ust be com­
pensated for w hen calculating exposure. These filters are
supplied w ith either a recom m ended "filter factor" or a
"stop value." Filter factors are m ultiples of the unfiltered
exposure. Stop values are add ed to the stop to be set w ith­
out the filter. M ultiple filters will ad d stop values. Since
each stop added is a doubling of the exposure, a filter fac­
tor of 2 is equal to a one-stop increase. Example: three fil­
ters of one stop each will need three additional stops, or a
filter factor of 2x2x2 = 8 times the unfiltered exposure.
W h en in d o u b t in the field a b o u t c o m p e n sa tio n
needed for a filter, you m ight use your light m eter w ith the
incident bulb removed. If you have a flat diffuser, use it;
otherw ise just leave the sensor bare. Aim it at an unchang­
ing light source of sufficient intensity. O n the ground, fac­
ing up at a blank sky can be a good field situation. Make a
reading w ithout the filter. W atch out for your ow n shadow.
Make a reading w ith the filter covering the entire sensor.
No light should enter from the sides. The difference in the
readings is the com pensation needed for that filter. You
could also use a spot m eter, reading the sam e bright patch,
w ith similar results. There are some exceptions to this d e­
pending on the filter color, the m eter sensitivity, and the
target color, bu t it's often better than taking a guess.

Filter Grades
M any filter types are available in a range of "grades"
of differing strengths. This allows the extent of the effect
to be tailored to suit various situations. The grade-num ber­
ing systems m ay vary w ith manufacturer, but genrally, the
higher the num ber, the stronger the effect. Unless otherwise
stated by the m anufacturer, there is no m athem atical rela­
tionship betw een the num bers and the strengths. A grade
4 is not twice the strength of a grade 2. A grade 1 plus a
grade 4 do esn't ad d u p to a grade 5.

Camera Filters for Both

Color and Black & White
Ultraviolet Filters
Film often exhibits a greater sensitivity to som ething
invisible to hum ans: ultraviolet light. This occurs m ost of­
ten outdoors, especially at high altitudes, w here the U V -
201
absorbing atm osphere is thinner, an d over long distances,
such as in m arine scenes. It can show up as a bluish color
cast w ith color film, or it can cause a low -contrast haze that
dim inishes details, especially w hen viewing faraw ay ob­
jects, in either color or black & w hite. U ltraviolet filters
absorb UV light generally w ithout affecting light in the vis­
ible region.
It is im portant to distinguish betw een U V -generated
haze and that of airborne particles, such as smog. The lat­
ter is m ade up of opaque m atter that absorbs visible light
as well as UV, and will not be appreciably rem oved by a
UV filter.
Ultraviolet filters come in a variety of absorption lev­
els, usually m easured by their percent transm ission at 400
nanom eters (nm), the visible UV w avelength boundary.
Use a filter that transm its zero percent at 400nm for aerial
and far-distant scenes; one that transmits in the ten to thirty
percent range is fine for average situations.

Infrared Filters
Certain special situations call for the use of black &
white or color infrared sensitive films. For aerial haze pen­
etration, recording heat effects, and other purposes they are
invaluable. Their color and tonal renditions are very differ­
ent, however, from other film types (consult film manufac­
turers for further details). Various filters are used to reduce
unw anted visible light. Red, orange, and yellow filters, as
used for panchrom atic black & w hite film, can enhance
contrast and alter color. Total visible light absorption, trans­
mitting only infrared, as w ith the W ratten #87 or #89 se­
ries of filters, can also be useful. The results will vary w ith
film type and other factors. Prior testing for m ost situations
is a must.

Neutral-Density Filters
When it is desirable to maintain a particular lens open­
ing for sharpness or depth-of-field purposes, or sim ply to
obtain proper exposure w hen confronted w ith too m uch
light intensity, use a neutral-density (ND) filter. This will
absorb light evenly throughout the visible spectrum , effec­
tively altering exposure w ithout requiring a change in lens
opening and w ithout introducing a color shift.
Neutral-density filters are denoted by (optical) density
value. Density is defined as the log, to base 10, of the opac­

202
ity. Opacity (degree of absorption) of a filter is the recipro­
cal of (and inversely proportional to) its transmittance. As
an example, a filter w ith a com pensation of one stop has a
transm ittance of 50%, or 0.5 times the original light inten­
sity. The reciprocal of the transmittance, 0.5, is 2. The log,
base 10, of 2 is approxim ately 0.3, w hich is the nom inal
density value. The benefit of using density values is that
they can be added w hen com bined. Thus tw o N D .3 filters
have a density value of 0.6. However, their combined trans­
m ittance w ould be found by m ultiplying 0.5 x 0.5 = 0.25,
or 25% of the original light intensity.
N eutral-density filters are also available in com bina­
tion w ith other filters. Since it is preferable to m inim ize the
num ber of filters used (see section on multiple filters), com­
m on combinations such as a W ratten 85 (daylight conver­
sion filter for tungsten film) w ith a N D filter are available
from manufacturers as one filter, as in the 85N6. In this case,
the tw o-stop N D .6 value is in addition to the exposure
com pensation needed for the base 85 filter.

Gradated N D Filters, or Wedges

Often it is necessary or desirable to balance light in­
tensity in one p art of a scene w ith another, in situations
w here you d o n 't have total light control, as in bright exte­
riors. Exposing for the foreground will produce a w ash e d -
out, overexposed sky. Exposing for the sky will leave the
foreground dark, underexposed. G radated, or w edge, ND
filters are part clear, part neutral density, w ith a smoothly
graded transition between. This allows the transition to be
blended into the scene, often im perceptibly. A n ND ,6-to-
clear, w ith a two- stop differential, will m ost often com pen­
sate the average bright sky-to-fo reg round situation.
These filters are also available in com bination colors,
as w here the entire filter is, for example, a W ratten 85, while
one half also combines a graded-transition neutral density,
as in the 85-to-85N6. This allows the one filter to replace
the need for two.
G radated, or w edge, filters generally com e in three
transition types. The m ost com m only used is the "soft"
gradation. It has a w ide enough transition area on the fil­
ter to blend sm oothly into m ost scenes, even w ith a wide-
angle lens (which tends to narrow the transition). A long
focal length, however, m ight only im age in the center of the
transition. In this case, or w here the blend m ust take place
in a narrow , straight area, use a "hard " gradation. This is
203
ideal for featureless m arine horizons. For situations w here
an extremely gradual blend is required, an "attenuator" is
used. It changes density alm ost throughout its length.
Certain types of part clear, part neutral-density filters
are called sky-control filters. They m ay have a sharp, not
gradated, dividing line, requiring careful alignm ent and
choice of lens opening to blend in the edge.
The key to getting best results w ith gradated filters is
to help the effect blend in as naturally as possible. Keep it
close to the lens to m axim ize transition softness. Avoid
having objects in the image that extend across the transi­
tion in a w ay that w ould highlight the existence of the fil­
ter. D on't m ove the cam era unless the transition can be
m aintained in prop er alignm ent w ith the im age through­
out the move. Make all positioning judgm ents through a
reflex viewfinder at the actual shooting aperture, as the ap ­
parent w idth of the gradation is affected by a change in
aperture.
G radated filters are best used in a square, or rectan­
gular format, in a rotating, slidable position in a m atte box.
This will allow proper location of the transition w ithin the
image. They can be used in tandem , for example, w ith one
affecting the u pper half and the second affecting the lower
half of the image. The center area can also be allow ed to
overlap, creating a stripe of the com bination of effects in the
middle, m ost effectively w ith gradated filters in colors. (See
section on "G radated Color Filters.")

Polarizing Filters
Polarizers allow color and contrast enhancem ent, as
well as reflection control, using optical principles different
from any other filter types. Most light that w e record is re­
flected light that takes on its color an d intensity from the
objects w e are looking at. W hite light, as from the sun re­
flecting off a blue object, appears blue because all other
colors are absorbed by that object. A small portion of the
reflected light bounces off the object w ith o u t being ab­
sorbed and colored, retaining the original (often white)
color of its source. W ith sufficient light intensity, such as
outdoor sunlight, this reflected "glare" has the effect of
washing out the color saturation of the object. It happens
that, for m any surfaces, the reflected glare w e d o n 't w ant
is polarized while the colored reflection w e do w an t isn't.
The waveform description of light defines non-polar-
ized light as vibrating in a full 360° range of directions
204
No Filter

Polarizer for reflection control.

a ro u n d its travel p ath. P o larized lig h t is d efin ed as v ib rat­
in g in o n ly o ne su ch direction. A p o la riz in g filter p asses
light th ro u g h in on ly one v ib rato ry direction. It is g en er­
ally u s e d in a ro ta tin g m o u n t to allo w fo r a lig n m e n t as
n eed ed . In o u r ex am p le above, if it is align ed p e rp e n d ic u ­
larly to the p la n e of v ib ra tio n of th e p o la riz e d reflected
glare, th e glare w ill b e abso rb ed. T h e re st of th e light, the
tru e -c o lo re d reflection v ib ratin g in all directions, w ill p ass
th ro u g h n o m a tte r h o w the p o la rizin g filter is tu rn e d . The
re s u lt is th a t co lors w ill b e m o re s tro n g ly s a tu ra te d , o r
darker. This effect varies as y o u rotate the p olarizer thro u g h

205
No Filter

Polarizer for blue sky and Didymium for red enhancement.

a q u a rte r-tu rn , p ro d u c in g the com plete v ariatio n of effect,
from full to none.
Polarizers are m o st useful for increasing general o u t­
d o o r color satu ratio n a n d contrast. P olarizers can d a rk e n
a blue sky, a key application, on color as w ell as on black
& w h ite film, b u t th e re a re several factors to re m e m b e r
w h e n d o in g this. To d e e p e n a b lu e sky, it m u s t be b lu e to
start w ith, n o t w h ite or hazy. P olariz a tio n is also a n g le -
d ep en d en t. A b lu e sky w ill n o t b e equally affected in all
directions. T he areas of d e ep e st blue are d e te rm in e d b y the
follow ing "ru le of th u m b ." W h e n settin g u p a n exterio r
shot, m a k e a rig h t a n g le b e tw e e n th u m b a n d forefinger.
2 0 6
No Filler

P olarizer for exp o sure control.

P oin t y o u r forefinger a t the sun . T he area of d e e p e st b lu e
w ill b e th e b a n d o u tlin e d by y o u r th u m b as it ro ta te s
a ro u n d the p o in tin g axis of y o u r forefinger, d irectin g the
th u m b from h o rizo n to horizon. G enerally, as y o u aim yo u r
cam era eith er m o re in to o r a w a y from th e su n , the effect
w ill g ra d u a lly d im in ish . T h ere is n o effect directly a t or
a w ay fro m th e sun. D o n o t p a n w ith a p o la riz e r w ith o u t
ch eck in g to see th a t the c h an g e in c a m era an g le d o e s n 't
create undesirab ly noticeable changes in color or saturation.
Also, w ith a n e x tra -w id e -a n g le view , the area of d eep est
blue m a y a p p e a r as a distinctly d a rk e r b a n d in the sky. Both

207
situations are best avoided. In all cases, the effect of the
polarizer will be visible w hen viewing through it.
Polarizers need approximately 1 Vi to 2 stops exposure
compensation, w ithout regard to rotational orientation or
subject matter. They are also available in combination with
certain standard conversion filters, such as the 85BPOL. In
this case, ad d the polarizer's com pensation to that of the
second filter.
Certain camera optical systems em ploy internal sur­
faces that themselves polarize light. U sing a standard (lin­
ear) polarizer will cause the light to be further absorbed by
the internal optics, depending on the relative orientation.
A circular polarizer is a linear one to w hich has been added,
on the side facing the camera, a quarter w ave "retarder."
This "corkscrew s" the plane of polarization, effectively
d epolarizin g it, elim inating the problem . The circular
polarizer otherwise functions in the same manner.
Polarizers can also control unw anted reflections from
surfaces such as glass and water. For best results, be at an
angle of 32 to 34 degrees incident to the reflecting surface.
Viewing through while rotating the polarizer will show the
effect. It may not always be advisable to rem ove all reflec­
tions. Leaving som e m inim al reflection will preserve a
sense of context to a close-up im age through the reflecting
surface. A close-up of a frog in w ater will appear as a frog
out of w ater w ithout some tell-tale reflections.
For relatively close im aging of docum ents, pictures,
and sm all three-dim ensional objects in a lig h tin g -co n ­
trolled environm ent, as on a copy stand, plastic polarizers
m ounted on lights aim ed at 45 degrees to the subject from
both sides of the camera will maximize the glare-reducing
efficiency of a polarizer on the camera lens. The camera, in
this case, is aim ed straight at the subject surface, not at an
angle. The lighting polarizers should both be in the same,
perpendicular orientation to the one on the lens. Again, you
can judge the effect through the polarizer.

Special Effect Filters

The following filter types are available in a w ide range
of grades useful in both color and black & w hite imaging.
They have no recom m ended filter factors, b u t m ay require
exposure com pensation based on a several considerations.
Filters that low er contrast or create flare, w here contrast
a n d /o r light intensity is higher, will do m ore for any given

208
grade. W orking w ith light, the m ore they have, the more
they can do. The sam e filter, in tw o different lighting con­
ditions, m ay produce two different effects. W ith diffusion,
or im age-softening filters, higher contrast scenes appear
sharper, needing more diffusion, than scenes of low er con­
trast. Diffusion requirem ents will also vary w ith other con­
ditions. Smaller film form ats will allow less diffusion, as
will large-screen projection. Color m ay allow less diffusion
than black & white. Producing for television m ay require
a greater degree of diffusion to survive the transition. These
relationships should cause you to choose exposure an d fil­
ter grade based on the situation an d personal experience.
Prior testing is always recom m ended w hen possible.

D iffusion Filters
M any different techniques have been developed to
diffuse im age-form ing light. Stronger versions can blur
reality for a dream -like effect. In more subtle forms, diffu­
sion can soften wrinkles to rem ove years from a face. The
optical effects all involve bending a percentage of the im­
age-form ing light from its original path to defocus it.
Some of the earliest "portrait" diffusion filters are still
in use today — "nets." Fine mesh, like a stocking, stretched
across the lens, has m ade m any a face appear flawlessly
youthful. More recently, these can also be obtained as stan­
dard -sized hard optical filters. N ets function through "se­
lective diffusion." They have a greater effect on small de­
tails, such as wrinkles and skin blemishes, than on the rest
of the image. The clear spaces in the m esh transm it light
unchanged, preserving the overall sharp appearance of the
image. Light striking the flat surface of the net lines, how ­
ever, is reflected or absorbed. A light-colored m esh will
reflect enough to tint shadow s, either making them lighter,
w hich low ers contrast, or adding its color while leaving
highlight areas alone. The effect of diffusion, how ever, is
produced by the refraction of light that just strikes the edges
of the m esh lines. This light is ben t at a different angle,
changing its distance to the film plane, putting it out of fo­
cus. It happens that this has a proportionately greater ef­
fect on finer details than on larger im age elements. The re­
sult is that fewer w rinkles or blemishes are visible on a face
that otherw ise retains an overall, relatively sharp appear­
ance.

209
No Filler

Low Contrast
T he finer the m esh, the m o re the im ag e area covered
by m e sh lines, a n d the g reater the effect. S om etim es, m u l­
tiple layers are u sed to p ro d u c e even stro n g e r results.
M esh w ith a sq u a re p a tte rn can p ro d u c e sm all fo u r -
po in t stars from lights in the scene. M ost of th e tim e, this is
n o t desirable. M ost m esh p a tte rn s u sed h a v e a hexagon al
p a tte rn to m in im ize this effect.
A s w ith an y filter th a t h a s a discrete p attern , be su re
that d e p th of field d o e s n 't cau se the n e t filter lines to b e ­
com e visible in the im age. U sing sm all a p e rtu re s o r sh o rt
focal len gth lenses m akes this m o re likely, as d o es u sin g a

21 0
No Filter

Fog Filter
sm aller film form at. G enerally, m id -r a n g e o r larger a p e r­
tu res are suitable, b u t test before critical situations.
W h e n d iffu sin g to im p ro v e a n acto r's facial a p p e a r­
ance, it is im p o rta n t n o t to d ra w atten tio n to the presen ce
of th e filter, especially w ith stro n g e r grad es, w h e n d iffu­
sion is n o t req u ired elsew here. It m a y be desirable to lightly
d iffu se ad jacen t scenes o r subjects w h ich w o u ld n o t o th e r­
w ise n e e d it, to en su re th a t the stro n g e r filtration, w h ere
n ee d e d , is n o t m a d e obvious.
In d iffu sin g faces, it is especially im p o rta n t th at the
eyes d o n o t get o verly soft a n d dull. T his is th e th e o ry b e ­
h in d w h a t m ig h t be called circu lar d iffu sion filters. A se-
21 1
No Filter

Double Fog Filter

ries of concentric circles, som etim es also h a v in g ad d itio n a l
radial lines, are etched o r cast into the surface of a clear fil­
ter. T hese p a tte rn s h av e the effect of selectively b e n d in g
light in a so m ew h at m o re efficient w ay th a n nets, in a m o re
radial orientation. T his req u ires th a t th e center of th e cir­
cular p a tte rn is aligned w ith o ne of th e su bject's eyes, n o t
alw ays a n easy task, to keep it sharp. T he rest of th e im age
w ill exhibit the d iffusion effect.
A v ariation o n the c lear-cen ter concept is the center-
sp o t filter. This is a special-application filter that h a s a m o d ­
erate d eg ree of diffusion su rro u n d in g a clear central area
that is generally larg er th a n th a t of circular d iffu sion filters
212
m entioned previously. Use it to help isolate the m ain sub­
ject, held sharp in the clear center, while diffusing a distract­
ing background, especially in situations w here a long lens
and depth-of-field differentiation aren 't possible.
A nother po rtrait diffusion type involves the use of
small "dim ples," or clear refracting shapes dispersed on an
otherw ise clear optical surface. They can be roun d or dia-
m ond-shaped. These are capable of m ore efficient selective
diffusion than the net type, and have no requirem ent to be
aligned w ith the subject's eye. They d o n 't low er contrast
by tinting shadows, as light-colored nets do. These dimples
refract light throughout their surface, not just at the edges.
For any given am oun t of clear space th ro u g h the filter,
w hich is relative to overall sharpness, they can hide fine
details m ore efficiently than net filters. A m ore recent de­
velopm ent involves a m inutely detailed series of patterns,
m ade up of tiny "lenslets," each w ith a greater degree of
curvature, w ith m ore optical pow er, than that developed
by the dim ples previously m entioned. This p roduces a
m axim um of selective diffusion efficiency for any given
am ount of overall sharpness.
The above types of filters, though m ost often used for
"portrait" applications, also find uses w herever general
sharpness is too great, and m ust be subtly altered.
Some diffusion filters also cause highlight areas to
flare. They can scatter light, having an effect on lowering
contrast. These are closely related to fog or m ist filters.
These include "dot" filters w hich incorporate small, dis­
crete optical elements of various sizes that selectively dif­
fuse, lower contrast, and cause mild highlight flare. They
can be very effective in achieving these com bined effects.

Sliding D iffusion Filters

W hen attem pting to fine-tune the application of dif­
fusion w ithin a sequence, the ability to vary the strength
of the effect while filming can be invaluable. This can be
accomplished by em ploying an oversized filter that has a
g ra d a te d d iffu sio n effect th r o u g h o u t its le n g th . It is
m ounted to allow sliding the pro per grade area in front of
the lens, w hich can be changed "on-cam era." W hen even
m ore subtle changes are required, m aintaining consistent
diffusion throughout the im age while varying the overall
strength, a dual "opposing gradient" filter arrangem ent can
be used.

213
Fog and Mist Filters
A natural fog causes lights to glow an d flare. Contrast
is generally lower, and sharpness m ay be affected as well.
Fog and mist filters mimic the effect of atom ized w ater
droplets in the air. The soft glow can be used to m ake light­
ing more visible. For example, the effect of hum idity in a
tropical scene can be enhanced. In lighter grades, these fil­
ters can take the edge off excess contrast an d sharpness.
Heavier grades can create unnatural effects, as for fantasy
sequences. In general, how ever, the effect of a strong n atu ­
ral fog is not produced accurately by these filters in their
stronger grades, because they are too fuzzy, w ith too m uch
contrast. For that, Double Fog or gradated fog filters are
recommended.
G radated fog filters, som etim es called "scenic," are
part clear or light fog, and p art denser fog effect. Aligning
the clear or w eaker half w ith the foreground and the stron­
ger half with the background will render an effect m ore like
that of a natural fog, accum ulating strength w ith distance.
Double Fogs have m ilder flare and softening charac­
teristics than standard fog filters, while exhibiting a m uch
greater effect on contrast, especially in the stronger grades.
A very thick natural fog will still allow close-up objects to
appear sharp. So will a double fog filter. The key to the ef­
fect is the m uch lower contrast com bined w ith a minimal
am ount of highlight flare.
Mist filters generally produce highlight flare that, be­
cause it stays closer to the source, appears more as a "halo"
than the m ore outw ardly extended flare of a fog filter. The
mist filters create an almost pearlescent glow to highlights.
The lighter grades also find uses in toning dow n the exces­
sive sharpness and contrast of m odern film and lens com­
binations w ithout detracting from the image.

Low-Contrast Filters
There are m any situations, such as bright sunlit exte­
riors, w here proper contrast is difficult to m aintain, and
exposing for either highlights or shadow s will leave the
other severely under- or overexposed. Low-contrast filters
come in two key types. The first type creates a small am ount
of "localized" flare near highlight areas w ithin the image.
This reduces contrast by lightening nearby shadow areas,
leaving highlights almost unchanged. A variation of this
type also includes a light-absorbing elem ent in the filter

214
which, w ithout exposure com pensation, will reduce con­
trast by also darkening highlights. Use this latter filter when
lighter shadow s are not desired. In both cases, the mild flare
pro duced from bright highlights is som etim es used as a
lighting effect.
A second, m ore recently developed type of filter re­
duces contrast w ithout any localized flare. It uses am bient
light, n ot just light in the im age area, to lighten shadow s
evenly throughout. Use it w here contrast control is needed
w ithout any other apparent effect on sharpness or highlight
flare.

Star-Effect Filters
L ighting can be enh anced in w ays that go beyond
w hat exists in nature. Star filters create points of light, like
"stars," streaking outw ard from a central light source. This
can m ake lighting w ithin the scene take on a more glitter­
ing, glam orous appearance. This effect is usually produced
by a series of thin lines etched into the flat optical surface
of a clear filter. These lines act as cylindrical lenses, diffract­
ing light points into long thin lines of light running perpen­
dicular to the etched lines. Lines on the filter positioned
horizontally produce vertically oriented star lines.
The size and brightness of the star lines produced are
first a function of the size, shape, and brightness of the light
source. You have additional control through the choice of
a particular spacing betw een the lines on the filter. G ener­
ally these spacings are m easured in millimeters. A 1mm
spacing has twice as m any lines per unit area as a 2mm
spacing. It will produce a brighter star for any given source.
Spacings offered generally range from 1mm to 4m m , as
well as both narrow er and w ider distances for specialty ef­
fects.
The num ber of directions in which the lines run deter­
mines the num ber of points produced. Lines in one direc­
tion produce a tw o-pointed star, just a streak through the
center of the light. Filters w ith 4, 6, 8,12, and more points
are available. A lthough the m ore com m on types have a
symm etrical arrangem ent of points, they can also be ob­
tained w ith asym m etric patterns, w hich tend to appear
m ore "natural," or less synthetic.
W ith an 8- or 12-point filter, the m any star lines will
tend to overpow er the rest of the image, so use them care­
fully.

215
 As w ith any filter that has a discrete pattern, be sure
that depth of field d oesn't cause the filter lines to become
visible in the image. U sing small apertures or short focal
length lenses makes this more likely, as will using a smaller
film format, such as 16mm vs. 35mm given an equal field
of view. Generally, m id -range apertures or larger is suffi­
cient, b u t test before critical situations.

Filters for Black & White

Tone-Control Filters
Black & w hite panchrom atic film records only tonal
differences between colored objects, w hich appear as black,
w hite, or different shades of gray. P roper rendition d e­
pends on your ow n desires, and the differences between
film sensitivity to colors and that of the eye. The latter is
due to the fact that m ost emulsions are m ore sensitive to
blue, violet an d ultraviolet than to other colors. Therefore,
blue appears to be lighter on film than it does to the eye.
This can m ake a blue sky light enough to appear a similar
shade of light gray as the clouds that are in it, m aking the
clouds "disappear." A m ore "correct" cloud presence is
ob tained th ro u g h the use of a yellow filter, such as a
W ratten #8, w hich can absorb blue light, darkening the sky
to more closely match w hat the eye w ould see. The #8 also
acts as a general com pensator for m ost subjects, giving a
tonal rendition sim ilar to that of the eye. D eeper colors,
further to the red end of the spectrum , such as W ratten #15
deep yellow, #16 orange, and #25 and #29 red filters, will
produce progressively deeper and artificially m ore d ra ­
matic renditions of blue sky.
Remember that, since these filters act on color differ­
ences to produce tonal differences, the required colors m ust
be present. The part of the sky you are recording m ust be
blue to be affected. Sky sections closer to the sun, or nearer
the horizon, are generally less blue than elsewhere. Use of
a gradated neutral-density filter can darken a sky relative
to the foreground, but will not increase contrast betw een a
blue sky and the clouds.
Using filters for contrast control can be a m atter of ar­
tistic preference, or of necessity. It is possible for tw o dis­
parate colors, say a certain orange and blue, to record as
the identical tone, elim inating any visible difference be­
tween them. Filters will lighten objects of their ow n color
and darken those of their com plem ent. Com plem entary
216
color pairs are: green-red; orange-blue; violet-yellow. An
orange filter in the above case w ill d arken the blue and
lighten the orange; a blue filter will perform the reverse.
A green filter, such as W ratten #11, can be used to
lighten green foliage to show m ore detail. It m ay also be
used to provide m ore pleasing skin tones outdoors, espe­
cially against blue sky.
A ny filter used for the above pu rp o ses will have a
greater effect if slightly underexposed. Its function depends
on absorbing light of its com plem entary colors to increase
the proportion of light of colors sim ilar to itself. Exposure
com pensation is often needed to allow pro per im age den­
sity, but the relative difference is reduced by the addition
of light at the absorbed w avelengths through additional
exposure.

Filters for Color

R ecording color involves greater know ledge about
light sources than is necessary for black & w hite imaging.
Sunlight, daylight and exterior lighting at different times
of day,as well as incandescent, fluorescent, and other arti­
ficial sources, all have color characteristics that vary signifi­
cantly. We see im ages through our eyes only after they are
processed by our brain, w hich has the ability to m ake cer­
tain adjustm ents to the w ay we see color. W hite will still
appear w hite to the eye in various lighting situtations, as
long as w e d o n 't have m ore than one type visible at a time.
Film has no such internal com pensation. It is designed to
see only a certain type of light as w hite — all others will
appear different to the extent of their difference. Filters are
required to provide the necessary fine-tuning.
The following discussion of Color Conversion, Light
Balancing, Color C om pensating, Decamired, and Fluores­
cent filters will be better understood after consulting the
section on color tem perature an d light-source characteris­
tics.

Color-conversion Filters
Color-conversion filters are used to correct for sizable
differences in color tem perature betw een the film and the
light source. These include both the W ratten #80 (blue) and
the W ratten #85 (amber) series of filters. Since they see fre­
quent outdoor use, in bright sunlight, the #85 series, espe-

217
No Filter

Graduated Color Filter

d a lly the #85 an d #85B, are also available in com b in atio n
w ith v arious n eu tral- d e n sity filters for e x p o su re control.

Light-balancing Filters
Light-balancing filters are u sed to m ak e m in o r correc­
tions in color tem perature. T hese are co m p rised of b o th the
W ratten #81 (yellow ish) a n d th e W ra tte n #82 (bluish) se­
ries of filters. They are often u sed in com bination w ith color-
c o n v ersio n filters. C e rta in #81 series filters m a y also be
available in com b in atio n w ith v ario u s n e u tra l d en sity fil­
ters for e x p o su re control.

218
No Filter

Sepia Filter
Color-compensating Filters
C o lo r-co m p en satin g filters are u se d to m a k e ad ju st­
m ents to the red, blue or g reen characteristics of light. These
find applications in correcting for color balance, light source
variations, different reversal film batches, a n d o th e r color
effects. T hey are available in d en sity v ariatio n s of C yan,
M agen ta, Yellow, as w ell as R ed, B lu e , a n d G reen filters.

Decamired Filters
D ecam ired filters (a tra d e m a rk of th e ir m a n u factu rer)
are desig n ed to m o re easily h a n d le u n u su a l color tem pera-
21 9
4 Point Star

Split-Field Lens
ture variations than prev iously m entioned filters. A vailable
in increm ental m ired shifts (see lighting section o n m ireds)
in b o th a re d a n d a b lu e series, d e c a m ire d filters can be
readily co m b in ed to create alm o st any req u ired correction.

Fluorescent and Other Discontinuous

Spectra Lighting Correction
Since filters n ev er actually a d d color, b u t on ly ab sorb
certain w av elen g th s to increase the relative p ro p o rtio n of
others, the original light source m u s t inclu de the colors you
w an t. Som e sources are totally deficient in certain w a v e ­

22 0
lengths, w hich filters alone cannot ad d back. This is p ar­
ticularly true of m any types of metal halide lighting. With
other lighting types, such as fluorescent, color tem perature
m easurem ents m ay not provide the correct filter require­
m ents since color tem perature theory is based on having a
continuous spectrum , m eaning light at all w avelengths. It
is possible for a light source to have a sufficient spectral
distribution to em ulate a correctable color tem peratu re
w hen so m easured, b u t its effect on film can be very dif­
ferent. (See section on lighting for additional details.)

Gradated Color Filters, or Wedges

Similar to G radated N D filters, these filters are also
produced in a w ide range of stand ard an d custom colors,
densities, and proportions for m any applications. A blu e -
to-clear filter can ad d blue to a w hite, hazy sky w ithout
affecting the foreground. An orange-to-clear filter can en­
liven a tepid sunset. Color can be added to the bottom of
the scene, as w ith a green-to-clear filter used to enrich the
appearance of a lawn.
Stripe filters are another type of gradated filter, hav­
ing a thin stripe of color or neutral density running through
the center of the filter, g radating to clear on either side.
These are used to horizontally p aint various colors in lay­
ers into a sky, as well as for narrow -area light balancing.

Coral Filters
As the su n m oves through the sky, the color tem pera­
ture of its light changes. It is often necessary to com pensate
for this in a variety of small steps as the day progresses, to
m atch the appearance of different adjacent sequences to
look as if they all took place at the sam e time. Coral filters
include a range of graded filters of a color similar to an 85
conversion filter. From light to heavy, any effect from ba­
sic correction to w arm er or cooler than "norm al" is possible.
Corals can also com pensate for the overly cool blue effect
of outdoor shade.

Sepia Filters
People often associate sepia-toned images w ith "early
times." This makes sepia filters useful tools for producing
believable flashbacks and for period effects w ith color film.
O ther colors are still visible, w hich is different from origi­

221
nal sepia-toned photography, b u t these colors appear to be
infused w ith an overall sepia tint.

Didym ium Filters

This type of filter, which may be called by a trade nam e
(see manufacturers), is a combination of rare earth elements
in glass. It completely removes a portion of the spectrum
in die orange region. The effect is to increase the color satu­
ration intensity of certain brow n, orange, an d reddish ob­
jects by eliminating the m u d d y tones and m axim izing the
crimson and scarlet com ponents. Its m ost frequent use is
for obtaining strongly saturated fall foliage. The effect is
minim al on objects of other colors. Skin tones m ight be
overly w arm . Even after color tim ing to correct for any
unw anted bias in these other areas, the effect on reddish
objects will still be apparent.

Underwater Color-correction Filters

When filming underw ater, the light you are recording
is filtered by the w ater it passes through. Longer-wave-
length reds and oranges are absorbed until only blue is left.
The actual effect is determ ined by num erous factors, such
as light source (sun or artificial), w ater quality, an d the
w ater p ath . The latter is the d istance the lig ht travels
through the water. In natural (sun)light, this is the depth
of the subject from the surface plus the subject-to-cam era
distance. For artificial lighting, it is the distance from the
light to the subject to the camera. The longer the w ater path,
the greater the filtering effect of the w ater. In m any cases,
certain color-compensating (CC) filters can absorb enough
shorter w avelengths to restore better color balance. The
difference betw een corrected an d uncorrected color can be
dramatic. The use of faster-speed films will facilitate the use
of light absorbing correcting filters.

Differences Between Camera

and Lab Correction
It is the job of the lab timer to fine-tune the finished
color rendition of the film. This accounts for variables in
exposure, print stock and processing. Timing can also be
used to im part certain color effects, both for standard cor­
rection and special situations. The difference is that lab
correction has only the range of colors an d densities avail­
able in the film emulsion to w ork with, and is limited to the
22 2
range of variation of the printer. These are m uch m ore lim­
iting than the m ultitude of colorants in the real world, and
the num ber of w ays in w hich adjustm ents can be m ade at
the camera. Filtering on the camera brings the lab that m uch
closer to the desired result, providing a greater latitude of
timing options.
There will be times w hen counting on the lab is the
only choice. Labs can also p roduce som e unusual effects.
W hen faced w ith a low-light situation, in daylight using
tungsten film, it m ay be necessary for exposure reasons to
pull the 85 filter and correct in the printing. W hen you do
this, how ever, neutral gray tones will appear slightly yel­
low, even w hen all else looks correct. This effect can be used
to artificially enhance lush green foliage colors through the
addition of yellow. It m ay have other uses, but you will not
achieve the sam e result as if you had used the 85 filter.

LL-D
The LL-D (tradem ark of its m anufacturer) w as d e­
signed to help iii the above situation. It requires no expo­
sure compensation, and makes sufficient adjustments to the
film to enable the timer to m atch the color of a properly 85-
filtered original. It is n ot an all-around replacem ent for the
85. Use it only w here needed for exposure purposes, and
for subsequently p rin ter-tim ed work.

Special Application Filters

Contrast V iew ing Filters
Balancing lighting by eye is a m atter of experience.
Decisions can be aided through the use of contrast view ­
ing filters. These are designed to handicap the eye, w ith its
m uch greater range of apparent densities, to resemble the
range of the various types of film. Use contrast viewers to
judge relative highlight and shadow densities. There are
viewers for black & w hite film, as well as various viewer
densities for color film. A darker viewer is used for slower
film speeds, w here you w ould tend to use brighter light­
ing. Faster film, w hich can be used in dim m er settings,
w ou ld require a lighter viewer. Details can be obtained
from the m anufacturers.

223
Other Filter Considerations
Effect of Depth of Field
and Focal Length Changes
S tan d a rd color filters gen erally fu n ctio n w ith o u t
change through variations in depth of field and focal length.
This may not be true of m any of the "special effect" filter
types. There are no solid rules for predicting the variation
in filter effect due to depth-of-field or focal length changes.
There are some things w e can expect, however. Let's look
at a fog /m ist type filter that causes a light to glow, or flare.
Take the example of a certain grade filter w here w e can see
that the ratio of light diam eter to glow diam eter is, say, 1:3.
As w e view this through a changing focal length, w e will
see that the ratio rem ains the same, although the magnifi­
cation will vary accordingly. So the decision to use a filter
of a different grade to maintain a certain appearance at dif­
ferent focal lengths will be based on w anting to change the
ratio, as opposed to any otherw ise corresponding relation­
ship. Tests are advisable for critical applications.

Sizes, Shapes, and M ounting Techniques

Filters are available in round an d rectangular shapes
in many sizes. Round filters generally com e supplied w ith
metal rings that m oun t directly to the lens. Frugal filter
users m ight find it preferable to em ploy adapters allowing
the use of a set of filters of a single size w ith m any lenses
of equal or smaller sizes. Round filters also can be supplied
with self-rotating m ounts, w here needed, as for polarizers.
They can be readily stacked in combination. Rectangular
filters require the use of a special filter holder, or matte box.
They offer the additional benefit of allow ing slidability for
effects that m ust be precisely aligned w ithin an image, such
as gradated filters. In all cases, it is advisable to use a m ount­
ing system that allows for sturdy support an d ready m a­
nipulation. In addition, the use of a lens shade at the out­
ermost mounting position (from the lens) will minimize the
effect of stray off-axis reflections.

Multiple Filter Use

When any single filter is not enough to produce the
desired results, use com binations. C hoose carefully, to
minimize the num ber required. Usually the job can be done
w ith no more than three filters. Use filters that individu­

224
ally ad d to the final effect, w ithout canceling each other out.
For example, d o n't use a polarizer, w hich can increase color
saturation, in combination w ith a low-contrast filter w hich
reduces saturation, unless it w orks for some other reason
(the polarizer could also be reducing reflections, for in ­
stance). Generally, the order in w hich filters are m ounted
is not im portant.

Secondary Reflections
Lighting can cause flare problem s, especially w hen
using m ore than one filter. Lights in the im age pose the
greatest difficulties. They can reflect betw een filter surfaces
and cause u n w an ted secondary reflections. M aintaining
parallelism betw een filters, an d further aligning the lights
in the im age w ith their secondary reflections w here pos­
sible, can m inim ize this problem . In critical situations, it
m ay be best to m ake use of a m atte box w ith a tilting filter
stage. Tilting filter(s) of good optical quality only a few
degrees in such a unit can divert the secondary reflections
out of the lens axis, out of the image, w ithout introducing
u n w an ted distortion or noticeable changes in the filter's
effect.

Custom (Homemade and Field-Ready)

Filters
There will be times w hen you need an effect and do n't
have time to obtain one ready-m ade. Certain effects can be
produced that, although different from factory filters, can
be useful in a pinch, or for unusual custom situations. N et
diffusion effects can be produced as they w ere originally,
by stretching and affixing one or m ore layers of stocking
material to the lens end, held in place w ith a rubber band.
There are also num erous possibilities w ith a clear filter (or
several) available. Petroleum jelly can cause flare or diffu­
sion, or even some star-like strea is depending on its appli­
cation, to a clear filter, spread w ith a finger or cloth. The
chief benefit here is that the effect can also be applied only
to selected portions of the scene. Breathing on a clear filter
can produce interesting but tem porary foglike results. Us­
ing cut gels can sim ulate certain g rad a ted filter effects.
W hen doing this, be sure to keep the filter close to the lens,
and use larger lens openings, to keep the visible edge as soft
as possible.

225
 TABLE 1: FILTER COMPENSATOR

226
Filler F a c to r s
1mix Hup
no Dller 1.25 1.6 2 2.5 3.2 4 5 6 8 10 12.5 16 20 25
22 20 18 16 14 12.7 11 10 9 8 7 6.3 5.6 5 4.5
20 18 16 14 12.7 11 10 9 8 7 6.3 5.6 5 4.5 4
IB 16 14 12.7 11 10 9 8 7 6.3 5.6 5 4.5 4 3.6
16 14 12.7 11 10 9 8 7 6.3 5.6 5 4.5 4 3.6 3.2
14 12.7 11 10 9 8 7 6.3 5.6 5 4.5 4 3.6 3.2 2.8
12.7 11 10 9 8 7 6.3 5.6 5 4.5 4 3.6 3.2 2.8 2.5
11 10 9 8 7 6.3 5.6 5 4.5 4 3.6 3.2 2.8 2.5 2.2
10 9 8 7 6.3 5.6 5 4.5 4 3.6 3.2 2.8 2.5 2.2 2
9 8 7 6.3 5.6 5 4.5 4 3.6 3.2 2.8 2.5 2.2 2 1.8
6 7 6.3 5.6 5 4.5 4 3.6 3.2 2.8 2.5 2.2 2 1.8 1.6
7 6.3 5.6 5 4.5 4 3.6 3.2 2.8 2.5 2.2 2 1.8 1.6 14
6.3 5.6 5 4.5 4 3.6 3.2 2.8 2.5 2.2 2 1.8 1.6 1.4 1.3
5.6 5 4.5 4 3.6 3.2 2.8 2.5 2.2 2 1.8 1.6 1.4 1.3 1.1
5 4.5 4 3.6 3.2 2.8 2.5 2.2 2 1.8 1.6 1.4 1.3 1.1 1
4.5 4 3.6 3.2 2.8 2.5 2.2 2 1.8 1.6 1.4 1.3 1.1 1 .9
4 3.6 3.2 2.8 2.5 2.2 2 1.8 1.6 1.4 1.3 1.1 1 .9 .8
3.6 3.2 2.8 2.5 2.2 2 1.8 1.6 1.4 1.3 1.1 1 .9 .8 .7
3.2 2.8 2.5 2.2 2 1.8 1.6 1.4 1.3 1.1 1 .9 .8 .7
2.8 2.5 2.2 2 1.8 1.6 1.4 1.3 1.1 1 .9 .8 .7
2.5 2.2 2 1.0 1.6 1.4 1.3 1.1 1 .9 .8 .7
2.2 2 1.0 1.6 1.4 1.3 1.1 1 .9 .0 .7
2 1.0 1.6 1.4 1.3 1.1 1 .9 .8 .7
1.6 1.6 1.4 1.3 1.1 1 .9 .8 .7
1.6 1.4 1.3 1.1 1 .9 .8 .7
1.4 1.3 1.1 1 .9 .0 .7
1.3 1.1 1 .9 .8 .7
1.1 1 .9 .8 .7
1 .9 .8 .7
.9 .8 .7
 ND Filter Selector Chart
Stop for correct exposure 1.4 2 2.8 4 5.6 8 11 16 23 32 45 64 90 128 180 256
% ND
S tops F actor T rans Filter

Î '/a 1.26 80 .10 1.3 1.8 2.5 3.6 5 7 10 14.3 20 28 40

% 1.6 63 .20 1.1 1.6 2.2 3.2 4.5 6.3 9 12.7 18 25 36
'/a 1 2 50 .30 1 1.4 2 2.8 4 5.6 8 11 16 23 32 45
stop
Vh 2.5 40 .40 .9 1.3 1.8 2.5 3.6 5 7 10 14.3 20 28 40
steps
1% 3.2 32 .50 .8 1.1 1.6 2.2 3.2 4.5 6.3 9 12.7 18 25 36
I 2 4 25 .60 .7 1 1.4 2 2.8 4 5.6 8 11 16 23 32 45
1 3 8 12.5 .90 .7 1 14 2 2.8 4 5.6 8 11 16 23 32 45
one 4 16 6.25 1.2 .7 1 1.4 2 2.8 4 5.6 8 11 16 23 32 45
stop 5 32 3 1.5 .7 1 1.4 2 2.8 4 5.6 8 11 16 23 32 45
steps 6 64 1.6 1.8 .7 1 1.4 2 2.8 4 5.6 8 11 16 23 32
7 128 0.8 2.1 .7 1 1.4 2 2.8 4 5.6 8 11 16 23
I 8 256 0.4 2.4 .7 1 1.4 2 2.8 4 5.6 8 11 16
The columns to the loll ol the "ND Filter" show the filter (actor both numerically and wide aperture to throw the background out ol locus: Select the desired lens stop in
in lens stops and the percent transmission ol each. Up to 0.6ND. increments are in '/i the column under the Indicated stop, and use the corresponding ND Filter Irom the
stop steps. From 0.6ND to 2.4ND the increments are In lull slops. Densities may be left shaded column. (For B&W photography, account lor the (actor o( any color fille r
added: (D.6ND plus 0.9ND equals 1.5ND). II correct exposure Indicates a very small also),

227
stop beyond the calibration ol the lens AND/OR: If it Is desired to open the lens to a
 CONVERSION FILTERS FOR COLOR FILMS
Exposure Mired
Filter Filter Increase Conversion Shift
Color Number In Stops* in Degrees K Value

80A 2 3200 to 5500 -1 3 1

Blue 80B 1% 3400 to 5500 -1 1 2
80C 1 3800 to 5500 -8 1
80D 'h 4200 to 5500 -5 6

85C Vi 5 50 0 to 3800 81
85 % 5 50 0 to 3400 112
Amber 85N3 1% 5 50 0 to 3400 112
85N6 2% 5 50 0 to 3 40 0 112
85N9 3% 5 50 0 to 3 40 0 112
85B % 5500 to 3 20 0 131

*These values are approximate. For critical work, they should be

checked by practical test, especially if more than one filter is
used.

KODAK LIGHT BALANCING FILTERS

Exposure To obtain To obtain Mired
Filler Filter Increase 3200 K 3400 K Shift
Color Number in Slops' from: from: Value

82C + 82C 1'/3 2 49 0 K 2610 K -8 9

82C + 82B 1'/j 2 57 0 K 2 70 0 K -7 7
82C + 82A 1 2650 K 2 78 0 K -6 5
Bluish 82C + 82 1 2 72 0 K 2870 K -5 5
82C % 2 80 0 K 2950 K -4 5
82B % 2 90 0 K 3060 K -3 2
82A '/3 3 00 0 K 3180 K -2 1
82 '/3 3100 K 3290 K -1 0

No Filter
Necessary 3200 K 3400 K —
81 V3 3 30 0 K 3510 K 9
81A '/a 3 40 0 K 3630 K 18
Yellowish 81B Vs 3500 K 3740 K 27
81C '/s 3600 K 3 85 0 K 35
81D % 3700 K 3970 K 42
81EF % 3850 K 4140 K 52

230
 KODAK COLOR COMPENSATING FILTERS
Yellow Exposure Magenta Exposure Cyan Exposure
Peak (Absorbs Increase (Absorbs Increase (Absorbs Increase
Density Blue) In Slops* Green) In Slops’ Red) In Slops'

.05 CC-05Y _ CC-05M 'k CC-05C 'h

.10 CC-10Y 'h CC-10M 'h CC-10C 'h
.20 CC-20Y 'h CC-20M '/3 CC-20C 'h
.30 CC-30Y 'k CC-30M % CC-30C %
.40 CC-40Y 'h CC-40M % CC-40C %
.50 CC-50Y % CC-50M % CC-50C 1

Rad Green Blue

(Absorbs Exposure (Absorbs Exposure (Absorbs Exposure
Peak Blue and Increase Blue and Increase Red and Increase
Density Green) In Stops* Red) In Stops* Green) In Stops*

.05 CC-05R Vj CC-05G 'h CC-05B Vs

.10 CC-10R Vs CC-10G '/a CC-10B 'h
.20 CC-20R 'h CC-20G 'h CC-20B %
.30 CC-30R % CC-30G % CC-30B %
.40 CC-40R % CC-40G % CC-40B 1
.50 CC-50R 1 CC-50G 1 CC-50B r/a
‘ These values are approximate. For critical work, they should be checked
by practical test, especially if more than one filter is used.

231
 NO M O GR APH FOR LIGHT SOURCE CONVERSION

ORIGINAL SOURCE IN K FILTER CONVERTED SOURCE IN K

REQUIRED
T1
10000

9000

eooo
7000

85B

85C — I
3000
8 l EF — !
B1C
01A —

B2
82A —
— 626
82C —
BOD — — 82C + I32
— B2C + B2A
82C + 02B
BOC
82C + 82C —

l~ 9000
5 — 10000

The nom ograph can be used to lin d (he approxim ate litte r (or a particular conversion by placing
a straightedge Irom an original source (T1| to a second source (T2|. The approximate filte r can
be found on the center line.

232
 Exposure Meters
by Jim Branch

The usual final adjustm ent of a m otion-picture cam ­

era for exposure control is m ade w ith the iris diaphragm
in the cam era lens. While this is a very sim ple adjustm ent,
a great deal depen ds upon its accuracy. M uch thought has
gone into the objectives to be attained by the adjustm ent
of the diaphragm , and the m eans to obtain a correct adjust­
ment.
It is recognized that a prim e object of exposure con­
trol in m otion-picture photography is to obtain consistent
and uniform im ages of the principal subjects. It is very
im po rtant to obtain flesh tones w hich will be consistent
from one scene to the next. It is undesirable to have flesh
tones w hich will be light in one scene, dark in the next with­
out reason, and again light in the next scene. Correct expo­
sure control will provide negatives w hich are consistent
from scene to scene and can be printed on a very narrow
range of printer lights.
M o dem exposure control is based on the use of a good
light meter. The light m eter m easures the effective inten­
sity of the light, taking into account the sensitivity of the
film in the cam era and the exposure time. The exposure
time is a result of the fram es-per-second rate at w hich the
camera operates, and the angle of the shutter opening. Pro­
fessional cinem atographers usually think in term s of 24
frames per second and a 175-degree shutter, w hich give a
basic exposure time of ]Ao second. The light m eter combines
all of the foregoing factors to give an answ er in term s of the
appropriate cam era lens stop.
Light m eters are of tw o types. Some m easure the inci­
dent light w hich illum inates the subject. O thers m easure
the light w hich is reflected from the scene. The results ob­
tained from the two different types m ay be quite different.
It is im portant therefore to un derstand the differences be­
tween the two types.

Incident Light Meters

These m eters are norm ally used at the location of the
photographic subject. They m easure the light w hich is ef­
fective in illum inating the subject. They give an answ er in

233
term s of f-stop or T-stop for the camera lens. The camera
lens diaphragm opening is then set to m atch the effective
intensity of the prevailing illumination.
W hen the film is exposed, the various reflectances pre­
sented by the subject will then each fall into a given place
in the film acceptance range. For example, a face tone of
30% reflectance will fall into the 30% reflectance position
in the film acceptance range. This m ethod thus provides
consistently uniform face tones from scene to scene.
The incident light m eter accomplishes its p urpose by
doing two things. It m easures the incident light intensity
at the location of the photographic subject. It also takes into
account the conditions of illum ination geom etry; that is,
w hether the subject has front key light, side key light, or a
back key light. The m eter combines these factors and gives
an answer in terms of the correct setting for the camera lens
diaphragm .
There are several makes of incident light meters which
use a three-dimensional light collector. The hem ispherical
light collector allows these meters to perform automatically
the dual function described above.
These incident light meters are norm ally used at the
position of the principal subject, w ith the h em isphere
pointed at the camera lens. The hem isphere then acts as the
m iniature face of the subject. All illum ination w hich will
be effective on the subject, including key light, fill light, line
light, hair light, eye lights, etc., will be received, evaluated
and integrated by the meter. The m eter will then indicate
directly the correct f-stop or T-stop for the camera lens. In­
cident light meters are particularly useful because they may
be used on a scene before the principal subject appears.
They may also be carried through a scene, w ith the hem i­
sphere always pointed at the camera lens, to detect uneven
illum ination, an d particularly hot spots, into w hich the
subject may m ove during the action. This allows the scene
illumination to be suitably balanced before the principal
subject is at hand.
In the case of outdoor photography, it is not always
necessary to take the m eter to the location of the principal
subject. U nder such conditions the illum ination is usually
uniform over considerable areas. If the illum ination is the
same at subject location an d at camera location the m eter
may be used at camera location. Care should be exercised
to point the meter in the proper direction, as though it were
at the subject location.
234
 Exposure meters, in general, are either analog (with a
needle) or digital. The introduction of the analog incident
m eter w ith the 3-D light-collecting hem isphere revolution­
ized the m ethod of determ ining proper exposure for the
cinema tographer.
Today, a num ber of com panies throughout the world
m anufacture exposure meters em ploying the basic incident
type principles in their design, b u t all d u e credit should be
given for the invention to Don N orw ood, ASC, w ho p at­
ented it, and Karl Freund, ASC, w ho w as instrum ental in
its developm ent. Most incident meters are provided with
suitable adapters so that they m ay be converted for use as
a reflected light meter if the occasion should so indicate. The
reflected light adapter can be used in a situation w here the
cinem atographer encounters difficulty in putting the meter
into a position to read either the illum ination directly on
the subject, or illum ination similar to that on the subject.
Such a situation, for example, m ight be encountered w hen
taking a picture out of the w indow of an airliner in flight.
The reflected light attachment can also be used in other situ­
ations to evaluate the relative brightness of a background.

Special Effects
W hen a special effect is desired, the cinem atographer
m ay use the incident light m eter to first determ ine norm al
exposure for the subject. Then he m ay then deliberately
m odify that value, up or dow n, to achieve the desired ef­
fect. This can be done w ith considerable confidence because
the incident light m eter will give a firm foundation upon
w hich to base the desired modification.

Specific Situations
There are som e situations, occasionally encountered
in outdoor photography, w hich require special attention.
1. U nusually light or dark backgrounds are cause for
consideration. W hen a scene includes an unusually light
background, the cinem atographer may w ish to first use the
m eter as an incident light m eter to determ ine the basic ex­
posure for the principal subject in the foreground. Then he
can convert the m eter to a reflected light m eter in order to
m easure the brightness of the unusual background. The
second reading is then used to modify som ew hat the basic
incident light reading. The sam e procedure could be fol­
low ed in the case of an unusually dark background.
235
 2. O utdoor scenes that include a subject in the fore­
ground as well as distant objects, such as m ountains, in the
background, usually also include considerable aerial haze,
w hich m ay be invisible or only partly visible to the eye, but
strongly visible to the camera. A frequent photographic
result is a recording of the aerial haze overlaid on the scene
background. This w ould give the appearance of an over­
exposed background. It is recom m ended that in such a situ­
ation a haze-cutting filter be used to im prove the back­
groun d. In ad dition , use the p ro ced u re previo usly d e­
scribed for the case of an unusual lighting background.
3. Scenes consisting of a mixture of sunshine and shade
areas, w ith the principal subject in a shade area, can be
handled by: (a) using the m eter in the sunshine area, or (b)
opening up the lens by Vi to 2A f-stop from the m eter indi­
cation.

Reflected Light Meters

R eflected lig h t m e ters can be classified in to tw o
groups, according to function. The m eters in each group
may give exposure readings w hich are substantially differ­
ent from those given by the meters in either of the other two
groups. This is d u e to differences in basic principle of op­
eration.
G roup 1. These are the meters w hich are designed to
measure the average brightness of an entire scene. Such
meters are usually used at camera location and pointed at
the scene. For a discrim inating observer, this m ethod ap ­
pears to give acceptable results only in the case of a very
limited category of scenes, those w hich have front-lighting
and a foreground subject of m edium tone as well as a back­
ground of m edium tone. In other types of scenes, w hich
include side-lighting or backlighting, or very bright or dark
backgrounds, or large areas of sky, the exposure results are
questionable. This is because the m eter, w hen used by this
m ethod, is affected not only by the unit brightness of each
portion of the scene, but also by the relative area of each.
Thus a large area of sky w ould influence the m eter to dic­
tate a small lens aperture w hich m ight result in an under­
exposure of the face of the principal subject in the fore­
ground. Any backlight m ay strike directly into the meter
cell an d cause an unduly high reading on the meter. This
also w ould result in underexposure of the foreground sub­
ject. Large bright backgrounds tend to cause m eter read­

236
ings w hich result in underexposure of foreground subjects.
Large dark backgrounds tend to cause m eter readings
w hich result in overexposure of the foreground subject. If
this m ethod is used it should be considered only as a very
rough guide, subject to considerable modification accord­
ing to the experience of the cam eram an.
It is interesting to note that this m ethod is the one gen­
erally used in the built-in autom atic exposure control sys­
tems of am ateur m otion-picture and still picture cameras.
It has been noted by m any that the photographic results do
not m eet the high standards of professional cinem atogra­
phy.
G roup 2: These are the spot meters. A spot m eter may
be used at cam era location an d aim ed at a selected spot in
the scene. The effectiveness of the m eter is heavily depen­
d ent on the operator's judgm ent in the selection of the spot.
The selected spot m ust be precisely representative of the
p articular com bination of elem ents w hich com pose the
scene. In the use of such a m eter the operator m ust be p ar­
ticularly careful w hen confronted w ith a scene that presents
strong contrasts betw een the selected spot and the scene
background. A n exam ple of such a situation w ould be a
case w here a p erson in the foreground is in front of a very
light background, such as sky or w hite buildings, etc. In
such a case the operator should modify the spot reading
provided by the m eter according to his ow n estimate of the
situation. W hen the use of a reflected light m eter is re­
quired, the results of d eterm in in g the exposure can be
greatly im proved by using a "K odak N eutral Test Card."
This card is a piece of sturdy 8" X 10 " cardboard that
is neutral gray on one side an d w hite on the other. The gray
side reflects 18% of the light falling on it, and the white side
reflects approxim ately 90%. Also, the gray side has a pro­
tective lacquer overcoat that reduces specular reflectance
and resists dam age d u e to fading, fingerprints, soil, etc. To
a light m eter, an average scene is one in w hich the tones
w hen averaged form a tone brightness that is equivalent
to m iddle gray — a tone that reflects 18% of the light illu­
minating it (the sam e tone and reflectance of the gray card).
W hen a scene is not average the gray card as a reference
helps you m ake the proper exposure judgm ents. A Kodak
Gray Card is m anufactured u n d er close tolerances to pro­
vide a neu tral gray-side reflectance of 18% ( ± 1% ) and
white-side reflectance of approxim ately 90%.

237
Testing
Small errors m ay exist in m eters, lens calibrations,
emulsion speeds and development. These small errors will
frequently cancel out w ithout u n d u e h arm to the final pic­
ture. It is w hen these errors ad d up in the sam e direction
that their cum ulative effect is serious. It is wise, therefore,
to test equipm ent, film and m eters u nder sim ulated p ro ­
duction conditions so that errors may be detected and cor­
rected before production begins. It is always a good idea
to "tune up to the variables."

Exposure Meters
C in em eter II
Type: H and-held d ig ital/analog incident meter.
Light Sensor: Large area, blue enhanced silicon photo
sensor. Swivel head 270 degrees.
M easuring capability: Direct readout of photographic
exposures in full f-stops or fractional f-stops. Also measures
illuminance level in footcandles and Lux.
M easuring Range: Direct-reading multiple-range lin­
ear circuit incorporates a high quality CMOS integrated
amplifier whose bias current is com pensated against drift
up to 70° C. D ynamic range 250,000 to one. Digital f-stop:
f/0.5 to f/9 0 in '/lo-stop increments. Analog f-stop: f/0.63
to f/36 in ‘/ vstop increments. Photographic illuminance:
0.20 to 6400 footcandles, 2 to 64,000 Lux.
Display: Vertical digital/analog bar graph w hich con­
sists of 72 black liquid-crystal bars (6 bars per f-stop), that
rise and fall depending on the light intensity. The scale can
be used in three different display m odes (Bar, Floating Zone
and Dedicated Zone), and in three different m easurem ent
m odes (f-stops, footcandles and Lux).
D isplay Modes:
1. Bar m ode is similar to a needle-reading meter, ex­
cept that the m ovem ent is up and dow n instead of left to
right.
2. Floating Zone mode: a single flashing bar forms a
solid bar that graphically indicates the range of illum ina­
tion in the scene. It can also be used for the m easurem ent
of flickering or blinking sources.
3. Dedicated Zone m ode is used to save up to five sepa­
rate measurements.

238
 D isplay Range:
ISO film speed: 12 to 2500 in /6-stop increments.
Cam era speed: 2 to 375.
Shutter Angle: 45° to 90° in 'A f-stop increments,
90° to 205° in Vn f-stop increments.
Filter factors: '/>f-stop to 7 f-stops.
Resolution: Digital: % f-stop. Analog: 'A f-stop.
Accuracy: Digital % f-stop.
Additional Functions: M em ory store an d recall.
Lamp: Electroluminescent backlit liquid crystal dis-
play.
Power consumption: O perating reading 5 m A with
backlight on.
Power Source: O ne 9-volt battery.
Dimensions: 6% “ X 3 ” X lYu, ”
Weight: A pproxim ately 10 ounces.

M inolta Luminance ft-l°, n t-l° & nt-]/3°

Type: Reflex-viewing spot-reading autom atic/m anual
lum inance meter.
Light Sensor: Silicon Photovoltaic cell w ith 1° (‘/3° in
m odel n t - ‘/ 3 ° ) of acceptance.
V iew in g System: Focusing through-the-lens reflex
type. Objective lens 85mm f/2.8. A ngle of view: Circular
9° w ith central 1° ('A in model nt-'/i ) m arked circle. M ag­
nification: 2.96X focused at infinity.
Measuring Capability: Direct readout of illuminance
level in footlamberts or candelas.
Measuring Range:
Model ft-l°: 0.01 to 99900 ft-L (0.01 step)
Model nt-l°: 0.1 to 99900 c d /m 2 (0.1 step)
Model nt-!/3°: 1.0 to 99900 c d / m2 (0.1 step)
Display Range: Red (+) LED's at the right of the n u m ­
ber display indicates 10X and 100X the display reading.
Accuracy: W ithin + 4% of C.I.E. standard + 1 digit in
last display position.
Screen-flicker accuracy: W ithin 1% of average lum i­
nance w ith projection cycle of m ore than 72 H z an d d uty
of 7% (projector at 24 fps).
Analog Output: O u tp u t voltage: IV over full scale.
O u tp u t impedance: 10 kilo-ohms.
Power Consumption: 6 m A in analog mode. M eter
can m onitor changes in lum inance for a period up to 40
hours.

239
 Pow er Source: O ne 9-volt battery (Eveready 216 or
equivalent).
Estim ated Battery Life: A pproxim ately 1 year w ith
norm al use.
D im ensions: 2 7/s" X 63/a" X 4n/i6"
W eight: 18‘/s ounces, w ithout battery.

S pectra C in esp o t 1° S pot M eter

Type: Through-the-lens view ing spot-reading auto­
m atic/ m anual lum inance meter.
Light Sensor: Silicon Photovoltaic cell w ith 1° angle
of acceptance.
V iew ing Optics: 1.6X magnification, erect system with
focusing eyepiece.
M easuring C apability: Direct readout of illuminance
level in foot lam berts or candelas.
M easuring Range: Low Range 0-30 fL (or 0-100 c d /
m 2) readings legible dow n to 0.5fL. H igh Range 0-300 fL
(or 0-1,000 c d /m 2), u p p er limit may be increased by use of
accessory 10X or 100X attenuators.
Spectral Response: W ithin + 4% (by area) of CIE Pho-
topic Luminosity Function.
Accuracy: +1% of full scale or + 5% of reading (which­
ever is greater).
Error D ue To C ho pped Light: + 0.5 % at 24 cycles/
second.
Pow er Source: O ne 6-volt battery. (Eveready 544 or
equivalent).
Estim ated Battery Life: A pproxim ately 1 year w ith
norm al use.
D im ensions: 5" X 2" X 6.4"
Weight: 15 ounces.

S pectra P rofessional IV
Type: H and-held exposure meter for m easuring inci­
dent and reflected light.
Light Sensor: Silicon Photovoltaic cell, com puter se­
lected glass filters tailored to spectral response of the film.
Swivel head 270 degrees.
M e a s u rin g C a p a b ility : D irect re a d o u t of p h o to ­
graphic exposures. Also measures illuminance level in foot-
candles and Lux.

240
 M easuring Range: O ne million to one (20 f-stops) di-
rect-reading m ultiple-range linear circuit controlled by
microcomputer.
D isplay Range: ISO film speed: 3 to 8000 in 'A stop
increments.
Cam era speed: 2 to 360 frames per second.
Resolution: Digital: 0.1 f-stop. Analog: 0.2 f-stops.
Accuracy: Digital: 0.05 f-stop.
A dd itional Functions: M em ory store an d recall.
Lamp: Optional electrolum inescent lam p for backlit
liquid crystal display.
Pow er C onsum ption: O perating (reading) 5mA. Data
retention 5uA.
P ow er Source: O ne 6-volt battery. (A544, PX28L or
PX28).
E stim ated Battery Life: A pproxim ately 1 year w ith
norm al use.
D im ensions: 5‘/2" X 2 V2" X 2".
W eight: A pproxim ately 6 ounces.

M u c h o f th e m a t e r i a l in t h is s e c tio n o f th e m a n u a l is b a s ic , b u t re fe re n c e
s h o u ld be m a d e to D o n N o r w o o d , A S C a n d E a s tm a n K o d a k C o m p a n y f o r

th e g r a y c a r d i n f o r m a t i o n .

241
 Crystal-Controlled Cordless
Camera Drive System
by E dm und M. DiGiulio
ASC Associate M ember
Cinema Products Corporation

W hen recording sound sim ultaneously w ith filming,

it is necessary to provide some m eans of guaranteeing that
the soundtrack will be in perfect synchronism w ith the film.
In single-system filming, w here the sound is recorded di­
rectly on the film in the camera, on either a m agnetic strip
or optical sound track, this is automatically accomplished.
In double-system filming, how ever, speed variations of
camera and recorder, as well as the elasticity of the m ag­
netic recording tape, require some positive m eans of key­
ing the dialogue to its appropriate film frame.
The inclusion on the sound recorder of a second, p a r­
allel sync or "Pilotone" track is the m ost com m on m ethod
in use today. The sync pulse is typically a sine w ave of 50
to 60 H z w ith an RMS am plitude of approxim ately 1 volt.
Back in the lab, a "resolver" transfers the sound track onto
oxide-coated sprocketed film stock using the sync track as
a reference so that the transferred sound track will corre­
spond, frame for frame, with the camera negative. Until the
introduction of crystal sync systems, this sync pulse w as
derived from the camera by another means.
If, for example, the cam era w as being driven by a DC
motor, w ith some sort of governor control to hold it fairly
accurate at 24 fps, a sync pulse generator geared to the
m ovem ent or motor shaft could be em ployed to provide
the sync pulse output. A cable conducts the sync pulse from
camera to sound recorder. (See Fig. 1.)
A n a lte r n a te m e th o d , u s e d m o st c o m m o n ly on
soundstages but also on location, w as for the cam era to be
driven by a synchronous m otor operating from AC mains,
or on location from an AC generator. In this case the re­
corder used the m ains or alternator as a sync pulse source
(Kg- 2).
In crystal driv e system s, a crystal oscillator of ex­
tremely high accuracy at (or in) the recorder provides the
sync pulse. The camera is in turn driven by a specially de­
signed DC m otor an d control circuit w hich is capable of
operating in exact synchronism w ith a self-contained crys­

242
tal oscillator of com parable accuracy (Fig. 3). The crystal-
controlled m otor operation is analogous to that of a sync
m otor operating in synchronism w ith AC mains. In the case
of AC synchronous operation, both camera and recorder
are tied to the AC source as a com m on reference. In the case
of crystal operation both camera and recorder reference to
self-contained crystal oscillators w hich are so accurate that
the effect is the sam e as if they had been tied together.
Since the reference is absolute, any num ber of cameras
can be operated sim ultaneously, in perfect synchronism,
w ith a single recorder. The basic advantage to the crystal
drive system , how ever, is that it eliminates the need for
pow er cables an d any umbilical connection betw een the
camera and recorder. Most crystal motors commonly in use
today em ploy some m eans of indicating w hen the motor
is running out of synchronism. This is usually a beep tone
or a blinking light. This is a reliable indicator of good syn­
chronous operation and is a corollary benefit.

Time Code
W hile the cordless crystal drive system guarantees
synchronous operation betw een cam era an d recorder, it
does not provide a start mark. Slating, therefore, m ust be
done either w ith a conventional clapstick, or by wireless
transm ission of start and scene information.
A m ore prom ising approach is that of absolute time
reference or "crystal clock." In this system w e use an ex­
tremely accurate crystal time-base generator (or clock) ca­
pable of m arking the film at regular intervals with a pre­
cise time reference an d other pertinent production data. A
similar or identical clock w ould also be plugged into the
recorder to m ark the sound record in identical fashion. It
is only necessary for both crystal clocks to be time-synchro­
nized at the beginning of the day and then be plugged into
the camera and the recorder, so that for the rest of the day's
shooting, the m ark m ad e on the film an d on the sound
record w ould always occur at precisely the sam e time. The
effect w ould be the sam e as if w e operated clapsticks at
regular intervals of one second or m ore during the entire
day. As in the case with crystal-controlled synchronization,
any n um ber of cam eras could be tied to one recorder or
several recorders.
The EBU (European Broadcasting Union) proposed
such a time-code system in the early '70s. It involved the

243
244
recording of time inform ation optically on the film in the
form of 16 binary-coded decimal digits per second. In ac­
cordance w ith this proposal, a num ber of E uropean equip­
m ent m anufacturers designed and offered for sale equip­
m ent incorporating the ability to record or read the EBU
time code. This approach did not have m uch success in the
marketplace, how ever, as the only function it served w as
to perm it the autom atic syncing of dailies. Accomplishing
this single task did not prove to be cost-effective.
Starting in the late '70s, SMPTE in the United States
began exploring the possibility of recording the SMPTE
time code that h ad already been established for use w ith
videotape, on both picture and soundtrack. By using the
sam e code th a t w as alre ad y a sta n d a rd for v id e o tap e
(uniquely identifying every frame), it w as felt that a further
and m ore im p o rta n t function could be served than just
syncing u p dailies. By transferring the picture and also the
SMPTE time code from film to tape, one could realize the
trem endous efficiencies of videotape editing an d then use
the SMPTE time code as the m eans of conforming the edit
decisions from the tape to film.
From the first experim ents by EBU through the early
efforts by SMPTE, the proposed m ethod for recording time
code in the cam era w as optical. This approach has the ad ­
vantage of being perm anent and easily duplicated in the
printing process. This technology is changing rapidly and
the m o st u p -to -d ate inform ation can be o btained from
m anufacturers' representatives.

245
 Camera Supports
Cranes
Louma Crane by Samcine
The Louma Crane is a m odular crane w hich incorpo­
rates a remotely-controlled pan and tilt camera m ounting
system. It may be fitted to any suitable dolly, including
Elemack Cricket, H ornet or Rolls types.
The complete crane, excluding individual weights, is
packed in 10 Samcine rigidized cases. M axim um w eight of
any single part is 116 pounds.
In largest configuration, arm with reinforcement stays:
A rm length 26', w eight tubes 10’ 10". M axim um height of
optical axis w ith limited pan (fulcrum 10' high): 31’ 4 Vi".
M axim um height of optical axis w ith 360° p an (fulcrum 8'
4"): 25' 3". M axim um dim ension of reinforcement stays: 5'
8 W wide, 2' 11" above tube axis. W eight excluding dolly,
990 pounds. Smaller configuration w ithout extension stays:
arm length 15' 7" or 3' 5".
Maximum angle of tilt upw ard w ith 360° panning: 45°;
dow nw ard: 65°. M axim um angle of tilt u pw ard w ith lim­
ited pan: 60°.
M inim um dim ension of an aperture through w hich
crane head will pass while supporting a Panaflex camera:
1' 7 'A" w ide x 2’ 3" high. M inim um height of optical axis of
Panaflex camera above under-side of platform: 7 Vi".
The Louma C rane com m and console consists of an
electronically-operated rem ote camera p an and tilt system
operated by tw o handles exactly as if it w ere a regular
geared cam era h ead like a P anahead, Sam cine Moy or
W orrall. The com m and center incorporates a television
monitor connected to the TV viewfinder system of the cam­
era. A second closed-circuitTV camera is used to relay lens
calibration information to the focus assistant, w ho is able
to remotely control the focus, aperture and zoom (if fitted)
functions of the lens.

The Crane by Matthews

Portable folding crane system. C an be m ounted on
three types of wheels: pneum atic, hard, or flotation. (Spe­
cial track is available.)

246
Basic kit:
Largest dim ension of a disassem bled m odule is 8
feet.
T ransport weight: 2000 po unds w ith weights
Set up: Pedestal 64" x 64"
M axim um lens height: 16' 6" w ith typical camera.
M inim um height: 2' 6"
Reach: 144"
Recom m ended load: 550 pound s
Junior kit:
T ransport weight: 140 poun ds
M axim um height: 108"
M inim um height: Floor (Fulcrum height 36")
Reach: 120"
Extension kit:
T ransport weight: 100 poun ds
M axim um height: 24'
M inim um height: M inus 19'4"
Reach: 18'4"
Maxi Extension Kit:
T ransport weight: 105 p oun ds

MC 88 Crane
D esigned exclusively for use w ith Cam-Remote and
other remote-control devices. The boom length is adjust­
able and requires no su p p o rt cables.
Boom lengths:
Short boom: 10'
M edium boom: 18' 6"
Long boom: 22' 6"

Nettman Cam-Remote by Matthews

A rem otely controlled head for film an d television
production cameras. The head is precisely controlled over
a continuous 360° range in both pan and tilt. All lens func­
tions are controlled via pow erful and accurate motors. The
system can b e u sed o n cam era cars, lig h tin g g rid s by
Matthews, the MC88 Crane or any other production cranes.
U ser friendly controls em ploying "W orrall-type" h an d
wheels or joystick system s are provided for the operator.
The head is norm ally controlled via cables b u t m ay be con­
trolled via a serial link system.

247
Chapman-Super Nova M obile Crane
Location and stage crane.
Width: 7 7" (232 cm)
Length: 20' (589 cm)
Length w ith battery pack: 21'6"
M inim um Height: 9' 3" (282 cm)
Lens H eight (without risers): 27’ (823 cm)
D rop Down: 8' (244 cm)
M axim um Reach: 17' 3" (526 cm)
M axim um w ith 12' extension: 29' 3" (884 cm)
Traveling Weight: 28,500 lbs.
Vert. Travel of Boom above gm d.: 23' (701 cm)
(with hydraulic riser): 27’ (823 cm)
Vert. Travel of Boom below gm d.: 2' 7"
Boom Length fully extended: 30'11"
Max Length Boom & chassis: 37' 4"
Tread: 6' 4"
Wheel Base: 13'10"
M axim um Speed (batteries): 12’ per sec
M inim um Turn Radius: 23'3"
M axim um lifting capacity: 1,750 lbs.
M ercury Balancing Automatic leveling system.
Patented Feathering valves.
860 DC A m pere hours available.
Two 72-volt systems used in series or paralleled, total
144 volts.
Six w heel drive, six w heel steering.

Chapman-Titan II M obile Crane

Location and stage crane.
Width: 7' 7" (232 cm)
Length: 20' (589 cm)
Length w ith spare tire: 21'5"
M inim um Height: 9’ 3" (282 cm)
Lens Height (w ithout risers): 27' (823 cm)
D rop Down: 8' (244 cm)
M axim um Reach: 17' 3" (526 cm)
M axim um w ith 12' extension: 29' 3'' (884 cm)
Traveling Weight: 26,000 lbs.
Vert. Travel of Boom above gm d.: 23' (701 cm)
(with hydraulic riser): 27' (823 cm)
Vert. Travel of Boom below gm d.: 3' 7"

248
 Boom Length fully extended: 30' 11
Max Length Boom & Chassis: 37’ 4"
Tread: 6' 4"
Wheel Base: 13' 10"
M axim um Speed (batteries): 12’ p er sec
M inim um Turn Radius: 23’ 3"
M axim um Lifting Capacity: 1,500 lbs.
M ercury Balancing.
Automatic leveling system, Patented Feathering valves.
Six-wheel drive, six-wheel steering.

Chapman-Super Apollo M obile Crane

Location and stage crane.
Max. Lens Height: 19' 5"
M axim um Reach Beyond Chassis: 18' 9"
Vert. Travel of Boom above gm d.: 15' 5"
Vert. Travel of Boom below grnd.: 10.5"
Chassis W idth: 7’ 7.5"
Tread: 6' 4"
W heel Base: 10' 6.5"
860 DC A m pere hours available.
Mercury Balancing.
Patented Feathering valves.
M axim um lifting capacity: 1,700 lbs.
Chassis Length: 15' 11"
M inim um Chassis Height: 8' 4"
Traveling Weight: 19,500 lbs.
M axim um Speed (batteries): 12’ per sec
M inim um T urn Radius: 21' 2"
Four-wheel drive and four-wheel steering.

Chapman-Zeus Stage Crane

Lens Height: 16’ 2"
M axim um Reach: 14' 6"
Vert. Travel of Boom above grnd.: 12' 2"
Vert. Travel of Boom below grnd.: 3' 0"
Chassis Width: 4' 0"
Chassis Length: 7' 10"
M inim um Chassis Height: 5' 8"
M axim um length boom + chassis: 19' 4"
Crane operating weight: 7,200 lbs.
Tread: 44"

249
 Wheel Base: 5' 7"
M aximum Speed: 11.2' p er sec
M inim um turn radius: 7' 9"
M axim um lifting capacity: 1,500 lbs.

Chapman-Electra I Stage Crane

Lens height: 11’
M inim um height: ground
Reach: 7'
Max. reach (with 3’ extension): 10'
Chassis width: 41"
Chassis le n g th : 81"
M inim um chassis height: 4' 10"
Weight: 3,000 lbs.
M axim um lifting capacity: 1,500 lbs.
M inim um turning radius: 7' 3"
""Equipped w ith solid wheels only.

Chapman-Nike/Electra II Stage Crane

Lens height: 14'
M aximum reach: 14' 6"
Vert. Travel of Boom above grnd.: 10’
Vert. Travel of Boom below grnd.: 2'
Chassis width: 44"
Chassis length: 7' 3"
M inim um chassis height: 5' 3.5"
M axim um length boom & chassis: 16' 9"
Crane operating weight: 5,600 lbs.
Tread: 40"
Wheel base: 5'
M axim um speed: 9' 9.6" per sec.
M inim um turn radius: 6' 3”
M axim um lifting capacity: 1,500 lbs.

Dollies
Chapman-Sidewinder D olly
For indoor or outdoor use. For television or m otion
picture productions.
Lens height ( w /o added risers): 9'
Low lens height (with extension): 22"
Lifting capacity: 900 lbs.

250
 Max. horizontal reach (w /extension): 38"
Chassis length: 64"
Chassis w idth: 38.75"
M inim um Chassis height: 41"
Weight: 1,450 lbs.
Crab or Conventional steering.
Electric drive, full 24 hours of use w ith each charge.
D ual rocker system, three point suspension.

Elemack Cricket D olly

Convertible three or four wheel dolly w ith center hy­
draulic pedestal.
Basic U nit (Collapsed size): 25'/2" x 25'/2" x 25%"
Lens height: 5' 11"
Low lens height: 3' 11"
Lifting capacity: 260 lbs.
W idth (wheels spread: 27 7/i6M
M inim um Tracking Width: 17"
Weight: 300 lbs.
Crab or Conventional steering.
Accessories: Electro hydraulic lift drive.
Several configurations of mini cranes.
Seats and brackets; running boards.
C urved and straight track sections in tw o gauges.
Articulated bogey wheels for track use.

J. L. Fisher Crab D olly

Four-wheel dolly.
Chassis w idth: 30"
Chassis length: 67"
Weight: 446 lbs.
Max. Height: 61"
Max. H eight ( w / lo w level head): 50"
Min. Height: 14"
Min. H eight (for storing or shipping): 20"
Min. H eight (with low level head): 3"
Elevation: AC, DC, or manual.
Cam era m oun t ahead of wheels.
Full crab-brakes in rear wheels.
Four or two w heel selection for crab or steering shots.
Solid or pneum atic tires.

251
FGV Panther
C olum n drive may be operated m anually or its ascent
and descent phases m ay be stored and recalled using built-
in com puter memory.
M inim um size for transport:
Length: 29" (73.6 cm)
Width: 26.8" (68 cm)
Height: 28" (71 cm)
Total weight for transport: 260 lbs. (118 kg)
M axim um tracking width: 24.4" (62 cm)
M inim um tracking clearance: 14" (36 cm)
M inim um Battery perform ance per
charge, colum n moves: 200
Max. load using colum n drive: 551 lbs. (250 kg)
Max. w /c o lu m n retracted: 1,763.7 lbs (800 kg)
Input voltage tolerance: 18-28 V
M axim um pow er consumption: 24 A
Battery unit specifications: 24 V 9.5 Ah
Charge cycle standard charger: 10 hours
Charge cycle charge/ballast unit: 5 hours
Max. lens height (Arri 35 BL
on Sachtler Studio Head): 74.8" (190 cm)
Min. lens height (35 BL on Sachtler
Studio Head+adapter): 17.7" (45cm)
C olum n range: 27.6" (70 cm)
Max. lens height w /Super-Jib (35 BL
on Sachtler+50cm Bazooka): 118" (300 cm)
Max. lens height w /L ightw eight-Jib
(35BL on Sachtler Studio Head): 106" (270 cm)
Kombi-Wheels for track or floor use.
Program stores up to 5 drive sequences.
Integrated battery m aintains program memory.
Continuously variable speeds.
M odular quick-change circuit cards.

252
 Camera Stabilizing Systems
by John Jurgens
C inem a Products Corporation

M o dem cam era stabilizing systems enable a camera

o perator to m ove abo u t freely an d m ake dolly-sm ooth
hand-held shots w ithout the restrictions or the resultant
im age u n ste ad in ess e n c o u n te re d w ith p rio r m ethod s.
These systems transfer the w eight of the camera unit to the
operator's body via a supp ort structure and w eight distri­
bution suit. This arrangem ent frees the cam era from body-
m otion influences. It allows the camera to be m oved by the
operator through an area generally defined by the range
through w hich his arm can move.
C am era sm oothness is controlled by the "hand-eye-
brain" h u m a n servo system that w e use to carry a glass of
w ater aro u n d a room or u p an d do w n stairs. Viewing is
accom plished through the use of a video m onitor system
that displays an actual through-the-lens image, the same
im ag e on e w o u ld see w h e n lo o king th ro u g h a reflex
viewfinder. The advantage of these camera stabilizing sys­
tems is that the cam era now m oves as if it w ere an exten­
sion of the operator's ow n body, controlled by his internal
servo system , w hich constantly adjusts an d corrects for
body m otions w hether w alking or running. The camera
moves and glides freely in all directions — panning, tilt­
ing, boom ing — an d all m ovem ents are integrated into a
single fluid m otion w hich m akes the camera seem as if it
w ere suspended in mid-air and being directed to m ove at
will. These camera stabilizing systems turn any vehicle into
an instant cam era platform.
As w ith rem otely controlled cam era systems, servo
controls m ay be used for control of focus, iris and zoom on
the camera lens.

Cinema Products Steadicam

(Universal Model III)
The Steadicam system consists of a stabilizing support
arm which attaches at one end to the camera operator's vest
and at the other end to a floating camera m ounting assem ­
bly w hich can accept either a 16mm, 35mm or video cam­
era. The comfortable, adjustable, padded, close-fitting cam­
era operator's vest is an effective and sophisticated w eight
253
distribution system. It transfers an d distributes the w eight
of the Steadicam system (including camera and lens) across
the operator's shoulders, back and hips. The arm m ount­
ing plate m ay be quickly reversed to m ount the stabilizer
arm on the right or left side of the front plate.
The stabilizer su pport arm is an articulated support
system which parallels the operator's arm in any position,
and almost completely counteracts the w eight of the cam ­
era systems w ith a carefully calibrated spring force. The
double-jointed arm maximizes m aneuverability w ith an
articulated elbow hinge, w hich frees the arm to m ove 380
degrees horizontally from the elbow. One end of the arm
attaches to either side of the vest front plate, allowing the
operator to change for left- or right-handed operation. A
free-floating gimbal connects the stabilizer supp ort arm to
the camera m ounting assembly.
The camera m ounting assembly consists of a central
support post, around w hich the individual com ponents are
free to rotate as needed. O ne end of the post supports the
camera m ounting platform, while the other end terminates
in the electronics m odule. The film or video cam era can
rotate 180 degrees to left or right on its platform. The video
monitor is attached to a pivoting bracket w hich m ay also
slide up, dow n or around the post. There are scale m ark­
ings on each of the com ponents so that adjustm ents for
various m odes of shooting m ay be docum ented and re­
peated. The video viewfinder m onitor features a kinescope
tube of high brilliance w ith multiple layer coatings to elimi­
nate reflections and perm it viewing in sunlight. A n elec­
tronic level indicator is visible on the CRT viewing screen
in the bottom of the picture area. Electronically generated
frame lines can be adjusted to accom m odate any aspect
ratio. Positions of the com ponents may be reversed to per­
mit "low m ode" configuration. The Steadicam unit is in­
ternally wired to accept wireless or cable-controlled remote
servo systems for lens control. A quick-release mechanism
p e rm its the o p e ra to r to d iv e s t h im se lf of the e n tire
Steadicam unit in emergency. A 12V/3.5A N iCad battery
pack m ou nts on the electronics m o d u le to su p p ly the
viewfinder system and film or video camera.

Panavision Panaglide
The Panavision Panaglide system is an integrated sta­
bilizer system incorporating specially lightened cameras:
35mm Panaflex for sync sound, 35mm Pan-Arri for non-
254
so u n d , 65m m H a n d -h e ld Reflex an d 16m m P anaflex
Elaine; a Panacam m odel supports a video camera.
The su p p o rt consists of a reinforced p ad d e d vest to
w hich an adjustable articulated suspension arm is pivoted.
The arm uses either a p n eu m atic/sp rin g or a spring/cable
shock-absorbing system. A vertical telescoping staff at­
tached to the suspension arm carries a camera platform on
one end and an electronics/battery unit on the other. The
unit can be inverted, with the camera m ounted either at top
or bottom of the staff. All sw ing joints and spring tensions
are adjustable.
The view finder uses video reflexed from the camera
lens, a 3'/2" high brightness m onitor, flexibly positioned for
convenience, an d superim posed frame lines. Image can be
electronically deanam orphosed or can be reverse-scanned
for over-the-shoulder shooting.
The Panaglide also features rem ote focus and iris con­
trols; illum inated level indicator; 24V battery; crystal sync
or variable cam era speeds; digital fps and footage counter;
and a quick-release vest for safety of operator.

Aerial Mounts
C o n tin en tal C am era (Door, B elly an d O u tsid e
m ounts)
Door m ounts for v id e o /1 6 m m /3 5 m m are M aster &
M agnum m ounts (cameras u p to 30 lbs) and the M agnum
Elite (cameras up to 100 lbs). Belly m ount can accom mo­
date cameras up to 40 lbs; 180° field-of-view, tilts u p 10°,
dow n 90°. C an be m ounted w ith camera looking fore or aft,
and will accom m odate zoom lenses, though useful only at
w ide-angle portion of lens. H uffy m oun t is a belly m ount
for cameras u p to 100 lbs; will allow 160° field-of-view. Both
belly m ounts attach to skid tubes of Bell 206/206L helicop­
ters, fitted w ith stan dard or high skids. O utside m ount at­
taches to H ughes 500 C or D m odel helicopters; m ust be
flown w ith specially qualified pilot. 337 FAA inspection
required for belly m ounts, STC approvals for door mounts.
Also unique body stabilizer, rem ote head and periscope
lens.

G y ro sp h e re (G yro-S tabilized )
Tw o G yrosphere system s w ere built in the mid-80's
using earlier W escams as their starting point; the extensive

255
u p g rad e and redesign w ork represented m any "firsts":
Vertical reference gyros to autom ate ability to hold level
horizon; integration of the Speed A perture C om puter w ith
an aerial system; im proved stabilization and camera steer­
ing enabled faster and more accurate p a n s/tilts w ith less
lag; im proved ergonomics w ith hand-held joysticks; prim e
lens capability. Mixed analog and digital electronics. Ver­
tical slit curved plexiglass window .
C am era: M o dified M itchell M k 2 (3-36 fps) w ith
underslung XR-35 magazine. Also available w ith Empireflex
VistaVision camera from ILM (2-48 fps) or Vistacam from
BCS (2-48 fps).

Spacecam (G yro-S tabilized)

Unique gyro-system using heavier gyro wheels spin­
ning at greater RPMs. Patented pow ered m ain cardin-joint
allows more responsive and faster p an s/tilts. Digital elec­
tronics allow m any abilities (i.e., du tchin g in sync w ith
helicopter turns). The lens looks through a w indow less
port. Unique brackets for m odified H ughes 500 helicopter
includes nose position as well as sides; unique nose and tail
position brackets for JetRanger helicopters.
Camera: custom built light-weight body and magazine
utilizing Mitchell NC m ovem ent (0-36 fps), as well as modi­
fied Mitchell Mk 2 (0-60 fps); VistaVision (0-90 fps) and
Show scan (0-72 fps). All cam eras incorporate patented
SpaceCam fiberoptic video assist system w ith superior low-
light capability.

T yler C am era (D oor an d N ose m ou nts)

M iddle-M o unt II for v id e o /1 6 m m /3 5 m m ; Major-
M ount for Arri 35-3, Arri BL or Mitchell Mk 2 (with spe­
cial horizontal magazine adapter), as well as larger formats
up to Imax. Tilting nose m ount (35m m /16m m /video) can
be used with prim e lenses for Arri 35-3 as w ide as 9.8mm.
Tilts from up to include rotor blades to up sid e-d o w n /rear­
ward; also can be m ounted w ith camera looking aft. Does
not accommoda te zoom in 35mm, but allows zoom (if lim­
ited to wide end of lens) for video/16m m cameras. Attaches
to nose of Bell 206/206L helicopters fitted w ith standard or
high skids; can be fit to A-Stars/Twin-Stars if aircraft owner
has special adapter brackets installed. Available large for­
m at tilting nose-m ount for cameras up to Imax; sam e tilt
range as standard nose m ount; designed to attach to skid

256
tubes of Bell 206/206L helicopters, fitted w ith standard or
high skids. FAA STC approvals for all mounts. Also unique
crane-m ount, gyro-stabilized boat m ount and jib arm. Ex­
terior gyro-stabilized m oun t allows fast p a n /tilt rates, fast
lens changes; uses A rri 3 w ith custom 1000' top-loaded
m agazine allow ing low lens position for on-the-ground
applications. Tilt range to inverted 90 degrees. Color video
tap as well as bore-sighted video camera for low-light view­
ing. The lens looks through a w indow less port. Ability to
lock off camera to mimic "banking horizon look" of nose
mount.

W escam (G yro-S tabilized )

The original (early 1960's) g yro-stabilized cam era
m ount. C urrent generation features all digital electronics
w ith unique abilities an d may be remotely operated at the
end of a 500' cable or by radio link. The lens looks through
an optically flat anti-reflection coated glass w indow w hich
tracks w ith the lens during pan s/tilts. This patented w in­
dow system m inim izes internal reflections from back or
side light; also perm its use of polarizing filter, not possible
w ith curved plexiglass, w hich creates a rainbow of inter­
ference lines. FAA STC approvals for all mounts. 120 Video
units w orldw ide on G oodyear blim ps, etc. Unique m ou nt­
ing brackets for Super Pum a, MBB-105, 206L and H uey
helicopters, as well as boats. Also specialized track for on-
the-ground m oves u p to 26 m p h using radio link control.
C am era: M o d ified M itchell M k 2 (1-60 fps) w ith
u n d e r s lu n g A rri BL m a g a z in e . A lso a v a ila b le w ith
Empireflex VistaVision cam era from ILM (2 - 48 fps).

257
 Preparation of Motion Picture
Camera Equipment
by
M arty Ollstein,
Michael Hofstein & Tom 'Frisby' Fraser

All m otion-picture cam era equipm ent m u st be peri­

odically inspected and m aintained to insure proper perfor­
m ance in prod u ctio n . C am era rental facilities em plo y
skilled technicians to service and repair equipm ent after
each use. Once the equipm ent leaves die rental house, how ­
ever, the c a m e ra crew m u s t se rv ic e th a t e q u ip m e n t
throughout the production. The camera assistant m ust be
prepared w ith the right know ledge, skills, tools, and refer­
ence m aterials to properly m aintain all equipm ent in the
camera package.
The following is a list of procedures for the prepara­
tion of camera equipm ent needed to photograph a motion
picture. It is the responsibility of the cam era assistant to
assure that all eq uipm en t and supplies need ed an d re­
quested by the director of p h o to g rap h y are p resent, in
working order, at the start of production.

Inventory
1) Basic equipm ent, from the ground up: Spreader, hi-
hat, tripods, tripod head, camera body, batteries, all nec­
essary cables, m agazines (small & large), lenses and hous­
ings, zoom motor and control, follow-focus unit, matte box,
filters and holders, changing bag.
2) Additional accessories often requested by the direc­
tor of photography: A dapter plates (quick-release, dove­
tail/balance, riser, tilt); speed control (for HM I lights, TV
monitors, or other requirements); set of h ard mattes, eye­
brow, French flag; hand-held accessories (m atte box, fol­
lo w -fo c u s, s h o u ld e r p a d , v ie w f in d e r, m a g a z in e s );
viewfinder extender, leveler, heater; barneys, rain shields;
obie light, 'assistant' light; videotap, m onitor, recorder.
3) Supplies to be purchased by the production com­
pany: Raw stock, camera reports, film cores, em pty film
cans, black labpack bags, labels, cloth camera tape, paper
tape, lens tissue, lens cleaning solvent, cleaning swabs, or-
angew ood sticks, slate, spare camera fuses, rags, air cans,

258
felt m arkers, grease pencils, pens an d pencils, chamois,
chalk, disposable batteries.

Invoice Check
Examine the rental invoice or work order, and confirm
that all equipm ent ordered by the director of photography
is included. Make sure that all support accessories an d sup ­
plies need ed by the assistants to properly perform their
tasks are also included. W hen the equip m ent is first re­
ceived, use the rental invoice to check that all equipm ent
and supplies that have been ordered an d billed for have
indeed been delivered. C onfirm that the serial num bers
listed on the invoice m atch those engraved on the equip­
ment.

Equipment Checkout
Set u p and test each piece of equipm ent to determ ine
w hether it is in w orking order. Label each case w ith cloth
tape and marker. W hen a case is not being used, keep at
least one latch locked to prevent an accident. Start from the
ground u p an d build the camera system. Thoroughly check
the entire package for com pleteness, com patibility, and
proper functioning. The equipm ent sh ould be clean and
properly lubricated. Immediately return any piece of equip­
m ent that does not perform to your satisfaction.
The follow ing list su ggests sta n d a rd s by w hich to
judge each piece of equipm ent. They are to be used in con­
junction w ith the appropriate camera operation manual.
Some of the procedures described, such as testing the
flange focal d epth or m agazine clutch and brake tension,
require specialized test equipm ent. If the test equipm ent is
not available, or if you encounter any other questions or
problems, speak to the camera technician w ho prepared the
package at the rental house. It is likely that he has p e r­
formed the tests him self and can give you the results.

1) Spreader
a) Runners slide sm oothly and lock in all positions.
b) End receptacles accom m odate the tripod points and
spurs, and hold them securely.

2) Tripods
a) Each leg extends sm oothly and locks in all positions.

259
 b) Top casting accom m odates the base of the tripod
head (flat Mitchell, ball, or other).
c) H inge bolts that attach each leg to the top casting are
adjusted to p ro p er tension: each leg sw ings easily
away from top casting and remains at selected angle.
d) W ooden tripods (baby, sawed-off, standard): Legs
are solid and have no splits or breaks.
e) Metal or fiber tripods (baby, standard, 'two-stage'):
Legs are straight and have no burrs or dents.

3) Tripod Head
a) Base (Mitchell, ball, or other) fits and locks into tri­
pod topcasting.
b) Ball base (only) adjusts sm oothly and locks securely
in any position.
c) Camera lockdown screw fits into camera body, dove­
tail base w ith balance plate, riser, or tilt plate;
OR
d) Top plate of head includes a quick-release (touch-
and-go) base, w hich accom m odates a quick-release
plate that bolts to cam era body or any of the adapter
plates.
e) Eyepiece leveler bracket and frontbox adapter on the
head accom m odate the leveler rod and frontbox be­
ing used.
f) Friction or Fluid Head:
1. Pan and tilt m ovem ent is smooth.
2. Both brake levers lock securely in all positions.
3. Both drag knobs easily adjust the tension of m ove­
m ent from free m ovem ent to the tension required
by the operator.
g) G ear Head:
1. Pan and tilt m ovem ent is smooth.
2. Both brake levers engage pro perly (gears m ay
m ove un der stress).
3. G ears sh ift sm o o th ly b e tw e e n low a n d h ig h
speeds.

4) Camera Body
a) A ccom m odates and locks securely to tripod head,
balance plate, riser, tilt plate and shoulder p od w ith
camera lockdow n screw.
b) All rollers move freely.

260
 c) Cam era interior is clean — no em ulsion buildup or
film chips.
d) Cam era oil and grease has been applied to lubrica­
tion points as recom m ended by cam era m anufac­
turer. Clean off any excess.
e) All fuses are intact and properly seated. Carry spare
fuses.
f) M ovem ent of the shutter, pull-dow n claw, and reg­
istration pins is synchronized. Check by carefully
scribing a fram e in the gate, then inching the motor
back an d forth m anually. The film should rem ain
stationary as long as the shutter stays open.
g) M ovem ent of shu tter and m irror is synchronized.
(C h ec k o n ly o n c e r ta in c a m e ra s, in c lu d in g
Pana vision.)
h) The "glow " that illuminates the ground glass is syn­
chronized w ith the shutter — the light turns off be­
fore the shutter opens the gate. (Check only on cer­
tain cameras, including Arriflex.)
i) Cam era speed holds steady at all speeds required for
the production. Thoroughly test all speed control ac­
cessories being used in cam era package.
j) Pitch and loop adjustm ents operate properly (certain
cameras).

5) Aperture
a) Film gate has the correct aspect ratio.
b) Gate is clean an d properly seated. To confirm this:
1. Remove the gate an d pressure pad.
2. Clean both w ith a chamois, an d if necessary, a
pro p er solvent.
3. Clean channels and holes w ith an orangew ood
stick.
c) Flange focal d epth is set to m anufacturer's specifica­
tions. Confirm by m easurem ent w ith d epth gauge.
d) Plastic gels have been rem oved from the gel holders.

6) Batteries and Cables

a) All batteries and cables are com patible — m ale pairs
w ith female, the num ber of pins in connectors match.
b) Batteries hold charge and cables conduct properly.
Check w ith voltmeter.
c) C am era m otor ru n s film stead y at desired speed
w hile u n d er the load of all other current draw ing ac­

261
 cessories required for the production. These m ay in­
clude a zoom motor, assistant light, video tap, eye­
piece heater, and view finder "glow ." Check w ith
each battery.

7) Lamps
Lamps that require bulbs may include an out-of-sync
m onitor lam p , ru n n in g lam p, sta rt-m ark in g lam ps
(older cameras), and others. All lam ps m ust light at the
proper time. Replace all defective bulbs.

8) Variable Shutter
Mechanism operates through the full range of open­
ings. Set shutter at opening selected by the director of
photography.

9) Viewfinder
a) G round glass is properly seated. G round glass depth
is w ithin m anufacturer's specifications. Check w ith
portable collimator.
b) The im age is clear and clean. If necessary, rem ove
ground glass and carefully clean with proper solvent
and lint-free lens tissue.
c) G ro u n d glass is m arked for the aspect ratios re­
quested by the director of photography.
d) Eyepiece focuses easily to the eye of the operator (ad­
just diopter until the grains of the ground glass ap ­
pear sharp).
e) Viewfinder extender fits properly betw een camera
body and eyepiece. Magnifier and ND filter operate
properly.
f) Viewfinder extender leveling rod attaches securely
to extender and to bracket on tripod head. Rod ex­
tends sm oothly and locks in all positions.
g) Viewfinder illumination, or "glow", is synchronized
with the shutter.

10) Lenses
a) Each lens and lens housing is compatible with — and
seats securely in — the m o unt in the camera body.
b) Front and rear elements are clear and clean, free of
large chips and scratches, or any fingerprints or dirt.
Blow off loose material w ith a blow er bulb, clean off

262
 grease w ith lint-free lens tissue and proper lens clean­
ing solvent.
c) Iris leaves are flat an d fall properly in place as they
are closed from the full open position.
d) Follow-focus assembly m ounts properly. Focus gears
thread properly on the lenses.
e) Lens focus distance m arkings are accurate. (See Lens
Focus Calibration.)

11) Zoom Lens

a) Z oom m echanism is aligned p ro p erly an d tracks
smoothly.
b) The cross-hairs on the ground glass rem ain centered
on a point throughout the zoom.
c) Lens focus distance m arkings are accurate at all fo­
cal lengths. (See Lens Focus Calibration.)

12) Zoom motor

a) M otor m ounts securely an d threads properly on the
lens.
b) Z oom control u n it operates m otor sm oothly at all
speeds.
c) All cables connecting the camera, zoom control and
zoom m otor conduct properly w hen checked w ith a
voltmeter.

13) Lens H ousing

Distance and f-stop strips fit properly and match the
m arkings on the lens.

14) Filters
a) Both surfaces of each filter are clear, clean, an d free
of major flaws.
b) Filters are the prop er size:
1. Filters cover entire im age area of each lens being
used.
2. Filters fit properly into filter holders — on lens,
lens housing, m atte box, filter tray, or separate
holder.
c) Filter m ounting accessories accom m odate all lenses
used, and m o u n t the num ber of filters on each lens
required by director of photography.
d) Rotating m oun t for polarizing filter turns smoothly
and locks in any position.
263
 e) Sliding m ount for graduated filters m oves sm oothly
and locks in any position.
f) Prepare labels for each filter (tape or velcro) for dis­
play on the side of the m atte box.

15) Matte Box

a) M o u n ts se c u re ly to c a m e ra b o d y a n d e x te n d s
smoothly along the supporting rods.
b) N o light passes betw een the m atte box and the lens.
If necessary, acquire additional rings, filter trays or
rubber 'd ough nuts' to block light leaks.

16) Magazine
a) Fits snugly into the camera body.
b) M agazine doors fit and lock securely.
c) O n co-axial magazines, label each "Feed" and "Take-
up" door w ith tape.
d) Throat, film channels, and interior are clean, clear of
dust or film chips.
e) Loop adjustm ent operates properly (certain cam ­
eras).
f) M agazine gear timing is properly adjusted — film
runs smoothly and quietly through the magazine.
g) Clutch tension and friction brake tension have been
m easured w ith the proper tools and are correct.

17) Video Assist: video camera, monitor

and recorder (optional)
a) Video camera (or tap) m ounts securely on the cam­
era body.
b) All cables are com patible and operate the tap, m oni­
tor and recorder.
c) The iris and focus controls adjust sm oothly and p ro­
duce an adequate im age on the monitor.
d) The image can be centered on the m onitor so that the
entire film frame is visible and level.

Lens Focus Calibration

(see "Photographic Testing and Evaluation")
1) Prim e Lenses
a) 40m m or w ider: set cam era at 3 feet from Focus
Chart. Focus lens visually, com pare w ith lens dis­

264
 tance markings. For m ore critical testing, shoot film
tests of each lens.
b) Longer than 40mm: set camera at 7 feet from Focus
Chart. Focus lens visually, com pare w ith lens dis­
tance markings.
c) All lenses — focus on distant object to test sharpness
at infinity.
2) Zoom Lenses: Use calibration procedure described for
Prim e Lenses, and repeat for several focal lengths — at
3 feet for the w ide end, 7 feet for the long end, and a
distant object to test infinity for both ends.
3) Note: O ther lens-to-chart distances m ay be used, as long
as the selected distance is m arked on the lens barrel. The
chart should fill the frame as m uch as possible.
4) W hen the eye focus differs from the scale focus:
a) Consistent from lens to lens
1. Check ground glass seating and d epth m easure­
ment.
2. Check lens m ount.
3. Check m easurem ent technique and tape m easure
for accuracy.
b) Single discrepancy
1. R eturn lens for collimation.
2. If needed im mediately, encircle lens barrel w ith
chart tape an d m ark the correct distances.

Scratch Test
Run a scratch test for each m agazine to determ ine if
there are any o b stru ctio n s in the cam era or m agazine
mechanism that m ight dam age the film. Load a short end
of virgin raw stock in the m agazine and thread it through
the camera. T urn on the cam era m otor and run the film
through for several seconds. Turn off the motor. Remove
the film from the take-up com partm ent of the m agazine
w ithout unthreading the Aim from the camera. Examine the
film w ith a b rig h t lig h t an d m a g n ify in g glass. If any
scratches or oil spots appear on the em ulsion or base, mark
the film, still threaded in the camera body, w ith a felt pen
at the following points:
a) w here it exits the m agazine feed rollers;
b) just before it enters the gate;
c) just after it exits the gate;
d) w here it enters the m agazine take-up rollers.
T hen carefully unth read the film an d exam ine it to
determ ine w here the dam age originates. Once the problem
265
area has been identified, check that area for dust, film chips,
em ulsion b u ild u p , or burrs. R em ove b u rrs w ith em ery
paper, and any rem ovable obstructions w ith an orange-
w ood stick.
M ake periodic scratch tests on m agazines and camera
during production to avoid dam age to the negative.

Steadiness Test
Test steadiness of camera m ovem ent by double-expos-
ing image.
1) Prepare chart: simple cross of one-inch w hite tape on
black card.
2) Mark start frame in film gate w ith felt pen.
3) Roll 30 seconds of the chart at 50% exposure.
4) Backwind film, or rew ind film in darkroom , to place
start frame back in film gate (so as to thread on the
same perforation).
5) Offset chart by the w id th of the tape, an d double­
expose chart.
6) Process and project to evaluate steadiness.

Daily Preparation for Shooting

1) Clean the aperture. Suggested methods:
a) Pull the aperture plate and clean w ith proper solvent.
b) Remove the lens and blow air through the lens port
w ith blow er bulb.
c) Sight through the lens (possible w ith a lens 40m m or
longer).
d) Remove hairs and du st from the gate w ith an orange-
w ood stick.
2) W arm up the camera:
a) Run the cam era for severed m inutes w ithout film.
b) In cold situations, run the cam era for the am ount of
time it w ould take to run one full m agazine through
the camera at standard speed.
3) Load proper film stock in magazines.
4) Prepare slate and cam era reports.

Film Tests
(See "Photographic Testing and Evaluation.")
Film tests are requested by the director of photogra­
phy. Following is a list of tests that m ay be useful in prep a­
ration for a production. A standard gray scale and color

266
chip chart are often used for such tests, as well as models
that resemble the subjects of the film to be photographed.
1) Lens sharpness an d color balance (particularly im ­
portant if lenses of different m anufacturers are used on the
same production): Test each lens to ensure consistent sharp­
ness and color balance w hen lenses are changed. Photo­
graph the identical subject w ith each lens and com pare on
a one-light print.
2) Film stock and em ulsion batch: Test each different
film stock an d em ulsion batch to be used on the produc­
tion for color balance and exposure latitude.
3) Laboratory Processing: normal, forced, flashed. Test
processing at film laboratory selected by the production.
This is particularly im portant for determ ining the degree
of forced processing or flashing that is desired.
4) Filters: Test the effects of various filters on chosen
subjects to facilitate a selection of filters for the production.
5) Lighting: Test the look of new lighting instrum ents,
color gels, and diffusion m aterials on selected subjects.
6) M akeup: Test m akeup on actors under the lighting
conditions planned for the production.

Tools
A prop er set of tools and supplies is essential to the
p rep aratio n an d m aintenance of m otion-picture equip ­
ment. A lthough the production com pany should provide
the expendable supplies, a camera assistant's personal set
of tools should include m ost of the following items:

blow er bulb - large (6”)

lens brush - cam el's hair or soft sable (1"; use only for
lenses, keep capped)
m agazine brush - stiff bristles (l"-2")
lens tissue - lint free
cotton sw abs
lens-cleaning solvent
50’ flexible m easuring tape
lighter fluid
scissors - straight blade, blunt tip (2")
tw eezers forceps - curved dissecting forceps or hemo-
stat
ground glass puller
ARRISW2 - 2m m hex (for variable shutters)
m agnifying glass

267
 small flashlight
orange w ood sticks
tape:
cloth (1") black, w hite, and colors
paper ('/$") w hite, colors
chart (‘/]6") w hite - for lens barrel m arkings
velcro - (1") w hite, male & female
chalk - thick, dustless
felt m arking pens
'rite-on/w ipe-off' pens for plastic slates
pow der puffs (to clean rub-off slates)
grease pencils - black and w hite
pens and pencils
film cores
camera fuses
m ultim eter
soldering iron
16-gauge solder
solder wick desoldering spool
folding knife
emery paper (600 grip - ferric-oxide coated)
razor blades (single-edge industrial)
rope - nylon line (Vs" x 10' long)
camera oil
camera grease
oil syringe and needle (one fine, one wide)
bubble level - small, circular
ATG-924 (snot tape)
black cloth - 2' square
set of jeweler's screwdrivers
set of hex w renches (Vfc" - 3/i6" and metric)
combination pliers (6")
needlenose pliers (6"), m iniature (1")
crescent w rench (6")
vice-grip pliers (4") diagonal cutters (4")
w ire strippers (4")
screwdrivers (Ve", ’/V , V4", 5/i6")
Phillips screwdrivers #0, #1, #2
Arri screwdrivers #1, #2, #3

Optional Items
Additional tools are often useful — each assistant col­
lects his or her ow n personal set. Following is a list of op­
tional items that m any have found to be valuable.

268
 insert slate
color lily (gray scale and color chip chart)
gray card
electrical adapters:
U -ground plug adapter
screw-in socket adapter
WD-40 oil
assistant light
com pass
depth-of-field charts
depth-of-field calculator
footage calculator
circle tem plate (for cutting gels)
extra po w er cables
m agnetic screw driver
variable-w idth screw driver
w ooden w edges (to level camera)
small m irror (to create a highlight)
dentist's m irror (aids in cleaning)
alligator clips
graphite lubricant
%" x 16 bolt - short and long
2 one-inch C-clamps
black autom otive w eather stripping
small w ooden plank (for m ounting camera)

The Camera Assistant

The position of camera assistant requires a w ide range
of skills. The assistant m ust have technical know ledge of
the camera, lenses, and a m yriad of support equipment. He
or she m ust be physically fit, capable of total concentration,
and be able to retain a sense of h um or under stressful con­
ditions.

269
 Putting the Image On Film
The section on "Exposure" together w ith the adjacent
tables is intended as a quick-reference condensation of
material explained in more detail in "Lighting," "Filters,"
and elsewhere in the manual.

Exposure
Most exposure meters incorporate som e sort of calcu­
lator; some simple, some sophisticated. A n exposure meter
measures am ounts of light, either incident or reflected. The
calculator helps you decide how to use the m easurem ent.
There are six specific variables entering the calculation:

Variables: Expressed as:

Film exposure index El, A SA /ISO
Camera Speed FPS (frames per second)
Shutter O pening Degrees
Lens A perture T-stop
Filter Filter factor
Light M eter reading:
Footcandles
Foot Lamberts
T-Stops
The "T" stop num ber is defined as being the true "f"
stop num ber of a lens if it completely free from all reflec­
tion and absorption losses. The T (transmission) num ber
represents the f-stop num ber of an open circular hole or of
a perfect lens having 100% axial transmission. The T-stop
can be considered as the "effective" f-stop. It is from this
concept that the m eans arises for standardization of T-stop
calibration. T-stops are calibrated by m easuring the light
intensity electronically at the focal plane, w hereas f-stops
are calculated geometrically. Thus f-stops are based on the
light that enters a lens. T-stops are based on the intensity
of tlie light that emerges from the rear of the lens and forms
the image.
There is no fixed ratio, how ever, between T-stops and
f-stops which applies to all lenses. The difference actually
represents light losses w ithin the elements of a given lens
due to reflection from the glass-air surfaces and from ab­
sorption within the glass itself. Consequently, this factor is
variable and cann ot be in co rp o rated into an exposure

270
meter, since the m eter m u st function in connection with
m any different lenses calibrated in both f-stops and T-stops.
M any cinem atographers do not understand w hy lens
and exposure tables are presented in f-stops w hen all pro­
fessional cine lenses are calibrated in T-stops. The f-stops
are required for all calculations involving object-image re­
lationships, such as depth of field, extreme close-up w ork
w ith extension tubes, etc. Such tables are based on the size
of the "hole" or diam eter of the bundle of light rays w hich
the lens adm its to form the image. The diam eter of the f-
stop will norm ally be the same for all lenses of similar fo­
cal length set at the sam e aperture. The T-stop, how ever, is
an arbitrary n u m b er that m ay result in the sam e T-stop
setting varying in aperture diam eter w ith different lenses.
It is recom m ended that all professional cine lenses be
calibrated in both T-stops and f-stops, particularly for color
work. T-stop calibration is especially im portant w ith zoom
lenses, the highly complex optical design of w hich neces­
sitates a far greater num ber of optical elem ents than is re­
quired in conventional lenses. A considerable light loss is
encountered d u e to the large num ber of reflective optical
surfaces and absorption losses. A zoom lens w ith a geo­
metrical rating of f/2 , for example, will transm it consider­
ably less light than a conventional fixed focal length lens
of similar rating w ith fewer elements.
Exposure tables are generally based on "effective" f-
stops, (which are, in fact, T-stops). Small variations in em ul­
sion speed, processing, exposure readings, etc., tend to can­
cel out. C inem atographers should shoot tests w ith their
particular lenses, m eter, light and film to find best combi­
nations for optim um results.
O ther variables, such as direction and contrast of the
light, are factors calculated from the experience of the cin­
em atographer, aided by such things as photospheres and
spot readings. Finally, m anipulation of all the above, plus
off-normal negative processing to achieve a desired "look,"
is from the m ind of the cinem atographer.
The laboratory and choice of film are closely tied to
exposure. It is im portant to keep exposure w ithin limits
satisfactory both to the selected film and to the printing
range of the laboratory.
The tables w ill aid exposure calculation for m eters
w hich lack settings for som e of the factors or will aid in
calculating constant exposure control w hen one factor var­
ies from another.

271
Incident Key Light/T-Stop
(Fool candles)

E l/A S A 2000 1600 1250 1000 800 650 500 400 320 250
T *s lo p

1.4 1.25 1.5 2 2.5 3 4 5 6 8 10

1.6 1.5 2 2.5 3 4 5 6 8 10 12

1.8 2 2.5 3 4 5 6 8 10 12 16
2 2.5 3 4 5 6 8 10 12 16 20

2.2 3 4 5 6 8 10 12 16 20 25
2.5 4 5 6 8 10 12 16 20 25 32
2.8 5 6 8 10 12 16 20 25 32 40

3.2 6 8 10 12 16 20 25 32 40 50
3.6 8 10 12 16 20 25 32 40 50 64
4 10 12 16 20 25 32 40 50 64 80

4.5 12 16 20 25 32 40 50 64 80 100
5 16 20 25 32 40 50 64 80 100 125
5.6 20 25 32 40 50 64 80 100 125 160

6.3 25 32 40 50 64 80 100 125 160 200

7.1 32 40 50 64 80 100 125 160 200 250
8 40 50 64 80 100 125 160 200 250 320

9 50 64 80 100 125 160 200 250 320 400

10 64 80 100 125 160 200 250 320 400 500
11.3 80 100 125 160 200 250 320 400 500 650

12.7 100 125 160 200 250 320 400 500 650 800
14.2 125 160 200 250 320 400 500 650 800 1000
16 160 200 250 320 400 500 650 800 1000 1290

18 200 250 320 400 500 650 800 1000 1290 1625
20 250 320 400 500 650 800 1000 1290 1625 2050
22.6 320 400 500 650 800 1000 1290 1625 2050 2580

Most cinematography is at 2 4 frames per second. The lable is calcu­

lated lor loot candles incident light on a lully lighted subject at 1 / 5 0
second exposure (1 7 2 .8 ° precisely, but 1 7 0 ° to 1 8 0 ° varies from this by
less than a printer point for normally processed color negative). For
photography at 1 / 6 0 second (3 0 frames per second. 1 8 0 ° shutter; or 24
frames per second. 1 4 4 ° shutter), use one-third w ider lens stop or one

272
200 160 125 100 80 64 50 40 32 25

12 16 20 25 32 40 50 64 80 100

16 20 25 32 40 50 64 80 100 125
20 25 32 40 50 64 80 100 125 160
25 32 40 50 64 80 100 125 160 200

32 40 50 64 80 100 125 160 200 250

40 50 64 80 100 125 160 200 250 320
50 64 80 100 125 160 200 250 320 400

64 80 100 125 160 200 250 320 400 500

80 100 125 160 200 250 320 400 500 650
100 125 160 200 250 320 400 500 650 800

125 160 200 250 320 400 500 650 800 1000
160 200 250 320 400 500 650 800 1000 1290
200 250 320 400 500 650 800 1000 1290 1625

250 320 400 500 650 800 1000 1290 1625 2050
320 400 500 650 800 1000 1290 1625 2050 2580
400 500 650 800 1000 1290 1625 2050 2580 3250

500 650 800 1000 1290 1625 2050 2580 3250 4100
650 800 1000 1290 1625 2050 2580 3250 4100 5160
800 1000 1290 1625 2050 2580 3250 4100 5160 6500

1000 1290 1625 2050 2580 3250 4100 5160 6500 8200
1290 1625 2050 2580 3250 4100 5160 6500 8200
1625 2050 2580 3250 4100 5160 6500 8200

2050 2580 3250 4100 5160 6500 8200

2580 3250 4100 5160 6500 8200
3250 4100 5160 6500 8200

column to the right (one ASA step lower) on the incident light table. For
exposure indexes less than tabulated (which are uncommon al this time)
find Ihe column which is ten times Ihe desired index and multiply the light
by len. Example: For El 10. use the column under El 100. For exposure at
T stop 2. multiply 5 0 by 10 and Ihe light level desired w ill be 5 0 0 .

273
T-Stop Compensation for Camera Speed
(constant shutter)

fps 6 7.5 9.5 12 15 19 24 30 38 48

ft/m in 2 2 .5 28 36 45 56 71 90 112 142 180

2 .8 2.5 2.2 2 1.8 1.6 1 .4 1.3 1.1 1

3.2 2.8 2.5 2.2 2 1.8 1.6 1.4 1.3 1.1

3.6 3.2 2.8 2.5 2.2 2 1.8 1.6 1.4 1.3
4 3.6 3.2 2 .8 2.5 2.2 2 1.8 1.6 1 .4

4.5 4 3.6 3.2 2.8 2.5 2.2 2 1.8 1.6

5 4.5 4 3.6 3.2 2.8 2.5 2.2 2 1.8
5 .6 5 4.5 4 3.6 3.2 2 .8 2.5 2.2 2

6.3 5.6 5 4.5 4 3.6 3.2 2.8 2.5 2.2

7 6.3 5.6 5 4.5 4 3.6 3.2 2.8 2.5
8 7 6.3 5 .6 5 4.5 4 3.6 3.2 2 .8

9 8 7 6.3 5.6 5 4.5 4 3.6 3.2

10 9 8 7 6.3 5.6 5 4.5 4 3.6
11 10 9 8 7 6.3 5 .6 5 4.5 4

12.7 11 10 9 8 7 6.3 5.6 5 4.5

14.3 12.7 11 10 9 8 7 6.3 5.6 5
16 14.3 12.7 11 10 9 8 7 6.3 5 .6

18 16 14.3 12.7 11 10 9 8 7 6.3

20 18 16 14.3 12.7 11 10 9 8 7
23 20 18 16 14.3 12.7 11 10 9 8

25 23 20 18 16 14.3 12.7 11 10 9
28 25 23 20 18 16 14.3 12.7 11 10
32 28 25 23 20 18 16 14.3 12.7 11

36 32 28 25 23 20 18 16 14.3 12.7
40 36 32 28 25 23 20 18 16 14.3
45 40 36 32 28 25 23 20 18 16

274
60 76 96 120 150 192 240 300 384 484
225 285 360 450 562 720 900 1125 1440 1815

.9 .8 .7
1 .9 .8 .7
1.1 1 .9 .8 .7
1.3 1.1 1 .9 .8 .7
1.4 1.3 1.1 1 .9 .8 .7
1.6 1.4 1.3 1.1 1 .9 .8 .7
1.0 1.6 1.4 1.3 1.1 1 .9 .8 .7
2 1.8 1.6 1.4 1.3 1.1 1 .9 .8 .7
2.2 2 1.8 1.6 1.4 1.3 1.1 1 .9 .8
2.5 2.2 2 1.8 1.6 1.4 1.3 1.1 1 .9
2.8 2.5 2.2 2 1.8 1.6 1.4 1.3 1.1 1
3.2 2.8 2.5 2.2 2 1.8 1.6 1.4 1.3 1.1
3.6 3.2 2.8 2.5 2.2 2 1.8 1.6 1.4 1.3
4 3.6 3.2 2.8 2.5 2.2 2 1.8 1.6 1.4
4.5 4 3.6 3.2 2.8 2.5 2.2 2 1.8 1.6
5 4.5 4 3.6 3.2 2.8 2.5 2.2 2 1.8
5.6 5 4.5 4 3.6 3.2 2.8 2.5 2.2 2
6.3 5.6 5 4.5 4 3.6 3.2 2.8 2.5 2.2
7 6.3 5.6 5 4.5 4 3.6 3.2 2.8 2.5
8 7 6.3 5.6 5 4.5 4 3.6 3.2 2.8
9 8 7 6.3 5.6 5 4.5 4 3.6 3.2
10 9 8 7 6.3 5.6 5 4.5 4 3.6
11 10 9 8 7 6.3 5.6 5 4.5 4
12.7 11 10 9 8 7 6.3 5.6 5 4.5
14.3 12.7 11 10 9 e 7 6.3 5.6 5

275
 Shutter Angle/f.p.s./T-stop change
(for 24 or 30 f.p.s. projection)

276
f.p.s. 24 22 20 19 18 16 15 14 12 9.5 7.6 6. 4.8(5) 3.8(4) 3 2.4
f.p.s. 30 27 25 24 22 20 19 17 15 12 9.5 7.6 6. 5(4.8) 4(3.8) 3
Exposure change
in T-stops 0 '/3 % 1 1Vs 1% 2 2'A 2% 3 3Vi
Maximum
Shutter
235° 215° 196° 188° 176° 157° 147° 137° 118° 93° 74° 59° 47° 37° 29° 24°
200 183° 167° 158° 150° 133° 125° 117° 100° 79° 63° 50° 40° 32° 25° 20°
180 165° 150° 143° 135° 120° 113° 105° 90° 71° 57° 45° 36° 29° 23° 18°
170 156° 142° 135° 128° 113° 106° 99° 85° 67° 54° 43° 34° 27° 21° 17°
150 138° 125° 119° 113° 100° 94° 88° 75° 59° 48° 38° 30° 24° 19° 15°
140 128° 117° 111° 105° 93° 88° 82° 70° 55° 44° 35° 28° 22° 18° 14°
135 124° 113° 107° 101° 90° 84° 79° 68° 53° 43° 34° 27° 21° 17° 14°

If it isdesired to slow the camera without varying the lens stop but
maintain constant exposure: This table givesshutter angles in one-third Tstop exposure intervals (bold
II It Is desired to reduce exposure without varying the lens stop: columns) as well as (or some camera speeds in less than one-third stop
II It Isdesired to reduce the exposure time per frame intervals.
without reducing exposure:
 Color Balancing for Existing Fluorescent Lighting

Common Using existing fluorescent lighting unflllered Filtering fluorescent lights to

fluorescent lights match photo lights
(See page 242 Camera niters Photo lamp fitters Camera filler: None Camera Alter:
lor comprehensive (Kodak or equivalent) (Rosco Cinegel or equivalent) (Tungsten negative Tungsten Negative: #05
listing) or reversal) Daylight film: None
1 3200K Him 1 5500K Dim 11 3200K 1 5500K 1
To match 3200K To match 5500K
0
Cool white CC50R CC30M Full blue 50 Plusgreen Fluorfilter Minusgreen
+#81A 1% 2/s +Plusgreen % +Third blue + y2 Minusgreen 0 0
+CC05M +Quarter blue
+#B5B + '/«Plusgreen
Cool white deluxe #85C #82C Half blue MT54 Sun y2 CTO Quarter blue
+CC05M % +CC05M Vh + ViPlusgreen '/} +Eighth Blue + '/«Minusgreen Vs + '/«Minusgreen 0
H-Eighth blue +UV Filter +Quarter blue -t-Eighth blue
Warm white CC30M CC50B Half blue Plusgreen Minusgreen Half blue
+#81EF Vh +CC15M 1% +Plusgreen 0 +'/?Plusgreen + '/«Minusgreen ',h +Minusgreen 'h
+Quarter blue +Sun '/« CTO +Sun '/« CTO +Eighth blue
Warm white deluxe CC10M #80B '/«Plusgreen Sun '/2 CTO '/«Minusgreen Full blue 50
+#81 % +CC05G 12/: +Quarter blue '/3 +UV Filter 0 + 'AMinusgreen V3

277
+UV Filter
 Balancing Daylight Windows on Location Interiors

278
Emulsion Exposure Camera 1
Balance Index Filler Photographic Lights/Filter Practical/Existing Lights/Filters Window Filters

Balancing Interior to Daylight

3200K Daylight 85 Neg. 3200K/Full Blue 50 or Dichroic Tungsten/Full Blue 50 ND as required
850 Rev. White tlame arc/Y-1 Cool White Fluor/Minus green
HMI, CID/Y-1*
Daylight Daylight None

Balancing Ambient Lighting to 3200K

3200K 3200K None 3200K/None Tungsten/None CTO or Sun 85 |
Yellow flame arc/YF101 Cool White Fluor/ plus ND as required
HMI, CID/Y-1+MT2* Fluor filler + Vi Minus green
AC discharge/
 Balancing to Match Existing (Ambient) interior Lighting
Cool White Fluorescent
3200K 3200K CC50R 3200K Full Blue 50 Cool White Fluor/None Plus green
+ #01A + Third Blue
+ Plus green
+CC05M
+ Quarter blue
-1% stop +85B
+ % Plus green

Daylight Daylight CC30M White Flame ArcTTPIus Green Tungsten/same as

-% stop HMI, CID * J 1+ Third Blue Photo 3200K plus ND as required

Other AC Discharge Commercial Lighting— see pg 242 for filters

Tungsten
See "Balancing Ambient Lighting to 3200K" above. This would be an unusual situation. Either accept the difference between 3200K
and ambient lighting or drop voltage on 3200K photo lamps and add '/« CTO to 5500K lighting. Inefficient electrically.

279
* HMI and CID may vary. See pg 218 and check with 3C meter.
 The Cinematographer
and the Laboratory
L aboratories routinely use the film m anufacturers'
recom m ended specifications for processing, m odified to
meet their particular equipment. (The entire system — type
of film, m anufacturers' El recom m endation, laboratory
printing and processing range —• is calibrated to produce
a pleasing rendition of fully lighted flesh tones under nor­
mal projection conditions.) In addition to producing nor­
mal results on the screen, m ost laboratories can on request
modify the screen results to produce a particular effect or
look.

Printer Points
The laboratory controls print density and color balance
by increasing or decreasing the intensity of each prim ary
color of light in steps called printer points. Since the devel­
opm ent of the B & H model C printer m ost m anufacturers
have standardized on a range of 50 light points in 0.025 Log
E increments. In addition to the light points each printer
usually also has 24 trim settings (0.025 Log E ) , giving an
available total of 74 lights.
The ideal settings for scene-to-scene timing w ould be
at mid-scale (Trim 12 + Tape 25 = 37 lights). In actual prac­
tice the available range is considerably less. Printer lam ps
are usually operated under their rated voltage. This reduces
the light intensity in all three colors. For example, lower­
ing the voltage from 120 to 90 volts on a BRN 1200-watt
lam p results in a relative change in printer points equal to
m inus 12 Red, 13 Green, 17 Blue. The trims are usually used
to balance the printer for a given p rint film em ulsion. A
typical em ulsion m ight require 16 Red, 13 Green, 10 Blue,
or in terms of the ideal, plus 4 Red, plus 1 Green, m inus 2
Blue. Other factors influencing the available printer points
are the operating speed of the printer, and the use of neu-
tral-density filters in the individual channels and the m ain
light beam.
The sum of these variables explains w hy a given nega­
tive m ight be printed Red 28, Green 29, Blue 22 at one labo­
ratory and Red 36, Green 32, Blue 36 at another laboratory
to produce matched prints. It is im portant to understand
that printer points relate only to how the printer exposes

2 8 0
film. A one-stop .30 Log E change (12 printer points X .025
Log E ) is equal to a one-stop exposure in the camera only
if the film in the camera has a gam m a of approxim ately 1.0.
The current negative films, both black & w hite and color,
have gam m as of approxim ately .65. Therefore, in correlat­
ing cam era and printer exposure, one stop equals 2/i x 12 =
8 printer points per stop.

Exposure Reporting
It has become the norm al practice for laboratories to
furnish "one light" rather than timed daily rush prints. This
does not m ean that all negatives are printed at the same
light points. The laboratory establishes a day exterior, day
interior, night exterior and night interior light for a cinema­
tographer w hen h e /s h e starts a picture, based on testing
or on the first few days of shooting. Each laboratory estab­
lishes it ow n m ethod, but basically all try to keep usable
negative w ithin the 1 to 50 light point scale. Eastman Kodak
proposes the LAD (Laboratory Aim Density) system, which
keeps the printer scale constant by adjusting printer trims
to com pensate for process and stock variables, and places
a "norm al" scene at mid-scale. (Laboratories do not neces­
sarily agree on the num erical value of the preferred m id ­
scale light point, b u t this is n ot critical as long as you know
which system your laboratory uses.) Conference w ith your
laboratory technician will establish m ethods that fit your
style of photography. After that, variation in your exposure
will show as variation in the density of your dailies. Bear
in m ind that if subject m atter or style of photography re­
quires a solid black in any area of the print, exposure m ust
be kept at center of the printer scale or higher.
Negative raw stock from different manufacturers may
or may not have the same base density, m axim um density,
or d en s ity /e x p o su re characteristic ("curve shape"), al­
though these differences are usually small. A rush print
made by the LAD control m ethod show s the density and
color ratio at mid-scale on the printer. Negative from two
m anufacturers, both exposed correctly, m ay or m ay not
look the sam e at this printer point. If necessary, an adjust­
ment to the printer point m ay be m ade for the difference
in raw stock and this new light point used for printing dai­
lies on the subject.

281
Special Processing
If special processing is requested, a conference w ith the
laboratory representative and experim entation (or experi­
ence) is desirable. If special processing is requested, or the
cinem atographer is using high or low exposure for effect,
it is desirable to test the effect by going through the entire
release-print technique, including the in terpositive/dupli­
cate negative generations, and to view the result as nearly
as possible u n d er the anticipated release-print view ing
conditions. (Don't ignore the fact that most pictures are also
released in one of the television formats.) If the scene to be
photographed will be used in an optically printed special
effect, it is wise to confer w ith the appropriate special-ef-
fects people.

Release-Printing Procedures
After the picture negative and soundtrack negative
have been assembled in their final form, the laboratory will
analyze the picture negative for scene-to-scene color and
density variations and make a print know n as the "first trial
composite." As m any trial prints are m ade as are necessary
to resolve all p rin tin g data. The final trial is also often
know n as an "answ er print." W ith the data thus obtained,
one or more interm ediates are printed and from these the
release prints are made. M odern film stocks used to make
the interm ediate positives and interm ediate or duplicate
negatives are of excellent quality, but they do entail added
printing generations. The appearance of scenes involving
effects such as off-normal film exposure or processing can
suffer if they exceed the extremes the system can handle.
(See also "Testing and Evaluation.")

Color Reversal Films

Most of the above also applies to color reversal films;
however, color reversal films are now usually used only
w hen it is intended to project the original. Exposure lati­
tu de is short co m p ared to that of color negative films.
Proper exposure is therefore critical in ord er to keep all
scenes at a usable density.

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Black & White Negative
and Reversal Films
The above also applies to black & white reversal films.
Black & w hite negative films, how ever, are an exception.
Both their contrast and density can be m ore strongly af­
fected by developing time than color negative films. While
there is m uch more latitude in exposure with black & white
negative films as com pared to color negative films, both
grain and acutance are affected by exposure variations.
Deviation from the m anufacturers' recom m ended El (ex­
posure index) should be tested and evaluated.

Forced Development of Color Films

W ith the color films m ost com monly used today, it is
possible to com pensate for underex posure by extended
developm ent or "pushing." Similar to the principles of tra­
ditional black & w hite sensitom etry, forced developm ent
of these color films increases their contrast, graininess and
the fog level.
Therefore, forced developm en t can never yield the
same im age quality possible w hen films are exposed and
processed strictly according to the m anufacturer's recom ­
mendations. In m any instances, how ever, the image qual­
ity obtained w ith underexposure and overdevelopm ent is
entirely satisfactory, and a cinem atographer m ay w ant to
take advantage of this fact w hen shooting u n der adverse
light conditions. W hat "pushing" means, in effect, is that
die cinematographer can deliberately underexpose the film
(sometimes by as m uch as two stops) and request that the
laboratory com pensate in developm ent.
W ith the introduction of high-speed color negative
emulsions, there is less call for pushing the m oderate speed
films, except for a special "look" or w hen underexposure
is unavoidable and high-speed negative is not at hand. It
is possible to p u sh one stop in developm ent w ithout ap­
preciable loss in image quality. The scenes produced in this
manner can be intercut w ith scenes exposed and processed
normally.
If color negative is pushed two stops in developm ent,
the increase in the graininess and the fog level is substan­
tial, but the results are acceptable for scenes involving
night-for-night photography or available-light photogra­
phy under exceptional circumstances.

283
 Extending developm ent beyond tw o stops does not
appreciably contribute to the image; rather, it increases the
grain and fog level and should not be attem pted even as
an emergency measure. It should be realized that with color
films the sensitometric balance of the three em ulsion lay­
ers is only achieved w ith norm al processing and that forc­
ing the developm ent does not accomplish a true com pen­
sation for underexposure. Forced developm ent does not
result in a substantial increase in E xposure Index of the
negative as m easured by accepted scientific methods. N ev­
ertheless, it cannot be denied that the technique proves to
be of som e practical value if it brings the underexposed
negative into an acceptable printing range.
Reversal films, unlike negative, derive their projection
density from the camera exposure. Forced processing of
underexposed film can bring up the projection density to
norm al. Eastm an Ektachrom e Films 7240 an d 7250 and
Fujicolor RT8427 and 8428 (all tungsten balanced), as well
as Ektachrome 7239 and 7251 (daylight balanced) can be
"pushed" one stop with acceptable results. In em ergency
situations they can be pushed up to three stops w ith some
loss in quality. The ability to underexpose these films and
still obtain on film a usable im age should by no m eans be
regarded as a suitable substitute for additional lighting
w hen it can be provided.
If a cinem atographer anticipates the need for deliber­
ate underexposure during a production, he or she should,
if possible, shoot careful tests in advance using the same
em ulsion to be used for the production and have them p ro­
cessed by the lab that will be processing the production
film. The results can then be analyzed w ith the help of a
laboratory representative. Needless to say, underexposed
rolls should be clearly m arked with instructions as to how
much they should be pushed w hen they are sent to the labo­
ratory.

Flashing
Flashing may be described qualitatively as subjecting
the negative film to a w eak, controlled uniform fogging
exposure prior to developm ent either before, du ring or af­
ter photographing the desired subject. There is no m easur­
able difference in the effect if the flashing takes place be­
fore or after the principal exposure. As a result, because of
various unfavorable factors (such as not being able to con­

284
trol the time interval betw een the flash exposure and the
time that develo pm ent will actually take place, and not
knowing the actual conditions of photography in advance),
pre-flashing is generally avoided in favor of post-flashing.
S im ultan eous flashin g d u rin g actual p h o to g ra p h y by
means of a special device attached to the front of the cam­
era lens is described u nder "VariCon." A device called a
"Panaflasher” can also be used for sim ultaneous flashing on
Panavision cameras. The Panaflasher can be used pre- or
post-exposure.
Since color negative consists basically of three em ul­
sion layers sensitive to red, green, and blue light, the spec­
tral composition of the light used for flashing can be a neu­
tral equivalent to tungsten light (3200K) or daylight (5500K)
which, depending on the film, w ould affect all three em ul­
sion layers equally. The fundam ental reasons for using a
neutral flash are to reduce the contrast of the im age and to
increase shadow detail. This effect is accomplished because
the flashing exposure affects principally the shadow region
of the negative image.
A nother reason for flashing is to achieve certain cre­
ative effects by using a n o n -n eu tral flashing expo sure
which w ould then alter the norm al color rendition of the
developed negative.
Flashing is also used som etim es to reduce contrast of
positive or reversal films w hen such films are to be used
for special effects duplication purposes, such as projection
backgrounds or aerial im age com positing w ith animation.

VariCon Adjustable Contrast Filter

The Arri VariCon is a compact, variable contrast-con-
trol system w hich quickly and easily slides into the dual
filter stage closest to the lens of any regular 6.6"X 6.6" matte
box. The VariCon differs from low-contrast filters in that it
provides for a continuously adjustable contrast over the
entire photom etric range of the film w ithout any loss of
resolution, and w ithout any effect on the highlights. It dif­
fers from standard flashing (pre- or post-exposure) of the
negative in the lab or in the film camera m agazine in that
it adds a controlled, even am ount of light during the expo­
sure, and perm its the cinem atographer to set the desired
co n tra st re d u c tio n w h ile o b se rv in g the re su lts in the
viewfinder, in relationship w ith the actual scene to be p h o­
to graphed . The V ariC on also p ro v id es for coloring of

285
shadow areas in the image w ithout affecting the highlights.
This feature can be very helpful in situations when extreme
c o n tra st co m p re ssio n w o u ld re su lt in e x tre m e color
desaturation.
The system consists of a light source, the VariCon
Glass Emitter, the 6.6" X 6.6" VariCon frame that holds the
Emitter (with a built-in slot for an ND filter), a digital meter
for precise setting of contrast ranges, and a dual-level out­
put Power Supply. With the VariCon placed in the 6.6"X
6.6" stage closest to the lens, it will cover virtually all wide-
angle and long focal-length prim e lenses, and most zooms.
With the VariCon in position and switched OFF, it will not
affect image quality or require f-stop compensation.

Adjusting the VariCon

VariCon's contrast-range adjustm ent is simple: turn
a single control knob (located on its left side), or turn a
single flexible extension shaft that plugs directly into the
VariCon just above the control knob, to adjust contrast up
or dow n. The am o unt of contrast reduction can be seen
through the finder, or be m easured via the digital m eter for
accuracy and repeatability. Set the meter for the cam era's
f-stop, the film stock's exposure index, and the required
contrast range in values 1, 2, 3, 4 or 5. (A value of 1 is
equal to 20% flashing.) The effective range of VariCon cov­
ers situations from F I.4 with 800 ASA to F22 with 100 ASA.
C hanging the coloration of the VariCon is done with
a gel placed in the VariCon's slide-in gel filter holder. A
light sensor built into the VariCon w orks in conjunction
with the meter to com pensate for the light reduction of the
gel filter. VariCon can also be used in conjunction w ith
other filters to enhance their effects.
NOTE: W hen using the VariCon, exposing the gray
scale/slate with the Varicon switched O N is recommended;
it's helpful for the lab timer.
Lens Coverage:
Standard Aspect Ratio:
Zoom lenses: 18mm on up
Prime lenses: 10mm, 12mm, 16mm on up
Super 35 Aspect Ratio:
Zoom lenses: 20mm on up
Prime lenses: 12mm, and 16mm on up
Power Sources:
Varicon has two 50W, 12V 'BRL' Ushio halogen bulbs,
pow ered by 110V AC through a 12V AC adaptor, or from
286
12V or 24V batteries. (Cables for 24V batteries are avail­
able only through special order.)
Pow er consum ption: 96 W atts (8A @ 12V, 4A @ 24V)
Dimensions:
U pper light source: 9 X 2 X 1.75 inches
Slide-in em itter section: 8 X 6.5 X 0.5 inches
Weight: 3 lbs.

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 Photographie Testing and
Evaluation
by Fred D etm ers

P h o to g rap h ic testing a n d e x p erim e n tin g aid the cin­

e m a to g ra p h e r in e v a lu a tin g e q u ip m e n t, n e w film s a n d
processing, a n d te ch n iq ues of lighting. T his article is in­
te nd ed as a checklist a n d brief o n the te ch niqu es of testing
an d evaluation.
Each of the factors in creatin g a p h o to g ra p h ic im age
relates to several oth e r factors; it is im p o rta n t in ev alu atio n
to vary one factor a t a time, a n d continually to com p are,
w h en possible, w ith a k n o w n result. In this w ay, a b a n k of
info rm ation is a c q u ire d w h ic h can be d r a w n on a n d ex­
p a nd ed .
Before p ro ceed in g to p h o to g ra p h ic testing it is neces­
sary to establish the co n d itio n s u n d e r w h ic h the tests will
be evaluated. It is of no v alu e to p h o to g ra p h a test a n d then
view it u n d e r an y tiling less than first-class conditions. Stan­
d a rd s a n d rec o m m e n d e d practices h a v e b een set u p b y the
SMPTE a n d ANSI, a n d test film s a re available from the
SMPTE for e v a lu a tio n of p ro je ctio n c o n d itio n s. If these
conditions are n o t o p tim u m , the v alu e of the test is c o m ­
pro m ised . Users of 16m m a n d S u p er 8 sh o u ld be p a rtic u ­
larly alert to this co n ditio n becau se there are so m a n y su b ­
sta n d a rd projectors a n d lenses in use.
T h ro u g h a d a p tatio n a n d fatigue the eye can c h an ge its
sensitivity to color, density , o r subjective sh arp n ess. W h e n
possible use tw o projectors a n d tw o screens. M ak e direct
com parisons rather than subjective evaluations. If in d o u b t,
sw itch films o n the tw o projectors an d re-evaluate.
S o m e of the testing re fe rre d to b e lo w m a y b e p e r ­
form ed o n black & w h ite film ev en if the subject is to be
color, thereby sav in g so m e of the cost. If the test is m echani­
cal ra th e r than p h o to g ra p h ic , the n e g ativ e itself m a y be
projected for ev alu ation instead of go in g to a print.

I. Equipment
A. S te a d in e ss check: P a rtic u la rly w h e n c o m p o site
p h o to g ra p h y is co n te m p la te d (b u t v alu ab le in an y case), a
check for im age stead in ess is advisable. T he subject m a t­
ter m a y b e sim ple; for instance, a black b a c k g ro u n d w ith a

288
sim ple cross m a d e of a d h e siv e tape. P h o to g ra p h 20 or 30
seco nd s of the cross, co v er the lens, bac k w in d to the b eg in­
ning, u n c o v e r the lens, offset the c h a rt by the w id th of the
tape, a n d d o u b le-exp o se th e chart. A n y u n stea d in ess will
readily sh o w b e tw e e n the offset lines (Do n o t re-th read on
a different perforation — this in tro d u ce s the possibility of
u n ste ad y p erfo ratio n s a n d co m p ro m ises the cam era test.)
A fter p h o to g r a p h in g a n d p ro cessing this a n d before p ro ­
jecting, ex am in e the n eg ativ e for p e rfo ratio n d a m a g e a n d
scratches.
B. O ptical: Lenses sh o u ld h a v e been calibrated a t the
factory o r b y the d is trib u to r for e x po su re an d focus a n d the
d istrib u to r sh o u ld h a v e checked the g ro u n d glass position
w ith reference to the film plane. If y o u tru st y o u r su p p lie r
there is n o n eed for extensive testing. If, how ever, the e q u ip ­
m e n t is u n fam iliar or it is necessary to field test the e q u ip ­
m ent, follow ing are su g g ested pro cedu res:

1. F ocus a n d g r o u n d g la ss/film plane:

(a) Set u p a fo c u s /d e fin itio n c h a rt (o btainable from
cam era e q u ip m e n t sup p liers) w ith center a n d c o m e r tar­
gets; set u p a t a d istance from the cam era c o rre sp o n d in g
to a scale-calibrated distance, filling the a p e rtu re as m u c h
as possible. C h eck the eye focus v e rsu s scale focus. R epeat
for each lens. R epeat a t a m id -d istan c e (15 to 25 feet) scale
calibration. W ith a z o o m lens, check a t several zoo m set­
tings.
A consistent d iscrepancy su g g ests either g ro u n d glass
o r index error. A d iscrepancy on one lens su g g e sts e rro r in
the setting of th e scale ring. (W hen u sin g P an av isio n w ide-
angle lenses, rea d a n d follow the P anavisio n instructions.)
In either case, p h o to g ra p h ic or collim ator tests are required
to co n firm the so u rce of error. (If y o u h a v e a rental o r a
new ly ac q u ire d c a m e ra /le n s e s , send i t / t h e m back for cor­
rection.)
(b) Set u p the definition c h a rt a t a scale d istan ce clos­
est to filling the frame. If the in dex a n d / o r focus scale rings
are p ro v id e d w ith seco n d ary index m a rk s for ad ju stm en ts,
use these m a rk s as a gu ide ; otherw ise:
O n a piece of tape o n the index, m a k e fo u r ad ditio n al
te m p o rary m a rk s a t eq u al interv als ab o v e a n d below the
index. Space the m a rk s to indicate 0.001 in travel of the lens
for e ach in terv al (see "L en s F o rm u las"), a n d label those
a w a y fro m th e film " p lu s " a n d tho se clo ser to th e film
"m in us."

289
 A t a w id e -o p en a p ertu re, u sin g eith er th e te m p o ra ry
m a rk s o r th e p e r m a n e n t s e c o n d a r y m a r k s m e n tio n e d
above, p h o to g ra p h a sh o rt take (just e n o u g h to get u p to
speed) a t each index m ark: "p lu s," "N ," "m in u s." D evelop
a n d exam ine w ith a 10X m agnifier. T he N e x p o su re sh o u ld
be noticeably sh a rp e r than the p lu s or m in us. If it is not,
repeat the test to confirm.
C heck all lenses, a n d check also a t a n o th e r m id-dis-
tance (say 15 feet), alw ay s a t a scale-calibrated m ark. If any
lens is consistently "off the m a rk " or if there is a p a tte rn of
failure b e tw e e n lenses, se n d the c a m e ra /le n s e s back for
recalib ratio n or, in the field, b e g u id e d b y the focus test
results.

2. S h arp n ess (See also "L ens Selection."):

Because sh a rp n e ss is a subjective ju d g m e n t b ase d o n
the co m p o site of resolution, acuteness, contrast, flare a n d
aberration, a full test of each lens w o u ld e n c o m p a ss p h o ­
to g rap h y in a n u m b e r of different situations. A sim ple co m ­
p arison m a y be m a d e b etw e en lenses, ho w e v er, b y p h o to ­
g rap h in g a definition c h a rt a n d a sim p le scene w ith each
lens a n d co m p a rin g them w ith identical e x p o su res m a d e
w ith a lens of k n o w n p h o to g ra p h ic perfo rm an ce.
(a) The definition chart sh o u ld preferably be on e m a d e
for lens testing (available fro m cam era su p p ly distributors)
an d sh o u ld hav e targets in the corners as w ell as in th e cen­
ter. E xposure sh o u ld be m a d e a t a w id e-o p en ap e rtu re , a
m id -a p e rtu re (one at w h ich y o u w o u ld be m o st likely to
p h o to g ra p h interiors), a n d a t a v ery sm all ap e rtu re , each
lig h te d for n o rm a l e x p o su re . T h e w id e -o p e n e x p o s u r e
sh o u ld sh o w u p ab e rra tio n a n d distortion, particularly in
the co rners, sh o u ld they be p re se n t. T h e sm all a p e rtu re
ex p o su re will tell y o u (in co m p ariso n w ith the "m id -a p e r-
tu re" ex posure) if there is lo w er d efinition becau se of d if­
fraction; a lack of definition at w id e-o p en o r sm all apertu res
can affect a p p a re n t d e p th of field as w ell as intrinsic s h a rp ­
ness.
(b) T he test scene sh o u ld in c lu d e a w h ite area, a light
area (w ith detail su ch as lace), a n d a d a rk area w ith detail,
as well as a p erso n or object sh o w in g d etail in m id-tones.
T here sh o u ld b e a n o rm a l ex p o su re a n d o ne each o n e sto p
o v er a n d u n d e re x p o se d . W h e n p rin te d alike in the m id ­
tones a n d co m p a re d , this will sh o w u p contrast, a n d if th e
lens h as a te nd en cy to flare, the ov e rex p o se d scene w ill be
flatter tha n the n o rm a l a n d will sh o w flare from the w h ite

290
area into the s u r ro u n d in g area. C are sh o u ld be taken n o t
to exceed the p rin te r scale.
(c) C o m p a riso n of (b) n o rm al e x p o su re w ith a like ex­
p o su re m a d e w ith a k n o w n lens is a subjective sh a rp n e ss
test.

3. E x p o su re (T-stop), color shift:

P h o to g ra p h a sh o rt length of film of a g ra y scale at the
sam e T -stop a n d illu m in atio n w ith each lens. The n egative
gray scale m a y be re a d w ith a den sito m ete r, if available, to
d e term in e u n iform ity . If a p rin t is m a d e of the n eg ativ e it
m a y be pro jec te d to see if the re is a co lor sh ift b e tw e en
lenses. In m o s t instances sm all differences in color can be
corrected in p rin tin g an d will affect only the ru sh prints. If
you are p h o to g ra p h in g o n reversal film, y o u m a y w ish to
use color correcting filters to balance the lenses.

II. Laboratory/Process/Printer Scale/

Emulsion Batch
G e n e ra lly th e se tests s h o u l d b e c o m p a ra tiv e . W e
s h o u ld c o m p a re for sh a rp n e s s , g rain , c o n trast, d etail in
h ighlights a n d s h a d o w s a n d off-color hig h lig h ts o r s h a d ­
ow s. P rints sh o u ld b e m a d e for b est a p p e a ra n c e in faces
a n d / o r m id -to n es a n d c o m p arativ e p rin ts sh o u ld be m a d e
to m a tch in these tones. A g ray scale in c lu d e d in the scene
is helpful.
C o m p ara tiv e tests s h o u ld be m a d e a t the sa m e T-stop.
W h ere a n e x p o s u re ra n g e is m a d e , e x p o s u re s h o u ld be
varied w ith s h u tte r a n d / o r n e u tra l d e n sity filters. C lear
filters sh o u ld be u sed to su b stitu te for n eu tral densities so
the sa m e n u m b e r of filters are a lw ay s in place. W hile the
scene u se d ab o v e for lens c o m p ariso n s can also be u sed in
these tests, it is h elpful also to include a high-key a n d a low-
key scene.

A. Testing new film stocks:

P h o to g ra p h a ran g e of e x p o su re s of each scene from
the n ew film a n d o n a k n o w n film, from n o rm al to p lu s and
m in u s 2 lens sto p s. If forced p ro ce ssin g is in te n d e d (see
below) a d d a se t at m in u s 3 stops.

291
B. Testing for off-normal processing
(including push processing and
flashing):
1. Because th ere are n o w th ree variables — ex posure,
flash level, a n d d ev elo p in g time — unless a w id e ran g e of
com binations is b u d g e te d , it m ig h t b e w ell to sep a ra te tests
for flash a n d processing, observe the result, a n d th e n c on ­
fine tests of com b in ation s to levels likely to b e useful to the
d e sired look. A lw ay s c o m p a re to a n o rm a lly e x p o sed a n d
d e v elo p ed scene.
2. Before co m m ittin g to forced dev elo p in g , co m p are
w ith a p ro p e rly p rin te d , u n d e re x p o s e d , n o rm ally d e v e l­
o p e d take. In so m e instances, the only thin g forced d ev e l­
o p in g d o es is raise the p rin te r points.
3. M ake a p rin t of a m in u s-o n e -sto p exp o sed , " p u s h
o n e " d e v e lo p e d take at the sa m e lights as th e n o rm a lly
exposed, n o rm ally d e v e lo p ed take. C o m p a riso n will sh o w
ju st w h a t is acco m plished b y " p u s h -o n e " d eveloping.
4. If the desire d look is o b ta in e d b u t the p rin t is m a d e
b elow p rinter p o in t 10 or above 40, b e cautious because y o u
h ave lim ited y o u r latitude.

C. Testing a new em ulsion batch for

compatibility:
If the n e w em u lsio n b a tch is incom patible, it is m o re
likely to b e so in off-norm al densities or processes. Follow
the sam e general p ro c e d u re as in testing a n e w film; the
e xp o sure ran g e n ee d n o t b e as great. If the p rin te r lights
v ary 2 or 3 p o in ts b e tw e e n scenes p h o to g r a p h e d the sam e
o n the tw o b atch es of e m u lsio n n o h a rm will be d one. If
there is a m a rk e d difference in s h a d o w or h ig h lig h t color
w h e n faces m atch, cau tio n is w a rra n te d .

III. Visual Effects: Lighting, Filters,

Image Modification
This is a subjectively ju d g e d area in w h ich the cin em a­
to g rap h e r a n d laboratory technician m u s t w o rk to g eth er
closely. U nless b ased o n experience, it is a dv isab le to start
w ith a p rin t at center scale. If the visual a p p e a ra n c e is then
n o t correct, the decision can be m a d e w h e th e r to v a ry the
p h o to g rap h ic con d itio n s o r v a ry the p rin tin g conditions.

292
V arying b o th w ith o u t conference b e tw e e n th e cin em ato g ­
ra p h e r a n d lab o ra to ry technician can only lead to co n fu ­
sion. If the d e sire d effect can o n ly b e a ch iev ed by off-nor­
m al p rin tin g o r n eg ativ e p ro cessing, it is ad v isable to go a
step fu rth e r a n d e v alu ate th e re su lt after m a k in g either a
dup licate ne g a tiv e o r a CRI to sim u late release-print con ­
ditions. T h e re s u lt s h o u ld then be v ie w e d w ith as large a
screen m ag n ificatio n as is an ticipated , for the release print.
If telev ision u se is a n tic ip a te d th e re s u lt s h o u ld also b e
v ie w ed u n d e r television conditions.

293
 Emulsion Testing
by Steven Poster, ASC

The object of this series of tests is to d ete rm in e the best

w o rk in g ex p o su re index a n d the d y n a m ic ran g e for y o u r
original cam era negative. T his system takes into account
an y processing techniques, p rin t stock and fu rth e r d u p in g
of the original cam era negative.
Ju d g in g these tests sh o u ld be d o n e visually, alth o u g h
d en sito m e te r read in g s sh o u ld be taken for later reference.
It is m o re im p o rta n t to train y o u r eye to see the v ario u s
characteristics of the chain of ev en ts th at resu lt in the p r e ­
sentation of im ages that w e create d u rin g p ro d u c tio n than
to k n o w scientifically all of the sen sitom etry th a t goes into
the im ag in g system .

Calibration
1. T he basic physical n a tu re of the film stock (i.e., h o w
m uch density there is in the negative w ith o u t any exposure)
m u st be calibrated. If you are g o ing to test o r use oth e r film
stocks a n d / o r pro cessin g tech n iq u es these sh o u ld also be
calibrated at this time.
T he lab sh o u ld process a sh o rt len g th of u n e x p o se d
negative. If the n egative is go ing to b e p u s h e d or p u lled o r
flashed, these special treatm ents sh o u ld be d o n e in the p ro ­
scribed w ay at this time as well. You can m e asu re the sp e ­
cific densities of the base d en sity p lu s fog levels on a d e n ­
sitom eter for reference. (This reference can b e u se d later if
there is an em u lsion change, lab c h an ge or just as a sim ple
check o n y o u r sta n d a rd em ulsion.)
We k n o w that this specific d en sity will be u se d to re­
p ro d u ce a black tone on the final prin t. If this d en sity on
the n eg ativ e is n o t p rin te d d e e p e n o u g h to re p r o d u c e a
desirab le black on the p rin t stock the re w ill be n o black
tones in the final p rin t an d the im ages will b e a p p e a r to have
been u nd e re x p o sed . If this is the case the im ag es can also
d e velop a grain y ap p e a ra n c e an d will n o t d u p e well.
A t this p o in t y o u have a piece of u n ex p o sed processed
n e g ativ e th a t reflects an y special p ro cessin g te ch n iq u e s
d o n e to that negative. You sh o u ld also h av e n o te d refer­
ence densities of th a t negative. T his leads u s to the seco n d
p a rt of the test.

294
 2. In o rd e r to d e te rm in e the specific a m o u n t of light
n e ed e d to p rin t y o u r test n egativ e to a desirable black tone,
w e m u s t test th e p rin t stock a n d an y p rin tin g te chniques
(flashing the p rin t stock, ENR, bleach su p p re ssio n or o p ti­
cal p rin tin g , for exam ple). T his is d o n e b y p rin tin g y o u r
piece of u n e x p o se d processed film stock at a succession of
p rinter lights increasing by 2 to 4 points of density (8 p rin ter
p o in ts eq u als 1 stop, 4 p o in ts eq u a ls Vi sto p , etc.). If y o u are
p la n n in g to use an y u n u s u a l p rin tin g techn iqu es o r p rin t
processing techniques, they sho u ld be ap p lied at this point.
A ny s u b s e q u e n t p rin tin g for th e se series of tests sh o u ld
have these tech n iq u es ap p lie d as well.
A trick th a t I h a v e often u se d to h e lp m e ju d g e m y
o p tim u m black d e n sity is to p u n c h a h ole in the negative
w ith a sin g le-h ole p a p e r p u n c h (no t in the cen te r of the
frame) befo re it is p rin te d . This will give y o u a reference to
zero de n sity in the fram e, w h ic h can help d e te rm in e the
optim al visual black tone that y ou w ant. Your desired black
tone will n e v e r b e as black as the p o rtio n p rin ted th ro u g h
the hole, b u t the reference h elp s to d e term in e w h a t d ensity
y o u will w a n t to achieve w ith y o u r p ro cessing a n d p rin t­
ing techniques.
If y o u r lab h a s strip projectors w h ich they use for tim ­
ing pro p oses, this is a v ery g o o d w ay to v ie w these tests.
Two identical p rin ts can be m a d e w hich can be v ie w ed side
by side o n th ese projectors, a llo w ing y o u to stu d y the re­
sults a n d c o m p a re d ifferent densities. If no strip projectors
are available,the len g th of each ex p o su re sh o u ld be en o u g h
to allow y o u tim e to view it sufficiently on the screen d u r ­
ing projection.
O nce y o u h av e d e te rm in e d w h ich den sity yo u w o u ld
like to re p re se n t black in y o u r final prin t, it sh o u ld be read
on the d e n sito m e te r a n d u se d for later reference. You can
also re ad the d en sities of each level of p rin te r lights to see
w h e re reciprocity sets in, alth o u g h this is n o t actually nec­
essary becau se this d en sity will p ro b ab ly be d e e p e r than
you will actually be p rin tin g at.
A test for n o -d en sity p rin t h ig h ligh ts can also b e d o n e
at this tim e by p rin tin g a piece of o p a q u e le ad er at the d e ­
te rm ined p rin te r lights a n d re a d in g the resu ltin g density.
The difference b e tw e e n y o u r ch o sen black d e n sity an d the
resulting w h ite de n sity will d e te rm in e the d y n a m ic ran g e
of the p r in t stock. In o r d e r to d e te rm in e the sp e e d a n d
w o rk in g ra n g e of y o u r n e g a tiv e in relatio n to th a t p rin t
stock, fu rth e r testing is necessary.

295
 You sh o u ld n o w h av e a o p tim u m black d en sity a n d a
reference to the p rin te r lights th at it will take at y o u r lab to
result in that density w ith y o u r chosen n egative stock. This
includes a n y u n u su a l pro cessin g m e th o d s a n d any v aria ­
tion in p rin tin g te ch n iq u es th a t y o u c h oo se to use. T his
brin g s us to the third p a rt of the test.
3. This will be the first cam era test w h ich will d e te r­
m ine the w o rk in g sp ee d o r ex p o su re index (El) that will
allow you to ju d g e the ex p o su re necessary to rep rese n t the
values that are p h o to g ra p h e d as n orm al tones on the final
p rin t w h e n th a t p rin t is m a d e u sin g the re c o m m e n d e d
density d ete rm in e d by the first tw o p a rts of these tests. You
m u st d e term in e the a m o u n t of light that it will req u ire to
prop erly p h o to g ra p h a m id -g ray tone w h e n the n egative
is p rin ted to the b e n c h m a rk density.
There are several points w o rth m entioning at this stage
ab o u t testing m eth od s. E veryone h as their o w n m e th o d of
m e asu rin g light values. T here are pro b ab ly as m a n y m e th ­
o d s as there are p eo p le taking ex p o su re readings. If y o u r
m eter an d m e th o d of re ad in g w o rk s for y o u it is correct.
I prefer to use a M inolta 1° sp o t m e ter an d take m y
neutral read ing s off of a U nicolor P e rm a n e n t G ray C ard . I
feel that this gives m e a consistent an d accurate w ay of ju d g ­
ing not only the light falling o n a subject b u t the reflectance
of that subject as well. I also like to v ary th e a m o u n t of light
falling on the subject rather then chang in g the T-stop on the
lens. T his gives m e a m o re accu ra te series of e x p o su re s
because there is n o reliable w a y to v ary the stop by frac­
tions, d u e to the variables a n d tolerances of the lens iris.
Lighting for these tests req u ires flat, even illum ination
over the surface of the subject, sim ilar to copy light (light
from tw o sides of the subject at a 45° angle from the c am ­
era). T he color te m p e ra tu re of the light sh o u ld be as close
to 3200° Kelvin p ossib le except in tests of d a y lig h t film,
w h en 5400° Kelvin sh o u ld be used.
If y o u are plan in g to u se filtration, such as diffusion
of som e kind, these filters sh o u ld be used in all su b se q u e n t
tests, b e cau se so m e of these filters can h a v e so m e light-
ab so rp tio n qualities. Even th o u g h this effect w ill be very
slight, it can affect the results of y o u r tests b y as m u c h as
tw o -th ird s of a stop.
M ake a series of exp o su res of an 8" x 10" g ray card a n d
a face w ith n eu tral skin tone a t a series of sto p s b ased on
v ariations in the m a n u fa c tu re r's re c o m m e n d e d ex p o su re
index. Start the series a t o n e sto p u n d e r the El a n d increase

296
the ex p osu re b y on e-third of a stop until yo u reach one stop
o ver the rec o m m e n d e d speed.
For instance, if y o u w e re testing K o d ak 's 5296, the rec­
o m m e n d e d sp e ed is 500. You w o u ld sta rt y o u r test a t an
El of 1000 a n d p ro c ee d to a n El of 250 in one-third -stop in­
crem ents, re su ltin g in seven differen t exposures.
R em em ber, d o n 't vary the T-stop. C h a n g e the a m o u n t
of light to g ive the p ro p e r ex p o su re a t the T -stop y ou are
using.
P rin t the n eg ativ e a t the b e n c h m a rk de n sity arriv ed at
in the se co n d p a rt of the test, ad ju stin g th e p rin te r ratio
(color balance) to re p ro d u c e a n e u tral gray. Read the p rin t
d ensity of the g ra y in each ex posure. A p ro p e r m id -g ray
p rin t d ensity for theater v ie w in g s h o u ld be R /1 .0 9 G /1 .0 6
& B/1.03 (status A filters).
V iew the p rin t to d e te rm in e w hich p rin t is closest to
that rec o m m e n d e d density. Look carefully at the quality of
the color balance of the skin tones in relation to the g ray
card. If an em u lsio n can n o t re p ro d u c e skin tones pro p erly
w h en the g ra y ca rd is p rin te d correctly (or vice versa), this
is a g oo d indication th a t there are p ro b le m s w ith either the
em ulsion o r the lab processes that h a v e taken place. If this
is the case, w h e n the skin tones are p rin te d p ro p e rly in the
final p rin t there will alw ay s be p ro b le m s g etting the p ro p e r
color balance in the sh a d o w s.
T he p rin t th a t is ch o sen as the b est rep resentation of
the g ra y card a n d skin tone will becom e the m id -p o in t in
the dy n am ic ran ge of y o u r negative. C heck w hich exposure
index w a s u sed for this test. This El will beco m e y o u r e m ­
pirical e m u lsio n sp e ed . M ost often I h av e fo u n d that the El
that is d e riv e d w ill be w ith in o n e -th ird of a sto p of the
m a n u fa ctu re r's re c o m m e n d e d sp e ed , unless so m e form of
processing m o dification is u se d (such as p u s h o r p u ll p ro ­
cessing).
4. T his is the p a rt of the testing process th at will d e te r­
m ine the usable d y n a m ic ran g e of y o u r negativ e w h e n ex­
posed, p ro cessed an d p rin te d u sin g the inform atio n g a th ­
ered in the p re v io u s tests.
M ak e a series of e x p o s u re s u sin g a M a cb eth C o lo r
C hecker color chart, an 8"xl0" g ray card, a sm all g ray scale
an d a face w ith n e u tra l sk in tone. M o u n t the color c h a rt
vertically w ith the gray card in the m id d le a n d the scale
vertically nex t to the gray card, all on o n e piece of card.
M o u n t this card o n a grip sta n d a n d place it ov er the head
of the m odel. This allow s y o u to fill the fram e w ith the cards

297
an d then tilt d o w n to see the face. S hoot the ch art a n d the
face each for a m in im u m of ten se co n ds (m ore if y o u can
afford th e film) so th at y o u will h av e e n o u g h time to stu d y
the results on the screen. If y o u are c o m p a rin g em u lsio n s
o r processing techniques, rep e at these tests for each varia­
tion.
U sing the El th a t yo u d eriv e d from the last test, start
the series of e x p osu res a t n o rm al a n d u n d e re x p o se succes­
sively until y o u reach five s to p s u n d e re x p o s e d . D o the
sam e w ith o v erexposure.

For exam ple:

First Series S econd Series
norm al n orm al
1 stop u n d e r 1 sto p o ver
1 'A sto p s u n d e r 2 sto p s o ver
1 2A sto p s u n d e r 3 sto p s o v er
2 sto p s u n d e r 3 'A sto p s over
2 'A sto p s u n d e r 3 2A sto p s o ver
2 2A sto p s u n d e r 4 sto p s o ver
3 sto p s u n d e r 4 'A sto p s o ver
4 sto p s u n d e r 5 sto p s o ver
5 sto p s u n d e r

T he u se of u n e v e n in c rem en ts of e x p o su re is b ased o n
experience. I k n o w th a t the first s h a d o w d eta il w ill fall
som ew h ere w ithin the ran g e of 2 an d 3 stops u n d erexp o sed
an d that the last h ig hlig ht detail will fall b etw ee n 4 a n d 5
stops over. I also know from experience th a t the increm ents
b etw een 1 a n d 2 co m p rise very useful s h a d o w den sities to
h av e a visual reference to.
P rin t these tests a g a in a t th e b e n c h m a rk d en sities.
V iew the w o rk p rin t to m a k e su re the color ratios a re cor­
rect. If possible, at this p o in t a n interpositive, d u p e n e g a ­
tive a n d final p rin t sh o u ld be p ro d u c e d u sin g an y special
p rin tin g techniques in te n d e d for the final release (such as
ENR o r flashing the interpositive). This will allow yo u to
view the results as they w o u ld be v ie w e d in the theater. If
th is is n o t p o ssib le, e n o u g h u se fu l in f o rm a tio n c a n be
learned by view ing the w o rk print.
W h en yo u view the resu lts projected, eith er in m o tio n
or o n strip projectors, y o u will begin to see the effects of
ex po sure o n different tones a n d colors. If y o u are c o m p a r­
ing different e m u lsio n s o r p ro cessin g techniques, the re­
sults sh o u ld b e v iew ed side b y side for p ro p e r com parison.
298
 T he ex p o su re difference b e tw e en first sh a d o w detail
a n d last h ig h lig h t detail a n d their relation to m id -g ray will
d e te rm in e the em p irica l d y n a m ic ra n g e of the negativ e,
pro cessin g a n d p rin tin g com bination.

Conclusion
It is im p o rta n t to re m e m b e r th at these tests are n o t
scientific b u t em pirical. They are m e a n t to train y o u r eye
to the d y n a m ic ra n g e of y o u r e m u lsio n u n d e r w o rk in g
conditions. T he tests sh o u ld be a g o o d w o rk in g reference.
In fact, I h a v e o fte n ta k en fra m es of e ach e x p o s u re a n d
m o u n te d th e m in slide m o u n ts for v ie w in g o n the set if I
w a n t to k n o w exactly w h e re to place a specific tone on the
scale so that it will be re p re sen te d exactly as I w a n t in the
final print. To d o this y o u will n ee d a sm all light box p ro p ­
erly color-corrected a n d w ith a n illu m inatio n of 425 FC + /
-107,,.
It is m o s t im p o rta n t to learn to trust y o u r eye rath er
than relying on too m a n y e x p o su re read in g s. T hese tests
sh o u ld giv e y o u a b e tter u n d e rs ta n d in g of the resu lts of
ex p osing, p ro c essin g a n d p rin tin g y o u r o rig inal cam era
n egative so th a t y o u can p re d ic t exactly w h a t the im ages
y o u m a k e will look like. W ith this k n o w le d g e y o u sh o u ld
be able to m a k e m o re consistent d ra m a tic im ages to help
tell the sto ry of y o u r m o tio n picture.

299
 16mm FOOTAGE TABLE
24 F.P.S. Sound Speed (1 foot = 40 frames)
SECONDS MINUTES
t/> y> C O
SECONDS
CO O CO UJ UJ
UJ z UJ 1— t—
►“ :e o H 2 = H— =) ►—
UJ <t o UJ <t z UJ z UJ
LU cc LU UJ ce UJ UJ
U- u_ <S) U- u_ s u_ S u_

1 24 31 18 24 1 36 31 1116
2 1 8 32 19 8 2 72 32 1152
3 1 32 33 19 32 3 108 33 1188
4 2 16 34 20 16 4 144 34 1224
5 3 35 21 5 180 35 1260
6 3 24 36 21 24 6 216 36 1296
7 4 8 37 22 8 7 252 37 1332
8 4 32 38 22 32 8 288 38 1368
9 5 16 39 23 16 9 324 39 1404
10 6 10 40 24 10 360 40 1440
11 6 24 41 24 24 11 396 41 1476
12 7 8 42 25 8 12 432 42 1512
13 7 32 43 25 32 13 468 43 1548
14 8 16 44 26 16 14 504 44 1584
15 9 45 27 15 540 45 1620
16 9 24 46 27 24 16 576 46 1656
17 10 8 47 28 8 17 612 47 1692
18 10 32 48 28 32 18 648 48 1728
19 11 16 49 29 16 19 684 49 1764
20 12 50 30 20 720 50 1800
21 12 24 51 30 24 21 756 51 1836
22 13 8 52 31 8 22 792 52 1872
23 13 32 53 31 32 23 828 53 1908
24 14 16 54 32 16 24 864 54 1944
25 15 55 33 25 900 55 1980
26 15 24 56 33 24 26 936 56 2016
27 16 8 57 34 8 27 972 57 2052
28 16 32 58 34 32 28 1008 58 2088
29 17 16 59 35 16 29 1044 59 2124
30 18 60 36 30 1080 60 2160

300
 16mm FOOTAGE TABLE
25 F.P.S. European Television Film Sound Speed
(1 foot = 40 frames)
SECONDS MINUTES
SECONDS

SECONDS

MINUTES

MINUTES
FRAMES

FRAMES

FRAMES

FRAMES
UJ 1UJ
— H— V
—
UJ UJ
uu
u_ UJ UJ uu
Uu u_ u_

1 25 31 19 15 1 37 20 31 11 62 20
2 1 10 32 20 2 75 32 12 00
3 1 35 33 20 25 3 112 20 33 12 37 20
4 2 20 34 21 10 4 150 34 12 75
5 3 5 35 21 35 5 187 20 35 13 12 20
6 3 30 36 22 20 6 225 36 13 50
7 4 15 37 23 5 7 262 20 37 13 87 20
8 5 38 23 30 8 300 38 14 25
9 5 25 39 24 15 9 33 7 20 39 1462 20
10 6 10 40 25 10 375 40 15 00
11 6 35 41 25 25 11 412 20 41 1537 20
12 7 20 42 26 10 12 450 42 1575
.13 8 5 43 26 35 13 487 20 43 lb! 2 20
14 8 30 44 27 20 14 525 44 16 50
15 9 15 45 28 5 15 562 20 45 16 87 20
16 10 46 28 30 16 600 46 1725 1
17 10 25 47 29 15 17 637 20 47 1762 20
18 11 10 48 30 18 675 48 18 00
19 11 35 49 30 25 19 712 20 49 18 37 20
20 12 20 50 31 10 20 750 50 18 75
21 13 5 51 31 35 21 787 20 51 1912 20
22 13 30 52 32 20 22 825 52 19 50
23 14 15 53 33 5 23 862 20 53 19 87 20
24 15 54 33 30 24 900 54 2025
25 15 25 55 34 15 25 937 20 55 2062 20
26 16 10 56 35 26 975 56 2100
27 ]K 35 57 35 25 27 10 12 20 57 2137 20
28 1/ 20 58 36 10 28 10 50 58 2175
29 18 5 59 36 35 29 10 87 20 59 2212 20
30 18 30 60 37 20 30 1125 60 2250

301
16mm FOOTAGE TABLE
2 9 .9 7 F.P.S. U.S. Television Film Sound Speed
------1
(1 foot = 4 0 frames)
SECONDS MINUTES

SECONDS

MINUTES

MINUTES
SECONDS

FRAMES
FRAMES
FRAMES

FRAMES
FEET

FEET

FEET
h-
LU
LU
Li-

1 0 30 31 23 9 1 44 38 31 1393 24
2 1 20 32 23 39 2 89 36 32 1438 22
3 2 10 33 24 29 3 134 35 33 1483 21
4 3 0 34 25 19 4 179 33 34 1528 19
5 3 30 35 26 9 5 224 31 35 1573 17
6 4 20 36 26 39 6 269 29 36 1618 15
7 5 10 37 27 29 7 314 27 37 1663 13
8 6 0 38 28 19 8 359 26 38 1708 12
9 6 30 39 29 9 9 404 24 39 1753 10
10 7 20 40 29 39 10 449 22 40 1798 8
11 8 10 41 30 29 11 494 20 41 1843 6
12 9 0 42 31 19 12 539 18 42 1888 4
13 9 30 43 32 9 13 584 17 43 1933 3
14 10 20 44 32 39 14 629 15 44 1978 1
15 11 10 45 33 29 15 674 13 45 2022 39
16 12 0 46 34 19 16 719 11 46 2067 37
17 12 29 47 35 9 17 764 9 47 2112 35
18 13 19 48 35 39 18 809 8 48 2157 34
19 14 9 49 36 29 19 854 6 49 2202 32
20 14 39 50 37 19 20 899 4 50 2247 30
21 15 29 51 38 8 21 944 2 51 2292 28
22 16 19 52 38 38 22 989 0 52 2337 26
23 17 9 53 39 28 23 1033 39 53 2382 25
24 17 39 54 40 18 24 1078 37 54 2427 23
25 18 29 55 41 8 25 1123 35 55 2472 21
26 19 19 56 41 38 26 1168 33 56 2517 19
27 20 9 57 42 28 27 1213 31 57 2562 17
28 20 39 58 43 18 28 1258 30 58 2607 16
29 21 29 59 44 8 29 1303 28 59 2652 14
30 22 19 60 44 38 30 1338 26 60 2697 12

302
 35mm FOOTAGE TABLE
2 4 F.P.S. Sound Speed (1 foot = 16 frames)
SECONDS MINUTES
SECONDS

SECONDS

MINUTES
MINUTES
FRAMES

FRAMES
V—

FEET
FEET

FEET
LU
LU
U.

1 1 8 31 46 8 1 90 31 2790
2 3 32 48 2 180 32 2880
3 4 8 33 49 8 3 270 33 2970
4 6 34 51 4 360 34 3060
5 7 8 35 52 8 5 450 35 3150
6 9 36 54 6 540 36 3240
7 10 8 37 55 8 7 630 37 3330
8 12 38 57 8 720 38 3420
9 13 8 39 58 8 9 810 39 3510
10 15 40 60 10 900 40 3600
11 16 8 41 61 8 11 990 41 3690
12 18 42 63 12 1080 42 3780
13 19 8 43 64 8 13 1170 43 3870
14 21 44 66 14 1260 44 3960
15 22 8 45 67 8 15 1350 45 4050
16 24 46 69 16 1440 46 4140
17 25 8 47 70 8 17 1530 47 4230
18 27 48 72 18 1620 48 4320
19 28 8 49 73 8 19 1710 49 4410
20 30 50 75 20 1800 50 4500
21 31 8 51 76 8 21 1890 51 4590
22 33 52 78 22 1980 52 4680
23 34 8 53 79 8 23 2070 53 4770
24 36 54 81 24 2160 54 4860
25 37 8 55 82 8 25 2250 55 4950
26 39 56 84 26 2340 56 5040
27 40 8 57 85 8 27 2430 57 5130
28 42 58 87 28 2520 58 5220
29 43 8 59 88 8 29 2610 59 5310
30 45 60 90 30 2700 60 5400

303
 35mm FOOTAGE TABLE
25 F.P.S. European Television Film Sound Speed
(1 foot = 16 frames)
SECONDS MINUTES
SECONDS

SECONDS

MINUTES

MINUTES
FRAMES

FRAMES

FRAMES

FRAMES
FEET

I—

FEET

FEET
LU
LU
U_

1 1 9 31 48 7 1 93 12 31 2906 4
2 3 2 32 50 2 187 8 32 3000
3 4 11 33 51 9 3 281 4 33 3093 12
4 6 4 34 53 2 4 375 34 3187 8
5 7 13 35 54 11 5 468 12 35 3281 4
6 9 6 36 56 4 6 562 8 36 3375
7 10 15 37 57 13 7 656 4 37 3468 12
8 12 8 38 59 6 8 750 38 3562 8
9 14 1 39 60 15 9 843 12 39 3656 4
10 15 10 40 62 8 10 937 8 40 3750
11 17 3 41 64 1 11 1031 4 41 3843 12
12 18 12 42 65 10 12 1125 42 3937 8
13 20 5 43 67 3 13 1218 12 43 4031 4
14 21 14 44 68 12 14 1312 8 44 4125
15 23 7 45 70 5 15 1406 4 45 4218 12
16 25 46 71 14 16 1500 46 4312 8
17 26 9 47 73 7 17 1593 12 47 4406 4
18 28 2 48 75 18 1687 8 48 4500
19 29 11 49 76 9 19 1781 4 49 4593 12
20 31 4 50 78 2 20 1875 50 4687 8
21 32 13 51 79 11 21 1968 12 51 4781 4
22 34 6 52 81 4 22 2062 8 52 4875
23 35 15 53 82 13 23 2156 4 53 4968 12
24 37 8 54 84 6 24 2250 54 5062 8
25 39 1 55 85 15 25 2343 12 55 5156 4
26 40 10 56 87 8 26 2437 8 56 5250
27 42 3 57 89 1 27 2531 4 57 5343 12
28 43 12 58 90 10 28 2625 58 5437 8
29 45 5 59 92 3 29 2718 12 59 5531 4
30 46 14 60 93 12 30 2812 8 60 5625

304
35mm FOOTAGE TABLE
29.97 F.P.S. U.S. Television Film Sound Speed
(1 foot = 16 frames)

SECC NDS MINI TES

SECONDS

MINUTES
SECONDS

MINUTES

FRAMES
FRAMES

FRAMES

FRAMES
FEET

FEET
FEET
1 1 14 31 FEET
58 1 1 112 6 31 3484 0
2 3 12 32 59 15 2 224 12 32 3596 6
3 5 10 33 61 13 3 337 3 33 3708 13
4 7 8 34 63 11 4 449 9 34 3821 3
5 9 6 35 65 9 5 561 15 35 3933 9
6 11 4 36 67 7 6 674 5 36 4045 15
7 13 2 37 69 5 7 786 11 37 4158 5
8 15 0 38 71 3 8 899 2 38 4270 12
9 16 14 39 73 1 9 1011 8 39 4383 2
10 18 12 40 74 15 10 1123 14 40 4495 8
11 20 10 41 76 13 11 1236 4 41 4607 14
12 22 8 42 78 11 12 1348 10 42 4720 4
13 24 6 43 80 9 13 1461 1 43 4832 11
14 26 4 44 82 7 14 1573 7 44 4945 1
15 28 2 45 84 5 15 1685 13 45 5057 7
16 30 0 46 86 3 16 1798 3 46 5169 13
17 31 13 47 88 1 17 1910 9 47 5282 3
18 33 11 48 89 15 18 2023 0 48 5394 10
19 35 9 49 91 13 19 2135 6 49 5507 0
20 37 7 50 93 11 20 2247 12 50 5619 6
21 39 5 51 95 8 21 2360 2 51 5731 12
22 41 3 52 97 6 22 2472 8 52 5844 2
23 43 1 53 99 4 23 2584 15 53 5956 9
24 44 15 54 101 2 24 2697 5 54 6068 15
25 46 13 55 103 0 25 2809 11 55 6181 5
26 48 11 56 104 14 26 2922 1 56 6293 11
27 50 9 57 106 12 27 3034 7 57 6406 1
28 52 7 58 108 10 28 3146 14 58 6518 8
29 54 5 59 110 8 29 3259 4 59 6630 14
30 56 3 60 112 6 30 3371 10 60 6743 4

305
6 5 /7 0 m m FOOTAGE TABLE
2 4 F.P.S. SOUND SPEED
(1 loot = 1 2 .8 frames)
SECO NDS MINI TES

SECONDS

MINUTES

MINUTES
SECONDS

FRAMES

FRAMES
FRAMES

FRAMES
FEET

FEET

FEET

FEET
1 1 11.2 31 58 1.6 1 112 6.4 31 3487 6.4
2 3 9.6 32 60 0 2 225 0 32 3600 0
3 5 8.0 33 61 11.2 3 337 6.4 33 3712 6.4
4 7 6.4 34 63 9.6 4 450 0 34 3825 0
5 9 4.8 35 65 8.0 5 562 6.4 35 3937 6.4
6 11 3.2 36 67 6.4 6 675 0 36 4050 0
7 13 1.6 37 69 4.8 7 787 6.4 37 4162 6.4
8 15 0 38 71 3.2 8 900 0 38 4275 0
9 16 11.2 39 73 1.6 9 1012 6.4 39 4387 6.4
10 18 9.6 40 75 0 10 1125 0 40 4500 0
11 20 8.0 41 76 11.2 11 1237 6.4 41 4612 6.4
12 22 6.4 42 78 9.6 12 1350 0 42 4725 0
13 24 4.8 43 80 8.0 13 1462 6.4 43 4837 6.4
14 26 3.2 44 82 6.4 14 1575 0 44 4950 0
15 28 1.6 45 84 4.8 15 1687 6.4 45 5062 6.4
16 30 0 46 86 3.2 16 1800 0 46 5175 0
17 31 11.2 47 88 1.6 17 1912 6.4 47 5287 6.4
18 33 9.6 48 90 0 18 2025 0 48 5400 0
19 35 8.0 49 91 11.2 19 2137 6.4 49 5512 6.4
20 37 6.4 50 93 9.6 20 2250 0 50 5625 0
21 39 4.8 51 95 8.0 21 2362 6.4 51 5737 6.4
22 41 3.2 52 97 6.4 22 2475 0 52 5850 0
23 43 1.6 53 99 4.8 23 2587 6.4 53 5962 6.4
24 45 0 54 101 3.2 24 2700 0 54 6075 0
25 46 11.2 55 103 1.6 25 2812 6.4 55 6187 6.4
26 48 9.6 56 105 0 26 2925 0 56 6300 0
27 50 8.0 57 106 11.2 27 3037 6.4 57 6412 6.4
28 52 6.4 58 108 9.6 28 3150 0 58 6525 0
29 54 4.8 59 110 8.0 29 3262 6.4 59 6637 6.4
30 56 3.2 60 112 6.4 30 3375 0 60 6750 0

306
 — 16mm FILM —
FOOTAGE OBTAINED AT VARIOUS CAMERA SPEEDS
SEC FRAMES PER SECOND
ONDS 1 2 4 8 12 16 20 22 24 32 46 64 96 120 128
5 '/a Va Vi 1 Vh 2 2V2 2% 3 4 6 0 12 15 16

10 Va y2 1 2 3 4 5 5 1/2 8 8 12 16 24 30 32

15 % % V /2 3 4 1/2 6 7 1/2 8 1/4 9 12 18 24 36 45 48

20 Vi 1 2 4 6 8 10 11 12 16 24 32 48 60 64

30 % IV2 3 6 9 12 15 I 6 V2 18 24 36 48 72 90 96

60 IV2 3 6 12 18 24 30 33 36 48 72 96 144 180 192

1 Foot = 40 Frames 1/2 Foot = 20 Frames

4/5 Foot = 32 Frames 2/5 Foot = 16 Frames

3/5 Foot = 24 Frames 1/5 Foot = 8 Frames

307
 35mm FILM FOOTAGE + FRAMES OBTAINED AT VARIOUS CAMERA SPEEDS

308
(1 Ft = 16 frames)
FRAMES
PER SEC 1 2 4 8 12 16 20 22 24 32 48 64 96 120 128
SEC
5 0'+5fr. 0+10 1+4 2+8 3+12 5+0 6+ 4 6+14 7+8 10+0 15+0 20+0 30+0 37 + 8 40 + 0
10 0+ 1 0 1+4 2+ 8 5+0 7+8 10+0 12+8 13+4 15+0 20+ 0 30+0 40 + 0 60+0 75 + 0 80+0

15 0+ 1 5 1+ 14 3+12 7+ 8 11+4 15+0 18+12 20+10 22 + 8 30+ 0 45 + 0 60+0 90 + 0 112+8 120+0

20 1+4 2+8 5+0 10+0 15+0 20 + 0 25+ 0 27+8 30 + 0 40+ 0 60+0 80+0 120+0 150+0 160+0

30 1+ 14 3+ 1 2 7+8 15+0 22 + 8 30 + 0 3 7+ 8 41+4 45 + 0 60+0 90+0 120+0 180+0 225+0 240+0

60 3+ 12 7+8 15+0 30+ 0 4 5 + 0 60 + 0 7 5+ 0 82+ 8 90 + 0 120+0 180+0 240+0 360+0 450+0 480+0
 65mm FILM FOOTAGE + FRAMES OBTAINED AT VARIOUS CAMERA SPEEDS
(1 Ft = 12-4/5 frames)
FRAMES
PER SEC 1 2 4 8 12 16 20 22 24 32 48 64 96
SEC

5 0'+5fr. 0+ 1 0 1+7 3+2 4+9 6+3 7+10 8+8 9+5 12+6 18+10 25+0 37 + 6
10 0 + 10 1+7 3+2 6+3 9+5 12+6 15+8 17+2 18+10 25+0 37+6 50+0 75+0

15 1+2 2 +4 4+9 9+5 14+1 18+10 23+6 25+10 2 8 + 4 37 + 6 56+3 75+0 112+6
20 1+7 3+2 6+ 3 12+6 18+10 2 5+ 0 31+3 34+5 37 + 6 50+0 75+0 100+0 150+0
30 2+4 4+9 9+5 18+10 28 + 4 3 7+ 6 46+11 51 + 7 I 56+3 i 75+0 112+6 150+0 225+0
60 4+9 9+5 18+10 37 + 6 56 + 3 7 5+ 0 93+10 103+2 112+6 150+0 225+0 300+0 450+0

309
 35mm CAMERA RECOMMENDED PANNING SPEEDS

310
A P P R O X . 180° S H U T T E R — FOR STATIC SCENES
For 90° Sweep With Various Camera Speeds and Different Focal Length Lenses
EXAMPLE: 24 f.p.s. with 50mm Lens Should Take 23 Seconds to Pan 90° Sweep

_________________________________ ; FOCAL LENGTH OF LENS IN MM

CAMERA 25 to 28 35 40 50 75 85 100 150 180 300
18 to 20
SPEED
FRAMES PANNING SPEED __________________

PER/SEC.
g Unshadec1 Numbers: SECONDS Shaded Numbers: MINUTES |
27 [4 5 I 55 1 60 I 1.5 I 2.0 i 2.5 | 3.0 | 4.0 [ 5.0 7.0 |
12 18 30 | 36 | 42 | 54 | 70 | 1.5 | 2.0 | 2.5 1 3.5 5.0 |
16 13 23 | 27 | 32 | 41 | 55 | 70 1 1.5 I 2.0 I 2.5 3.5 1
I 20 11 18 ! 22 | 25 | 27 | 43 ] 60 | 70 | 1.5 I 2.0 3.0 1
24 9 15 | 18 | 21 | 23 | 36 | 50 | 60 | 80 1 1.5 2.5 |
I 32 7 1 11 | 14 1 16 | 20 | 27 | 38 | 45 | 60 | 75 \ 2.0 I
I 48 4.5 | 7.5 | 9 | 11 | 13 | 18 | 25 | 30 | 40 | 55 75 |
60 3.5 6 | 7 | 8 | 11 | 14 | 20 | 24 | 32 | 40 60 |
5 | 6 | 7
1____________________________________________________
1 3_________________________________| 75 9 I | 12 | 17 | 19 | 26 | 35 .... ...

90 2.4 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 10 | 14 | 16 | 21 | 29 40 |
120 1.8 3 | 4 | 4 | 5 | 7 | 10 | 12 I 16 I 22 3' 1
150 1.4 2.4 3 3.5 4 6 8 10 13 17 25
 35mm CAMERA RECOMMENDED PANNING SPEEDS IN DEGREES PER SECOND
(For Static Scenes) Approximately 180° Shutter
For Various Camera Speeds and Different Focal Length Lenses
EXAMPLE: 24 f.p.s. with 50mm Lens Should Be Panned 3.6° Per Second or 36° in 10 Seconds, etc.

LENGTH? mm 24f p s' 60 , p s' 80 f P‘s' 100 f P s- 120 f P s-

17 9.9° 25.0° 33.3° 41.6° 49.9°
25 7.0° 17.5° 23.3° 29.1° 34.9°
28 6.3° 15.7° 20.9° 26.1° 31.3°
32 5.5° 13.7° 18.2° 22.9° 27.4°
35 5.0° 12.7° 16.9° 21.1° 25.4°
50 3.6? 8.7° 11.7° 14.6° 17.5°
75 2.4° 6.0° 8.0° 9.9° 12.0°
85 1.7° 4.3° 5.8° 7.2° 8.7°
100 1.5° 3.9° 5.2° 6.4° 7.7°
125 1.3° 3.3° 4.3° 5.4° 6.5°
150 1.1° 2.8° 3.7° 4.6° 5.5°
180 0.95° 2.4° 3.2° 4.0° 4.7°
300 0.58° 1.5° 1.9° 2.4° 2.9°
500 0.36° 0.64° 0.9° 1.07° 1.3°

311
 35mm CAMERA RECOMMENDED PANNING SPEEDS

312
(For Static Scenes)
180° Shutter & Various Degrees of Sweep
EXAMPLE: 60° Pan with 75mm Lens Should Take 24 Seconds
FOCAL LENGTH OF LENS IN M M

PANNING 18 to 2 0 25 to 28 35 40 | 50 75 85 100 150 180 300 500

ANGLE PANNING SPEED

DEGREES Unshaded Numbers: SECONDS Shaded Numbers: MINUTES

30° 3 5 6 7 9 12 18 20 27 32 50 80

60° 6 10 12 14 18 24 36 40 55 60 95 2.5

90° 9 15 18 21 23 36 50 60 80 90 2.5 4.0

120° 12 20 24 28 36 48 65 80 100 2.0 3.5 5.0

150° 15 25 30 35 45 60 1 80 95 2.0 2.5 4.0 6.5

180° 18 30 36 42 54 72 95 2.0 2.5 3.0 5.0 8.0

„
 Light Sources
and Lighting Filters
b y R ichard B. G lickm an, C o n su ltin g E ngineer
ASC A ssociate M em b er

T he a d v e n t of faster films h as c h a n g e d m a n y of the

rules for w ell-established lighting techniques. Feature-film
p h o to g r a p h y is n o w ro utin ely a c co m p lish ed in "n a tu ra l
lig h tin g " situ a tio n s, a n d n ig h t scenes are p h o to g r a p h e d
w ith only the light available from street ligh tin g a n d sh o p
w in d o w s. T he sp e e d of these n e w em u lsio n s h as m a d e
possible a n ew d e g re e of realism , a n d g re a te r freed o m in
selecting locations for p h o to g ra p h y .
Q uality p h o to g rap h y still d e m a n d s consistent lighting.
C o n siste n cy often d e p e n d s o n a n u n d e r s ta n d in g of the
characteristics of v a rio u s light sources. L ight sources m ay
be m ixed in an y ligh tin g situation, so long as care is taken
to a p p ly the a p p ro p r ia te filtering to e n s u r e a c o n siste n t
color balance. T he follow ing sections will deal w ith those
requirem ents.
The use of lighting filters, form erly restricted to a few
blues and am b ers, h as n o w a d v a n c e d to the p o in t w h e re
relatively refined a d ju stm e n ts can be m a d e in th e spectral
energy o u tp u t of the w id e variety of sources. T he use of this
m ore so p histicate d ran g e of lighting filters h as b ee n m a d e
practical by the d e v e lo p m e n t of co n v en ien t color te m p e ra ­
ture m e ters that p ro d u c e relatively so p h isticated in fo rm a­
tion ab o u t light sources.
T he actu al lig h tin g o f a scen e is an artistic p ro cess
w hich is b ey o n d the scope of this w ork. T hose artistic d e ­
cisions involve m a n y co n sid eratio n s, su ch as the ty p e of
story being told, the de sired m o o d a n d the em o tion a l co n ­
tent of the m aterial. T he c in e m a to g ra p h e r's efforts in those
directions, a n d the specific tools h e o r she uses, are the hall­
m arks of the w o rk of an y given cin em ato g rap h er.

Characteristics of Light Sources

The p re d o m in a n c e of location p h o to g ra p h y m a k es a
basic u n d e rs ta n d in g of typically en co u n te re d light sources
essential. Particularly im p o rta n t, d u e to their w id e sp re a d
use, are the A C enclosed arc d isch arg e lam p s such as HMI-
types. T o d a y 's c in e m a to g ra p h e r m u s t h a v e a g rasp of the
basic o p eratio n al characteristics of these light sources.
313
 COMPARISON OF SOME TYPICAL
COMMERCIAL/INDUSTRIAL LIGHT
SOURCE CHARACTERISTICS
Correlated
Color Color
Temperature Rendering Efficacy
Description (°Kelvin) Index (Lum ens/W alt)

Fluorescent Types
Daylight 6 500 79 60
Design White 5 200 82 50
Cool White 4 30 0 67 70
Deluxe Cool White 4 10 0 86 50
Natural White 3 700 81 45
White 3 500 62 70
Warm W hite 3 050 55 70
Deluxe Warm
White 2 950 73 45
Incandescent 2 700 90 35
M ercury Vapor
Types
Clear Mercury 5 900 17 50
W hite Deluxe 4 00 0 45 55
W arm Deluxe 3 50 0 62 70__
Metal Halide
Additive Types
Multi-arc™; Metal
Vapor'" 5900 65 0 0 -1 1 5
M etalarc C™ 3 80 0 70 8 0 -1 1 5
High Pressure
Sodium
Lucalox™ 2 100 25 8 0 -1 4 0
Lumalux™

For a detailed explanation of the param eters of Correlated Color

Temperature, Color Rendering Index and Efficacy, reference should be
made to page 319.

In this section, a w id e ran ge of photo grap h ic, c o m m e r­

cial a n d in d ustrial light sources will be d e a lt w ith in so m e
detail. The acco m p an y in g tables give the re a d e r a brief idea
of the ran g e of characteristics to b e en cou n tered.

Physical Characteristics of Light Sources

Figure 1 sh o w s the v ario u s la m p e n v elo p e co n fig u ra ­
tions an d the d esig n atio n s th a t are c o m m o n to them . The

314
Comparison of Photographic Light Sources
Correlated
Color
Temperature
Description (al rated Mired Efficacy
voltage) Value Lumens/wall
Incandescent
Standard and tungsten/
halogen 3200K 313 26
CP gas filled 3350K 299 32
Photoflood 3400K 294 34
Daylight blue photoflood 480 0K 208

Carbon arc (225A Brute)

W hite flame, Y-1 filter 5100K 196 24
” ” no filter 5800K 172
Yellow flame YF 101 filter 3350K 299

'X enon, high pressure DC short

arc 6000K 167 3 5-50

*Metal halide additive AC arc

HMI 5600K 179 8 0-10 2
CID 5600K 179 80
CSI 4200K 238 85

‘ Need filtering for color photography.

use of this figure reveals the e n v e lo p e 's c o nfig u ratio n by

sim ply k n o w in g th a t the c o de letters associated w ith the
lam p d esig nation are the d im en sio n al d escrip tiv e data.
The follow ing e x am p les a re offered to clarify this d e ­
scriptive process:
a .)R 4 0 — T his is a reflector flood ("R" ty p e envelope),
w hich is J%ths of an inch in d iam eter.
b.) PA R 64 — T h e d e sig n a tio n "P A R " refers to the
sealed beam la m p type (Parabolic A lu m in ize d Reflector)
w hich is l4/sths of an inch in d iam eter.
c.) Q1000 PA R 64 — This is the en v e lo p e as in (b.), b u t
the "Q " d e sig n a tes a tun g sten h alo g e n la m p of 1000 w atts
inside. ("Q " is a h a n g o v e r from the early d a y s of tu ngsten
halogen w h e n these la m p s w ere referred to as Q u a rtz Io­
dine.)
d ) Q1000T3 — A tu n g s te n halo gen lam p, 1,000 w atts,
w ith a tu b u la r en v e lo p e ’/ sths of a n inch in diam eter.

315
 A n o th e r im p o r ta n t e le m e n t in the c o n s tru c tio n of
la m p s is the basing. Figure 2 sh o w s the m o st co m m o n base
a rran g em e n ts u sed o n in can d escen t-ty p e la m p s (also a p ­
plicable to certain d ischarge types). This figure can be h e lp ­
ful in establishing w h e th e r a p artic u lar la m p can b e m a ted
to a given fixture.

pah

F i g u r e 1. L a m p e n v e l o p e c o n f i g u r a t i o n s .

Color Temperature
Color tem p era ture describes the actual te m p e ratu re of
a "black b od y rad iato r" a n d thereby com pletely defines the
spectral en erg y d istrib u tio n (SED) of the object. W h e n the
object b ecom es lu m in o u s a n d rad iates en erg y in the visible
p o rtio n of the sp ectru m , it is said to b e incandescent. S im ­
ply stated , this m e a n s that w h e n an object is h e a te d to an
a p p ro p r ia te te m p e ra tu re , so m e of its ra d ia te d e n e rg y is
visible.
The color te m p eratu re is u sually described in te rm s of
degrees Kelvin. This sim p ly refers to a te m p e ra tu re scale,
like F ah ren h eit o r C e n tig rad e (Celsius). It is in fact the ab­
solute C en tig rad e (Celsius) scale, w h ich is the te m p eratu re
in deg rees C e n tig rad e (Celsius) p lu s 273 degrees.
W h en m etal is g ra d u a lly hea ted , the first visible color
is "d ull cherry red." As the te m p e ra tu re is raised, it v isu ­
ally becom es "O range," then "Y ellow," a n d finally "W hite"
hot. The actual effect of increasing color te m p eratu re o n the
spectral en erg y d istrib u tio n is b est seen in F ig u re 3.
Strictly speaking, tu ngsten filam ents are n o t true black
bodies. H o w ever, from a practical sta n d p o in t, b o th stan ­
d a rd incand escen t la m p s a n d tu n g sten h alo g en ty p es can
be so considered.

316
 M o g Bp

Cand candelabra Mog Sc mogul screw

DC Bay double-contact bayonet candelabra Mog Bp mogul bipost
DC PI double-con tact pretoeus candelabra Mog PI mogul pretoeus
EMEP extended mogul end prong MS miniature screw
F lerrute contact (with relerence shoutder)
Me minicam (also Tfu-Loc miniature screw)
Med Sc medium screw MSP medium side prong
Med Bp medium biposl Reel RSC rectangular recessed single contact
Med PI medium prelocus RM2P rim mount two pin
Med Ski medium skirted RSC recessed single contact
Med 2P medium two pin (also: single contact recessed)
MEP mogul end prong S metal sleeve
(also e i tended mogul end prong) SC Bay single-conlacl bayonet candelabra

SCI PI single-conlacl prelocus

ST screw terminal
TB2P trubeam two pin
T( Hulocus (also: four pin)
TLMS Tru-Loc m rnaiure screw
(also: miniaiure screw with reference shoulder)
Wedge wedge
2B two button
2PAG two pin all glass
2PAGC iwo pin an glass (ceramic cover)
2PM Iwo p*i miniaiure
2PP Iw o pin pretoeus
3P three prong
Noles: R indicates special reference pant tor LCL. 'N oie below
(RB - at 0.531 inch diameter)

Figure 2. Common incandescent lamp bases (not to scale).

317
 O n e of the m ost im p o rta n t characteristics of in can d es­
cent radiators is that they have a co n tin u o u s spectrum . This
m eans th a t en erg y is b ein g ra d iated at all the w a v elen g th s
in its spectrum . C olor te m p era tu re is only p ro p e rly ap p lied
to rad iatin g sources that can m e et this req u irem en t. T h ere­
fore, for exam ple, the ap p lication of the term "color tem ­
p eratu re" to describe the color of fluorescent tubes is incor­
rect for the follow ing reasons: F lu o rescen t la m p s d o not
have continuous spectra, an d fluorescent lam p s d o n o t em it
visible ra d iatio n d u e to in c an d e sce n ce (b ecause of their
tem perature). In practice the term is ap p lie d to m an y oth er
so u rc es. W h e n it is a p p lie d to th e se n o n -in c a n d e s c e n t
sources, it really refers to "correlated color te m p e ratu re."

4 - ultra-vio le t in fra-re d —►

visib le s p e c tru m W A V E L E N G T H (nm)

Figure 3. Relative radiant energy distribution for sources at various color

temperatures.

Correlated Color Temperature

The term correlated color te m p e ra tu re is u sed to in d i­
cate a visual m atch w h e re the source being d escrib ed is not
a black bo d y radiator. The term is often abused , an exam ple
being its application to such light sources as m e rc u ry v a ­
p o r lamps.
From a photographic standpoint, the correlated color tem­
perature can be extremeh/ misleading. It is im p o rta n t to keep
in m in d that its con n o tatio n s are visual. It is a n u m b e r to
be a p p ro ac h ed w ith e xtrem e cau tio n by the c in e m a to g ra ­
pher.

318
Correlated Color Temperature of
Typical Light Sources
Artificial Light

Source Mlreds
Match tlame 1700K 588
Candle flame 1850K 541
Tungsten-gas filled lamps: Camera filter
40-100W 2650-2900K 82B (100W) 317-345
200-500W 2980K 82A 336
1000W 2990K 82A 334

Daylight

Sunlight:
Sunrise or sunset 2000K 500
One hour after sunrise 3500K 286
Early Morning, late Afternoon 4300K 233
Average noon, (Wash. D.C.) 5400K 185
Midsummer 5800K 172
Overcast sky 6000K 167
Average Summer Daylight 6500K 154
Light Summer Shade 7100K 141
Average Summer Shade B000K 125
Partly cloudy sky 8000
-10000K 125-100
Summer skylight 9500
-30000K 105-33

Sunlight should not be confused with daylight. Sunlight is the light of

the sun only. Daylight is a combination of sunlight and skylight. These
values are approximate since many factors affect the Correlated Color
Tem perature. For consistency, 5500K is considered to be Nominal
Photographic Daylight. The difference between 5000K and 6000K is only
33 Mireds, the same photographic or visual difference as that between
household tugsten lights and 3200K photo lamps (the approximate
equivalent of lA Blue or % Orange lighting filters).

The MIRED System

W h en d ea lin g w ith su n lig h t a n d incandescent sources
(both s ta n d a rd a n d tu n g sten h alo g e n types), the MIRED
system offers a convenient m e an s for dealing w ith the p ro b ­
lems of m e a su re m e n t w h e n ad ju stin g from o n e color te m ­

319
p e ra tu re to another. This system is only fo r sources that can
truly be described as having a color temperature. T h e te rm
MIRED is a n a c ro n y m for M icro R eciprocal D egrees. T he
M IRED n u m b e r for a g iv e n co lo r te m p e ra tu re is d e te r ­
m in ed b y u sin g the follow ing relationship:
1,000,000
MIRED Value =
Color Temperature (degrees Kelvin)

A s a convenience, refer to p ag e 323, w h ic h is a quick

reference for d e term in in g th e M IRED v alu es for color tem ­
p e ra tu re s b e tw ee n 2000K a n d 6900K in 100-degree steps.
Filters w h ich change the effective color te m p eratu re of
a so u rce by a definite a m o u n t can be ch ara cte riz ed b y a
"M IRED shift v alue." T his v alu e is c o m p u te d as follows:

MIRED Shift Value =

Tl = Kelvin temperature of the original source.

T2= Kelvin temperature of the original source as measured
through the filter.

MIRED shift valu es can b e positive (yellow ish o r m i­

n u s b lu e filters) or negativ e (blue o r m in u s r e d / g r e e n fil­
ters). The same filter (representing a single M IR E D shift value),
applied on light sources with different color temperatures, will
produce significantly different color temperature shifts. O cca­
sionally, the term D ecam ired s will be fo u n d in use for d e ­
scribing color te m p eratu re a n d filter effects. D ecam ired s is
sim p ly MIREDs d iv id e d b y 10.

Color Rendering Index

The C olor R en d ering Index (CRI) is u sed to specify the
stated characteristic of a light so urce as it m ig h t be u se d for
critical visual color ex am in atio n s su c h as in color m a tc h ­
ing or inspection of objects. T he CRI is established b y a stan ­
d a rd p ro ce d u re involving the calculated visual ap p earan ce
of s ta n d a rd colors v ie w ed u n d e r the test so urce a n d u n d e r
a s ta n d a rd illum inant. The CRI is n o t an ab so lu te n u m b e r,
an d there is n o p articu lar relative m e rit to b e d ete rm in e d
by c o m p a rin g the CRIs of several sources.
The CRI is o f importance photographically only when it is
between 90 and 100. T his is accep ted to m e a n th a t su c h a
source h as color re n d e rin g p ro p erties th a t are a co m m er-

320
Relative Energy

Figure 5. Spectral e n erg y d i s t r i b u t i o n for 1000-watt la m p w ith

approximate color temperature of 3000 degrees K.

Figure 6. Spectral energy distribution of a tungsten filament lamp at

3200K, a carbon arc at 6000K, and daylight at 6500K.

The visual c o lo r re sponse to the en ergy w ith in pa rticular w a v e ­

length bands is d e scribed in the fo llo w in g a p p ro x im a te term s:
Color Sensation Approximate Wavelength Band (nm)
Violet 3 8 0 -4 3 0
Blue 4 3 0 -4 9 0
Green 4 9 0 -5 6 0
Yellow 5 6 0 -5 9 0
Orange 5 9 0 -6 3 0
Red 6 3 0 -7 0 0

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 EXAMPLES OF MIRED SHIFT VALUE (FILTER) EFFECTS
Initial Source Filtered Source
------------- - Filter ---------- --------------- "Kelvin
°K Mireds Mired Shift Mireds °K Change

10,000 100 +112 212 4720 5280

6.000 167 +112 279 3600 2400
5.00 0_________ 200_________________+112 _________________ 312___________ 3200____________ 1800_
2,600 385 -21 364 2750 150
2,900 345 -21 324 3090 190
3,200 312 -21 291 3440 240

Mired Values of Color Temperatures from 2 0 0 0 -6 9 0 0 °K

°K______ + 0 ________ 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900
2000 500 476 455 435 417 400 385 370 357 345
3000 333 323 312 303 294 286 278 270 263 256
4000 250 244 238 233 227 222 217 213 208 204
5000 200 196 192 189 185 182 179 175 172 169
6000 167 164 161 159 156 154 152 149 147 145

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cial m atch to the reference source. For exam ple, the H M I
la m p s h av e a CR1 of 90 to 93, referred to the D55 sta n d a rd
illu m inant (D55 is the artificial m a tc h to sta n d a rd d ay lig h t
of 5500K).

Spectral Energy Distribution

T he spectral en erg y d istrib u tio n (SED) is th e s ta n d a rd
m e a n s for exhibiting the relative a m o u n ts of e n erg y b eing
ra d iate d by a source as a fu nction of w a velen g th . T his is
so m etim es called the spectral p o w e r d istrib u tio n (SPD).
The visible sp ec tru m (see Fig. 4), w hich is also the u se ­
ful p h o to g rap h ic sp e ctru m , c om p rises the e n e rg y w h o se
w av e le n g th s are b etw e en a p p ro x im a tely 400 a n d 700 n a ­
n o m eters (nm). W avelengths sh o rter than 400 ra n are in the
ultraviolet reg io n of the sp ectru m , a n d th o se lo n g e r th a n
700nm are in the in frared region.
T h e e l e c tr o m a g n e ti c r a d i a n t e n e r g y s p e c t r u m is
s h o w n in Figure 4. T h e SED for a la m p a t 3000K is s h o w n
in Figure 5. A c o m p a riso n of the spectral e n e rg y d istrib u ­
tions of 3200K, n a tu ra l d a y lig h t a n d a carb o n arc (w hite
flame carbon) can be seen in Figure 6.

Illumination Data
T he p u rp o s e of this section is to explain sim p le g en ­
eral rules for d ealin g w ith illu m in atio n d ata. In particu lar,
it will p ro v id e the m e an s for in terp re tin g d a ta offered b y
m a n u fa c tu re rs a n d for in te rp o la tin g re a d in g s b a s e d on
m e a su re m en ts m a d e b y the cam eram an .

1. Lighting Quantities — Intensity

Intensity is m e a su re d in u n its of "cand elas." A n e ar­
lier te rm for this is cand lepo w er. N o rm ally , a value for can­
d elas is also a cc o m p a n ied by d irectio n al in fo rm atio n . In
form er times the intensity o n axis w a s referred to as center
b eam can d lep o w er.
The u n iq u e p ro p e rty of intensity relative to the source
of light in a given direction is that it is n o t d e p e n d e n t o n
distance from the source. The intensity is the sa m e n o m a t­
ter h o w far aw ay. T he o nly restriction is th a t it h as re d u c e d
accuracy if m e a su re m e n ts a re m a d e closer to th e so u rce
than approxim ately ten times the m a x im u m d ia m eter of the
lighting unit. For exam ple, for a 12 fresnel lens spotlight,
the intensity figures are only accurate at a d istance greater
than ab o u t 10 feet.

324
 A n g le from c e n le rlin e

Figure 7. Luminaire intensity distribution— rectangular.

Figure 8. Luminaire intensity distribution—polar.

T here are tw o w a y s th a t the in tensity info rm atio n is

n o rm ally sh o w n . E xam ples of th ese are sh o w n in F igures
7 a n d 8. T h e o nly difference b e tw e e n these is th a t in one
case the d a ta is p re s e n te d in a re cta n g u la r co o rd in a te for­
mat, a n d in the o the r p o la r coordinates are used. M ost light­
ing m a n u fa ctu re rs su p p ly in g in s tru m e n ts to the m otion-
p icture in d u s try te n d to p re s e n t their d a ta in a rectan g u lar
format. T he p o la r p re se n ta tio n is m o re likely to be en c o u n ­
tered w ith c o m m e rc ia l/in d u s tria l type fixtures.
W h ere th e intensity d istrib u tio n of a lighting source
is k n o w n , the illu m in a tio n p ro d u c e d b y the u n it can be

325
calculated using the inverse s q u a re law. T his is expressed
as follows:

Intensity (candelas)
Illum ination (foot candles) =
D 2(D = d istan ce in feet)

Intensity (candelas)
Illum ination (Lux) :
D :(D =distance in m eters)

(Exam ple: A fixture is d e scrib ed as h a v in g a cen ter

intensity (or center beam can dlepo w er) of 50,000 C andelas.
W h a t is the illum ination a t 25 feet? W h a t is the illu m in a­
tion at 10 meters?

50.000 50,000
(a) at 25 feet = ----------- = ----------- = 80 footcandles
25 x 25 625
50.000 50,000
(b) at 10 m eters = ----------- = ----------- = 500 Lux
10x10 100

2. Lighting Quantities— Coverage

All lighting fixtures have a lighting d istrib u tio n w hich
m a y be visible as projected on a flat wall. O ften this is ex­
pressed as sh o w n in Figure 9 a n d defin ed as a n illu m in a ­
tion distribution curve. T he im p o rtan t sta n d a rd m e a su rin g
p oin ts for such a d istrib u tio n are as follows:
Beam Coverage: This is d escrib ed as the lim it of the
area covered to w ith in 50% of the m a x im u m intensity.
Field C overage: T his is d escrib ed as the area covered
to w ith in 107.) of the m a x im u m intensity.

O f the tw o areas described above, the b e a m coverage

is the m o re im p o rta n t p h o to g ra p h ic ally . It describ es the
area th a t is illu m in ated at a level th a t is n o t lo w er than 1
sto p d o w n from the center in tensity. T h e a s s u m p tio n is
m ade, w h ere a single d istrib u tio n is sh o w n , th a t the d istri­
bution p atte rn is essentially circular.
C alculating C o v erage from Beam A ngle: T he follow­
ing expression allow s the c o m p u ta tio n of the cov erage d i­
am eter (W) for any distance (D) a n d a g iven b e a m ang le
(Refer to Figure 10). T he exp ressio n is:
W = 2 x (D) x [T angent ('/: Beam Angle)]

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 M a x im u m In tensity

5 0% of M a x im u m
In te n sity

10% of
M a x im u m In te nsity

Figure 9. Definition of intensity distribution curves.

(Example: For a d istan ce of 50 feet an d a k n o w n beam

an gle of 26 deg rees, w h a t is the co v erag e d ia m e te r of the
b eam (50% of the center)?
D = 50 feet; Beam A n g le = 26 degrees.
xh Beam A n gle = 13 deg rees
T a n g e n t of 13 d e g ree s = .231

W = 2 x 50 x .231 = 100 x .231 = 23.1 feet

3. General Comments on Calculations

M o st m a n u fa c tu r e rs a re n o w o fferin g b o th can d ela
inform atio n a n d a n g u la r coverage. T his is actually suffi­
cient inform atio n to m ak e so m e a p p ro x im atio n s of w h a t to
expect from the lighting fixtures u sin g the p ro c e d u re s o u t­
lined above.
In the ev en t th a t it is necessary to co n v ert from foot-
candles to lux, the value of footcandles sh o uld be m ultiplied
by 10.8. To co n v ert lux to footcandles, d iv id e lux by 10.8.
U sually, lux values will be associated w ith distances
m e a su re d in m eters, a n d fo otcandles w ith distan ces m e a­
su red in feet. In the case of the illu m in atio n calculations
above, the u se of feet o r m e te rs as the u n its of d istan ce will
autom atically yield illum in atio n values in footcandles or
lux respectively.

327
Figure 10. Definition of terms for calculating coverage.

T A N G E N T F U N C T IO N
Angle Tangent Angle Tangent Angle Tangent Angle Tangent

1 .018 12 .213 23 .425 34 .675

2 .035 13 .231 24 .445 35 .700
3 .052 14 .249 25 .466 36 .727
4 .070 15 .268 26 .488 37 .754
5 .088 16 .287 27 .510 38 .781
6 .105 17 .306 28 .532 39 .810
7 123 18 .325 29 .554 40 .839
8 .141 19 .344 30 .577 41 .869
9 .158 20 .364 31 .601 42 .900
10 .176 21 .384 32 .625 43 .933
11 .194 22 .404 33 .649 44 .966
45 1.000

Photographic Light Sources

T he sources co v ered in this section inc lu d e the m o re
familiar m a n -m a d e types, such as incandescent, carbon arc
a n d AC arc d isc h arg e la m p s as w ell as an exp o sitio n on
natural daylight.
The general characteristics of each type are d elineated
in m o d e ra te detail, in c lu d in g spectral en erg y d istrib u tio n s
an d electrical characteristics. In a d d itio n , a n y special con ­
sid eratio n s for the c in e m a to g ra p h e r are carefully no te d .
Each sub-section o n a p articu lar class of light so u rce closes
w ith d etailed inform ation on filtering the source.

Natural Daylight
N atu ral daylight, on a clear day , is the s u m of su n lig h t
a n d skylight. T he su n lig h t is directly from the su n, w h o se
surface is a b o u t 6,000K. Skylight is from su n lig h t tha t has

328
been scattered an d filtered in th e e a rth 's atm o sp h ere. Since
the sh o rtest w av e le n g th s are the ones least filtered by the
a tm o sp h ere, this resu lts in the b lu e sky. Figure 11 re p re ­
sents the spectral en erg y distrib u tio n for the su n co m p ared
to a 5400K source.
D ay lig h t co n d itio n s are h ig h ly v a ried , from a p h o to ­
g rap h ic v ie w p o in t, b ased on the local a tm o sp h e ric co n d i­
tions, location o n the earth , time of year, h o u r of the d a y
a n d the a m o u n t of a tm o s p h e ric p o llu ta n ts th a t m a y be
presen t. A b rief s u m m a r y of so m e of the p o ssibilities is
p rese n ted on p a g e 319.
In a d d itio n to color te m p eratu re variations, the degree
of d iffu sio n in d a y lig h t varies from the least to the m o st
diffuse lig htin g co n ditio ns tha t can be experienced.
Least D iffuse — In clear clo ud less su n lig h t, the s u n as
the m a in lig h ting so u rce (key) is truly a point. T his p ro ­
duces die hardest, m o st distinct shadow s. The inciden t light
level from the su n o n such a d a y can b e as m u c h as 9,500
footcandles. T he sk y lig ht co n tribu tio n (fill) is a b o u t 1,500
footcandles. This p ro d u ce s a lighting ratio of a b o u t 7:1 (key
to fill).
L ig h tin g c o n tro l in th e s e s i tu a t io n s m a y r e q u i r e
booster ligh tin g o r the use of certain g rip devices such as
large o v e rh e a d scrims.
M o st D iffuse — A com pletely o v ercast d a y is essen ­
tially sh a d o w le ss lighting. T he entire sky, h o rizo n to h o ri­
zon, beco m es the light source. T he in ciden t level m a y be
as low as 200 footcandles.

Figure 11. Similarity of sunlight to a theoretical 5400 K light source.

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Filters for Control of Natural Daylight
A fam ily of m a terials, m o stly on p o ly e ste r plastic-
based film, are m a d e for light control in these situations.
These are n o rm ally su p p lie d in rolls that are from 48 to 58
inches w id e (122 to 147 cm). In a d d itio n , the 85, a n d ND3,
N D 6 a n d N D 9 types are also available as rigid acrylic p a n ­
els, usually 4 by 8 feet in size (1.22 x 2.44 meters).
R eference sh o u ld be m a d e to p a g e s 323 a n d 278 in
read in g this section. P age 323 lists the MIRED shift values
for the various m aterials, an d their effect o n sources of tw o
different color tem p eratures. Page 278 su m m a riz e s the fil­
ter req u ire m en ts for each e lem en t of the lighting sy stem
a n d cam era for interior cin em ato g rap hy against daylighted
w indow s.
W h en p ro p e rly a p p lie d , sh a rp focus can be carried
th rou g h w in d o w s treated w ith either the plastic film m a ­
terials or the acrylic p anels. T h e p a n e ls are p artic u la rly
useful w h ere w in d o r stro n g air m o v e m e n t m a y cau se the
plastic film to m o v e a n d p ro d u c e visible highlights.

Conversion-Type Filters
T hese m a terials are in te n d e d for ap p licatio n a t o p e n ­
ings (doors, w in d o w s, etc.) w h e re n a tu ra l d a y lig h t is e n ­
tering an interior w h ich is to be p h o to g r a p h e d at a 3200K
b alan ce. T h e "fu ll" c o n v e rs io n m a te ria ls a v a ila b le a re
k n o w n as "C T O " a n d "85." In USA lighting practice, the
"85" has b een the type m o st w id ely ap p lie d (it is really a
W rat ten 85B equivalent). T he E u ro p ea n practice h as been
to use the d ee p er correction su ch as the "C TO ." T h e choice
of filter will obviously be d ete rm in e d by the actual dayligh t
c onditions bein g de alt w ith, or by artistic considerations.
Filters w h ich accom plish less than the full correction
to 3200K are also available, a n d are w idely used to deal with
the v ariations in d ay lig h t co n d itio n s th at m a y be e n c o u n ­
tered. They are also u sed w h e re the artistic effect w an te d
is different from " n a tu ra l" d a y lig h t (p age 367).

Neutral-Density Filters
W here it is desired to use a d ay lig h t balance in sid e the
space in w hich p h o to g ra p h y is taking place, the only filter
n orm ally indicated for the w in d o w s will be n e u tral d e n ­
sity. T hese are u sually requ ired d u e to the o v erp o w erin g
levels of su n lig h t w h ich are often e n c o u n tered in n atu ra l
settings. Typically these filters are available as either p las­

330
 tic films o r as rigid acrylic sheets. N o rm ally they can be
o b tain ed in den sities w h ich re d u c e the in cid en t light by Vi,
1, 2, o r 3 sto p s (ND.15, ND.3, ND.6, a n d ND.9).

Combination Filters
C o m b in atio n s of 85 a n d n e u tra l d e n sity o r C TO w ith
n eutral density are also available. T hese are utilized to re­
d uce the n u m b e r of m a terials w h ic h m u s t be installed in
o rd e r to accom plish b o th the co nv ersio n an d the red u ctio n
of lighting level.

Incandescent Light Sources

T he in c an descen t so urce is ch aracterized b y h a v in g a
filam ent stru c tu re th ro u g h w h ich cu rre n t is p a ssed to p ro ­
d uce heating.
W h en the filam ent is heated to v ery h ig h tem p eratu res
it rad iates visible light as a p a rt of its ra d ia n t en erg y o u t­
put. Figure 12 sh o w the relative spectral e n e rg y d istrib u ­
tions for so m e in c a n d e sce n t la m p s a t v a rio u s color tem ­
peratures.
Incan d escent sources, relative to the visible sp ectru m ,
radiate a t all w av e le n g th s in that sp ectrum . T he p ro p o rtio n
RELATIVE ENERGY

W A V E L E N G T H IN N A N O M E T E R S

Figure 12. Spectral energy distribution curves for incandescent lamps

at various color temperatures.

331
of energy at the different wavelengths (the spectral energy
distribution) is solely dependent on the Kelvin temperature
at which the filament is operated. Some of the typical fila­
ment configurations encountered in the photographic types
of sources are show n in Figure 13. The designations for the
various conformations are standard in the USA.
Incandescent sources may be operated on either alter­
nating or direct current. A very w ide range of light sources
has been designed with nominal operating voltages to meet
the requirements of both USA and international require­
ments. There are two basic subdivisions within the class of
incandescent sources.

C-ll C-13 C-13B C-Î3D

CC-11 CC-13 CC-13B

F i g u r e 13. C o m m o n i n c a n d e s c e n t f i l a m e n t fo rm s a n d t h e i r
designations.

Standard Incandescent
The standard incandescent source utilizes a tungsten
filament in a gas-filled enclosure of commercial glass. These
basic lam p types have been available for m any years of
motion-picture production. It has been traditional to pro­
duce two ranges of Kelvin temperature for professional use
in these types of lamps. Typically, at the rated voltage (i.e.,
120 volts), a 3200K and a 3350K design have been available.
3350K lamps are close to the Photoflood balance of Type

332
A color film a n d 3200K la m p s a re u se d for all professional
color m o tio n p ic tu re films.

Tungsten-Halogen Lamps
T he tu n g ste n -h a lo g e n la m p is a n in c an descen t lam p.
Its ra d ia n t en erg y o u tp u t is b a se d strictly o n the te m p e ra ­
ture of its filam ent, b u t it offers a n im p o rta n t difference in
operating principles w h e n c o m p a re d to the sta n d a rd incan­
descen t type.
T he a d d itio n of a h a log en gas in the fill p lu s th e u se of
h ig h te m p e ra tu re m a teria ls in th e e n v e lo p e of th e la m p
(quartz o r fused silica, a n d recently h a rd glass), h as resulted
in a d esig n w h ich d o es n o t ex p erience th e b la ck en in g ef­
fect w ith age that is characteristic of the s ta n d a rd in c an d es­
ce n t typ e s. D u e to th e p re s e n c e of th e " h a lo g e n cycle"
w ith in the la m p , the tu n g ste n is n o t p e rm itte d to d ep o sit
on the b u lb w alls (as lo n g as th e w all te m p e ra tu re is above
250 d e g re es C). It is, in fact, re -d ep o sited o n the filam ent
(See Figure 14). T h e resu lts of this d e v e lo p m e n t h a v e b een
manifold:
1. T u n g ste n -h alo g en la m p s h a v e m in im al loss in lu ­
m e n o u tp u t a n d n o significant shift in color te m p e ra tu re
d u rin g their entire life.
2. T u n g ste n -h a lo g e n la m p s w ith sim ila r c o n fig u ra ­
tions, w a tta g e s a n d initial lu m e n o u tp u ts as s ta n d a rd in­
c a n d e sc e n t ty p e s a re n o w p r o d u c e d w ith s u b sta n tia lly
longer usefu l life.
3. Because of the re q u ire m e n t for h ig h b u lb w all tem ­
p eratu res, it h as b een necessary to sh rin k the en v elo p e size
of th ese la m p s, re s u ltin g in c o m p le te ly n e w fam ilies of
la m p s w ith m u c h sm a ller e x tern a l d im e n s io n s th a n the
s ta n d a rd in c a n d esc en t equivalent.

Figure 14. Diagram of Halogen Cycle within lamp.

333
 In all otiler respects, the tungsten-halogen lam p sho u ld
be considered the sam e as the s ta n d a rd incandescent. They
m a y b e o p e ra te d o n e ith e r a lte rn a tin g o r d irect cu rren t.
C are sh o u ld be taken d u rin g installation to p re v e n t finger­
m a rk in g of the en v e lo p e since there is a ten d en cy for so m e
d e g ra d a tio n of the en v elo p e to occu r if fin g erp rints or d irt
are left o n d u rin g operation.

Incandescent Lamp Operation

Follow ing are so m e characteristic cu rv es w h ich will
explain m o re clearly the relation sh ip of va rio u s o f the p a ­
ra m eters associated w ith in c a n d e sce n t la m p o p eratio n s.
T hese curv es are applicable to b o th sta n d a rd inc an descent
(w h en the la m p is relatively new ) a n d to tu n g sten-halo g en
lam ps.

C olo r Tem p era tu re D e g re e s Kelv in

Lum e n s Per Watt

A p p ro x im a te L am p E ffic a c y (E ffic ie ncy)

Figure 15. Incandescent lamp efficacy as a function of color temperature.

L u m en s are a m e a su re of th e total light o u tp u t of a

source. In the case of in c an descen t la m p s the lu m en o u t­
p u t d e p e n d s alm o st entirely o n tine te m p e ra tu re of the fila­
m e n t a n d the a m o u n t of pow er. T he efficacy of the la m p
( lu m e n s /w a tt) is a lm o st en tirely d e p e n d e n t o n th e te m ­
p e ra tu re of the filam ent, an d becau se of this relation ship
the color te m p e ra tu re an d lu m en s p e r w a tt (efficacy of the
lam p) can be related. T his is d e m o n stra te d in F ig ure 15.
T he relatio n ship b etw e en the lu m e n o u tp u t a n d the
o p era tin g voltage of the lam p can also be d e m o n stra te d as
sh o w n in Figure 16. T his h as b e en n o rm a lize d so th a t the

334
Figure 16. Curve show ing change of lumen output of lamp as voltage is
changed. This has been normalized so that the percentages of lumen
oulput change to percentage ch ange in rated voltage can be easily
related.

Rated V o lt a g e s {% )

Figure 17. Curve showing change of color temperature (degrees K) as

voltage is changed.

percentag es of lu m e n o u tp u t c han g e to p ercen tag e chan g e

in rated vo ltag e can b e easily related.
T h e re is a d ir e c t r e la tio n s h ip b e tw e e n th e sh ift in
Kelvin te m p e ra tu re an d the o p e ra tin g v o ltag e of an in can ­
d esce n t lam p. T his is s h o w n in F ig u re 17 in term s of an
absolute ch a n g e in color te m p eratu re for a percen tag e shift
in the rated voltage. T he ru le of th u m b th at h as been used
w ith 120-volt-rated la m p s is tha t a o ne-volt c h an g e (u p or
d o w n ) resu lts in a 10-degree Kelvin shift. T his ap p ro x im a-

335
Figure 18. Curve showing lumen output of lamp during life.

Perc ent of R ated A ve rag e Life

Figure 19. Life expectancy curve for tungsten filament lamps.

tion is reasonably accurate as long as the p ercentag e change

in voltage is w ith in 10-15% of the ra ted value.
Figure 18 c o m p ares the p erc en ta g e of initial lu m en s
v ersu s th e p e rce n tag e of o p e ra tin g life b e tw e e n co n v e n ­
tional incandescent an d tungsten -h alo g en lam ps. N o te that
the tu n g sten -h alo gen ty p e h as o n ly a v ery n o m in al shift in
the lu m en o u tp u t d u rin g the cou rse of its entire life co m ­
p are d w ith the s ta n d a rd in c an d escen t lam p.
T he life ra tin g of all ty p es of in c a n d e sc e n t la m p s is
b ased o n the follow ing concept: if a v e ry larg e g r o u p of
lam p s is started at the sa m e time, the life ratin g re p re sen ts
the time at w h ich 50% of the g ro u p w ill still be b u rn in g . A
336
s ta n d a rd m o rtality cu rv e for in c an d escen t la m p s is s h o w n
in Figure 19.

Boosted-Voltage Operation
It is po ssible to ov er-v o ltag e a w id e ran g e of s ta n d a rd
120-voll, 2800-2900K la m p ty p e s a n d co n v ert them effec­
tively to p h o to g ra p h ic la m p types. T his sy stem ("Color-
tran " b oo sting) w a s w id ely in use in m a n y places a ro u n d
the w o rld until the sub stan tial a d v e n t of the tu ng sten -h alo­
g en lam p. A lth o u g h little-used in the U SA n o w , it is still in
w id e use in o th e r p a rts of the w o rld a n d offers so m e in ter­
esting ad v an tag es. T here are m a n y situ atio n s in w h ic h this
sy stem m a y b e b o th cost-effective a n d functionally d esir­
able for p a rtic u la r circum stances.
T he sy stem is d e sig n e d to utilize s ta n d a rd 120-volt­
rated tu n g s te n filam ent la m p s w h o se ra te d life a t 120 volts
is 750 h o u rs o r m ore. The system m ust not be used with stan­
dard tungsten-halogen incandescent types, unless there is a cer­
tainty that the lamp has been specifically designed fo r use in a
boosted-voltage system . U sin g th e s t a n d a r d in c a n d e sc e n t
types, a v e ry b ro a d ra n g e of la m p types, in c lu d in g m a n y
of the sealed b ea m s a n d the "R" series as w ell as m a n y other
sta n d ard incandescent lam ps, m a y be utilized a n d o perated
at 3200K o r higher.
Typically, w h e n la m p s a re o p e ra te d a t 165 volts, the
co lo r te m p e r a t u r e s h o u l d b e a p p r o x i m a t e ly 3100K to
3200K. It is possible to continue the b oo stin g operation, an d
so m e la m p ty p e s will actually yield 3300-3400K w h e n o p ­
era ted a t a p p ro x im a tely 185 volts. D u e to the low pre ssu re
in the s ta n d a rd in cand escen t, long-life la m p s, this is a safe
type of o p eration.
In the past, e q u ip m e n t w a s m a n u fa c tu re d to acco m ­
plish this v o ltage-boosting fu nctio n w ith p u sh -b u tto n co n ­
trol of a ta p p e d au to tran sfo rm e r. T he C o lo rtra n converters
u sually p ro v id e in p u t voltage selection (provision is built
in to ad ju st the u n it for in p u t voltages b etw ee n 100 a n d 250
volts) a n d a d ju stm en t so tha t the full b o o st ran g e w as avail­
able u n d e r a n y o f these in p u t conditions. T his p e rm itte d
the u se of th e sa m e la m p s a n y w h e re in th e w o rld . T his
e q u ip m e n t is still in u se in m a n y p laces, a n d s h o u ld b e
given co n sid eration w h e re econom ics a n d fu nction dictate
the feasibility.
A fu rth er a d v a n ta g e of this sy stem is that the sta n d a rd
incand escen t ty p es utilized in it tend to b e very m u c h less
expensive th a n the p h o to g ra p h ic la m p ty p es th at are ra ted
337
at 3200K at the o p eratin g voltage. Further, the expected life
of m a n y of these la m p s at 3200K o p e ratio n is directly c o m ­
parab le to the life th a t c an be ex p ected from 3200K type
p h o to g rap h ic la m p s o p erate d a t their ra te d voltages.

Filters for Incandescent Lamps

T h e se filters a re ty p ica lly a p p lie d to in c a n d e s c e n t
sources, w h ich m a y b e "q u artz," s ta n d a rd in c an d escen t or
"boosted" incandescent types. T hese filters are norm ally for
the p u rp o s e of ch an g in g th e SED to a n a p p ro x im a tio n of
daylight. They are referred to as conversion filters (see p ag e
367).
The original sta n d a rd for this co nversion w a s a glass
filter, the M acBeth "W hiterlite" type. T his filter transm its
only a b o u t 35% of the light, a n d h as b een largely s u p e r­
se d ed by the dichroic types w h ich tra n sm it a b o u t 50% of
the incident light. T he dichroic is an in terference-type fil­
ter, a n d m o st of these co n v ert the 3200K sou rce to a p p ro x i­
m ately 5000K to 5200K.
C are m u s t be exercised in the use of the dichroic fil­
ters since they d o n o t h a v e the sa m e filtering characteris­
tics for light in cid ent o n the filter at w id e ly v a ry in g angles.
W h en used o n so m e types of focusing light (particularly
som e of the o p e n reflector " q u a rtz " types), there m a y be
changes in color as the light is focused. G enerally, the light
at the e d g e of the field will s h o w so m e shift in color on
w id e-b eam floodlights u sin g dichroic filters.
T h e re m a y a lso b e s u f fic ie n t d if fe re n c e b e t w e e n
dichroics so th at if u sed o n m ultiple keys in the sam e scene,
there could be significant e n o u g h differences in the v ari­
o u s areas being lit. A three-color type of color m e ter sh o u ld
be u se d in m a k in g th e m e a s u r e m e n ts in s u c h c irc u m ­
stances.
A ran g e of v ery g o o d co nversion filters to m e et this
re q u ire m en t is available in the form of sh eets a n d rolls of
colored polyester m aterials. T he polyester film sh o w s good
heat resistance ev en w h e n a p p lie d to relatively h igh -po w -
ered lum inaires. T he use of so m e of the m u ltip le-lam p fix­
tures (M ini-Brutes), w ith the re q u ire m e n t for so m e deg ree
of diffusion m aterial, h a s resu lted in a diffusion m aterial
w h ich inc orporates the con v ersio n color for this a n d sim i­
lar applications. Reference sh o u ld b e m a d e to p a g e 367 for
a d etailed listing of the filters available.
C o n versio n filters — 3200K to daylight: T he c o n v er­
sion filter is u sed w h e re it is desirab le th a t the co nverted
338
 NATIONAL CARBONS FOR STUDIO LIGHTING
Fixture Carbon Positivs Carbon Nsgatlvs Arc D.C. Rating
Typs No. Description No. Description Electrical Volts
Amperes

Duarc 8mm x 12 in. 8 7mm x 9 in. 40 36

CC MR Studio CC MP Studio

M.R. 90 2 13.6mm x 22 in. 9 7 /1 6 in. x BVfc in.

H.l. Studio CC MP Studio 120 58

M.R. 170 3 16mm x 20 in. 10 v? in. x 8V4 in. 150 68

H.l. Studio CC MP Studio

M.R. Brute A 16mm x 22 in.

Super H.l. Studio
Positive-White
Flame
11 17/32 in. x 9 in. 225 73
5 16mm x 22 in. Special CC
Super H.l. Studio
Positive-Yellow
Flame

M.R. Titan 6 16mm x 25 in. 350 79

Ultrex HIWF
Studio 12 11/16 in. x 9 in.
CC MP Studio

7 16mm x 25 in. 300 73

HIYF Special
Studio

‘ Union Carbide Corp. Carbon Products Division

color te m p e ra tu re b e a p p ro x im a tely 5500K. T he light loss

associated w ith these ty p es of filters is a p p ro x im ately 1 to
I-'A sto p s T hese filters are referred to as "full b lu e 50," "full
b lu e " o r "CTB."
Partial C o n v e rsio n Filters — 3200K to less than d a y ­
light: T hese m a teria ls are related to the co n version types,
in that they p ro v id e a p artial conversion. T hese a re m a d e
in several g ra d e s to p e rm it a ra n g e of choices for the cin­
em ato g ra p h er.
T he ap p lication of these m a terials allow s for a d ju st­
m e n t in light sources d u e to voltage variation, the fadin g
of d ic h ro ic c o a tin g s o n c e rta in ty p e s of la m p s , a n d to
achieve d e sire d aesthetic effects w h ic h re q u ire less th a n a
"full" d ay lig h t conversion. T hese filters m a y also be used
to ad ju st the spectral e n e rg y d istrib u tio n of the co m m e r­
c ia l/in d u stria l light so u rces so th a t they m a tch s ta n d a rd
p h o to g rap h ic color balance (3200K o r 5500K).

339
DC Carbon Arc Sources
T he o p e n carb o n arc re m ain s in w id e use, a n d in p a r ­
ticular the 225 a m p e re "B rute" fresnel lens spotlight. The
table su m m a riz e s the va rio u s carb o n arc u n its, as w ell as
the type of carb on s necessary for each type. T here is also a
su m m a ry of the electrical characteristics of these arcs w h e n
p ro p erly operated.

Electrical Operating Characteristics

All of the carb o n arcs desc rib e d o p e ra te from direct
c u rre n t only. T he actual arc voltage of th ese u n its is ty pi­
cally a b o u t 72 volts. T hey are n o rm ally utilized fro m 120-
volt DC sources b y usin g a resistive g rid (ballast) to d ro p
the s u p p ly voltage 48 volts.
M ore recently, specially w o u n d o r ta p p e d g e n era to rs
h a v e been utilized w h ic h p ro d u c e the arc v oltage directly
an d elim inate the n ee d for the g rid or ballast. This is a sig­
nificantly m o re efficient m o d e o f o p e ra tio n in te rm s of
p o w e r utilization b u t d o es req u ire special eq u ip m en t.

Color Temperature
In the Brute a n d Titan th e carbons are available in b oth
w h ite -flam e a n d yello w -flam e p o sitives. T h e c o rre la ted
color te m p eratu re w ith w hite-flam e c a rb o n is 5800K. T he
correlated color te m p e ra tu re w ith the yellow -flam e carbon
is 3350K.

Filters
T he u se of th e se filters, o rig in ally as g e la tin -b a se d
types, is w ell-established practice. N e w , m o re d u ra b le fil­
ter m aterials are n o w available to acco m p lish these fu n c­
tions. T hese filters are u sed w ith the different carb o n s in
o rd e r to p ro v id e light w h ich is a b etter m a tc h to "d a y lig h t"
or 3200K. In so m e cases, the arc color is ad ju sted in o rd e r
to m e et the re q u ire m e n ts of m a tc h in g " d a y lig h t" at earlier
o r later times of the d ay. T he basic co n versio n s are as fol­
lows. T he d esig n ation s are the m o st co m m o n ly accepted,
alth o u g h so m e of the filter m a n u fac tu re rs h a v e c h o sen to
create n e w codes:
Y-l: U sed w ith w hite-flam e carb o n to p ro v id e a b e t­
ter m atch for "daylight." The Y-l is pale yellow in color, an d
h as ab o u t 90% transm ission. A n LCT Yellow filter m a y also
be used.

340
 MT-2 + Y-l: U sed w ith w hite-flam e carbons to convert
to a p p ro x im a tely 3200K for color negative. (Filtered light
is slightly b lu e for 3200K reversal types.) The MTY filter is
available w h ich com bines these tw o in a single material. A n
LCT Yellow p lu s Full C T O m a y also b e used.
O th e r filters, particu larly the 'A MT-2, m a y be u se d to
" w a rm " the arc color as d e e m e d necessary by the c in em a­
to grapher. T h e C T O series of filters are all applicable to the
arc w ith w hite-flam e carb on s for v ario u s d eg rees of ad ju st­
m ent.

Enclosed AC Arcs
T hese are enclosed lig h t sou rces w h ich are b a se d o n
the p rin c ip le of a m e d iu m le n g th m e rc u ry arc to w h ich
vario u s m a terials h av e been a d d e d to m o d ify the spectral
energ y distrib u tio n . T h e ad d itiv e s typically a re m e tal h a ­
lides.
All of these la m p s are o p e ra te d from a ltern a tin g c u r­
re n t only, a n d re q u ire the u se of a h ig h -v o ltag e ig n itio n
device to sta rt a n d to re-strike th e m w h e n hot, as w ell as a
b allasting dev ice to lim it th e current.
A s a g en eral characteristic, all of these la m p s tend to
h av e a lig h t o u tp u t w h ic h is m o d u la te d in relation to time.
This is d u e to the fact th at the light o u tp u t follow s the c u r­
rent, a n d these la m p s are o p e ra te d o n a ltern a tin g current.
A s the c u rre n t rises th ro u g h zero a n d u p to a m a x im u m an d
back d o w n th ro u g h zero to the o p p o site p olarity peak, the
light o u tp u t te n d s to m o d u la te b e tw ee n a m in im u m a n d a
m a x im u m value. T h e d eg ree of m o d u la tio n is differen t for
the v a rio u s sources.
T his c h a racteristic is im p o rta n t, sin ce it can b e the
so u rce o f "flicker" p ro b lem s. W ith so m e of th e la m p s it
becom es necessary to be su re th a t the p o w e r so urce to the
la m p a n d the fra m in g rate of th e ca m era a n d the sh u tte r
angle are h e ld in certain specific relationships. T here is a
detailed analysis of this p h e n o m e n o n in a follow ing section
(page 376).
A n o th er c o m m o n characteristic of these sources is that
th ey are a p p ro x im a tio n s of d a y lig h t. T y pical co rrelated
color te m p e ra tu re s are ap p ro x im ate ly 5600K. T here will be
som e v ariatio n in this, as w ell as in the m a n u fa c tu rin g tol­
erances for color tem p eratu re for the ind iv id u al la m p types.
The follow ing sections will offer m o re d etailed inform ation
for each type.

341
HMI™ Lamps
T he m o s t w id e ly u s e d o f the n e w ty p e s o f p h o to ­
g ra p h ic enclo sed -arc A C d isc h a rg e la m p s are k n o w n as
HMIs. This term is a tra d e m a rk of O sra m , b u t h a s becom e
very m u c h the generic term for this fam ily of lam ps. Som e
of the o th er tradem arked bran d nam es for these sources are
BRITEARC, DAYMAX, TRU -A RC, MSR a n d DiLite. A n
a sso rtm en t of these la m p s is s h o w n in Figure 20. T hese are
fun d am en tally m ercu ry arcs w ith m e tal h alid e ad d itiv es to
adjust the color balance. All of the various sizes of this la m p
are rated by the m an u factu rers at approxim ately 5600K (see
Figure 21). This is n o rm ally stated as h a v in g a p lu s o r m i­
n u s 400°K tolerance. C olor R en derin g In dex (CR1) of the
lam p is g reater th an 90 for all types. A s will be n o te d from
the color te m p eratu re a n d its tolerance, there can be so m e
variation in the color re n d e rin g characteristics from la m p
to lam p. Also, account m u s t b e taken of the age of the lam p
since this te nd s to result in a red u ction of the color tem p era­
ture. In n o rm al d ay lig h t fill applications, these v ariations
are p rob ab ly n o t significant.

4000 WATTS

Figure 20. Comparative sizes of some HMI lamps.

W h e re m o re th an o n e light w ill b e u sed as k ey in a

scene, a n d these are likely to be seen in a single shot, it is
strongly re c o m m e n d e d that these keys be m e a su re d w ith
a three-color type of co lo r-tem p era tu re m eter. A p p ro p ri­
ate filtering m aterials are available for ap p lication to these
u n its that allow s correction of g reen -m ag en ta shifts as well

342
as adjustm ent of the color temperature. With the proper
meter, and the right filter materials at hand, it is literally a
matter of minutes to balance lights to an extremely close
match. If this practice is not followed, it is possible to have
significant variation in color rendering from two keys in the
same scene. Refer to the section on "Filters for Arc Sources."
A 25
20

15
10

0
20

15
10

400 500 600 700 nm 600

wavelength x

Figure 21. (a) Relative spectral power distribution of radiant energy

of HMI 575-W and spectral radiance distribution (b) of daylight at
6500 K.

Page 345 is a brief sum m ary of the electrical and physi­

cal characteristics of the lamps comprising the full range of
HMI sources. Figure 22 is a graphic presentation of the
various param eters of HMI am p s expressed in terms of
percentage changes in the supply voltage. It is of particu­
lar interest to note that the color temperature increases with
decreasing voltage.
Like all metal vapor lamps, HMI lamps require a cer­
tain period after starting until final operating conditions are
reached. The w arm -up period varies with the lamp w att­
age, b u t typically is of the order of a minute or two from a
cold start. Figure 23 shows curves of the electric and pho­
tometric data during w arm ing-up of the lam p in operation
with a standard inductive ballast. After ignition the lamp
current at first increases. Power consum ption, operating
voltage and lum inous flux, however, are lower during the
w arm -up stage than w hen in full operation. The w arm -up
period after igniting a hot lam p is considerably shorter.
Lighting fixtures have been designed specifically for
these light sources, d u e to their particular requirements for
cooling and the arrangements for mounting and electrically

343
 120

11 0

PL 105

<b\_
100
'L

U|_ 90

85

80
90 95 100 105 110

S u p p ly v o l i a g e ( % ) U v ----------

Figure 22. HMI 2500-W power consum ption PL, lum inous flux OL,
current intensity IL, nearest color temperature TF, and operating voltage
UL (relative values), as a function of the supply voltage Uv.

connecting these lam ps. Also, to utilize the substantial light

o u tp u t of these fixtures w ith an y d e g re e of efficiency re ­
quires so m e special considerations. Fixtures are m a d e b y
a large n u m b e r of m a n u fa c tu re rs at this p o in t a n d in c lu d e
conventional fresnel lens sp o tligh ts, flood lights a n d ev en
so m e softlight configurations.
N o rm a lly the lighting u n its a re su p p lie d w ith a m a t­
ing ballast, alth ou g h this e q u ip m en t can be p u rc h ased sep a ­
rately. T he ballasting sy ste m s are n o rm a lly co nventional
in d uc tive types. T hese ballast types h a v e n o effect o n the
te n dency for this light to m o d u la te as a fu nction of time
(flicker).
W h en o p erate d o n a standard inductive type ballast, this
la m p m o d u la te s a p p ro x im a te ly 83%. T h a t is to say, the
m in im u m light o u tp u t is a p p ro x im a tely 17% of the p eak
value. T his m o d u la tio n characteristic, w h ic h is s h o w n in
F igure 43 (page 377), is responsible for the "flicker" p h e ­
n o m e n o n w h ic h can o ccu r w h e n p r o p e r a tte n tio n is n o t
p aid to the sy n ch ro n izatio n of the p o w e r line frequency for
the lam p, the sh u tte r angle a n d fram ing rate of the cam era.
This p articular p ro b lem is d ealt w ith in so m e detail in a fol-

344
 HMI L A M P S — SUMMARY OF E L E C T R I C A L
AND PHYSICAL C H A R A C T E R I S T I C S
Lamp Power
Rating (Watts) 200 575 1200 2500 4000 6000 8000 12000
Minimum Open Circuit A.C.
Voltage to the lamp for
ignition (Volts) 198 198 198 209 360 220 380 380

Lamp Operating Voltage

(Volts) 80 95 100 115 200 135 220 225

Lamp Operating Current

(Amperes) 3.1 7.0 13.8 25.6 24.0 55 — 65.0

Luminous Flux (Light

output in Lumens) 16,000 49,000 110,000 240,000 410,000 630,000 800,000 1,008,000

Luminous Efficacy
(Lumens/Watt) 80 85 92 96 102 105 100 84

Average Life (Hours) 300 750 750 500 500 350 500 —
Burning Position Horizontal Any Any Horizontal Horizontal Horizontal Horizontal Horizontal
±15° ± 15° ±15° ±15° ± 15° ± 15°

345
 160
%
il 140

120

100
•h

k 00
Tf 60
UL
40

20

0 1 2 3 mi n. A
W a rm -u p tim e -------------------- ► -

Figure 23. HMI 2500-W power consum ption PL, lum inous flux OL,
current intensity 1L, nearest color temperature TR, and operating voltage
UL (relative values), as a function of lime after starting the cold lamp.

lowing section (page 376). Many types of electronic ballasts

are now available for the full range of HMI-type lamps. All
of these can be considered "flicker-free" in the normal range
of camera operation.
The service life of the HMI type lam ps d ep e n d s to
some extent on the num ber of starts and might even exceed
the values given in the table. However it is mainly governed
by the permissible tolerances of color temperature (which
may very according to application). During lamp life, the
color temperature will drop at an average of approximately
1 degree Kelvin per operating hour. The Color Rendering
Index will remain unchanged and the decrease of the lu­
minous efficacy and lum inous flux will be very low (Fig­
ure 24).
HMI lamps that have had long use can, with the use
of a three-color color tem perature meter and the appropri­
ate correction filters, have their color te m p era tu re and
green-magenta balance adjusted. This practice will assure
that the end life for these lamps is the mom ent at which they
can no longer be started using their specified ignition and
ballast equipm ent, rather than the point at w hich their
unfiltered color balance is no longer acceptable. A djust­

346
m e n ts of the color balance of H M I la m p s is d o n e w ith the
ra n g e of filters described herein. A n u m b e r of the types of
electronic ballasts offer a lim ited ra n g e of "color te m p e ra ­
tu re a d ju s tm e n t." C a u tio n s h o u ld be exercised in u sin g
these controls relative to g re en -m ag en ta axis shifts, a n d in
p articu la r w h e re a p p lie d to keylights.

CAUTION:
1. T h e H M I so urce is extrem ely rich in ultraviolet
en erg y . All c o m m ercial fix tures p re s e n tly so ld h a v e
been carefully d esig n ed to a ssu re th a t there is n o leak­
age of the ultrav io let energy. T h ere m u s t be a lens or
co v er glass of a p p ro p ria te c o m p o sitio n ov e r the o p e n ­
ing of this fixture in o rd e r to screen o u t this ultraviolet.
All of the com m ercial fixtures in u se h a v e interlocking
sy stem s w hich assu re th a t the la m p will n o t o p e ra te if
a n y o f th e le n s o p e n in g s o r access d o o rs a re n o t p r o p ­
erly closed. IT IS EXTREMELY IM P O R T A N T T H A T
THESE INTERLOCKS BE RESPECTED. SINCE EXPO­
SURE T O THESE H IG H L E V E L S O F U L T R A V I O ­
L E T C A N R E S U L T IN S E V E R E S U N B U R N I N G
A N D P A I N F U L EYE BURNS.
2. All com m ercial sy stem s of H M I e q u ip m e n t are
e le c tric a lly g r o u n d e d (e a r th e d ). T h is i n d e p e n d e n t
g ro u n d circuit m u s t be respected, since there are circum ­
stances u n d e r w h ich h a z a rd o u s v o ltages m a y b e p re ­
s e n te d to a n o p e r a t o r if th is c o n n e c tio n is o m itte d .
W here H M I eq u ip m e n t is o p erated from a po rtab le g en­
erator, a g ro u n d in g stak e m u s t b e u sed to a ssu re that
the g e n e ra to r an d its stru c tu re are p ro p erly g ro u n d e d .
U N D E R N O C IR CU M STA N C ES SH O U L D THIS SYS­
T E M BE O P E R A T E D U N L E S S A C O M P L E T E
G R O U N D IN G CIRCU IT IS C O N N E C T ED .

DCI™ — DC Metal Halide Arc

Discharge Lamps
DCI™ la m p s are re p re se n te d as silen t a n d "flicker-
free." T hese a re generally v ery sim ilar in their physical a p ­
pearan ce to H M I types, a n d a n u m b e r of their o p e ra tin g
characteristics are the sam e. T h ey are rate d a t 5600 deg rees
Kelvin, w ith a C olor R e n d e rin g In d ex a b o v e 90, a n d life
ratings are v ery sim ilar to H M I la m p s of sim ilar w attage.
The electrode co n fig uration is sim ilar to tha t fo u n d in DC

347
 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 750 h
O p e ra tin g lim e

Figure 24. L um in o u s efficacy of H M I 575-W as a function of o p e ra tin g

time.

short arc Xenon lamps. There are, how ever some signifi­
cant differences between DCI and HMI:
a.) Due to the fact that the lamp operates on DC, the
arc source is located at one electrode all of the time, which
yields a smaller effective source size, and should show
some im provem ent in utilizing the lum en o u tp u t of this
source. Further, because the arc is operating on DC, it can be
used at any camera framing ratefrom 2 to 10,000frames per sec­
ond without concern for flicker.
b.) The DCI lam p ballast will be m uch simpler, and
should therefore more reliable and less expensive than the
somewhat complex flicker-free ballasts required for the AC
arcs.
c.) The claim for silent operation is based on the DC
opera tion of the lam p as com pared to the HMI types when
operated on square-wave type ballasts.
This lamp has only recently appeared, and is currently
projected to be available in 800W, 1500W, 2500W, 5000W,
and 10,000W sizes. At this writing, the lam ps have been
successfully fitted to existing HMI Fresnel Lens Spotlights.

CSI Lamps
The C om pact Source Iod ide L am ps (CSI) are also
metal halide additive-type lamps. Typically, these are avail­
able in either a single-ended configuration or in a PAR 64
(sealed beam) enclosure. The configuration of the various
lamps in this series is show n in Figure 25.
This particular lam p has been used m ore w idely in
Europe than in the USA. It is specified as having a corre­
lated color tem peratu re of 4200K plus or m in us 400K.
Clearly it is necessary to do some filtering of the light to use
it either in a "daylight" balance situation or for 3200K ap ­
plication. The efficacy of the lam p is high and its initial

348
output represents 90 lum ens per watt. Lumen maintenance
(the a m o u n t by w hich the light falls off d u rin g life) is
claimed to be 90%. The tolerance spread for the correlated
color tem perature (which is not true color temperature)
would indicate that the lamp could be anything from 3800K
to 4600K as received from the manufacturer.
W hen operated on a standard inductive type ballast,
this lamp modulates approximately 62%. That is to say, the
m inim um light o utp u t s approxim ately 38% of the peak
value. "Flicker" can be a problem u n d e r som e circum ­
stances, and appropriate precautions should be taken.

t-------------- 8.7----------------- 1

Figure 25. C o n fig u ra tio n s an d d im e n s io n s for the 1000-W CSI a n d CID

lamps.

This discharge lam p is available in a sealed-beam

(PAR 64) enclosure which affords simple handling and has
m ade it attractive for large area lighting of locations and
sports settings for both television and film.
A ppropriate filtering for CSI lam ps is available from
the range of light source correction m edia listed on page
367. Because of the character of the radiant energy distri­
bution of this source, it is essential that a three-color read­
ing color tem perature meter be used in order to assure that

CAUTION: The same cautionary note as show n under

the HMI lam p type relative to ultraviolet exposure and
to grounding and electrical safety is applicable to the use
of these sources. The sealed beam PAR 64 bulb emits
no UV provided that the outer bulb is intact.

349
reasonable corrections are being achieved with these lamps
for critical color work.

CID Lamps
This metal halide additive-type lam p utilizes the io­
dides of tin and indium. The physical configurations are
identical to the CSI lamps (see Figure 25), except that in the
CID type, a 2500-watt version is also available. This is pic­
tured in Figure 26. The spectral pow er distribution and
transient starting characteristics are show n in Figures 27
and 28.
The correlated color te m p era tu re of CID lam ps is
5500K plus or m inus 400K throughout life. It is claimed that
CID lamps can be dim m ed to 40% m axim um outp ut (us­
ing suitable ballast) w ithout affecting color temperature.
The claimed lum en m aintenance for this source is 90% for
all of its types and variations.
W hen operated on stan d ard inductive ballasts, the
lamp m odulates to 45%. That is to say, the m inim um light
output is approximately 55% of the peak. This represents
a significant im provem ent over the basic m odulation char-

Figure 26. 2500-W com pact io d id e d a y lig h t (CID).

350
 Typical sp ectral p o w er
xio*

Wavelength (nm)

Figure 27. Typical spectral p o w e r d is trib u tio n for C ID lamps.

Tim e from sw itch -o n

Figure 28. T ran s ie n t characteristics of la m p from switch-on.

acteristics of the HMI and CSI types, but precautions re­

garding flicker m ust still be observed.
Filters for adjusting the spectral energy distribution of
CID lamps are listed on pages 366-367.

351
Light-Source Filters
These light sources vary not only in color temperature,
but there are likely to be significant green-magenta shifts.
It is recommended that anyone regularly working w ith the
types of AC arc discharge sources delineated above should
have a three-color color tem perature meter. W ith such an
instrument, and the system of filters created by Rosco Labo­
ratories, Inc., it is possible to deal properly with all of the
variations that are likely to be en co un tered w ith these
lamps.
The possible range of lamp-to-lamp variations in color
balance is primarily due to aging and m anufacturing varia­
tions. In many situations, it will be highly desirable or es­
sential to assure that the lam ps in use will have the same
color rendering characteristics.
Some claims have been m ade for single conversion
filters for the HMI and CSI type lamps, bu t it is difficult to
understand how a single filter could even come close to
meeting the wide range of possible lamp color balances that
are likely to be encountered within a given type. The range
of available materials has been proven in practice to meet
the requirements of color balancing lights so that m inim um
variations are present.

High-Pressure DC Short Arc Xenon Light

Sources
This source is the best commercially available light
source for use in higher-pow ered projection systems. The
very small size and very high brightness of the arc source,
and die stability of the arc location d u e to the DC opera­
tion, m ake it the source of choice aro un d the w orld for
motion-picture projection.
The efficacy of high-pressure xenon sources (lum ens/
watt) ranges from 35 to 50 LPW. Ballasting is very simple,

CAUTION: These lamps have high internal pres­

sure even w hen cold. They are supplied w ith a protec­
tive jacket over the bulb, and this should not be removed
until the lamp is fully installed. It is required that a suit­
able face shield, body jacket and gauntlets be used any
time that the protective jacket is removed. W hen remov­
ing a lamp the protective jacket should be installed be­
fore steps are taken to disconnect and rem ove the lamp.

352
requiring only a current-limiting rectifier that can produce
DC that has less than 5% ripple. A high-voltage igniter is
necessary to start these lamps, and they can be hot re-struck.
These lamps permit the creation of an intense focused beam
of pure, slightly cold daylight color balance light (about
6000° K), and have a Color Rendering Index of 95 to 98.
They have found som e limited application in motion-pic-
ture photographic lighting. The source is available in a wide
variety of w attages u p to 10KW.

Stroboscopic Lighting
Stroboscopic ("strobe") lighting for m otion pictures
has been available commercially for about 30 years. Typi­
cally these utilize xenon flashtubes w hich produce a good
approxim ation of daylight (about 6000°K), and a relatively
stable color temperature throughout life. Due to the fact that
the flashtubes that are suitable for this application are ei­
ther long slim sources or helical shapes, they can really only
produce soft lighting. They can be color-corrected or a d ­
justed using the sam e filter m aterials described for appli­
cation to any of the norm ally utilized light sources and
lighting instrum ents.
It is com m on practice to utilize continuous sources
(such as tungsten) w ith strobes. Typical practice is to light
2 stops u nd er the strobe w ith the tungsten lighting up to
one stop over. The m ore tungsten lighting, the softer the
image. The control equipm ent for these light sources p er­
mits an exposure duration of between '/so.ooii and Mod,™«) of a
second. This permits stop motion with extraordinary sharp­
ness of various phenom ena, and delineates detail in real­
time m ovem ent that is a blur in normal photography (even
with very small shutter angles). The sharpness of results in
slow-motion effects is unm atched by other techniques.
The strobes m ust be synchronized to the camera shu t­
ter. Usually the strobes are driven by the shutter pulse from
the camera, and it is im perative that the units flash when
the shutter is fully clear of the gate (otherwise a partially
exposed frame will result). To check camera synchroniza­
tion, the lens should be removed, and the cavity illuminated
with the strobe w ith the camera turned on. The shutter
should appear to be frozen in one position.
The control equipm ent for these strobes permits the
addition of delay to the pulse in degree increments. The
position of the shutter will either m ove forw ard or back­

353
w ard in relationship to the gate until it is in the p roper
position. For reflex cameras the strobe fires twice for each
frame, once to illuminate the subject and a second time to
illuminate the viewfinder.
CA U TIO N : P eop le w ith p h o to se n sitiv e ep ilep sy
should be informed that strobe lighting will be in use.

Commercial/Industrial Light Sources

This section will present information about the most
com m only encountered types of com m ercial/industrial
light sources which may be found in location situations.
For many exterior situations, there is little or nothing
that can be done about the color of the existing light (e.g.,
roadw ay lighting or large-area exterior lighting). In many
other situations it is completely practical a n d /o r possible
to apply filters to the light sources that are encountered in
a location setting. This can result in minimizing the prob­
lems in the set-up, and achieving a more natural look (more
nearly as the scene appears to the eye).
A further alternative is the use of camera filters to com­
pensate for the color balance of the available light. In or­
der to use conventional photographic lights for supplem en­
tal lighting, it is only necessary that they be filtered so that
their color balance is the sam e as the do m inant am bient
lighting. This ap p roach m akes it possible to retain the
"character" or "look" of the location lighting, and still al­
lows the creative freedom to add such supplem ental light­
ing as indicated for the desired dramatic or artistic effect.

Domestic Incandescent Lighting

Non-photographic types of incandescent lighting tend
to have color temperatures that m ay range from 2400K up
through 2900K or so at their rated voltages. The color tem­
perature is directly related to the wattage of the lamp, with
very-low-wattage types having the lowest color tem pera­
tures. Refer to page 319.
If these sources are providing sufficient light for expo­
sure, and it is felt that no supplemental lighting is required,
then a camera filter can be used to correct the lighting bal­
ance to an approxim ation of 3200K. Typically, this w ould
represent application of one or m ore of the W ratten 82 se­
ries filters. The table on page 230 gives an approxim ation
of the appropriate W ratten filter or filters required and the
effect of that filter on the color tem perature of the am bient

354
lighting. (Alternatively, m ost laboratories could correct for
the temperature deficiency in printing from color negative.)
If used, supplem ental lighting can be reduced in color tem­
perature to match the am bient light; this w ould be done
most easily by the addition of filters to the luminaires. It
could also be accomplished by the use of a dimmer.

AC Discharge Lighting
The cinem atographer on location assignment is more
and more likely to encounter various types of discharge
lamps. These m ay be in use for both interior lighting in
stores and commercial buildings a nd for exterior lighting
in sports stadium s, parking lots, shopping malls, and for
street lighting.
M any of these types of light sources give excellent
color rendering for the eye, and the m anufacturers often
give a correlated color temperature value to the source. This
"Kelvin" tem perature usually has no m eaning for the p u r­
poses of color photography.
The following sections offer the means for dealing with
these light sources to assure acceptable photographic re­
sults that should be well within the laboratory tolerances
for correction of color negative film. (See "Color Balanc­
ing-")

Existing Fluorescent Lighting on Location

This is probably the most w idely used type of interior
lighting in com m ercial and industrial settings. It is not
unusual to find commercial or industrial locations which
are lighted to 125 or so footcandles using fluorescent light­
ing. Considering the speed a nd other characteristics of the
newest film emulsions, this level is certainly sufficient to
obtain reasonable exposure settings.
By m aking use of the am bient fluorescent light, the
cinematographer can maintain the lighting quality and the
character of the setting, that is to say, a more nearly "soft-
lighted" appearance.
Most fluorescent illumination, because of its discon­
tinuous spectrum , is not well-suited to color cinematogra­
phy (see Figures 29 through 34). The correlated color tem­
perature of a fluorescent lam p m ay provide a visual color
match for a tungsten lamp of similar color temperature, but
photographic color results will be quite dissimilar. Expo­
sure m ay no longer be a problem under these conditions

355
Figure 29. Cool W h ite F40CW.

W arm W h ile F4QWW

300 350 400 450 500 550 600 650 700

Wavelength in Nanc/n&tefs

Figure 30. W arm W hite F40WW.

but color rendition remains a serious consideration w ith

fluorescents found in commercial or industrial situations.
If color film is exposed w ithout filter correction, the
results will have a blue-green cast w ith w eak reds, even
w ith daylight type emulsions. The result is not at all w hat
the viewer expects to see in a fluorescent-lighted setting.

356
 Cool White Deluxe F40CWX

0.8

0 7

03

300 350 <100 600 650 700

Wavelenqin m N;

Figure 31. Cool W hite D elu xe F40CWX.

Warm White Deluxe F40WWX.

'VKI '}f>0 4(K) 450 rjfK) 550 600 650 700

Figure 32. W arm W hite D e lu x e F40WWX.

Mercury Vapor and Color Improved

Mercury Lamps
The clear mercury vapor lamp will not produce accept­
able color photographic results w ith any degree of filter­
ing. The reason for this can be seen by examining the spec-

357
 Natural F40N.

08

07

300 350 4(X) 450 fjCHl 550 600 650 700

WavrtA.MujUi m Nui»xnetots

Figure 33. Natural F40N.

Figure 34. Incandescent Fluorescent F401F.

trum in Figure 35. N ote that there is essentially no light

o u tpu t in the red portion of the spectrum and only line
spectrum outp ut in the blue and blue-green portions. O b­
viously, there is no way to compensate for the lack of red
energy, so that this source m ust either be overpowered with

358
 Fluorescent Lighting
for Motion Pictures
by Freider Hochheim, President of KinoFlo, Inc.

Fluorescent lighting has traditionally had the

reputation of being an inappropriate light source for
motion picture production. The primary criticism has
revolved around noisy ballasts, poor color rendering,
green skin tones, 60Hz flicker and low light output.
These criticisms are now a thing of the past. Technol­
ogy has advanced to the point w here high-quality
fluorescent products are now being produced spe­
cifically for the motion-picture and television indus­
try. The cinem atographer can now consider using
fluorescent lights not only in situations w hich are
motivated by existing location fluorescent environ­
m ents b u t rather in any situation requiring either
daylight or 3200 Kelvin light.
The fluorescent lam p by its very nature has an
indirect or am bient light quality which is desirable
in situations calling for natural light quality. Instead
of bouncing the light from an HMI or an incandes­
cent fixture, the cinem atographer can utilize a fluo­
rescent light source which embodies the character­
istics of a bounce board. The light is soft and has a
spread and drop-off very similar to bounced light.
Finding this quality of light in a long narrow light
source w hich can be easily hidden in a set opens up
new lighting possibilities and provides new solutions
for old problems. The low heat and low pow er re­
q u ire m e n ts give this techn olog y a d d e d ap p e al
am ongst actors and electricians alike.
KinoFlo provides some of the most recent inno­
vations. It is producing a line of location and studio
lighting systems offering lightweight a nd portable,
high-frequency flicker-free, color-correct fluorescent
lighting instruments. KinoFlo offers a broad selection
of color-correct lam ps in sizes ranging from the mi­
cro at 100mm in length to the KF55 at 8 feet and in
5500 Kelvin and 3200 Kelvin color temperatures.

359
other lighting, or allowed to render its subjects w ith only
blu e/blue green energy.
A num ber of other types of mercury lam ps have been
m ade in w hich a phosph or coating has been p u t on the
inside of the outer jacket of the lamps. In principle, this has
worked very much like a fluorescent lamp and has resulted
in an im proved color rendering capability. A n um ber of
these types, such as the Color Im proved M ercury, have
sufficiently complete spectral energy distribution so that
they are now finding application in certain types of com­
mercial interior use.

Wavelength in Nanometers
Correlated Color Temperature—5900eK Color Rendering Index—22
CE Chromatcity—x = 320y = 379

Figure 35. Spectral e nerg y d is trib u tio n of 400- W C lear m e rc u ry la m p.

Spectral energy distributions for some of these lamps

are show n in Figures 36 through 38. It is evident from the
examination of these distributions that there is a substan­
tial im provem ent in the availability of energy at the inter­
mediate wavelengths between the mercury lines. This re­
sults in im proved color rendering.

Metal Halide Additive Lamps

The metal halide additive lam ps know n by a variety
of tradem arked nam es such as Metalarc, Multi-Vapor and
HQI, for example, are essentially m ercury v apor lam ps
which have had small additions of various metal halides
m ade inside the arc tube. These lam ps have generally high
efficacies (approximately 85 lum ens per w att typically).
These lamps are widely used in sports lighting as well
as in shopping malls, and a wide variety of other com m er­
cial/industrial applications. Some typical spectral energy
360
 W avelength m N anom eters

Correta'ed Coky Temperature -360CTK Coer Renoermg looex—47

CIE Oroma!Cfy—x = 400 y = 380

Figure 36. Spectral energ y d is trib u tio n of 400-W W arm D elu xe mercury
la m p (H33GL-400-WDX).

a
0
km
x=
1
8:
UJ
'•
I

3 5 0 4 0 0 450 5 0 0 5 5 0 6 0 0 6 5 0 7 0 0
Wavelength m Nanometers
Correlated Color Temperature- 4200T< Cotor Rendering index 45
GE Chromatofy—x = 383 y = 419

F igu re 37. S p e c tra l e n e r g y d i s t r i b u t i o n o f 400-W C o lo r I m p r o v e d

m ercury la m p (H33GL-400C).

distributions for these types are show n in figures 39 and

40.
Sodium Lamps
H igh -pressure so d iu m lam ps h ave becom e an ex­
tremely im portant light source for roadw ay and large-area
lighting such as parking lots. These lam ps are know n by
various trademarked names such as Lucalox and Lumalux.
These are high-efficacy lamps, up to 120 lum ens per watt.
They have a characteristically yellow-orange color. A typi­
cal spectral energy distribution is show n in Figure 41.
361
 100

f 90
0 80

1 70
1 60

I 50
1 40
è 30
5 20
10
350 400 450 550 600 650 700
Wavetengih m Nanometers
Correlated Color Temperance - 4000:K Color Rendering index- 43
ClE Chromatciy—x = 382 y = 385

Figure 38. Spectral energy distribution of 400-W Brite-White Deluxe

mercury lamp (H33-400DX).

Spectral energy distnbutron of 400-Watt M etalarc C lamp

Figure 39. Spectral energy distribution of 400-W Metalarc clear lamp.

Low-pressure sodium lamps have been widely used

in Europe for many years for the same applications. There
are some installations in the US. This is the highest efficacy
commercial lamp available (approximately 160 to 180 lu­
mens per watt).
The spectral energy distribution for this lam p reveals
that it is monochromatic; in effect, this is a yellow-only
lamp. No degree of filtering will perm it proper color ren­
dition. These light sources are easily recognized (the source
is quite large and relatively low brightness, particularly
com pared to the high-pressure sodium).

362
 400 450 500 550 600 6&0 TOO
W avelength n N anom eters

Spectral energy distribution ol 400-Wati Metaiafc Clear lamp

F ig u re 40. S p e c tra l e n e r g y d is tr ib u ti o n of 1000-W M eta la rc /C la m p

(coated).

20

350 400 450 500 550 600

Wavelength in Nanometers

Figure 41. Spectral po w e r d is trib u tio n of 400-W s o d iu m lam p, sim ila r

to types k n o w n as Lucelox or Lumalux.

Color Balancing for Photography

A series of approaches is outlined in the following sec­
tions to deal with lighting w hen any of the com m ercial/
industrial AC arc discharge or fluorescent sources are en­
countered as the dom inant am bient lighting environment.
Exceptions are pure m ercury and low-pressure sodium.

363
A. Leaving the Ambient Discharge Lighting
"ON" — With Standard Photographic
Lighting Equipment Used Supplementally
Where the am bient illumination is adequate for expo­
sure, and assuming (1) reasonable uniformity in the types
of lamps in the installation, and (2) that no supplem ental
lighting will be used, it w ould only be necessary to apply
the appropriate filtering to the camera. W hen using color
negative film and the required correction at the camera is
small, it is possible that no camera filter be used, and the
laboratory told to make the necessary correction.
If some supplemental lighting is required or necessary
for dram atic or artistic reasons, the sup plem ental light
should be filtered to match the d om inant color balance of
the am bient lighting. It is also possible to utilize the same
type of lamps as the am bient lighting, on floor stands, for
supplemental lighting (see pages 366-375 for camera and
lighting filters).

B. Mixed or Unknow n Types of Ambient

Lighting as the Dominant Light Source
Many interiors are lighted by mixed types of fluores­
cent lamps, or the fluorescent illumination m ay be mixed
with daylight or tungsten lighting. In shopping malls, it is
possible to encounter several types of high-intensity dis­
charge lamps. The use of a three-color type of color meter
should make it possible to establish w hat the dom inant
color balance is. Some of the same procedures described
above in (A) w ould then be applicable.
C. Filtering the Ambient Light Sources
W here the access to the am bient lighting fixtures is
reasonable, and the quantity of them not too great, the in­
dividual lights or fixtures can be filtered to either a 3200K
or a 5500K balance. It is then possible to utilize standard
photographic luminaires for supplem ental lighting.

D. Overpowering the Ambient Lighting

Directly illuminate the subject with or 5500K illumi­
nation. If this is done at a level such that this lighting be­
comes the dom inant source for the exposure of the subject,
then daylight-balanced film can be used w ithout any cam­
era filters. The background w ould, of course, be blue-green
in color but this may be acceptable. This practice is corn-
364
monly followed in new sgathering or docum entary situa­
tions.

CAUTION:
1.) There m ay be significant color variation en ­
countered between the various types of lamps and even
betw een lam ps of the sam e type m ad e by the sam e
manufacturer. Some of the reasons for these variations
m ay be age, burning position, tem perature and m an u­
facturing tolerances. A three-color type of color tem­
perature meter is necessary for accomplishing the m ea­
surem ents required for som e of the approaches d e­
scribed in the following section. (If the lam ps can be
identified, the tables noted below provide filter data for
m o st situations; the 3C m eter m ay then b e used to
verify the balance betw een lamps.)
2.) It is strongly recom m ended that film tests be
ru n w herever there is great concern for color accuracy.
These tests should be done un der circumstances such
that the anticipated operating conditions of the actual
production are well duplicated.
3.) AC lam ps are subject to the "flicker" phenom ­
enon. That is to say, there is variation in the light out­
p u t w ith time. For 24 fps exposure (crystal-controlled),
w here the p ow er to the lam p is derived from a stable
60 Hertz source, there is very little likelihood of a flicker
problem. Overcranking, very small shutter angles and
som e other com binations involving po w er supplied
from unregulated generators m ay result in flicker. A
more detailed treatm ent of the flicker problem can be
found elsewhere in this manual.

Filter Selection
Filters for color balancing com mercial/industrial light­
ing sources for color p hotography (tables 366-375) were
d eriv e d an d confirm ed p h o to g rap h ica lly by D avid L.
Quaid, ASC, and copyrighted by him. They are accurate for
the p articular lam ps tested; see the caution p ara g ra p h
above about variation and testing, and page 238 about ex­
p o su re m eter variation. D eviation of typical exposure
meters is indicated in T-stops next to certain filtered lights
in the tables. W hen m easuring incident filtered light from
these lamps, adjust the ASA on the m eter to compensate.
365
 Neutral Density and Combinalions (for windows)
Neutral Density Slops
Rosco #3415 N.15 .15 1/2
Lee #298 .15ND .15 1/2
Rosco #3402 N.3 .30 1
Lee #209 .30ND .30 1
Rosco #3403 N.6 .60 2
Lee #210 .60ND .60 2
Rosco #3404 N.9 .90 3
Le e #211 -90ND .90 3
Lee #299 1.20ND 1.20 4
Effect on
Mired 5500°K 6000°K
Lee #207 Full CTO +.3ND +159 2930°K 3070°K
Lee #208 Full CTO +.6ND +159 2930°K 3070°K
Rosco #3405 Roscosun 85N.3 +131 3200°K 3360°K
Rosco #3406 Roscosun 85N.6 +131 3200“K 3360°K

Lighting Filters
Green/Magenta Adjusting for Arc Discharge
& Fluorescent (Used with Blue/Amber Color Temperature Filters)

Green Fillers (Decrease Red/Blue [magenta]) CC Equivalent

Rosco #3304 Tough Plusgreen CC30G
Lee #244 Plus Green CC30G
Rosco #3315 Tough 1/2 Plusgreen CC15G
Lee #245 Half Plus Green CC15G
Rosco #3316 Tough 1/4 Plusgreen CC075 G
Lee #246 Quarter Plus Green CC035 G
Rosco #3317 Tough 1/8 Plusgreen CC04G
Rosco #3306 Tough Plusgreen 50 CC30 G +85B
Lee #241 Fluorescent 5700° Kelvin CC30 G +80A
Lee #242 Fluorescent 4300° Kelvin CC30G +80C
Lee #243 Fluorescent 3600° Kelvin CC30G +82B

Magenla Filters (Decrease Green)

Rosco #3308 Tough Minusgreen CC30M
Lee #247 Minus Green CC30M
Rosco #3313 Tough 1/2 Minusgreen CC15M
Lee #248 Half Minus Green CC15M
Rosco #3314 Tough 1/4 Minusgreen CC075 M
Lee #249 Quarter Minus Green CC075 M
Rosco #3318 Tough 1/8 Minusgreen CC04M

Rosco #3310 Fluorfilter (CC30M +85B)

366
 Lighting Filters: Color Temperature Adjusting

Increase color tem perature (Blue) Effect on

Mired 3200°K 2900°K
Value (312 (345
Mired) Mired)
Lee #201 Full C.T. Blue -137 5700°K 4810°K
Rosco #3202 Full Blue -131 5500°K 4670°K
Lee #201 3/4 C.T. Blue -113 5000°K 4314°K
Lee #202 Hall C.T. Blue - 78 4270°K 3750°K
Rosco #3204 Half Blue - 68 4100°K 3610°K
Rosco #3206 Third Blue - 49 3800°K 3380°K
Lee #203 Quarter C.T.BIue - 35 3610"K 3230°K
Rosco #3208 Quarter Blue - 30 3550°K 3180°K
Lee #218 Eighth C.T.BIue - 18 3400°K 3060°K
Rosco #3216 Eighth Blue - 12 3330°K 3000°K
Diffusing Blue

Lee #224 Daylight Blue Frost -137 5700°K 4810°K

Rosco #3017 Full Blue Frost -131 5500°K 4670°K
Lee #221 Blue Frost - 49 3800°K 3380°K
Rosco #3013 Tough Booster Frost - 49 3800°K 3380°K
Rosco #3012 Tough Booster Silk - 30 3550°K 3180°K
Lee #217 Blue Diffusion - 18 3330°K 3000°K
Decrease Color Temperature (Amber)

Rosco #33407 Roscosun CTO +167 2865°K 3000°K

Rosco #3441 Full Straw (CTS) +167 2865°K 3000°K
Lee #204 Full C.T. Orange +159 2930°K 3070°K
Rosco#3401 Roscosun 85 +131 3200°K 3360°K
Lee #205 Halt C.T. Orange +109 3440°K 3629°K
Rosco #3408 Roscosun 1/2 CTO + 81 3800°« 4030°K
Rosco #3442 Halt Straw (1/2 CTS) + 81 3B00°K 4030°K
Lee #206 Quarter C.T. Orange + 64 4060°K 4330°K
Rosco #3409 Roscosun 1/4 CTO + 42 4480°K 4800°K
Rosco #3443 Quarter Straw (1/4 CTS) + 42 4480°K 4800°K

Lighting Filters: Color Temperature Adjusting

Decrease Color Temperature (Amber) Effect on

Mired 5500° K 6000°K

Value (182 (167
Mired) Mired)
Lee #223 Eighth C.T. Orange + 26 4600°K 5180°K
Rosco #3410 Roscosun 1/8 CTO + 20 4950°K 5350°K
Rosco #3444 Eighth Straw (1/8 CTS) + 20 4950°K 5350°K
Rosco #3414 UV tiller + 8 5260°K 5710°K
Lee UV + 2 5440°K 5930°K
Red-Amber
Lee #236 HMI (to Tungsten) +134 3170°K 3226°K
Lee #237 CID (to Tungsten) +131 3200°K 3360°K
Rosco #3106 Tough MTY +131 3200°K 3000°K
Rosco #3102 Tough MT2 +110 3425°K 3790°K
Lee #238 CSI (to Tungsten) + 49 4330°K 4640°K
Rosco #3115 Tough 1/2 MT2 + 38 4545°K 5210°K
Rosco #3134 Tough MT54 + 35 4610°K 5290°K

367
 Color Balancing for Existing Fluorescent Lighting
Camera filters: Symbol conversion or lighl balancing series. "CC" Color Compensating series (Pages 124 and 125) El
W column is exposure compensation in T stops lor filters.
co Photo lamp filters: (Pages 366 and 367) El column is deviation of typical exposure meters due lo color imbalance When
reading exposure in filtered light from these units, reduce the ASA/ISO meter setting (i e increase the light level) by the number of
T slops indicated Where correction is ''minus" (-), decrease the light level (increase the ASA/ISO setting)

_
_ _ _ _ _ _ c David L. Quaid. ASC
Using existing fluorescent lighting unlillered Filtering fluorescent lighls la
(r A page 241) match photo lighls (r C page 241)

Camera fillers Photo lamp filters Camera filter: None Camera filler:
(Kodak or equivalent) (Rosco Cinegel or equivalent) (Tungsten negative Tungsten Negative: #85
Manufacturer 3200K Him J 5500K film 3200K II] 5500K ~ or rev,rsa|l_____ Daylight Him: None
Lamp type El El El El To match 3200K El To match 5500K El

Durotest #81EF #81B Full blue 50 Third blue Sun 85 - %Minusgreen

Color Classer 75 +CC05M 1'/3+CC10M% +'/ 2 Plusgreen V3 + '^Piusgreen0 + ViMmusgreen V3+Sun Ve CTO 0
+#85 +Quarter blue +Sun Ve CTO
Durotest CC10M CC10M Full blue 50 Quarter blue Sun 85 '/2 Minusgreen
Vitalight +#81 1 +#81'h + 'APIusgreen Vs + '/2 Plusgreen'k + VaMinusgreen 0 'h
+ #85 +Sun Ve CTO
Durotest #85 #82A Full blue 50 'APIusgreen Sun V2 CTO ViMinusgreen
Optima 50 % +CC05M % +Sun Vi CTO V3 0 0 +Quarter blue '/a
Durotest #81 #80C Quarter blue Sun V2 CTO '/iMinusgreen Half blue
Optima 32 +CC05M '
h +#82A1'/: +UV Filter 0+Sun Vi CTO0 +Sun '/»CTO 0+Quarter blue V3
 General Electric #81A #81B Full blue 50 Third blue Sun CTO Sun Ve CTO
Chroma 75 +#85B 1 +CC05M % +Quarter blue Vs 0 +Eighth blue Vs Vs
+ViMinusgreen
General Electric CC60M CC50M Full Blue 50 Third blue Minusgreen Minusgreen
Lite White +#81C Vk 1 +Half blue % +Plusgreen % + 1/2 Minusgreen 0 +'/ 2 Minusgreen 'h
+#85 +2x(Plusgreen) +'/ 2 Plusgreen +Sun '/2 CTO
+Eighth blue +Sun Vb CTO
+ 1/iPlusgreen + '/jMinusgreen
General Electric CC50M CC30M Full blue 50 Plusgreen Minusgreen Minusgreen
SP-41 +#81B 1% % +Plusgreen % +Third blue 1/3 +Sun V2 CTO 0 +Eighth blue '/3
+#85 + '/«Plusgreen +Sun Va CTO
+Quarter blue
General Electric CC05M CC10M Full blue 50 %Plusgreen Sun y2 CTO %Minusgreen
Chroma 50 + #81 1 +#82A % + 1/iPlusgreen 0 0 +'/4 Minusgreen Vs +Quarter blue Vs
+#85 +Sun Vb CTO
All Mfrs—Cool White, Cool White Deluxe, Warm White, Warm White Deluxe: See page 167

369
 Using existing fluorescent lighting unflltered Filtering fluorescent lights to
match photo lights

370
Camera Alters Photo lamp filters Camera Alter: None Camera Alter:
(Kodak or equivalent) (Rosco Clnegel or equivalent) (Tungsten negative Tungsten Negative: tf 85
or reversal) Daylight Aim: None
Manufacturer 1 3200K film 1 5500K Aim 11 320QK 1 550 0K 1
Lamp type To match 3200K To match 550 0K

Plusgreen
0 Minusgreen Minusgreen
0
General Electric CC50R CC30M Full blue 50
White +CC10M 1% +#02B 1 +Plusgreen Va + VaPlusgreen 0 + '/2 Minusgreen 0 +Quarter blue Va
+ %Plusgreen +Quarter blue +Sun 'A CTO
+Sun '/e CTO
General Electric CC50R CC30M Full blue 50 Plusgreen Minusgreen Minusgreen
SP-35 +#82 1% +#82C Vh +Plusgreen '/a 0 + V<Minusgreen 0 +Quarter blue Va
+Sun V2 CTO +Eighth blue
General Electric CC40R CC15M Half blue Plusgreen '^Minusgreen Half blue
SPX-35 +#81A 1 +CC30B Vh +2x 1/3 + 1/2 Plusgreen 0 +Sun '/< CTO 0 + 1/2 Minusgreen ’/a
(V2 plusgreen) +V<Minusgreen + 1/iMinusgreen
+Third blue +Sun Vs CTO
General Electric CC30M CC50B Half blue Plusgreen Minusgreen Half blue
Regal white +#85C 1 +CC05M 12/; + Plusgreen Va +Sun Va CTO Va +Sun Vi CTO 0 +Minusgreen Va
+#81 +Quarter blue +Eighth blue
 General Electric CC30M CC50B Half blue Plusgreen Minusgreen Half blue
SP-30 +#81EF 1 + CC05M 12/: +Plusgreen Vs + '/iPlusgreen 1/3 +Sun Va CTO '3 +2x 0
SPX-30 + '/(Plusgreen +Sun '/< CTO +UV Filter ('^Minusgreen)
+Quarter blue +Eighth blue
GTE Sylvania CC50M CC35M Full blue 50 Plusgreen Minusgreen Minusgreen
Lite White Deluxe +#82A ?'/s % + Plusgreen Va + VîPlusgreen t +'/tMinusgreen 0 +Eighth blue ''3
+#85B + '/¡Plusgreen +Quarter blue +Sun Vi CTO
+Quarter blue +Sun Vb CTO
+Eighth blue
GTE Sylvania CC30M CC30M Full blue 50 Plusgreen Minusgreen Minusgreen
0ctron-41K +#81A 1% + # 8 2 1 +Plusgreen '/3 +Quarter blue 0 +Sun Vi CTO 0 +Quarter blue 0
+ #85 +UV filter +Sun Vt CTO
GTE Sylvania CC05M CC10M Full blue 50 '/«Plusgreen Sun Vt CTO 'AMinusgreen
Design 50 +#81 1 +#82A % +V<Plusgreen 0 0 + %Minusgreen '3 +Quarter blue '3
+ #85 +Sun '/a CTO
GTE Sylvania CC40M r CC30M Full blue 50 Plusgreen Minusgreen Third blue
Deluxe White + #82A r/3 +#82B 1'-3 +Plusgreen 2/s + '/iPlusgreen 0 +Sun 'k CTO 0 +Minusgreen '3
+ #85 + +Plusgreen +Sun Vs CTO
+Sun V» CTO
GTE Sylvania #85C #82C Half blue ViMinusgreen Sun V< CTO Half blue
Natural White Vs 2i3 +Eighth blue 0 +UV Filter 0 +Sun Ve CTO 1] ’3

371
All Mfrs—Cool White, Cool White Deluxe, Warm White, Warm White Deluxe: See page 167
 Using existing fluorescent lighting unDltered Filtering fluorescent lights to

372
match photo lights
Camera Allers Photo lamp fillers Camera filler: None Camera Dlter:
(Kodak or equivalent) (Rosco Cinegel or equivalent) (Tungsten negative Tungsten Negative: # 8 5
or reversal) Daylight Him: None
Manufacturer 1 1
3200K film ______ 5500K film 1 3200K ______ 550 0K n
Lamp type m1 0 1 To match 3200K E 1 To match 5500K 0
GTE Sylvania CC40M #80C Half blue Plusgreen Minusgreen Half blue
Warm Lite Deluxe + #81D Vk +CC30M 2 + Plusgreen 0 + '^Plusgreen '/3 +Sun Vi CTO 0 +Minusgreen '3
+ #81 + ViPlusgreen +Sun '/e CTO +Eighth blue
+Quarter blue
GTE Sylvania CC30M CC50B Half blue Plusgreen Minusgreen Half blue
Octron 31K +#85C 1 +CC05M 1% + Plusgreen + ViPiusgreen 0 +Sun Vi CTO 0 + '/2 Minusgreen 0
+ #81 + Quarter blue +Sun V fl CTO +2x(UV Filter) + %Minusgreen
+Eighth blue +Eighth blue
L
GTE Sylvania CC35M CC50B Plusgreen Plusgreen Minusgreen r Half blue
3K Royal White + #81EF I'/a +CC10M Vk + VjPlusgreen ’/3 + 'APIusgreen 0 +Sun V¡ CTO 0 +Minusgreen 0
+Half blue +Sun Ve CTO +Quarter blue
+Quarter blue L
GTE Sylvania #82C #80A Sun Vs CTO Sun CTO Third blue Full blue 50
Incandescent #82A 1’/3 + #82C 2 2k +Sun Vi CTO Vs +Eighth blue Vi) + Eighth blue 'a + '/2 Minusgreen 13
Fluorescent +CC05M +CC05M +Quarter blue —
 North American CC50R CC30M Full blue 50 Plusgreen Fluorfilter Minusgreen
Philips Ultralume 50 +#81EF 2 +#81B 1 +Plusgreen Vs +Third blue 0 +Sun '/a CTO 0 +Sun '/e CTO 0
+Third blue
North American CC50R CC30M Full blue 50 Plusgreen Minusgreen Minusgreen
Philips Ultralume 41 +#81B 1% + # 8 2 1 +Plusgreen % + '/^Plusgreen 0 +Sun Vi CTO 13 '/«Minusgreen '/3
+Eighth blue +Quarter blue +Sun 'h CTO
North American CC30M CC50B Half blue Plusgreen '^Minusgreen Half blue
Philips Ultralume 30 +#81EF 1 +CC10M 12/: 2x 0 + '/«Plusgreen 0 + '/«Minusgreen 13 +Minusgreen '/3
(VzPlusgreen) +Sun '/«CTO +Sun '/« CTO +Eighth blue
+Quarter blue
North American CC05M CC10M Full blue 50 '/«Plusgreen Sun '/2 CTO '/(Minusgreen
Philips Colortone 50 + #81 1 +#82 A % + '/«Plusgreen 0 0 + '/«Minusgreen 13 +Quarter blue '/3
+ #85 +Sun '/b CTO
Verilux Corp #81EF CC10M Full blue 50 Third blue Sun 85 '/«Minusgreen
Verilux +CC10M 1'/a +#81B % + '/<Plusgreen '/3 +'/«Plusgreen 0 +'/ 2 Minusgreen 0 +Sun '/a CTO Vi
+#85 +Quarter blue +UV Filter
All Mfrs—Cool White, Cool White Deluxe, Warm White, Warm White Deluxe: See page 167

373
 Color Balancing for Commercial/Industrial
High Intensity AC Arc Discharge Lighting
C a m e ra filters: Symbol conversion or light balancing series; " C C ” :
Color Compensating series (Pages 2 3 0 and 2 3 1 ) El column is exposure
com pensation in T stops lor filters
Photo la m p filters: (Pages 3 6 6 a n d 3 6 7 ) El colum n is deviation ol typical
exposure meters due to color imbalance W hen reading exposure in filtered
light Irom these units, reduce the ASA/ISO m eter setting (i.e increase the
light level) by the number of T stops indicated
N ote: To avoid excessive filtration, the use ol daylight-balanced lilrn for
M etal Halide and M ercury lighting is advised If the lab can accom m odate,
and exposure is accurate, some or all camera filters may be left off.
©David L. Quaid. ASC
Camera Fillers Photo Lamp Fillers
Mir.
Lamp 3200K El 5500K El 3200K Lamp El 5500K Lamp El
Film Film

METAL
HALIDE
GTE CC50M CC35M Full blue 50 Hall blue
MM40Û/ -85B 13j - ^8 1 0 11 3 i Plusgreen 13 ♦ Plusgreen
BU-HOR - ’?Plusgreen + 1i Plus green
hThird blue i Quarter blue
GTE CC40M CC35M Full blue 50 Hall blue
moo/ i =t 01B ■* i; 8 1 A i-Plusgreen 0 * Plusgreen 0
C/U - “ 85 ■ Quarter blue

GTE t*01EF CC50C Half blue ’ ? Plusgreen

M S400/ < CC10M ?3 fCC25M 1'] ? '■* Plusgreen 13 > Sun ' j CTO 0
3K/BU * Eighth blue i Sun ' a CTO
ONLY

GE CC50M CC35M Full blue 50 Third blue

MVR400/ + “ 850 V l ■' A-01B 1’ d < Plusgreen 23 n Plusgreen h
U i ’ .«Plusgreen + '.»Plusgreen
r Third blue ^Quarter blue
i Eighth blue

GE CC50M CC30M Full blue 50 Half blue

MVR400/ i =05B Vi i Plusgreen 13 *■ Plusgreen 13

C/U UPlusgreen
f Third blue
+ Eiqhlh blue

374
 Camera Filters Photo Lamp Filters
Mir.
Lamp 3200K El 5500K El 3200K Lamp El 5500K Lamp El
Film Film

HIGH
PRESSURE
SODIUM
GE CC50B /I0OA 2 x (Plusgreen) Sun CTO
LU250/DX iCC30M 2'h h CC50B 3'3 0 i Plusgreen v3
+CC10W -i-^Plusgreen
+ Eighlh blue

GE «80C £I0OA 2 x (Plusgreen) Sun CTO

LU250 -I-CC50M 2 -I-CC50B 3 Va ( Sun V® CTO 13 ^ Plusgreen 2h
i *0 2 A

GTE CC30M if 80S Plusgreen Sun CTO

LU250 +CC40B 1% +CC50B 3 h '/rPlusgreen Va i-Plusgreen '/j

h '/«Plusgreen

MERCURY
GTE CC50R CC55M Full blue 50 2x(Plusgreen)
H37KC +CC40M 2 Va #81A V /3 ♦ Plusgreen Vj +Hall blue Vi
250/N + «81A + Third blue i-Third blue

GTE H37 CC05M CC60M Full blue 50 Full Blue 50

KC250/DX i «850 2 ICT81D 1% -i-Hall blue n 1 2x(plusgreen) %
+3x(Plusgreen) fSunVsCTO
♦T h ird blue

GE H250/ Nol CC0OM Not recommended Full blue 50

DX37 recom­ + #85 2Vî n +3x(Plusgreen) 1
mended + Third blue

375
Figure 42. H MI a p p lie d la m p current a n d voltage w ith re su lta nt tight
o u t p u t v e rs u s lim e; re s u lts for s ta n d a r d re a c ta n c e -ty p e b a lla s t are
represente d.

[Example: The first listed fluorescent light on page 368

(Durotest Color Classer 75) calls for filter adjustment of VA
stops; using 3200K film at El 320, read the exposure meter
at El 125 for the am bient fluorescent lighting. If filtered in­
candescent supplem entary lights are used, the El column
calls for 'A stop, set the exposure meter to 100 to read them.
If arcs or HMI supplem entary lights are used, no further
adjustment is required, so use the meter at 125, the same
as for ambient lighting.] After color balancing as directed
by the tables, a Minolta Color Meter II m ay be used to d e­
tect and correct for differences between individual lamps
if desired.

AC Arc Lamp Flicker Problem

All of the AC photographic arc lamps described in the
Lighting Section and in the C om m ercial/Industrial light
sources section can exhibit the "flicker" phenom enon. This
includes fluorescents, mercury vapor, metal halide additive
types, and high-pressure so dium as well as the p h o to ­
graphic types like HMI, CSI and CID.

376
Figure 43. W aveform for an H M I lamp.

Figure 44. W aveform for a 1000-W CSI lamp.

All of the noted types of lam ps require the use of a

ballasting system to provide current limiting after the arc
is stru ck . T he m o st co m m o n ly e n c o u n te re d ty p e of
ballasting device is the inductor or "choke." When used on
simple inductive ballast systems, all of these lamps will exhibit n
characteristic which is properly designated as time-inodulation
of the light output (“flicker"). This is due to the fact that the
light o u tp u t of these types of lam ps follows the current
w av e form. T he d eg re e of m o d u latio n , or a m o u n t of
"flicker" is different for each of the noted lam p types.
Reference to Figure 42 show s the effect as it is d is­
played for an HMI lamp. Note the voltage waveform which

377
A 24 fps

cam era s hu tter angle, degrees

B 2 5 fp s

cam era shu tter angle, degrees

Figure 45A and B. C on tou rs of safe la m p s u p p ly freq u e n c ie s for on e

rip ple ration value, m is the n earest w h o le n u m b e r to the n u m b e r of
ripple cycles in the camera frame period. N is the ne arest w hole n u m b e r
to the n u m b e r of rip p le cycles in th e e x posure inte rval.

is characteristic of the effect of an inductance in a circuit,

and further that the am perage is generally sinusoidal. The
light ou tp u t closely tracks the am perage w aveform (not
going negative). The result is that there are two light p u l­
sations for each full cycle of the pow er line fundam ental
frequency (for 60-cycle systems, there are 120 pulses per
second; for a 50-cycle system, there are 100 light pulses per
second).
378
 In the case of the HMI lamp show n in Figure 43, note
that the m odulation at its m inim um represents only 17%
or so of the peak light output. With the CSI lamp, this nu m ­
ber is approxim ately 38% of peak (Figure 44), and for the
newer CID types, it is reported that this quantity is only 55%
of the peak light output. Obviously, the depth of the m o du ­
lation will determ ine the am ount of tolerance there may be
in filming with this light relative to the necessary degree
of control of those param eters which affect the steadiness
of the exposure.
The time-related factors that are involved in assuring
that a uniform exposure from frame to frame is guaranteed
using these types of light sources (i.e., flicker-free) are the
following:
1. Stability of the pow er frequency to the lamp bal­
last;
2. Camera framing rate;
3. Stability of camera speed;
4. Camera shutter angle;
5. Phase of shutter relative to light (particularly at
high camera speed).

Simply stated, it is necessary to be sure that the same

num ber of light pulsations are present d uring each expo­
sure interval of the film. The am ount of variation perm it­
ted is different for different values of the parameters noted
above.
In the case w here a very stable pow er line is available,
as is true in most technically advanced countries, operat­
ing from the normal pow er net w ith a camera that is crys­
tal-controlled, the shutter angle may be varied through a
very w ide range. There has certainly been adequate test­
ing of this principle for shutter angles between 90 and 200
degrees.
It is im portant, how ever, to be aw are that there are
conditions w here only a slight variation in one of the pa­
rameters of pow er line frequency or camera framing rate
will result in flicker. W here possible, it is desirable to stay
at the shutter angles show n in the "w indow s" that can be
observed in Figures 45A and 45B.
These "w indow s" show w here the range of operating
tolerances is greatest. For example, in Figure 45A the inter­
section on the presentation at 60 cycles per second and 144
degrees shutter angle represents the middle of a "window."
W hen operating at these conditions, a substantially large

379
variation is possible, probably plus or m inus 5%, on all the
parameters which are subject to variation.
In a practical sense, operating w ith a 24 fps camera
from a generator w here there is uncertainty about its d e­
gree of regulation, it w ould be p ru d en t to operate w ith the
144° shutter angle. In such an instance, moderate variations
in the frequency of the generator o u tp u t will not produce
flicker. Plus or m inus 2 cycles in the o u tp u t p o w er fre­
quency w ou ld probably be acceptable w h en operating
within the w indow location for a 144° shutter angle and 24
fps. A similar presentation is m ade for the 25 fps operation
in Figure 45B.
A lthough the data show n is specifically for HMI, it
must be reiterated that it is applicable for any AC arc dis­
charge source. The w indow openings in Figure 45 are spe­
cifically determ ined for HMI.
They w ould tend to be very conservative for CSI, even
more conservative for CID and possibly for som e other
commercial sources. H owever, particularly w here one is
encountering lamps operated from single phase systems,
caution should be exercised. This chart can provide the cin­
em atographer w ith those points of operation w hich will
give him or her the maximum protection against the flicker
phenomenon.
Electronic and some other types of ballasting systems
which provide flicker-free ballasting are now available for
a limited range of wattages of the HMI light sources. Some
of these ballasts are constructed in such a w ay that they
increase the operating frequency of the pow er to the lamp.
The result of this is that there are many more pulsations per
second so that small variations in the num ber of pulsations
per shutter opening become unim portant. In addition, and
of at least equal importance, the output waveform of essen­
tially all of these devices is an approxim ation of a square
wave rather than being sinusoidal. This further reduces the
"off" time and with it the tendency to flicker.
The 200-watt HMI flicker-free systems have been in the
field for the longest time of any of these types of ballasts.
There is now such eq uipm en t for HM I at several other
pow er levels.

Luminaires
In this section a brief description is offered of the op­
tical systems and general performance characteristics of the
basic types of luminaires utilized in cinematography.
380
Fresnel Lens Spotlights
Fresnel spotlights are m ade for standard incandescent
and tungsten halogen incandescent sources, and also for the
range of HMI, CID and CSI arc discharge lamps. The range
of wattages, taking into account all types is from 200 watts
or so to 12,000 watts.

Figure 46. O ptical syste m of S ta n d a rd Fresnel S p o tlig h t w h e n in full

flood position.

Figure 47. Optical syste m of Sta n da rd Fresnel S p o tlig ht w h e n in spot

position.

These lu m in aires rep rese n t the m ost w id ely u sed

motion-picture lighting units. They provide the means for
changing the beam diam eter and center intensity through
a relatively b ro ad range. U sing sta n d ard incandescent
lamps, the "spot" to "flood" ratio m ay be of the order of 6
to 1 or so, and w ith a tungsten halogen lamp, it m ay be

381
F ig u r e 48. O p tic a l s y s te m of F r e s n e l S p o t l i g h t w h e n a d a p t e d for
T un g s te n -H a lo g e n lamp.

C overage (Fl.)

Figure 49. Characteristic in te n sity curve of Fresnel Spotlig hts.

possible to extend this ratio to 8 or even 9 to 1 under some

circumstances.
The optical system of these luminaires is the sam e for
all the variations that may be presented. The light source
and a spherical reflector are located in a fixed relationship
to one another. This combination of light source and back
reflector is designed so that the spherical reflector reflects
the energy being radiated toward the back of the housing
through the filament and towards the lens. The effect in­
tended is that the energy being radiated to the lens appears
to come from a single source. The combination of the re­
flector and light source are moved in relation to the lens to
accomplish the focusing.
382
 F igures 46 an d 47 show the optical system of the
fresnel in the spot and flood positions. Note that the flood
position is accomplished by moving the light source/reflec­
tor combination very close to the lens. W hen the tungsten
halogen light sources are utilized in these systems, due to
the fact that the envelope is m uch smaller, it is possible to
move the light source/reflector combination even closer to
the lens resulting in a w ider flood beam distribution. This
is show n in Figure 48.
This is a very attractive feature, since the highest effi­
ciency is achieved in the flood position, and there need be
no sacrifice in the spot performance. Typical efficiencies in
the beam (the portion of the pattern that is within 50% of
the center intensity) in "spot" focus for fresnels w ould be
from 7% to 9% and in the "flood" position from 30% to 40%.
O ne of the m ost im portant features of the fresnel lens
spotlight is its ability to barndoor sharply in the w ide flood
focus position. This property is less apparent as the focus
is m oved tow ards a spot (at spot focus it is not effective at
all). The b arndoor accessory used w ith this spotlight pro­
vides the cinem atographer w ith the m eans for convenient
light control. The sharp cutoff at the wide flood is, of course,
due to the fact that the single-source effect produces a to­
tally divergent light beam. The action of the barndoor then
is to create a relatively distinct shadow line.
Occasionally it may be desirable to optimize the spot
perform ance of these units, and for this situation "hot"
lenses are available. These tend to produce a very narrow
beam w ith very high intensity. It is im portant to rem em ­
ber that the flood focus is also narrow ed w hen these lenses
are used. Figure 49 shows characteristic intensity curves for
fresnel spotlights.

Dedolight
The D edolight, in tro d u c ed w ithin the last several
years, is a lighting instrument whose concept is uiiique, and
which offers a remarkable range of performance combined
with small size, and low pow er requirem ents (see Figure
50).
The optical system is show n in Figure 51. Note that the
m oving elem ent in the system is the light source w ith a
collection mirror behind it, and meniscus lens opposite. To
change the focus of the unit, these three elements, which
are fixed w ith regard to each other, are m oved as a unit
relative to a clear fixed condenser lens.
383
Figure 50. The D e d o lig h t.

C o n d e n s e r Len s
S p heric al R eflectors

Figure 51. D ed olig ht Optical Syste m.

The performance of the light is show n in Figure 52,

where the 25:1 focusing range can be seen, and the u n u su ­
ally flat, even and soft-edged illumination fields are evident
at all focus positions.
When fitted with an accessory projection attachment,
the beam can be controlled further by the use of an iris or
framing shutters. It projects Rosco "M"-size gobos and will
project patterns with hard edges and w ithout color fring­
ing. Where a diffuse or soft-edged p attern projection is
desired, the front lens of the projection accessory can be
adjusted to accomplish this effect.
The Dedolight is m ade as either a 12-volt or a 24-volt
150-watt unit. The 100-watt u n it can utilize a family of
lamps including (at 12 volts) 20,50 and 100 watts. The units
can be battery operated or can be used from 120- or 240-
volt AC supplies offered for use w ith these lum inaires
which permit selection of 3000° K, 3200°K or 3400°K opera­
tion.
384
 30° 25° 20° 15° 10° 5° 0° 5° 10° 15° 20° 25° 30°

Figure 52. D e d olig ht perform ance w ith lOOw source, 10 ft. dista nce, spot
3.4°, flood 40°.

Open Reflector Variable Beam Spotlights

These are typically the tungsten-halogen open reflec­
tor spotlights. There are also some low-wattage HMI-types
available. These non-lens systems provide "focusing" ac-

385
 Spot Position
W id e Flood P o sition

C ove ra g e (Ft.)

Figure 54. Characteristic intensity curves of n on-lens sp o tlig h t (variable

beam).

tion, and therefore a variable diam eter beam, by m oving

the light source in relationship to the reflector (or vice
versa). These types of units are available for sources rang­
ing from 400 to 2,000 watts. Refer to Figures 53 and 54. One
of the draw backs of this system, w hen com pared w ith the
fresnel lens spotlights, is that there are always two light
sources operative. The illumination field produced by these
systems is the sum of the light output directly from the bulb
and the energy reaching the field from the reflector. The use
of the barndoor accessory with these lights does not p ro­
duced a single shadow, d ue to this double-source charac­
teristic. Typically a double shadow is cast from the edge of
the barndoor. Figure 48 show s the optical systems of these
open reflector spotlights in both the spot and w ide flood
positions.
386
 The great attraction of these luminaires is that they are
substantially more efficient than the fresnel lens spotlights.
Typical efficiencies in the spot position give 20 to 25% of
the source lum ens in the beam (50% of the center intensity
area) and in flood, efficiencies of 45 to 50% are not uncom ­
mon. Figure 49 show s typical intensity distributions for
these units.
Typical spot to flood intensity ratios for these types of
units is between 3:1 and 6:1.

C ove ra g e (FI.)

Figure 55. Characte ristic inte nsity curve of tu n g ste n-ha log en floodlight
(broad) (h orizontal axis).

Tungsten-Halogen Floodlights
A variety of tungsten-halogen floodlighting fixtures
have been developed, taking advantage of these compact
sources. Two of the more typical forms are treated here.
These fixtures are available in w attages from about 400
through 2,000 watts.
The so-called "b ro ad " normally uses a linear source
and represents a relatively high efficiency system. Barndoor
control of the light is effective with the edge of the door that
is parallel to the light source. Typical characteristic inten­
sity curve for the broad is show n in Figure 55.

Figure 56. Characteristic intensity curve of " m in i" floodlight (horizontal

axis).

387
 There are types of "m ini" floodlights using the coiled-
coil short filament tungsten-halogen lam ps w hich provide
very even, flat coverage w ith extremely sharp b arndoor
control in both directions. Due to the design of the reflec­
tor in this system, the light o u tp u t from this fixed-focus
flood light appears to have a single source. This accounts
for the im proved barndoor characteristics. The intensity
characteristics of the "m ini" floodlights on the horizontal
axis is show n in Figure 56.

Figure 57. Characte ristic inte n sity curve for cyclorama light.

Cyclorama Luminaires
These lighting fixtures w ere originally developed for
lighting backings in television, but have broad application
in similar types of situations in film. Because of the design
of the reflector system, it is possible to utilize these fixtures
very close to the backing that is being lit and accomplish a
very uniform distribution for a considerable vertical dis­
tance. Typically these units are m ade for tungsten-halogen
linear sources ranging from 500 to 1,500 watts.
Based on the variations in design, some of these may
be used as close as 3 to 6 feet from the backing being illu­
minated. The spacing of the luminaires from one another
along the length of the backing is in part determ ined by the
distance of these fixtures from the backing itself. A typical
intensity distribution is show n for a floor positioned unit
lighting a vertical backing in Figure 57.

Soft Lights
The soft light, which attem pts to produce essentially
shadowless illumination, is now a fundam ental tool in cin-
388
 S h ie ld Painted
S u rfa ce

Tun gste n-
H alo ge n
S ta n d a rd Lam p
In c a n d e s c e r
Lam p
/
C one L ight Folded " S o ft" L ight

Fig ure 58. O ptical sy stem of va rio us "soft" lights.

Figure 59. C haracte ristic in te n s ity cu rves of "soft" lights.

ema lighting. Currently, these are m ade in wattages from

500 up to about 8,000, and typically utilize multiple 1000W
linear tube tungsten halogen lamps.
The degree of softness is determ ined by the effective
area of the source. All of these fixtures are indirect, in the
sense that no direct radiation is perm itted from the light
sources into the beam of illum ination. The "reflecting"
surfaces vary in finish from m atte w hite paint to a variety
of semi-specular surfaces. The degree of specularity of the
backing is not as im portant as the size of the reflecting sur­

389
face which is uniformly illuminated and reflects the energy
which makes up the illumination beam.
Formerly these w ere available only in the form of the
Cone Light, but now a variety of other configurations have
been developed largely d ue to the availability of the linear
source tungsten halogen lamp. Figure 58 show s the con­
figurations of some of the types of soft lights in current use.
Typical intensity distributions are show n in Figure 59.
There are several types of light sources which are su p ­
plied by the manufacturers as essentially complete light­
ing systems.

Sealed-Beam Types (PAR Lamps)

The most popular of these are the PAR 64 and PAR 36
configurations. These lam ps have a parabolic reflector
which has a high reflectance alum inized coating, and a
prismatic type of front lens. Typically they are supplied in
VNSP (very narrow spot), NSP (narrow spot), MFL (me­
dium flood) and WFL (wide flood) lens systems. They are
extremely efficient optical systems.
Fixtures are available which assemble m ultiples of
these types of lamp for daylight fill applications or for long-
throw stadiu m and arena lighting requirem ents. Both
3200K type and the dichroic coated versions of these (ap­
proximately 5000K) are available.

Light-Control Accessories
The most typical lighting accessory supplied w ith the
luminaires of various types described in the preceding sec­
tions would be the barndoors and scrim. Provision is made
for m ounting these accessories on nearly all of the lum i­
naires described.

Barndoors
These have been briefly described in the section on
fresnel lens spotlights. The purpose of this accessory is to
prevent the illumination beam from the fixture from reach­
ing certain portions of the set. It is intended that a relatively
well-defined edge can be established defining the end of
an illuminated area and the beginning of an unilluminated
zone.
Barndoors are most effective when used on fresnel lens
spotlights w hen the spotlight is in the w ide flood position.

390
The effectiveness of the barndoor is reduced as the focus is
m oved toward spot and is totally w ithout useful effect at
the spot focus.
The effectiveness of the barndoor as an accessory on
other types of luminaires varies sharply w ith the design of
the specific item. In a num ber of the open reflector tung­
sten halogen systems (particularly floodlights) barndoor
effectiveness is limited to the edge of the barndoor which
is parallel to the source.
Overall, this is one of the m ost im portant and useful
lighting accessories available to the cinematographer.

Scrim
The type of scrim referred to here is placed directly in
the accessory m ounting clips on a luminaire. This type of
scrim is norm ally wire netting, sometim es stainless steel
wire, w hich is used as a mechanical dim m er. There are
norm ally accessory clips at the front of the lum inaire to
accept the appropriate size scrim.
The advantage of the scrim is that it perm its a reduc­
tion in light intensity in several steps (single and double
scrims) w ithout changing the color tem perature or the fo­
cus of the luminaire. Contrary to p opular belief, it is not a
diffuser.
The half-scrim is an extremely useful variation on the
full scrim. It perm its the placement of a scrim material in
only half of the beam, and is w idely used on fresnel spot­
lights. It overcomes the problem encountered w hen the
fresnel is used at fairly high angles. The portion of the beam
striking the floor or objects near the floor closest to the
luminaire produces intensities that are too high to match
the desired level at the distance associated w ith the center
of the beam. The reason for this, of course, is the substan­
tial variation in the distances that the illumination energy
travels. The half-scrim applied on the portion of the beam
impinging on the nearest objects can overcome this p rob­
lem.

Gel Frames
D ifferent forms of these holders are m ade and d e ­
signed to fit into the accessory clips on the front of most
luminaires. They permit the convenient use of various types
of plastic filter materials to modify the characteristics of the
beam. Color m edia may be p u t in these holders for effect

391
color and a wide range of diffusion products are available
which may also be mounted.

Grip Accessories for Light Control

Typically, grip equipm ent for lighting control repre­
sents devices not directly m ounted to the light.

Diffusers
There are various diffusion materials sew n on w ire
frames of different types and size w hich perm it the diffu­
sion of both artificial and natural sources.
Typically these are know n as scrims. They are gener­
ally translucent materials (various textiles) w hich truly act
as diffusion. Special forms of these scrims may be called
dots or fingers, which describe their size a n d /o r geometry.
When supplied in very large sizes w hich are sup po rted
from a single point, they are called butterflies, and w here
the frame becomes extremely large and is supported from
two or more points it is called an overhead. O verheads are
available to 20 X 20 feet in size.
Specialized devices and stands are available for the
m ounting of these various scrims, dots, fingers, etc. These
stands and holding devices m ust deal w ith the fact that the
loads supplied to them are often offset, and a high degree
of stability is required. For this reason, it is usual to sand­
bag the base of these holders.

Gobos
Gobos come in the same form as the various scrims,
dots, fingers, butterflies and overheads, but are opaque. In
this form they are utilized to keep light from falling in a
given area, and perm it very fine adjustm ent of the lighting
in a large area. The same assortment of holders and stands
is available for m ounting these devices.
A specialized variation of the gobo is the cucoloris,
which is a cut-out pattern placed in the path of the spot­
light in order to cast a shadow that m ight be comparable
to the light coming through the leaves on a tree. Several
versions of these devices are available.

Reflectors
Reflector boards are w idely used for redirecting sun­
light and modifying its characteristics so that it is suitable

392
for use as set illumination. Reflectors come in a w ide range
of sizes and constructions, and a num ber of different sur­
facing materials are available for accomplishing the reflect­
ing surfaces.
These boards have been surfaced with various reflect­
ing media, including sign painter's leaf. However, the trend
now is toward plastic laminates for this purpose. These are
now available from Rosco in surface finishes ranging from
an absolutely clear mirror through various degrees of dif­
fusion of the m irror characteristics.
These variations permit the selection of surfaces which
accomplish both reflection and diffusion. A graded series
of these is available and are also, due to the laminated con­
struction, very stable repeatable surfaces. They are not dam ­
aged by w eather or by d u st or dirt since they can be easily
cleaned.
In addition to being able to reflect and diffuse at the
same time, there are versions of these new laminate m ate­
rials which also do color filtering. One version of a "soft"
reflector has a slight blue tint which corrects the sunlight
to a closer approxim ation to daylight. Gold reflectors are
also available in these systems.

393
 Special Visual Effects
Recent years have brought a high level of sophistica­
tion to the mechanics of special visual effects, allowing cin­
ematographers' imaginations a greater degree of freedom.
This chapter is intended to give the cinem atographer an
overview of the techniques available, including front and
rear projection, the optical printer, m otion control photog­
raphy, and digital image m anipulation.

Shooting Background Plates

Scenes projected on a translucent screen and re-pho-
tographed as a background for a live-action foreground
have been traditionally called "plates" or "keys." G uide­
lines for the original photography of such scenes also ap­
ply when the scenes are to be composited by most of the
methods discussed in this section.

General Requirements
A pin-registered m otion-picture cam era should be
em ployed for filming all stationary background plates.
Since the plate will later be re-photographed in combina­
tion with a live foreground scene, often em ploying the use
of a solid set piece, the slightest am ount of film m ovem ent
due to poor registration will be readily detectable. It is not
absolutely necessary, but desirable, that a pin-registered
camera be em ployed for filming traveling plates. A full
camera aperture is desirable, although an Academy aper­
ture m ay be e m p lo y ed if it is the only size available.
VistaVision and 65mm cameras are also often used. The
larger negative areas lead to finer-grained, sharper compos­
ite images. M edium-speed emulsions are the usual choice
of most background plate camera men for grain and sharp­
ness. High-speed negative may be used under special cir­
cumstances.
Exposure should be on the full side; if in doubt, slightly
overexpose rather than underexpose. A crisp, full-scale
print with rich blacks and clean highlights is desirable. A
m uddy print m ade from a thin, underexposed negative is
unsatisfactory and would be very difficult to match w hen
the com posite scene is later photographed. Backlighted
scenes, except for effects such as sunlight shim m ering on

394
water, should be avoided. Background plates fall into two
distinct categories: stationary and traveling.

Stationary Camera
A stationary plate is photographed with a rigidly fixed
camera, tied d ow n and firmly braced. K nowing exactly
how and for w hat purpose the plate will be used is a great
aid in setting up. An im portant factor in filming stationary
plates is recording the proper perspective, with the correct
vanishing point, to provide an app aren t match w ith the
foreground scene in the final composite picture. Unless the
vanishing point is properly positioned, the linear conver­
gence in the foreground scene will not match that recorded
on the plate.
Camera elevation and tilt and horizon placement must
be given serious consideration in order to meet these re­
quirements. If in doubt, or if the plate is for library use, place
the horizon dead center since it may be m oved up or dow n
w hen com posited and allow the m ost leew ay in fitting
various composite situations. The ideal situation, of course
is to film three plates: one w ith the sky 2A from the top, one
with the horizon centered, and one w ith the sky occupy­
ing % of the frame. This will allow for any eventuality and
give the director a dded scope if he decides to shoot u p or
dow n. Usually, how ever, the horizon is placed about 2A of
the distance from die top of the frame. It is advisable to have
slightly m ore foreground, w hether water, pavem ent, or
scenery. If sufficient foreground is not provided on the
filmed image, it m ay be necessary to blow up a portion of
the picture to provide it, resulting in increased grain and
poorer image quality.
Plates shot to script are usually ordered w ith sufficient
data for the cameraman to do the job properly. Stock plates,
filmed for library use, are a little more difficult since they
must be photographed in a m anner that will allow using
them in a more general way to fill various situations.
Background images should be sized so that the full­
est possible area of the filmed frame can be utilized. This
provides the finest photographic quality, least grain and
sharpest picture, and result in a top quality combination of
plate and foreground. It is inadvisable to em ploy a lens
shorter than 35mm (for 35mm photography) unless only a
part of the image is later utilized. Some background scenes
shot w ith an extremely wide-angle lens may present very

395
difficult m atching problem s w hen com posited. Slightly
longer lenses, on the order of 40mm and 50mm, are best.
(L enses of c o m p a ra b le an g le are r e c o m m e n d e d for
VistaVision or 65mm photography.)
An excellent m ethod for securing an accurate match
for a plate shot to script is to use stand-ins positioned ex­
actly the same as the players will later be positioned in front
of the background. A few feet of film should be shot with
the stand-ins in position and they then should be m oved
o u t a n d the p la te p h o to g r a p h e d . T his w ill g iv e the
compositing cam eram an a good idea of how the final shot
should look and is particularly valuable if the plate cam­
eram an is on an extended location trip and might not be
available should questions arise. While the plate is being
shot, be certain that no one walks closer to the camera than
the positions occupied by the stand-ins. If someone were
to walk between the stand-in position and the camera, the
person w ould appear too large, upsetting the required di­
minishing perspective. To be safe, keep everyone ten feet
or more behind the positions occupied by the stand-ins.
Background views seen through a door or w indow are
less critical to shoot, since the view is a distant one and does
not require an perfectly integrated relationship w ith the
foreground. The camera angle m ust be correct, however,
and present the proper vanishing point. A scene supp os­
edly occurring in an office on the 20th floor should have a
w indow plate possessing a view taken from that apparent
elevation, and presenting the proper viewpoint. W hile a
considerable am ount of "cheating" can be tolerated (such
as shooting from the 10th floor of a building), the view pre­
sented should be one that w ould appear normal to a p er­
son on the live set looking out the window . The plate cam ­
era could not, for instance, be angled up or dow n; it m ust
be shot dead level so that a "square on" view w ith vertical
lines is recorded. A special background slate should be used
to film all pertinent data: production number, scene n u m ­
ber, camera height, camera angle, sun angle, focal length
of lens, et cetera. This data will be a help later in duplicat­
ing the setup when the composite scene is filmed. The back­
ground plate cameraperson should bear in m ind that he is
not expected to record beautiful com positions in them ­
selves. H e is simply furnishing the background to back up
the combined scene.

396
M oving Camera
Traveling background plates for rear process projec­
tion are used in combination w ith supposedly m oving ve­
hicles, airplanes, trains or boats. They may be filmed with
either single or multiple cameras. In order to provide the
various plates necessary for shooting various combinations
of group shots, close-ups, over-the-shoulder scenes, etc.,
several angles m u st be filmed from the m oving camera
platform. It is advisable to use a single camera w henever
possible to allow "cheating" the sunlight so that a time in­
terval between runs m ay be chosen w hich will record each
plate w ith the best light condition. Camera car speed may
also be varied, if desired, for the various angles, if plates
are shot individually.
Single camera plates will usually suffice, since the
c h a n g e in c a m e ra a n g le w h e n th e p ro c e s s sc en e is
photgraphed is usually sufficient to cover any mismatch
that exists. Remember that the audience is intent on watch­
ing the foreground action and the background plate will
not distract unless som ething very jarring appears. N or­
mally, a considerable am ount of "cheating" is permissible
(indeed, often required) in order to record the best possible
set of plates, in the proper light, at the correct rate of speed.
Sometimes a single side of the street is filmed to serve for
both side angles — by shooting left rear going one w ay and
right rear going in the opposite direction. Or, a single plate
may be turned over in projection (if no telltale signs appear)
to serve both sides of the street. Turning the plate over is
usually reserved for country roads, since its use on traffic­
laden streets may be more obvious (parked cars on either
side of the street will point the same direction).
Of great im portance in filming moving plates is that
the camera be at the correct height. For autos the height
should be at the shoulders (not the eye level) of a person
seated in the car w ho will later be seen in the rear projected
composite shot. This will vary, for example, w ith low-slung
sports cars and buses. It w ould not do to look outside a
spo rts car w in d o w and see the roofs of cars following
(which w ould result if the plate camera were too high).
O n the other hand, a low-angle shot shooting up into
trees and buildings is equally bad because it is not feasible
to angle a camera in a car to photograph seated people and
see this perspective through the window . The plate cam­
era should be tilted slightly do w n w ard — just a trifle be­

397
low horizontal. The vanishing point of a straight-on shot
would be just above dead center of the screen. Remember
it is always better to have a little m ore pavem ent than sky.
A set-up may require tilting do w n on a m ock-up car, so
additional image in the lower corners of the frame is desir­
able. Traveling plates should be photographed w ith 35mm
or 40mm lenses on side and three-quarter angle shots. A
35mm, or some times a 50mm if only a small area of the
plate will be utilized, is used on straight-back shots.

Speed vs. Angle

The camera angle on a m oving shot affects the app ar­
ent speed of the projected image. Plates shot from straight
side angles appear to move m uch faster than those filmed
from either straight forward or straight backward angles
— even if the speed of the vehicle from which the shots
were m ade was the same. It is often necessary, therefore,
to cheat the camera vehicle speed (not the camera speed)
so that all angles will appear at the sam e relative speed
when rear-projected. This effect is less apparent in open
country than in city streets w ith closely packed traffic and
nearby buildings. It is advisable to use normal 24 frames
per second camera speed w henever possible so that pedes­
trians appear to be moving normally. It may be necessary
on wild chase shots to undercrank since this is the only way
to record ultra-fast vehicle speeds w ith safety.
The following diagram will be useful for estimating
camera car speeds for various camera angles. This is for city
traffic. Various angle plates may be filmed in open coun­
try at the same camera car speed for all angles if nothing
close to the camera appears in the plate.

For example, if the camera car travels at 50 miles per

hour for the straight shots, it should travel at 40 miles for

398
the three-quarter angles and at 30 miles for the side shots.
Be certain to set the camera at the same height and w ith the
sam e slight d ow nw ard tilt for all angles.

Plate Print Preparation for Back Or Front

Projection Or Aerial Image Compositing
Color matching is affected by the lenses, arc mirror,
quartz protector plate, cooling w ater cell, and by the screen
itself. P re p ro d u c tio n testing is sug gested . Plate p rints
should incorporate color ratio correction for projection con­
ditions. Print contrast may be lowered by flashing a n d /o r
using low-contrast print (TV) film; both will also affect color
saturation. M asking has also been suggested (American
Cinematographer Magazine, Nov. 1984, p. 109, J. Danforth).
Prints should be on B & H perforated stock.

Front-Projection Process
by Petro Vlahos

The front projection process of composite photogra­

p h y w as m ad e possible by the developm ent of a highly
directional reflective material by 3-M (Scotchlite #7610).
Scotchlite is a glass beaded reflex reflector that returns
most of the reflected light back to its source. The gain of
Scotchlite is so high that a fraction of a footcandle of back­
ground im age intensity is sufficient to balance a 200-foot-
candle foreground illumination.
A lthough the projected image falls u p o n foreground
subjects, its intensity is so low that it is not visible on the
subject. W hen the camera is exactly aligned on the optical
axis of the projector, it will not see the shadow cast by the
foreground subject. The very low level of illumination re­
quired by the Scotchlite screen makes possible background
screens as large as 30,000 sq. ft. w hen using an arc projec­
tor.
The practical use of front projection requires careful
alignm ent of the camera and projector lenses to (optically)
su p erim p o se their front n o d al points. W hen the n odal
points are misaligned, or w hen the subject is too close for
a given lens focal length and f-stop, a dark halo is devel­
oped. The appendix at the end of this section defines a safe

399
m inim um object distance as a function of screen distance,
lens focal length and f-stop. By observing the limitations
of the front-projection process, excellent results have been
obtained.

Geometric Relationships
The shadow s cast by an actor, or any foreground ob­
ject, are largely obscured by the object as the projector is
brought close to the camera. The shadow s are completely
hidden from the camera w hen the camera and projector
lenses occupy the same position. Since this is not physically
possible, the axes of both lenses are m ade to coincide opti­
cally by the use of a sem i-transparent mirror. Tine arrange­
m ent of the camera, projector, mirror and screen are show n
in Fig. 1.
The function of the semi-mirror is to b end the axis of
the projector in a right angle so that the light which reaches
the screen appears to originate from within the camera lens.
Since the camera cannot see around or behind a foreground
object, it will not see the shadow cast by that object if the
shadow is confined strictly to the area behind the object.
Placing the projector axis coincident w ith the camera axis
accomplishes this objective w ithin certain limitations that

Figure 1. A rra n g e m e n t of camera, projector, m irror a n d screen.

400
will be described. A lthough the projector is located to the
right of the camera in Fig. 1, it may be located on either side
or m ay project into the mirror from above or below. It is
also permissible, from a functional point of view, to inter­
change the camera and projector locations.
The m irror, at 45° to the projector and camera axis,
reflects the projected im age onto the screen; but the m ir­
ror, being semi-transparent, allows about half of the pro­
jected light to go directly through the mirror onto the near­
est wall and be wasted. Such w astage is unavoidable since
the mirror m ust be semi-transparent to perm it light from
the foreground scene, as well as from the background it­
self, to reach the camera lens.
The 45° m irror is also a partial mirror as seen by the
camera, and provides to the camera a view of the side wall
of the stage as well as a second image resulting from the
projector w aste light. To eliminate these secondary images
a small, dull black screen is placed opposite the projector,
as show n in Fig. 1.
Introvisión (Hollywood) replaces portions of the black
screen w ith a piece of Scotchlite screen. Supplem entary
lenses perm it focusing the projected image onto the supple­
m entary segm ents. W hen m atched to black flats on the
main set, it is possible to have actors appear to emerge from
doorw ays and from behind objects in the projected back­
ground.
A nother developm ent by Courier Films Limited, the
Zoptic Process, employs a zoom lens on the camera and the
projector and interlocks the zoom controls. By sim ulta­
neous zoom ing of the foreground a nd background lenses
in the sam e direction, objects in the field appear to move
tow ard or aw ay from the camera. This technique w as used
extensively in the 1978 production of Superman. The trans­
m ission/reflection ratio of the m irror is not critical; h ow ­
ever, for best utilization of foreground and projection illu­
mination, transmission should always equal or exceed re­
flection. Their relationship is show n in Fig. 2. The projec­
tor light that finally enters the camera experiences a reflec­
tion at the m irror to get to the screen, and then a transm is­
sion through the m irror to get to the camera. Utilization is
therefore a function of the p ro d u ct of the reflection and
transmission percentages. Even if one assum es no losses,
the m axim um efficiency cannot exceed 25% and it occurs
at a 50/50 ratio. In front projection, one should expect two
stops of light loss.

401
Fig ure 2. F ro nt p ro je c tio n m irro r; tra n s m is s io n /r e f le c ti o n ra tio a n d
efficiency.

Since film exposure of foreground objects requires a

given am ount of light at the camera, any transmission loss
through the mirror m ust be m ade up by increasing the il­
lumination of the foreground. Thus transmission should be
as high as possible. The efficiency of utilization of the fore­
ground (FG) illumination is a linear function of transmis­
sion and increases as the transm ission increases. A n in­
crease of transmission from 50% to a value of 60% results
in a 12% increase in the utilization of the foreground illu­
mination. It can be seen from the figure that this change
from 50 to 60% in the transmission results in a drop of only
4% (25 dow n to 24) in the utilization efficiency of the back­
ground (BG) illumination.
The scene being projected onto the screen is also be­
ing projected onto the fo re g ro u n d objects an d actors.
W hether or not the scene being projected on foreground
objects will be visible in the photography depends upon the
intensity of the projected light relative to the intensity of the
foreground illumination. A specific high-gain intensity re­
lationship is thus far solely a property of the Scotchlite
screen.

The Scotchlite Screen

The special properties of the front-projection screen
make front projection practicable. O ne screen m ade by the
3M Com pany, com monly know n as Scotchlite, Type 7610,
is a reflex reflector — that is, it has the property of reflect­
402
ing light back to its source. A reflex reflector can be m ade
by using corner mirrors or glass beads. The 3M screen uses
glass beads. The limited angular distribution of reflection
is illustrated in Fig. 3. Because of the controlled angle of the
reflected light, the screen has a very high gain. If one ob­
serves the screen from a vantage point not more than about
'A° from the axis of the projector, it will appear to be nearly
1,000 times brighter than w ould a matte w hite surface re­
ceiving the same illumination. Because of this high gain of
Scotchlite, very little illumination is required from the p ro­
jector; therefore front projection can provide backgrounds
of almost any desired size. A 130-A arc lamp projector can
easily illuminate a 30,000 sq. ft. screen of Scotchlite to bal­
ance a 200-fc-key foreground scene. Thus, screens up to 120
X 250 feet can be used.

| 1600

^ 1400

I 1200
£
^ 1000
E
g 800

§2 600

J2 400
§
£ 200

0 ° 0 . 5 ° 1.0° 1.5° 2.0°

DIVERGENCE ANGLE
Fig ure 3. Relative a n g u la r d is trib u tio n of reflection o f 3M Scotchlite
reflective s h e e tin g T y p e 7610.

The ability to use large background screens is one of

the principal advantages of front projection. By com pari­
son, rear projection w as limited to a screen size of 20 to 30
ft., even w hen illuminated by three high-pow ered projec­
tors. Even considering the losses of the semi-mirror, one
need only use about one footcandle of illumination on the
screen to balance a foreground key light of 200 fc. This is a
net ratio of about 200:1 and is more than adequate to result

403
in invisibility of the image projected on foreground objects
— even a white shirt. If one considers a w hite shirt to be
nearly 100% reflective, and the reflectivity of black velvet
to be approximately 2%, this represents a ratio of only 50:1.
Thus a white shirt is so dull com pared to Scotchlite (200:1)
that it appears to be blacker than black velvet w hen the
Scotchlite is illuminated to the brightness of the foreground
scene.
The Scotchlite material is available in two-foot-wide
rolls. The screen can be constructed by simply papering the
material onto a wall-like surface or w ooden backing or
hanging it in horizontal strips. It is only necessary to cover
all of the screen area. Butt edges are not required, and pieces
may be overlapped. It is advisable, however, to prepare a
screen from the same production batch since a second batch
may differ slightly in brightness gain.

Tesselating The Screen

Irregularities in reflection of the Scotchlite material
may be minimized by cutting or tearing the Scotchlite
into small pieces, scrambling the pieces, and reassem ­
bling them into a mosaic. This, however, is wasteful of
material and is labor intensive. Apogee, Inc. has d e ­
signed a die w hich cuts Scotchlite into sym m etrical
hexagons with curved edges; w ith the aid of a template
the tiles are m ounted on a prepared Dacron and Mylar
sheet w ith a 3% ov erlap. The co m p leted screen is
checked by photographing it using a ring light and high-
contrast film in order to exaggerate any imperfections
that might exist. (Apogee, Inc. holds a patent #4,548,470
covering this method of screen fabrication and supplies
either the complete screen assemblies or separate tiles
for the u se r's app lication .) It is n o t n ecessary that
Scotchlite be absolutely flat or square to the camera since
its gain is quite uniform over a rather w ide angle of in­
cidence, as show n in Fig. 4.

Alignment of Nodal Points

The practical usage of front projection requires care­
ful alignment of the camera and projector lenses. All m ulti­
element lenses, whether for camera or projector usage, have
two or more nodal points. In the front-projection process
we are interested only in the front nodal point. For the pro ­

404
 INCIDENCE ANGLE
*ATO° INCIDENCE

Figure 4. G ain of Scotchlite screen as a function of th e angle of incidence,

for a c o n s ta n t d iv e rg e n c e a n g le of xh ° b e t w e e n i n c id e n t b e a m a nd
m e a su rin g axis.

jector lens, the front nodal point is that position within the
lens from which the light appears to emanate. For the cam­
era lens, the front nodal point is that point w ithin the lens
toward which all incoming light appears to converge. Since
the camera lens has a finite field angle, and since it is pos­
sible to have foreground objects anyw here within the field
of view of the camera, there is only one position of the cam­
era lens that will eliminate shadow s for all objects within
its field of view.
This position is obtained w hen the front nodal point
of the camera lens is effectively coincident in all axes with
the front nodal point of the projector lens. If these nodal
points are not effectively coincident, a black shadow line
will appear at the edge of foreground objects.
Where there is only one foreground object in the scene,
and that object is located symmetrically on the camera axis
(as in a closeup of one person), it is possible and sometimes
desirable to place the camera nodal point ahead of the p ro­
jector nodal point. The desirability of this procedure will
be explained later, in the discussion of shadow gradients.
The camera and projector each have three degrees of
freedom in translational motion. A sliding movement of the
camera or projector to the left or right is a translation along
the x-axis. Similarly, a change of elevation is translation
along the y-axis; m o v em en t to w ard or aw ay from the
screen is translation along the z-axis. A djustm ent of the
position of the camera or projector along these three axes
is required to obtain effective coincidence of their lens nodal

405
points. An adjustable base for the projector or camera fa­
cilitates this adjustment.
It is the virtual, or reflected, nodal point of the projec­
tor that is to be co-located w ith the nodal point of the cam­
era lens. Thus any adjustm ent of the m irror's placem ent or
angle shifts the position of the projector nodal point with
respect to that of the camera. Since the nodal point of a lens
is a single point som ew here within the lens, it is not acces­
sible for making a direct mechanical alignment. Therefore
it is necessary to make the alignment optically by using test
targets located in the camera field. The degree of perm is­
sible error in the alignment of the lens nodal points is a func­
tion of several variables.
The principal variable is the separation of foreground
objects from the screen. W hen the foreground objects are
quite close to the screen, one may misalign the camera by
as m uch as an inch in any direction w itho ut inducing a
visible shadow line in photography. As foreground objects
approach the camera, the alignment becomes more critical,
until only 'Az in. of alignm ent error can cause a visible
shadow line. Thus, w hen alignment targets are used, they
should be placed close to the camera to simplify the align­
ment procedure and to assure alignment accuracy.
The type of alignment target used can impose some
problems. The use of white cards requires separate illumi­
nation, and balancing the brightness can be a bit of a chore.
Small sections of the Scotchlite screen m ay be used, b u t
since the brightness varies inversely w ith the square of the
distance, they are over-bright w hen brought close to the
camera. A good procedure is to stop d ow n the projector
and camera lenses to f/22, if possible, and tip the Scotchlite
targets well past 45°. At a very steep angle, their brightness
can be m ade to match that of the screen. U nder these con­
ditions, a misalignment of as little as 'hi in. can be readily
observed.
The source of light that produces a shadow line origi­
nates from the projector lens, which in turn receives its light
from the lam phouse and its optics. The alignm ent of the
lamphouse and its optics should result in symmetrical il­
lumination of the exit pupil of the projector lens. W hen the
exit pupil is not symmetrically illuminated, the center of the
emerging light bundle is not at the lens center. A nd while
this off-center illum ination in no w ay affects the back­
ground scene, it does result in shifting the shadow s to one
side or the other, just as though one had shifted the projec­

406
tor. Any change of the projector lens iris then acts not only
to change light level, b u t produces the equivalent of a shift
in x or y of the w hole projector. An iris change on a projec­
tor w ith a poorly centered lam p can result in u p to h in. of
apparent misalignment.
A co m pu ter-gen erated table has been p re p a re d to
show the alignm ent error that induces a 0.0002 in. shadow
line on the camera negative u nd er a variety of conditions.
This dim ension (0.0002 in.) represents the threshold of vis­
ibility of a line projected on a large screen. The prim ary
utility of this data, found in the appendix on page 413, is
to show the relative influence of the object-to-screen sepa­
ration, and to indicate the m agnitude of alignment accu­
racy required. The actual alignment error that can be ac­
cepted is reduced by the halo effect, which will be discussed
a little later.

Alignment of Anamorphic Lens

The use of anam orphic lenses introduces special prob­
lems in front projection. Such lenses have two front nodal
points, one associated w ith the vertical tilt m otion and the
other w ith panning motion. Both nodal points exist in the
camera and projector lens, since these lenses have, in ef­
fect, two different focal lengths. If these nodal points in the
camera and projector lenses are not equally spaced, there
is no w ay to simultaneously superim pose both sets of nodal
points.
The problem can be m inim ized by splitting the dis­
tance betw een front nodal points for each lens and co-lo-
cating this m edian position. Simultaneously, one should
keep fo re g ro u n d objects relatively close to the screen,
whereby rather large misalignm ent of nodal points can be
tolerated w ithout introducing a shadow line.

Pan, Tilt and Zoom

It is possible in front projection to pan and tilt the cam­
era du ring photography, provided that the x, y, z relation­
ships of the nodal points are maintained. To do this, it be­
comes necessary to use a nodal-point camera m ount that
permits the front nodal point of the camera lens to be lo­
cated at the center of rotation for both pan and tilt motions.
This requirem ent of maintaining a co-location of projector
and camera lens nodal points also applies to a zoom lens.

407
 Because the front nodal point of a zoom lens may shift
by several inches during a change of focal length, it is nec­
essary to shift the camera body an equal distance, in order
to maintain a fixed spatial relationship betw een the two
axes of rotation and the nodal point. A n alternative, of
course, is to limit the zoom range, and to place all fore­
ground objects close to the screen, thus taking advantage
of the resultant increased tolerance of nodal-point position­
ing, as m entioned earlier.

Figure 5. Relative loss of im age q u a lity as a function of copy ratio.

Problems of Grain in Front Projection

There are rather severe limitations on the use of zoom­
ing in a front projection scene and these limitations are
caused by image grain. It m ust be rem em bered that the
scene being projected was once photographed by a cam ­
era on negative film. In front projection, this scene is being
copied onto the film in the camera and this film is a nega­
tive. Thus the background part of the scene is a d up e that
has been made on camera negative rather than a fine grain
duping stock. The graininess is therefore increased.
If, for example, both the camera and projector films are
35mm, and if the entire projected scene just fits the full
aperture on the camera ground glass, then there is a one-
to-one relationship between the image on the projected film
and this same image as it is being exposed in the camera.
In this case w e have a 1:1 copy ratio. If one now zoom s to
twice the initial focal length, only '/>of the w id th and Vi of
the height (or '/i of the area) of the projected print is being
copied. This is in reality a 16mm area. O w ing to the loss of

408
resolution and increase in grain, it will look like a 16mm
background.
If, on the other hand, the entire background image is
projected onto a small screen that represents, for example,
a w indow , then one can zoom in until the w indow fills the
camera viewfinder. At this point the copy ratio has again
dropped to 1.0. Figure 5 illustrates the relative loss of im ­
age quality as a function of the copy ratio. N ote the advan­
tage of using a 65mm BG.

The Halo Effect

From the earlier discussion on the alignment of nodal
points, w e m ay have implied that once exact alignment is
achieved there will be no visible shadow line; this is not
necessarily the case. Perfect alignment of nodal points as­
sures the absence of a shadow line only w hen both the pro­
jector and camera lens apertures are as small as pinholes.
Norm al lenses do not approxim ate a pinhole. Actual en­
trance pupil diameters are in the order of one inch, as is the
case for a 100mm lens at f/4.0. Since lenses have aperture
dim ensions significantly larger than a pinhole, their depth
of focus is limited as a function of aperture.
W hen a foreground object is in focus and the back­
ground is not in focus, a black halo forms aro un d the fore­
ground object on the camera negative. This halo is not a
black line, such as is experienced by misalignment, but is
best described as a brightness gradient that falls to 50%
intensity at the edge of the foreground object. The halo is
most often seen on closeups.
As objects recede from the camera and approach the
screen, the halo shrinks to a faint line and, at some distance
it seems to disappear. This edge-gradient halo is most con­
spicuous w hen the background scene is a clear sky or a
blank wall. It is less noticeable on backgrounds such as dark
foliage.
The halo phenom enon is explained by reference to Fig.
6. If the camera is focused on a foreground object, this ob­
ject will be in sharp focus at the film plane. If one assumes,
for the m om ent, that the projector aperture is a pinhole,
then the shadow cast by the foreground object will appear
quite sharp on the screen. In the camera, the projected back­
ground im age and the shadow will both be in sharp focus
at some plane ahead of the film, b u t not on the film. From
the diagram it can be seen that the light rays, continuing

409
Figure 6. T h e halo p h e n o m e n o n .

past this plane of focus, diverge as they reach the film plane
and become a blur on the film. Point A on the screen can
be seen by all of the camera lens; but point O, the edge of
the sharp shadow, can be seen by only half the lens. Thus
A is at full intensity at the film plane, b u t as p o int O is
reached, the light has fallen to half intensity on the film
(because half the lens has been occluded). This gradient is
show n in the lower part of the figure and exists for all ob­
jects.
The edge gradient described above is produced by the
camera lens aperture alone, because the projector w as as­
sum ed to be a pinhole. In practice the projector aperture is
not a pinhole, bu t has some finite diameter. This real diam ­
eter of the exit pupil of the projector lens causes the shadow
on the screen to have a soft edge and this edge spreads out
for some real distance on the screen. However, the gradi­
ent already produced by the camera lens aperture does not
see this second gradient (produced by the projector lens)
as long as the size of the projector lens aperture is equal to
or smaller than that of the camera aperture.
410
 This conclusion was verified by com puting the size
and shape of the edge gradient for two extreme conditions;
one condition was a knife-edged screen shadow, while the
other condition was a uniformly increasing shadow extend­
ing from A to B. These two conditions cover all possible
projector lens apertures up to and equaling that of the cam­
era aperture. The gradient on the cam era negative w as
identical in size and in shape for both cases. The edge gra­
dient halo is therefore a function of whichever lens aper­
ture is larger.
In practice it can be concluded that one should always
stop d ow n the projector until its exit pupil diam eter is less
than the diam eter of the entrance pupil of the camera. If
both lenses have a focal length of two inches (50mm) and
the camera is at f/4.0, then the projector can be at f / 4.0 or
5.6 or any smaller aperture. But if the projector lens has a
four-inch focal length (100mm), it m ust be stopped dow n
to f/8.0 to match the entrance pupil diam eter of a two-inch
camera lens at f/4.0.

Minimum Foreground-Object
Distances
A table has been prepared that specifies the closest
distance that foreground objects m ay approach the camera
for a 0.0002 in. half-gradient halo as a function of screen
distance, camera focal length and lens aperture setting. This
table appears on page 413.
A fter the ca m e ra an d pro jecto r n o d a l p o in ts are
aligned in all three axes (x, y, z) by the method described,
one m ust then be concerned w ith the halo effect. A ppen­
dix 1 m ay be used as a practical guide to determ ine safe
object distances that will not result in a visible halo. The
Appendix is organized by lens focal length. After selecting
the table corresponding to the camera lens, find the cam-
era-to-screen distance located in the left-hand column. The
row of num bers opposite the screen distance represents the
closest distance objects m ay safely approach the camera
w ithout developing a visible halo. This distance is listed for
several lens stops. These lens stops are for the camera, or
for the projector lens if its aperture is the larger. (Note: f /
2.8 is a larger relative aperture than f/4.0.)
The near distance limits listed in the tables of A ppen­
dix 1will result in a halo around the object of 0.0004 in. on
the film. Since the halo is a gradient, the first half of the

411
gradient between A and O (Fig. 6) is of low visibility. There­
fore, only the steeper half of the gradient is considered as
capable of producing a visible shadow. The tables, there­
fore, define an object distance for w hich the steeper half of
the gradient will produce a 0.0002 in. shadow line on the
negative; there is always some question as to how much
halo can be present before it is visible. The 0.0002 in. value
has been used by Technicolor, for example, as a limit for
color registration. It represents % in. on a 50-ft. screen. Tine
exact w idth at which a shadow line is visible or invisible
depends upon how close one sits to the screen, the quality
and sharpness of the projection lens, contrasts in the pic­
ture, and of course one's ow n visual acuity.
Perhaps the most significant variable affecting the vis­
ibility of halo is picture contrast. The most critical scene is
white against white, since these objects match in color and
are at high luminance. The darker and m ore mottled the
background, the less visible the halo. The A ppendix is for
the worst case, w hite against white. M ost scenes do not
present these critical brightness conditions. It is therefore
practical in many cases, w here the background is dark or
mottled, to accept the nearer closeup limit indicated for the
next smaller stop. With a dark foliage background, even
closer subject-camera distances can be tolerated.

Z-Axis Displacement for Closeups

When it is essential to m ake a rather extreme closeup
of a single object or person, it can be done w ithout a halo
by observing a special rule. If the single foreground object
extends ou tw ard in all directions from the center of the
camera-lens axis, i t then becomes possible to move the cam­
era forward by several inches, placing it well w ithin the
shadow cone of the projector. This action w ould normally
produce a severe shadow on the inside edge of all off-cen­
ter objects. But the single object (or person) that extends out­
w ard in all directions from the camera center has no inside
edges, and thus no shadow line or halo will be visible.

Brightness and Color Matching

Segments of the front-projection screen material can
be placed in positions forward of the main screen for cer­
tain special effects, such as doorways. It should be rem em ­
bered that the inverse square law also applies to Scotchlite.
If one places a piece of the material at half the screen dis-
412
 Appendix I
Minimum Object Distance (in ft.) for 0.0002-in.
Haif-Gradient Halo.
L e n s a p e r t u r e a n d o b je c t
d is t a n c e
S creen f/ V 1/ 1/ f/ if
d is ta n c e 2.8 4.0 5.6 8 .0 11 16

2 5 m m le ns
10 e 7 6 6 5 4
20 13 11 10 e 6 5
40 19 16 12 10 8 6
60 23 18 14 11 8 6
60 25 19 15 11 8 6
100 27 20 15 11 8 6
120 28 21 16 11 9 6
3 2 m m le n s
10 9 8 8 7 6 5
20 15 14 12 10 9 7
40 24 20 17 14 11 8
60 30 25 20 15 12 9
60 34 27 22 17 13 9
100 37 29 23 17 13 9
120 40 31 24 18 13 10
4 0 m m le n s
10 9 9 8 8 7 6
20 16 15 14 12 11 9
40 28 25 22 16 15 12
60 36 31 26 21 17 13
80 43 36 29 23 18 14
100 48 39 32 25 19 14
120 52 42 33 26 20 14
5 0 m m le n s
10 9 9 9 8 8 7
20 18 17 16 14 13 11
40 31 29 26 22 19 16
60 42 38 33 26 23 18
80 52 45 38 31 25 19
100 59 50 42 34 27 20
120 66 55 45 36 28 21
7 5 m m le n s
10 10 10 9 9 9 9
20 19 18 18 17 16 15
40 36 34 32 30 27 24
60 51 48 44 39 35 29
80 64 59 54 47 41 33
100 77 70 62 53 45 36
120 88 79 69 59 49 39
1 0 0 m m le ns
10 10 10 10 10 9 9
20 19 19 19 16 18 17
40 37 36 35 33 32 29
60 54 52 50 46 43 38
80 70 67 63 57 52 45
100 85 80 74 67 60 50
120 99 93 85 75 66 55
1 5 0 m m le ns
10 10 10 10 10 10 10
20 20 20 19 19 19 18
40 39 36 38 37 36 34
60 57 56 55 53 51 48
80 75 74 71 66 65 59
100 93 90 87 82 77 70
120 11 0 106 101 95 88 79

413
tance, for example, it will be 4X (2 stops) brighter than the
main screen. Thus all such applications should strive to
keep su p p lem en tary screen m aterial close to the main
screen.
As in rear projection, the eye is not an adequate instru­
ment to determ ine color or lighting balance between fore­
ground and background. Where the background is simply
passing scenery, eye-balance may be sufficient. W hen the
foreground is a continuation of the background, ph oto­
graphic tests should be m ade to ensure a good color and
brightness match. Lens coatings, the ultraviolet cutoff of
optical glass and the spectral sensitivity of color negative
material are all influential in determ ining color balance of
film. The color response of the hu m an eye is significantly
different from that of color film. The eye, therefore, is not
an accurate predictor of the film's color rendition in this ap­
plication.

Steps to Avoid Shadows and Halos

1. Align camera and projector lens front nodal points
by placing targets of Scotchlite at the f/1 6 distance of A p­
pendix 1. Place targets at left, center, and right of camera
field. Tip targets until their brightness matches that of main
screen. Stop dow n camera and projector. Position camera
and projector for no shadow on any target. Camera is cor­
rectly located on nodal head w hen the camera is panned
to place right target at left edge of cam era field and no
shadow appears.
2. Set camera lens to desired f-stop. Set projector lens
to a smaller f-stop. Recheck for shadow s at edge of targets.
A non-uniform field of light into the projector lens will
cause a shadow line as projector stop is changed.
3. Observe m inim um object distance of A ppendix 1 to
avoid halo. Projector exit pupil should not be larger than
camera entrance pupil. (Pupils are equal w hen the depth
of field is the same for both lenses. Use lens tables.)
4. If using a zoom lens, line up shot at m axim um focal
length to be used in the shot, and then check for shadow s
at m inim um focal length. If shadow s appear, reduce zoom
range or use proper nodal head that couples to zoom con­
trol.
5. If projected image is larger than camera field of view,
background plate negative should be larger than camera
negative, otherwise background will be grainy.

414
 6. W hen using anam orphic camera lens, keep objects
close to screen and co-locate a m edian point between the
two front nodal points of the camera lens w ith nodal point
m edian of the projector.
7. If camera is m oved forw ard of norm al nodal point
location to make an extreme closeup, the object m ust be on
camera center and have no inside edges (i.e., no space be­
tw een arm s and body).
8. Supplem entary screen set forw ard of m ain screen
should be kept very close to m ain screen to avoid a bright­
ness change.
9. WThen background is a continuation of foreground,
photographic tests are needed to assure a good color and
brightness match.

A dditional inform ation on front projection an d on

Scotchlite front projection screens 7610 and 7615 high con­
trast sheeting is available from Safety and Security Systems
D ivision/3M , 225-4N-14, St. Paul, Minnesota, 55144-1000,
(612) 733-4433, (800) 328-7098.

Compositing
William H ansard
ASC Associate M ember
President, H ansard Enterprises

Rear-Screen Projection
Rear-screen projection process essentially consists of
filming live foreground action against a specially photo­
graphed background "plate" which is being rear-projected
onto a translucent screen. The following items are required:
1. Special background projector w ith camera-type reg­
istration and 220 volt, 3-phase, AC sync motor.
2. M otion-picture camera w ith crystal-controlled m o­
tor w ith a cam era/projector electronically phaseable sh ut­
ter sync box.
3. Specially prepared print on print stock w ith B & H
perforations, m ade from plate negative filmed to prod uc­
tion specification or from stock library plate material.
4. Translucent projection screen.

415
 Process shots usually are filmed on a motion-picture
stage or in a warehouse. Portable process projectors and
screens can be rolled onto any set and em ployed to back
up the action by furnishing the "view" seen through a w in­
dow or door of a house, plane, train, automobile, etc.
Camera and projector are electrically locked so that
their shutters open and close simultaneously. The projec­
tor does not have a "flicker blade" as in theater projectors,
to interrupt the screened image and shorten the dark inter­
val between frames.
Process projectors hav e cam era-type sh u tters and
movements so that the individual frames are in perfect sync
with the cam era's filming action. This results in a visual
"flickering" picture but a photographically perfect image
since each frame of film is projected for the entire interval
the camera shutter is open and therefore provides maxi­
m um light exposure frame for frame. If the projected im ­
age is a stationary plate it must perfectly registered, because
any unsteadiness would be readily discernible w hen filmed
in combination with a fixed foreground set.

C am era a n d p ro je c to r m u s t b e lin e d u p so th a t th e screen i m a g e is

p hotogra phe d w ith equal brilliance across its full w idth . C am era #2 will
pho to g ra p h screen "A-B" w ith even brilliance. Cam era 1 w ill record the
"B" side of the screen darker. Cam era #3 will record the "A " s id e o f the
screen darker.

Traveling plates need not be critically registered since

their m ovem ent will usually cover any inherent unsteadi­
ness. A step printer (with camera-type registration) should
be em ploy ed to p rin t statio n ary plates. A c o n tin u o u s
printer may be used for traveling plates. A center line is
draw n on the stage floor so that camera a nd projector may
be set up in line w ith each other. Generally speaking, cam ­
era and projector should be lined up, although the screen
may be sw ung at a slight angle, if desired, to the foreground
set. If the camera is not squarely on the projector center line,
416
an u n ev e n ly illum in ated screen im age, w ith o ne side
darker, will result. However, you do have the liberty of
getting off center line approximately five degrees on each
side w ith a Hi-Trans screen and 45 degrees with a Lumiflex
screen.
There is absolutely no substitute for experience in
photographing process scenes. They cannot be done "by
the book" — too many technical and artistic factors are in­
volved. It is up to the director of photography, along with
the process coordinator, to base decisions on previous ex­
perience, inherent skill and basic know ledge of the many
variables in each setup.
O ne basic problem is balancing the light on the screen
w ith the foreground illumination. The angle, shadow ef­
fects and light quality of the illumination on the live set
m ust match the projected plate to form an acceptable over­
all picture. Care m ust to taken to keep all light illuminat­
ing the foreground set off the background screen or it will
w ash out the projected picture.
Screen brightness will vary w ith the plate in use. Mea­
suring is a m atter of balancing by eye/preferably with a
monotone viewing filter and an out-of-phase sync box for
direct viewing through the camera (to achieve perfect bal­
ance w hile the camera is running w ithout film). The screen
is illuminated only half the time, while the foreground set
is constantly illuminated. The screen im age is projected
w ith a carbon arc light, w hich requires a daylight film in­
dex for black & w hite films, and the foreground is lit by
tungsten lamps. "YellowFlame" carbons are used for pro­
jecting color plates so that their color tem perature matches
the tungsten-illuminated foreground set.
The camera should be positioned at an elevation rela­
tive to that em ployed by the cam era used to filmed the
original plate. The floor of the set should be regarded as the
camera floor — do not use the stage floor if the set is built
higher on a false floor. Preserving the relationship between
foreground and background is of param o un t importance
— elements m u st appear to have been photographed to­
gether. Best results are achieved only w hen camera angles
and lighting are m atched to preserve perspective, space
relationship, convergence of lines and photographic tonal
values.
O n stage, short focus lenses should be avoided. The
closer the camera is to the process screen, the more brilliant
the center of the screen, causing w hat is know n as a hotspot.

417
Longer focal length lenses on both camera and projector
will produce the best results. A 5-inch projection lens and
a 2-inch camera lens is a popular combination. A 40mm lens
should be the shortest em ployed on the camera if the full
screen is being filmed. A wide-angle lens m ay be used on
a large set w here the process screen is only partially used,
or w hen a relatively small projected im age is used for a
view through a w indow or door. Care should be taken to
keep the cam era and projector lined up w h en filming a
partial screen im age on one side of a live set. The fore­
ground set and the players should be positioned as close
to the screen as possible, so that the projected picture is
photographed as sharp as the available depth of field per­
mits.

C am era and projector m u st be lined u p w h e n the camera is p a n n e d from

a screen image on one side of a live set to the action on th e o pposite side.
Projector#2 is correctly po sitioned. Projector#! w o u ld result in a d a rk e r
im age on the "B" side of th e screen.

Another advantage in w orking w ith the action close

to the screen is that it requires a smaller projected picture.
The result is greater im age com pression, lending colors
richness and brilliance. O n moving background shots, such
as a rocking boat, rocking the camera slightly aids the illu­
sion of motion. Such rocking m ust not be apparent, but give
the appearance of integrated m otion of foreground and
background action.
Print density will depend on the subject matter. It is
advisable to have two prints for 35mm and three prints for
VistaVision. One copy should be of good, rich norm al den­
sity w ith normal color, and the second copy should be 2A
of a stop lighter in density.
Overall screen brightness can be controlled by vary­
ing the am perage on the projector arc, adjusting the pro ­
jection lens diaphragm and by employing neutral-density
418
 Handsard Background Projection Chart

Camera Lens Picture Full Aperture Throw Slide Projector Camera & Proj. Total D is t a n c e
2" 3" size 5" Lens 6" Lens 7" Lens 4"x5" 3"x4" 35mm V.V. 7 0m m

13'/?’ 20' 4' x 6' 31' 37/2' 451/7' 20 25 65 70 9V

20'// 30'/?' 6' x 9' 47' 56' 65'/?' 30 37^ 87 90 120

27' 41' 9' x12' 62/?' 75' 87/?' 40' 50' Ho 140 ^60

41' 61' 12' x 18' 93'/?' 112/?' 131' 60 7^ 165' 170 184"

54'/?' 81'/?' 18' x 24' 125" 150 175 80 100 195’ 220 TH
82^ m 24' x 36'

For 3M front projection system, use The above five columns are from the nose of the projector The above three columns are total
above2columnsforappropriatescreen to the screen. Add approx. 10 feet for projector working throw required for camera and pro­
width throw. space. Note: The slide projector chart is for a 16" lens. 18", jector.
20" and 24" also available.

16mm Projector Distance: (2“lens40" picture — 18 ) (2 "lens 50" picture — 22')

35mm Slide Projector Distance: (5" lens 40" picture — 13')(5"lens 50“ picture — 16')
VistaVision Distance: (9' x 12' — 80') (12' x 18’ — 119') (18' x 24' — 159') (24' x 36’ — 238’)
70mm Projector Distance: |6'x 9'51')
— (9' x 12' — 69') (12'x18' — 103') (18x24' — 138') (24'x36' — 206')
filters. Very little can be done to alter the tonal contrast in­
herent in an individual print.
A simple rule of thum b for calculating projection dis­
tances and focal length of projection lens for a particular
screen size: the projector lens focal length multiplied by the
screen w idth plus 10% equals the projection distance —
give or take a few feet. Thus a 5-inch lens will fill a 20-ft.
screen from approximately 110 feet away.
Static background scenes can be handled w ith greater
economy by using a 4" X 5” stereopticon slide projector.
Time is saved between takes since the film does n ot have
to be rewound. Also, color slides may be used for black &
white film photography; in fact they are often preferable
because they present a less grainy image a nd better black
& w hite separation. Rear projection slide projectors are
usually equ ip ped w ith arc lam ps, altho ug h som etim es
tungsten bulbs are em ployed for small screens. Specially
prepared 3 W X 4" or 4" X 5" slides are used. The emulsion
is removed from the base and transferred onto Pyrex glass
to eliminate burning or bleaching of the transparency; this
also results in sharper focus and facilitates cooling of the
transparency and glass m ounts.
One final note: the professional result of any process
scene is only as good as the background plates provided.

Photographing Miniatures
by D ennis M uren, ASC

The recent increase in the use of m iniatures in m o­

tion pictures m eans that live-action cinem ato grap hers
may now be called upon to pho to grap h m iniatures, an
area usually han d led by specialists. T od ay's pinpoint-
sharp lenses, very fine-grain color negatives, and crystal-
clear 70mm release p rints can reveal flaws, a n d the solu­
tions require the utm ost attention to detail by every m em ­
ber of the effects team. The cinem atographer should talk
to the director, the live-action director of p hotography,
and the effects crew. He or she should look at as m uch
footage from the job as possible, especially im m ediately
preceding and following the m iniature shot. Based on this
material, he should then visualize h ow the shot w ould

420
have been p ho tog raph ed had it been built full-sized and
apply that inform ation to the following:
1. The notion that m iniatures look big w hen ph oto­
g rap hed w ith w ide-angle lenses from a low view point is
som ew hat true. But w hen cut into a sequence filmed from
above or w ith long lenses the shot m ay look ou t of place.
2. A sm all f-stop is u sually n ecessary to hold the
d ep th of field needed to keep the m odel in focus.
3. The entire m odel and set m ust app ear to be in fo­
cus, as it probably w ould have been if the scene h ad been
built full-size.
4. W hen shooting a fully m iniature shot, a D -l filter
on the cam era can give an artificial atm osp here w hich
enhances the sense of reality.
5. M atch the p reced in g an d follow ing live-action
photography as closely as possible. Lighting units should
be placed at the scaled distance from the m odel to d u p li­
cate natural light fall-off. Small units help the scale.
6. Artificial sm oke can be used to slightly cloud the
atm osphere in a m iniature and give a realistic aerial haze.
In instances w here m ore control is n eeded, bridal veil
material can be tightly stretched w ithin a set and sepa­
rately lit.
7. Panning, tilting, trucking, even jolts and shakes can
ad d greatly to a shot if they are ap p ro p riate w ith that
m om ent.
8. H igh-speed film stocks allow for extra stopping
dow n. P erforation size and location can be checked on
each roll to help insure rock-steady im ages, if necessary.
9. For h ig h - s p e e d s h o o tin g a n y re n ta l c a m e ra s
should be loaded a nd tested by the assistant w ho will use
them. Registration stead y tests sh ould be m ade at the
chosen speeds, if necessary.

Model Size
W ater, fire, and exploding m odels should be as large
as the bu d g et an d safety allows, even half-size if possible
and shot high-speed. Intense w ind can help break up out
of scale w ater dro plets an d in som e cases, fire. Explod­
ing m odels should be pre-broken, reassem bled, and ex­
ploded w ithin slow -m oving, low -pow ered, and colorful
pyrotechnics preferably w ith two or m ore blasts. O ther
types of m odels can be built just big en o u g h to be a d ­
equately detailed and still carry d ep th of field.

421
 M iniature explosions and fire can be d ang ero us b e­
cause the camera m ay need to be in close proxim ity to the
miniature. Plan accordingly.

Shooting Speeds
If there is no motion on the m iniature, it can be p h o ­
tographed at any speed. W ater, fire, explosions, an d fall­
ing effects are usually done w ith large m odels an d cam ­
era speeds up to 360 fps. The exact speed d ep e n d s upon
the scale of the model and the effect desired. The accom­
panying chart is a starting point, b u t for the best results,
tests should be m ade (page 423).
High-speed shots can often be expensive and u n p re­
dictable events because of the u ncertainty of requ ired
camera speeds, pyrotechnics, w inds, mechanical equ ip ­
ment, hu m an error, and the need to sequence events in
m uch faster succession than they will be view ed. If an
explosion is photographed at four times norm al speed (96
fps), then all other controllable actions w ithin the shot
m ust happen four times faster. A chieving an adequ ate
level of g oo d-loo king lig hting can be very difficult if
shoo ting high -speed at a sm all f-stop. If u sing HM Is,
m ake su re that there will be no flicker at the film ing
speeds. Scenes which are supposed to take place outdoors
should be shoot outdoors if w eather permits.
With stop-motion, shooting is accom plished at one
frame at a time w ith the object being slightly m oved by
hand betw een each frame. O ne-fourth-second exposures
or more per frame allow for great d ep th of field in low
light levels. Stop-m otion ph otography is used to give a
freedom of m ovem ent and expression to an object or fig­
ure.
Motion-control p hotography is used w hen an object
or figure is m oved by com puter-controlled m otors at very
slow speeds. Long exposure tim es p e r fram e allow for
very small f-stops. The com puter can repeat the m ov e­
ments of the motors, which allows for multiple exposures.
Any facet of a shot can be isolated and w edged for inten­
sity, color, filtration, and atm osphere. The im age can be
built up through m ultiple exposures m ade from the cho­
sen w edge frames, while the c om pu ter repeats the sam e
motions each time.
Go-m otion shooting is used w hen shooting animal
or creature m odels. The major body p arts are attached to
rods w hich are m oved by com puter-controlled motors.
422
 Miniatures: Camera speed, model speed, exposure (actors
vs. miniature scale

Scale: inches per foot 3 2 1V2 1 % % 1/< 1/e

fraction of full size y-t v6 Vb Vl2 1/l6 V32 V48 V96
Frames per second 48 59 68 84 96 136 166 235
Exposure factor 2x 2.5x 2.8x 3.5x 4x 5.7x 6.9x 9.8x
Exposure increase, lens T stops 1 1Vs IV 2 1% 2 2 1/2 2% 3Va
Portrayed Speed Model Speed-Feet per second
miles per hour
60 44 36 31.1 25.4 22 15.6 12.7 9
40 29.3 24 20.7 16.9 14.7 10.4 8.5 6
30 22 18 15.6 12.7 11 7.8 6.4 4.5
20 14.7 12 10.4 8.5 7.3 5.2 4.2 3
10 7.3 6 5.2 4.2 3.7 2.6 2.1 1.5
5 3.7 3 2.6 2.1 1.8 1.3 1.1 .7

423
Detail m ov em en ts are an im ated by h an d each frame.
Single frame shooting allow s for sm all f-stops at long
exposure times. Coverage at various angles and cam era
speeds is especially useful to help cushion the risks on
high-speed shots.

Calculating Camera Speed

Explanation of table (Page 424)
The scale of the m odel may be stated as "inches per
foot" or as a fraction of full size. In pho to grap hing a m in­
iature, p o rtra y in g any m otion w h en the speed of that
m otion d ep en ds on gravity, the frame rate of the camera
is governed by the scale. This includes falling objects or
water, w ave action, fire or smoke, explosions in w hich
objects are throw n into the air, etc. O n the other hand, any
object (for instance, an automobile) m oving at a control­
lable speed can be related to the selected cam era speed
in the first instance (gravity), the cam era fram e rate is
increased as the inverse square root of the scale fraction
(the square root of the relation of full size to miniature).
For instance, for a m iniature ‘/ k>full size (Y-i"=r), the in­
verse of the fraction is 16. The square root of 16 is 4 and
the frame rate should be 4X norm al = 96 fps.
In the sam e set, an autom obile po rtray ed as travel­
ing 60 miles per h o u r sh ould m ove !/i<,th that speed b e­
cause of the scale, b u t increased 4 times because of the
frame rate.

(Scale fraction) x (portrayed speed) x (frame rate)

(normal frame rate)

Vib x 60 x %/2-i = 15 m ph (or 22 ft/sec)

Motion-Control Cinematography
by Richard Edlund, ASC

Motion-control has become an inseparable part of film

grammar. Inexpensive solid-state digital electronics, a tech­
nology b o m of the space race in the late '60s, m ade it pos­
sible to accurately record and play back m otion w ith suffi­
cient reliability to achieve the robotic camera systems nec­
424
essary to produce the space sequences in Star Wars, the
success of which brought on a renaissance of motion-pic-
ture visual effects. Since that time a majority of the top ten
box office grossers have relied on motion control for cru­
cial scenes. Prior to the advent of digital technology, the
control of motion had been attem pted with various degrees
of success by using analog electronics, selsyn motors and
gears, even by hand-cranking mechanisms using a metro­
nom e for synchronization!
To define it, m otion control is an electronically con­
trolled mechanical system that allows the physical motions
of a camera a n d / o r other objects to be recorded, enabling
successive passes to be photographed "on the fly" with the
corresponding motion blur characteristics of normal mo-
tion-picture cameras, so that composites can be created in
an optical printer or digitally. The composites m ay com­
prise separately p ho tographed actors, m iniatures, back­
grounds, and a m yriad of other creative possibilities. Thus,
traveling m atte systems of varying kinds can be used, fore­
grounds and backgrounds of differing scales can be used
with a m oving camera, and w hen synchronized w ith video
playback systems, actors can perform w ithin impossible
sets and locations, interacting w ith creatures and minia­
tures shot previously or subsequently. In practice, the pro ­
duction com pany will generally contract w ith a visual ef­
fects company to carry out specific shots and sequences that
will require this equipm ent and these techniques.
Several com panies have developed field recording
units, hybrid systems which have various facilities, such as
speed an d distance of travel, tracking, p anning, tilting,
booming, follow-focus, remote operation, pre-program m a­
bility, ease of set-up, quietness of operation for sound, and
adaptability to various formats such as 65mm, VistaVision,
or 35mm. Such a com pany will assign a visual effects su­
pervisor to w ork w ith the director, director of photography
and other appropriate crew members to achieve the proper
set-up time for any given plate. O f course there is respon­
sibility im plied to achieve a given plate w ithin reasonable
and predictable set-up time, an d for this reason careful
preproduction planning is necessary betw een the effects
com pany an d the U.P.M. W hen shooting actors w ithin the
principal production schedule, usually blue-screen photog­
raphy is required an d in these cases even the w ardrobe
should be discussed w ith the visual effects supervisor.

425
Motion-Control Equipment: Field
In the field (defined here as outside the w alls of an
effects studio, w ith the camera operating at sound speed)
there are different requirements. The director will usually
w ant a m oving camera if h e /s h e can have it, but this has
been (and still is) difficult to achieve in effect shots. If this
is to be done, the following equipm ent is required:
1. A steady camera, usually of a larger format than the
production is originating with, w ith a special m otor that is
slavable to the motion-control electronics, and that will
pro vide fra m e /sh u tte r position accuracy in successive
passes. Though not imperative, the camera should be silent,
so dialogue can be recorded, and it should have a calibrated
videotap viewfinder.
2. A reliable follow-focus system that is repeatable.
Double-pass shots m ust exactly repeat with high resolution.
3. A pan-tilt head w hich by any of a variety of tech­
niques can provide scaleable lens entrance-pupal positions
for subsequent repeat passes on less than full-scale p ro p ­
ers or miniatures. This pan-tilt head should have a remote
operating console w ith hand-w heels and video monitor.
Usually such a head will have DC servo motors to provide
real-time normal to high-speed p a n /tilt range.
4. A dolly w ith track, having a pow erful tracking m o­
tor, motorized boom, and positional encoders for both axes
which allow for either dolly grip control as in normal shots
or remote operation or pre-program m ed moves. The above
equipment should be as standard as possible in appearance
and operational characteristics, and operate on standard
production dolly track.
5. A motion-control electronics console, operated by
a suitably wizened technician w ho can efficiently log and
store motion files, shot-by-shot, invisibly to the rest of the
production.
6. A videotap flicker-free console, w hich will store
shots on tape or laserdisc, as the shots are m ade, and play
back instantly for directorial scrutiny. This system should
be able to provide on-the-spot video composites for com ­
parisons of A to B scene action, and the ability to playback
A while recording B, etc. The video requirem ents will vary
with the shot requirements.
7. A bookkeeping detail w hich will log actors' posi­
tions and distances, camera and track positions w ithin the
set, and other mathematical and geographical information.

426
Again, this should h appen systematically and invisibly to
the rest of the production. This is crucial to the creation of
the rest of the jigsaw puzzle of elements that make up any
given shot.

Motion Control Equipment: Studio

A versatile motion-control system for photographing
miniatures consists of a steady pin-registered camera, built
into a pan-tilt-roll head wherein the entrance pupil of the
lens can be situated at the vertex of all axes, hung from a
boom arm , all m o unted on a track of at least 50 feet in
length. Various model movers, rotators, or pylons are usu­
ally m ounted on another track of 20 feet or so set perpen­
dicular to the camera track. Again, there are many varia­
tions on this basic theme incorporating various levels of
engineering prowess within the industry and the precision
and reliability of such systems provide the operators with
different levels of creative freedom.
An electronic system runs the motors (usually step­
ping motors unless considerable speed or pow er is needed,
in which case DC closed-loop servo motors are used), then
stores the m otion files laid dow n by the operator and en­
ables the operator to interact w ith the system. There are
m any bells and whistles which include move-smoothing
program s, graphics tablets, and specialized softw are ad
infinitum.
Studio motion-control equipm ent often has provisions
to control the camera shutter angle over a w ide range in
order to control the apparent motion blur. The exposure
range is from about lA second to extremely long. Most sys­
tems have several ways to program moves and any or all
of the following m ethods may be used.
Joysticks (usually potentiom eters or rotary optical
shaft encoders) are used to manually move the motors that
operate the various parts of the system. The joystick m ight
control the speed or position of one or more m otors at a
time and all these motions are recorded for future playback.
This is similar to remote controlling a model airplane or car
and making an exact record of w hat happened.
The joystick m ight be used to m ove the system to a
series of fixed positions while a record is m ade of these key
positions. The system could later generate a mathematically
sm ooth path through these points. This is sim ilar to an

427
animator draw ing key frames and then creating all the in-
betweens automatically.
If the system has a com puter keyboard, then a move
could be created using only start and end positions with
ease-ins and ease-outs much like an anim ator's exposure
sheet. Much more complex m ethods of move generation
are available using com puter graphics. The move files can
be edited and modified in as many w ays as there are mo-
tion-control systems. Some computer-control systems have
graphics which allow the operator to preview the shot b e­
fore the camera is used.
A num ber of commercial electronic motion-control
systems are available, as well as mechanical systems. Some
of the major visual effects studios build their ow n motion-
control systems. A lthough the use of m otion control in
m odern effects work is commonplace, the process can be
expensive and tim e-consum ing, b u t w hen properly ap ­
proached, high-quality visual effects can be produced at
budget and on time.

Motion Control Extends Cinematic

Capabilities
Motion-control system s are used in m any w ays for
visual effects. The following list is certainly not exhaustive:

1. The ability to program model shots so that the m o­

tion of objects in an effects scene is believable, a nd to pre­
view these moves and modify them as needed for approval.
2. The ability to repeat these scenes for front-light/
back-light or front-light/front-light matte passes if needed.
3. The ability to repeat these scenes for enhancem ent
effects such as engine passes, running lights, smoke-room
effects, filtration, etc.
4. Precision fly-by and extremely close approaches to
objects can be accomplished smoothly and in perfect (pro­
grammable) focus.
5. Stop-motion animation can be included in scenes
that have field-recorded m oving camera.
6. Go-m otion anim ation is m ade possible by using
extremely complex mechanical systems w ith up w ard s of
50 motion-control channels to create impossible creatures
in motion. This system was pioneered in Dragonslayer.
7. M o-m otion — a system w h erein field recorded
scenes with pan, tilt, track, boom are combined with par-

428
tially motorized rod puppets (controlled mostly by p u p p e­
teers). This technique w as developed for Alien3 It also in­
cluded a laserdisc video processing system capable of con­
verting any filming rate, from 1 fps to 48 fps, back to 24 fps
on the spot so scenes could be video-composited during the
shooting day to enable interaction of a 'A -scale Alien p u p ­
pet w ith live actors in field-recorded scenes.
8. Optical printers can be equipped w ith m otion con­
trol so that optical pans, tilts, zooms, fades, diffusion, wipes
and dissolves can be repeated for successive passes.
9. A nim ation cameras can become m uch more versa­
tile, since all axes can be program m ed; objects, miniatures,
etc. can even be shot against m iniature blue screens; and
front-light/backlight repeat passes can be accomplished.

Motion-Control Technique
W hen working on Star Wars, we started with an empty
building and had to amass, modify and build our motion-
control equipm ent before w e could produce any images.
We had built up visual "violins" and had to learn to
play them. Fortunately, the picture hit and a large audience
sho w ed u p for o u r m otion-control recitals. Since then,
m a n y in n o v a tio n s h av e com e a b o u t in the eq u ip m en t
(which are not seen directly by the film-going public) and
m any good motion-control cinem atographers have devel­
oped.
T here are tw o m a in tech niqu es for p ro g ra m m in g
motion files: O ne is to use start and end positions for each
axis of motion (there could be any n um ber up to perhaps
16) a nd have the com puter generate the moves. The other
allows the cam eraperson to generate the m ove by joystick.
It is m y opinion that the com puter-generated m ethod is
su perio r for graphics an d anim ation p urposes, and the
h u m a n interface is best for m ost m in iatu re a n d m odel
photography. If shots are created using a com puter, the
moves will have m athematically perfect curves, slow-ins,
slow-outs, etc., and no heartbeat or verve — especially in
action sequences — therefore becoming subliminally p re­
dictable and less interesting to the audience. H u m an op­
erators do not produce this mathem atical perfection; in­
stead they tailor the camera m ove to w h at is interesting in
their viewfinder. This hu m an sense of curiosity is present
in the w ork of a great operator, and this transfers to the
audience.

429
 Traveling Matte Composite
Photography
by Petro Vlahos and Bill Taylor, ASC

In this type of composite photography, the com pos­

iting is done on an optical printer. Both the foreground and
background scenes are printed onto a d u p e negative. A
silhouette (male) matte is em ployed to prevent the back­
ground scene from exposing the area occupied by the FG
action. A cover (female) matte is used to protect the back­
ground scene from veiling w hen the FG action is printed
onto the d upe negative (see figures 1-5).
There are two basic techniques for generatin g the
matte: dual film, and single film. The dual film technique
em ploys a dual film camera and beam splitter. A color
negative records the action, and a black & w hite film
records a matte (silhouette) of the action. The backing be­
hind the actor requires special illumination which will ex­
pose the B & W matte film, but will not expose the sepa­
rate color negative. Various illuminators have been used
including Ultraviolet, Infrared, and Sodium.
The sodium system is by far the most-used dual film
matte system. As originally used in England, it required a
backing illum inated by m ono chrom atic so d iu m light.
Didymium glass filters were required on all set lam ps to
subtract the sodium wavelength from the foreground light­
ing. These filters caused a light loss of about two stops.
An im proved sodium system initially introduced in
1959 employed a special beamsplitter and narrow band fil­
ter in the camera. It does not require filters on the set lamps
and does not significantly affect exposure. This improved
sodium system was used extensively at Disney Studios and
is still used occasionally, as in the feature Dick Tracy.
The sodium system (or any dual film system) has the
basic disadvantage of requiring separation betw een the
backing and the actor. The actor m ust be kept well away
from the backing so as not to be contaminated by sodium
illumination. For this reason the actor (and his feet and his
shadow) cannot get into and am ong the elements of the
background scene. Set pieces m ay be photographed with
the actor and matted into the background scene along with
him, but it is very difficult to perfectly match (say) a fore­
ground floor to a floor in the background w ithout a test.

430
 D evelopm ent of dual film systems has not kept pace
with im provem ents in the blue screen system, and begin­
ning in the Star Wars era, the blue screen system became
overw helmingly the m ethod of choice.

Blue Screen Process

The Color Difference Traveling Matte System is the
most flexible of all compositing techniques. It can be used
with any pin-registered camera, and with normal unfiltered
set lighting lamps. The only special requirem ent is that one
m ust p ain t the backing an ap p ro p riate blue. The blue-
screen traveling m atte technique prior to 1959 had as its
tradem ark a blue halo following all m oving objects (and
frequently non-m oving objects). The Color Difference sys­
tem eliminates the blue halo and provides nearly all the
advantages offered by other compositing systems but w ith­
out their disadvantages or limitations.
The Color Difference Traveling Matte System properly
mattes rapid motion, smoke, glassware, water, fine detail,
and so forth. It also perm its an actor in the FG to move in,
am ong and behind objects in the background scene. Fur­
ther, the actor's shadow can be caused to fall realistically
upon the objects in the BG scene even w hen that scene is
in reality a miniature. No other compositing technique of­
fers this range of flexibility.
The theory of the Color Difference system is based on
colorimetry, and is stated as follows: (1) Excepting the col­
ors blue and magenta, all colors have a blue content that is
equal to, or less than, their green content. (2) All the remain­
ing colors except yellow and green have equal blue and
green content.
W hen the blue and green content of a scene is equal,
the blue an d green B & W separations will be identical.
Thus, there is no need to m ake a blue separation to repro­
duce such colors as reds, flesh tones, all shades of pink,
white, gray, and all saturations of cyan. Since the blue and
green separations (for these specific colors) are identical,
one w ould sim ply use the green separation twice; once as
the green printing separation, and once as the blue print­
ing separation.
W hen this select g roup of colors appears in the fore­
ground of a blue-screen shot, the green separation has one
un iq u e difference as co m p ared to the blue separation.
Whereas the blue screen area is essentially clear on the blue

431
Fig. 1. Action as film e d in front Fig. 2. Female matte of action
of pla in (blue) backin g. in Fig. 1; also c a lle d "matte
master."

Fig. 3 Male m atte o f actio n on Fig. 4. B a ck g ro u n d scene to

Fig. 1. (In p r a c t i c e , a p r i n t be c o m b in e d with foreground
from film show n in Fig 2.) action in Fig. 1.

Fig. 5. The fin a l c o m p o s ite

prin t; Fig. 7 p lu s Fig. 4, via
Figs. 2 a n d 3.

separation, this area is quite dense (black) on the green

separation. Because of this density, the blue screen repro­
duces as a black screen w hen the green separation is sub­
stituted for the blue separation. Very little cover (female)
matte is needed because of the high density on the green
separation in the blue backing area.
A cover matte density of 0.6 to 0.9 is generally suffi­
cient when using an excellent blue screen such as the rear-
illuminated Stewart T-matte blue. The problem with the
blue separation is that it is essentially clear in the blue back­
432
ing area and requires a very dense cover matte which rarely
fits.
The green separation is an almost ideal replacement
for the blue separation because of its high density (black­
ness) in the blue-screen area and because it has the correct
density for all of the foreground colors except for yellow
and green.
The green separation w ould be a perfect blue replace­
m ent if a w ay could be found to ad d a little extra density
w here green and yellow objects occur. The addition of this
needed extra density for green a nd yellow is the function
of the Color Difference matte. The Color Difference matte
is otherwise a clear film except for a few spots of density
w here a yellow or green object existed.
The Color Difference m atte is m ade by printing with
blue light through a bi-pack consisting of the original nega­
tive an d the green separation positive. The only areas that
are simultaneously clear on both films are those areas that
were green or yellow in the original scene.
W hen the Color Difference m atte is laid over the green
separation, and their combined densities are com pared to
the blue separation, they will be identical in all areas except
the blue-screen area, w hich will be black instead of clear.
Thus, the Color Difference m atte together w ith the green
separation area makes a perfect replacement for the blue
separation. This "synthetic" blue separation is perfect be­
cause it has all the correct densities for foreground colors
while rem aining essentially black in the blue backing area.
The only limitation of the system as described is that
it cannot reproduce colors in w hich blue content exceeds
green content, e.g., blue and magenta. D esaturated blues
(like blue jeans) reproduce acceptably.
W hen it is necessary to reproduce a saturated blue in
the foreground, a green backing m ay be substituted for the
blue one. While this is a com m on practice in video matting,
it's h ard e r to get a good result in film because the blue
record (the grainiest of the three layers) m ust then be used
twice. G ood pure-green illuminators are not widely avail­
able.
Because all three separations (with blue being replaced
w ith the synthetic blue) are essentially black in the blue-
screen region there is no need to use high-contrast, high-
density cover mattes. The m attes should be m ade on film
stocks having essentially the same gam m a as the B & W
separations. The male m atte should be transparent to the

433
degree the subject was transparent and should be no denser
than is necessary to just prevent print-through. Such semi­
transparent mattes perm it the reproduction of semi-trans­
parent objects.
When it is practical to eliminate yellow and green from
die foreground objects, it is possible to simply substitute the
green separation for the blue separation and achieve the full
flexibility of the Color Difference system.
W hen it is permissible to allow a reduction of satura­
tion of yellow objects and a shift of green objects a little
toward cyan, the blue separation can be m ade by a mixed
blu e/green exposure. The blue backing area will be quite
dark. Actually, it is only one stop (about 0.3 density) below
that of the green separation. The use of a slightly denser
cover matte (increased about 0.3) is all that is needed to
prevent veiling of the background. This mixed b lu e/g reen
technique is a simplification and produces acceptable re­
sults when it is not necessary to reproduce saturated yel­
low or green.

Screen Types and Lighting:

Back-lit screens
A perfect blue backing w ould expose only the blue-
sensitive layer of the color negative. Crosstalk in the nega­
tive layers, imperfect illuminators, and spill light on the set
all compromise this ideal. Nevertheless, thanks to the joint
efforts of the visual effects com m unity and film m anufac­
turers, the best current combinations of screen illumination
and negative type yield backings of unprecedented qual-
ity.
Either of two types of blue backings can be used in the
blue-screen m atte process. If the background scene is one
into which the actor (or subject) will not enter, then a simple
vertical blue surface is all that is needed for matting. An
excellent blue backing for this purpose is the rear-illumi-
nated Stewart T-matte blue screen.
The best illum inators available today are banks of
narrow band fluorescent tubes driven by high-frequency
(flickerless) electronic ballasts. These tubes can be filmed
at any camera speed w ithout frame-to-frame variation in
illumination. The phosphors in these tubes are formulated
to produce a sharply-cut blue light that will not expose the
green sensi tive layer of the 5248 and 5296 color negative to
any harmful degree, and will not expose the red-sensitive

434
layer at all. These nearly-perfect blue illuminators allow the
use of the thinnest possible cover m atte for best results in
reproducing smoke, transparencies, blow ing hair, reflec­
tions, et cetera.
M anufacturers of these special purpose tubes and fix­
tures include the originator, Jonathan Erland, at Com pos­
ite C om ponents Co. in Los Angeles, w ho can also supply
fabric and paint. Lightweight fixtures and high frequency
ballasts are available for rent from Kinoflo in Sun Valley,
C alifornia. Ballasts m a d e by these co m p an ie s can be
dim m ed; a great convenience in adjusting screen bright­
ness. The only draw back of these setups is cost.
Fair results (at m uch less expense) can be achieved
w ith commercial daylight-blue fluorescent tubes w rapped
w ith deep blue Rosco or other m anufacturers' filter sheets.
The combination of the Stewart screen and the filters elimi­
nate most of the green light from the tubes. Although com­
mercial blue-print tubes have also been used, this is not rec­
om m ended because of their very high UV output.
Regular 60-cycle ballasts can be used with any of these
tubes at the cost of weight and pow er efficiency. The draw ­
back is that 24 fps filming m u st be crystal-controlled to
avoid flicker, and any high-speed w ork m ust be at crystal-
controlled multiples of 30 fps. These tubes are som ew hat
forgiving of off-speed filming because of the slight "lag"
of the phosphors.
In the past, Stewart translucent screens have been lit
by large banks of Par reflector floods. Since incandescent
lamps are a very inefficient source of blue light, the fluo­
rescent system has m ade this m ethod obsolete.

Front-lit Screens
The principal advantage of the rear-illuminated screen
is the instant uniform illumination obtained at the flip of a
switch. Unfortunately, few studios have p erm anent facili­
ties for large back-lit screens. A front-illum inated blue-
painted surface is also acceptable for traveling matte p ho­
tography. It has the advantage of availability. Any smooth
surface that can be painted, including flats, a canvas back­
ing, a nd so forth, can be used as the blue backing.
A n increasin gly p o p u la r illu m in a to r for front-lit
screens are arrays of the special-purpose blue fluorescents
described above. The broad, soft-light nature of fluorescents
makes it relatively easy to illuminate screens of 100 feet or

435
more in width. More care m ust be taken to eliminate spill
illumination on front-lit screens. With care, front-lit screens
can produce a result every bit as good as back-lit scenes.
Blue screens can also be front-lit w ith blue-filtered
HMI or Carbon Arc Lamps. Getting even illumination with
these sources is a tim e-consum ing challenge, and filters
m ust be carefully watched for fading. Photographic results
are good to fair. Least desirable by a large m argin (for film
purposes) is a blue surface front-illuminated w ith white
light. White light, however, is essential w hen the actor and
his sh ado w m ust a p p e ar to en ter into the b ac k gro un d
scene.

Blue Floor Shooting

If the actor is to get into and walk about in the back­
ground scene, then the floor m ust also be painted blue. The
same type of (white) light and lighting fixtures that light
the actor (subject) are also used to light the blue floor and
backing. A shadow cast on a blue-painted wall or floor by
the subject can be transferred (when desired) into the back­
ground scene together w ith the subject.
Floor shooting is the m ost difficult kind of traveling
matte shot to light. It is also the most rew arding because it
permits the actor to walk or sit upon objects in the back­
ground as well as to enter or exit doorways, even w hen the
background scene is a miniature. W hen the actor's shadow
is m ade to fall upon the g ro un d or other surfaces in the
background scene, the composite scene is readily accepted
as real.
Matte contrast m ust be high in a floor shot to achieve
separation from the contam inated blue of the floor. The
problem is often com pounded by glare from back lighting.
Cover mattes m ust be heavy, and will take on a "cut-out"
appearance unless measures are taken to soften the edge.
Necessarily, reproduction of fine edge detail will suf­
fer. An acceptable com prom ise between edge softness and
detail is sometimes impossible. W hen it is possible to re­
produce the actors' shadows, the shadow s are often unac-
ceptably grainy. Industrial Light & Magic's tiny "brow n­
ies" in Willoiv are the most successful white-light blue-floor
composites to date, partly because the costum e color w as
controlled to stay on the w arm side of the spectrum. Even
so, their shadow s had to be entirely hand-anim ated. The
finest-quality blue-floor shots are yet to come, from elec­
tronic compositing (see below).
436
Front-lit Blue Screen Materials
C om posite C om ponents and the D azian C om pany
supply a useful screen material in blue or green; the fabric
is slightly stretchy and has a fuzzy surface that helps to kill
reflections of foreground lights. It is not the preferred choice
for a white-lit floor. An acceptable blue paint is the 5720
Ultimatte Blue from Rosco Laboratories.
A new backing material is the Stewart-Ultimatte Blue
Screen designed for front illumination. It is a plastic sheet
m aterial that can be rolled or stretched on a frame. It is
tough enough to walk on and is washable. This material is
slightly photographically superior to any of the paints for
matting. It is available in sizes u p to 40' x 90’. Since this
material is quite expensive, it is best used for floors w here
its scuff-resistance is m ost valuable. The material m ay be
used w ith walls and backings painted w ith high quality
blue paint.

Front-Projected Blue Backings

Blue backings of almost unlim ited size m ay be front-
projected onto Scotchlite material using a beamsplitter and
a special blue illuminator. A refined system of this type is
the Apogee Blue Max projector, now ow ned and operated
by Sony Studios. A n ingenious extension of this system,
know n as Reverse Front Projection, can create a blue back­
ing that will no t reflect in even the shiniest foreground
objects. Space helmets and completely silvered props were
m atted using this system in 2010 an d other films. These
systems are described elsewhere in this book.

Light Level for the Stewart T-matte

Blue Translucent Screen
A pap er gray scale and a W ratten 47 blue filter may
be used to set the light level on the translucent Stewart T-
matte screen. W hen the paper gray scale is in the position
of the actor and illuminated for norm al exposure at the de­
siredf-stop, the blue backing illumination should be adjusted
w hen the gray scale and screen are viewed simultaneously
through the 47 blue filter. The illumination is proper and
sufficiently uniform w hen it falls within the range defined
by w hite a nd the first step below w hite on the gray scale.

437
 Note that the blue screen negative density should be
the same at all f-stops. A spot meter may be calibrated for
use w ith the appropriate blue filter to read f-stops directly.

Lighting a Front-Illuminated Backing

Backings illuminated separately from the subject, such
as those lit by blue fluorescent lamps, may be balanced by
the same procedure as the translucent screens above.
If one is using a relatively efficient blue surface lit w ith
w hite light, such as the Stewart-Ultimatte Front-Lit blue
screen mentioned earlier, the proper incident light level on
the backing is the sam e as that illum inating the subject.
Thus, whatever value is used to light the actor's face is also
the correct value for the backing.

Lighting Procedure for H olding the

Shadow
1. T u rn on the key lig h t so as to cast the d e sire d
shadow.
2. Adjust the fill light in the shadow to achieve the
desired shadow density.
3. Measure the brightness on the floor just outside the
shadow (use a spot brightness meter and blue filter).
4. Light all the rest of the blue floor to this m easured
brightness, while adding as little light as possible to the
shadow area.
5. Light the blue walls to achieve the same brightness
as the floor.
6. Reduce fill in the shadow , if necessary, to retain
shadow density. Shadow density is controlled by adjust­
ing the fill light, not by adjusting the keylight.
Outside the shadow, the entire blue set should appear
to have equal and uniform intensity as seen from the cam ­
era position.
Since the hum an eye has a fast automatic iris for small
light changes, it is not a good m easuring device. It is nec­
essary to use a spot brightness meter and blue filter to check
for uniform brightness. A Polaroid camera w ith black &
white film and a blue filter is also useful for making a quick
check of lighting uniformity. Because of the relatively flat
angle between the camera a nd floor, the floor will not a p ­
pear to be as blue as the back wall. A diffused, polarized
white light com ponent is reflected by the floor because of

438
the flat angle. For holding good shadow s it is essential to
use a polarizing filter over the camera lens. The HN38 is
recom m ended. Rotate the filter until the floor glare is can­
celed.

Lighting to Eliminate the Shadow

1. Light the entire blue set uniformly w ith large area
diffused light sources.
2. Check uniformity as noted in the preceding para­
graph.
3. Place the actor in position. If he casts a shadow, add
additional low-level lighting to return the light level in the
shadow to its original level.
4. A dd a m odest key light to create desired modeling,
and ignore the shadow it casts. The added key light will
cause a shadow to be visible to the eye, but because the key
light did not reduce the blue intensity of the floor (in the
shadow it has created), the shadow can be m ade to dro p­
out in the m atting process.

Lighting to Match the Background

There is more to lighting a convincing composite than
simply matching the direction and color of the lights on the
background. It is not im mediately obvious, but for practi­
cal purposes, a person on a blue stage is (from a lighting
standpoint) standing on a n d / o r in front of black velvet.
Since the m atting process drops out the blue backing and
the blue kick from the edges of the FG object, the object may
as well have been in a black stage. This blackness causes
no problem if the background scene is a night scene that is
essentially dark.
H owever, if the background is to be a light day scene,
then if the person had really been in that day environment,
that environment w ould have provided back and edge light
well as reflected light to light u p the hair and to provide
the normal edge brightness along arms, sides of the face,
etc. The cinem atographer m u st back- an d side-light the
subject to provide about the same am ou nt and direction of
lighting the environm ent w ould have provided. If this is
not done, edges of arm s and legs and faces go dark and the
scene looks like a cutout.
Inappropriate lighting will com prom ise a shot the in­
stant it comes on the screen, while faulty compositing tech­
nique m ay be noticeable only to experts.
439
Other Lighting Considerations
Blue illumination and blue reflections from the screen
on the subject m ust be minimized for top-quality results.
It should be noted that illumination and reflection are sepa­
rate issues!
Blue illumination from the screen can be m ade negli­
gible by moving the actors aw ay from the screen (at least
15', 25' is better) and by m asking off all the screen area that
is not actually needed behind the actors. (The rest of the
frame can be filled in with w indow mattes in compositing.)
Reflections can be controlled by reducing the screen
size or disguised with dulling spray, bu t sometimes can­
not be elim inated. In the w orst case, reflections m ake
"holes" in the matte which m ust be filled in with hand work
in compositing. Of course w hen the actor m ust stand in the
m iddle of a blue-painted set, some blue contamination is
unavoidable.

Using the UltiMatte Video Previewer

UltiMatte is a video m atting device that can provide a
preview of the final com posite scene on a color monitor
prior to and during photography. The UltiMatte eliminates
much of the guesswork and uncertainty in photographing
complex scenes in which the actor m ust be realistically in­
tegrated am ong people and objects in the back grou nd
scene. Prior to UltiMatte, complex blue-screen shooting was
slow, difficult, and often unsuccessful.
A small color video camera is used to observe the scene
to be photographed. A videocassette player is used to pro­
vide a background scene, if the background scene is un­
available, UltiMatte generates a test scene. The UltiMatte
accepts and mattes both scenes to show the composite on
a color monitor. The UltiMatte generates electronic male
and female mattes w hich are the equivalent of the mattes
generated by the Color Difference Blue Screen Process.
W hat one sees on the monitor correlates quite well with the
subsequent film composite.

The UltiMatte Previewer does the

following:
1. It observes the blue backing and indicates visually
any areas that are under-illuminated. This reduces lighting
to a fraction of the normal time.
2. It displays the male m atte and determines w hether

440
or not the subject can be m atted. It show s exactly w here a
dulling spray or a change of angle of a set piece is needed.
3. It displays the fully m atted picture and indicates
w hat lighting adjustm ents m ay be needed to successfully
hold or eliminate a shadow.
4. It perm its exact positioning of set pieces to match
positions of objects in the background scene.
5. It perm its all the problem s on the set to be detected
and corrected before shooting. This is a prerequisite to get­
ting a good m atting job from the lab. After the quality of
the foreground image is ascertained through the UltiMatte
previewer, a motion picture camera replaces the video cam­
era and the process continues in the conventional manner.

Laboratory Procedures for

Compositing
The Color D ifference Blue Screen Traveling M atte
System perm its a high level of realism. To m aintain this
realism in such items as smoke, glassware, fine detail, and
so forth, special care m ust be exercised in selecting the den­
sity and gam m a of the separations and mattes. All separa­
tions (and certain mattes) are to be m ade on a black & white
panchromatic film stock at a nominal gam m a of 1.0. (with
all printing factors, such as the "Callier Q Effect," taken into
account). The Eastman 5235 film is suitable. Each positive
separation of a gray scale, w hen superim posed over the
color negative, should result in a constant density-sum for
all steps on the scale. Furtherm ore all the steps on the gray
scale m ust lie on the straight line portion of the D-Log E
curve for each layer of the color negative and for all three
separation positives.
Upon examining the red separation positive (Red+) it
will be seen that the film is quite dark in the blue-screen
region. The Red needs very little additional density to fully
protect the d u p e negative. D epending upon the red con­
tam ination in the b lu e backing, a cover m atte a d d in g
as little as 0.3 to 0.6 density m ay be adequate to prevent red
veiling.
The green separation will be less dense in the blue
backing region an d will require additional density to pro­
tect the d u pe negative from veiling. The fact that as much
as 0.9 additional density m ay be needed indicates a sub­
stantial green leakage. If the a dded density is obtained on
a separate piece of film having density of 0.9, this low-den-

441
sity female cover matte m ay be under-sized, resulting in a
greenish edge that m ay be visible against the background.
If the additional density is a dded as additional expo­
sure before developing the green printing separation, nor­
mal edge growth is achieved and no green fringe occurs.
The female matte should have a gam m a of 1.0. It m ay be
m ade directly or printed from a m ale matte.
The green cover matte is generally too dense to use for
printing the red separation. If the same cover m atte is used
for this purpose, transparent objects and the blurred edge
of m oving objects will have a cyan tint. The density differ­
ence betw een a w hite object and the blue backing (with
cover matte) should be the sam e for both separations.
The gam m a of the color difference matte m ust be ar­
rived at by experiment to match the contrast of the separa­
tion positives. A gam m a of 1.0 is a good starting place. The
color difference m atte can exist as a separate film, or be
combined w ith one of the other films.
The male m atte should be just dense enough in the
subject area to avoid print-through, while being relatively
clear in the blue backing region to perm it printing in the
BG scene. D epending on the nature of the two scenes and
the lack of purity in the blue backing, it may be necessary
to increase the gam ma of the male matte to as high as 1.5
to 2.0 to obtain enough density to avoid print-through.
The gam ma of the male m atte should not be increased
more than is necessary to prevent print-through because
excessive gam m a causes noise in shadow areas, a loss of
fine detail, and a loss of transparency range.
The following table lists alternative m ethods that may
be used to produce the various mattes and printing records.
Choices are d eterm ined in p a rt by the colors in the FG
scene.
Current Film Stocks are:
Color Negative: Eastman EXR 5248 & 52%
B&W Separations: Eastman Panachromatic
Separation Film 5235
Matte Films: Eastman Panachromatic
Separation Film 5235 & S0202
developed to high gamma or
Eastman High Contrast
Panachromatic Film 5369
developed to a low gamma.

Color Dupe Negative: Eastman Color Intermediate 5244

442
P r o d u c t _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ P r in tin g L ight F ilm S ource_ _____ R aw S tock & G a m m a C om m ent______
1. Red Sep. Pos. R Color Neg. B&W 1.0 Normal B&W separations on straight line portion of H&D curve.
2. Gr. Sep. Pos. G Color Neg. B&W 1.0
3. Bl: Sep. Pos. B Color Neg. B&W 1.0
4. Color Diff. Matte Blue Color Neg. &
Gr. Pos. Bipack
5. Male Matte Blue Color Neg. B&W 1.5 Except for shadows, blue backing area to remain.
'A exp.Wht. Red Sep. Pos. Suitable for all colors of wardrobe, (exposures are
VS exp.Wht. Gr. Sep. Pos. clearsequential).
6. Male Matte Blue Color Neg. B&W 1.5 Not adequate for cyan colors (sequential exposure].
White Red Sep. Pos.
7. Male Matte Blue Color Neg. B&W1.5 Not adequate for magenta colors (sequential
White Gr. Sep. Pos. exposure).
8. Male Matte White A female matte B&W 1.5 Female must have full grey-scaledensity-range.
9. Female Matte White A male matte B&W 1.5
10. Female Matte '/¡exp.Red ColorNeg.& B&W1.5 Suitablefor all colors. Must retain full grey scale if
Blue Pos. Bipack used to generate male matte. Two low-density mattes
V
S exp.Gr. Color Neg. & are required when printing Red & Green FG subject.
Blue Pos. Bipack
11. Female Matte Red Color Neg. & B&W1.5 Not adequate for cyan colors.
Blue Pos. Bipack
12. Female Matte Green Color Neg. & B&W1.5 Not adequate for magenta colors.
Blue Pos. Bipack
The "C o m m e n t " column indicates which mattes are acceptable for various colors.
Electronic and Digital Compositing
Because Ultimatte video composites are m uch more
forgiving of contaminated backings, it w as a natural p ro ­
gression to ad a p t U ltim atte m atting logic to create film
composites by both analog a nd digital means.
The Sony high-definition cameras, together w ith the
30 Mhz. high-definition Ultimatte-6, have produced some
scenes for theatrical m otion pictures in Japan and Italy.
More recently, Sony Hi-Definition Facilities, Inc. in Culver
City, California has offered a film-to-film service using the
same high definition video equipment. Feature films using
this compositing process are in production.
Already the line betw een optical effects companies,
com puter graphics companies and video post houses has
begun to blur as digital film com posites become w idely
available from these sources.
Most visual effects companies, such as ILM and Boss
Film h av e d ev e lo p e d p ro p rie ta ry system s. C o m p u te r
Graphics creators such as the pioneering Digital Film Com ­
pany and Pacific Data Images provide digital composites
along w ith their other services. Com posite Image Systems
in Hollywood offers their "D.O.T" process, another 1000+
line, film-to-film system. There are certainly m any m ore to
follow.
At this writing, a most advanced digital film-to-film
system is being d em o n strate d as a p ilot project of the
Eastman Kodak Com pany. Their C ineon system can cre­
ate digital d up e negatives indistinguishable from the origi­
nal on the screen. U ltim atte C om positing technology is
employed in their w ork stations at Kodak's Cinesite, which
offers a 4000 line ultra high-resolution film-to-film scan­
ning, printing, and compositing service. Effects teams for
several feature films, including Super Mnrio Brothers, have
used Cinesite services.
Ultimatte Digital Compositing, which now includes
screen correction, represents a m ajor advance in im age
compositing. Ultimatte Cinefusion compositing software
is available for several com puter platforms.
Digital com positing greatly expands the scope and
application of blue-screen photography. White-lit screens
are much less of a problem. Ultimatte Screen correction, at
the touch of a button, provides instant lighting uniformity
on walls and floor having non-uniform illumination and
varying shades of blue.

444
 Particularly exciting is the prospect of shooting front-
lit blue screen composites outdoors in natural light; it's rela­
tively easy to get good results in the electronic realm, but
nearly impossible w ith present purely photo-mechanical
methods.
W ith all that said, even in this digital age, w e should
not forget that first-class composites can still be m ade on
inexpensive, w idely available optical printers. In Jonathan
E rland's phrase, optical printing is "parallel processing at
the speed of light!"

Black & White Self-Matting Process

The Stewart T-matte translucent blue backing provides
a blue of sufficient purity to make possible a self-matting
process. The subject is illuminated w ith yellow light and
is photographed on Eastman 5248 color negative, or a color
reversal film. W hen the negative is used, a color prin t is
made. (The yellow filter should pass no blue light in the 400
to 500 nanom eter range.)
The color positive is printed to a B & W du p e nega­
tive using yellow light. The blue field on the print is its ow n
cover matte, and no exposure occurs in the blue field area.
Next, the color positive is used as a male m atte through
which the B & W background scene is printed on the same
du p e negative w ith blue light. The color prin t prevents
exposure in the subject area by blue light.
In this system, no other separations or mattes are re­
quired. The process holds smoke, glassware and hair de­
tail. It is not an im portant system in an era w hen almost all
films are m ade in color.

The Future for Traveling Matte

Composite Photography
by Jonathan Erland, FSMPTE
Executive Vice President,
The Technology Council of the Motion Picture/Television Industry

The 1977 release of Star Wars precipitated a new era

of visual-effects w izardry that continues to the present. In
fact, w ith the ad v e n t of digital film scanning, electronic
im age m a n ip u la tio n an d com p uter-g enerated im agery

445
(CGI) added to the still-growing wealth of evolving p h o ­
tochemical and in-camera compositing technique, the art
and craft of cinem atography finds itself in possession of
unprecedented pow er over the moving image. Implicit in
this newly acquired capability is a requirem ent for an in­
creased awareness and sensitivity to the new and evolving
technology on the part of all the craftspeople involved in
cinem atography. Com posite cinem atography should be
preceded by careful analysis of both the m ethod and the
material most appropriate to achieve the desired result.

Film Stock
Im provem ents in film stocks are now occurring with
such rapidity as to preclude the prior practice of provid­
ing comparative data in this manual. Instead, guidelines for
use in selecting and testing appropriate stocks for com pos­
ite photography will be discussed.
The importance of color difference matting in compos­
ite photography has now been sufficiently well established
that all m anufacturers have m ade efforts to achieve the
requisite chromatic discretion in their product. Recent years
have seen the advent of a major breakthrough in film stock
construction. This is attributed to the developm ent of tabu­
lar-shaped silver halide crystals, com m only called "T"
grain, in which the crystal is as little as one-tenth as thick
as it is wide. The goal of the new crystal design is to p ro­
vide a relatively larger target for a given mass of crystal.
This has two effects: one, the speed versus grain ratio is
increased, producing a finer grain image for a given speed;
two, the various layers that make up the total em ulsion are
relatively thinner, providing for less light scattering within
the em u lsio n an d p ro d u c in g a clearer, sh a rp e r im age
(greater accutance).
The new grain structure is a substantial improvement,
and still better perform ance is prom ised for the future.
However, cinematographers intending to produce compos­
ite photography m ust be aw are that such enhanced perfor­
mance is accompanied by increased susceptibility to insta­
bility; the very high-speed film stocks are sensitive to physi­
cal stress. Certain types of camera m ovem ents disrup t the
silver-halide crystals within the emulsion, causing uneven
exposure of one or m ore color records. In tungsten stocks,
this is usually the blue (and fastest) record. In normal con­
ventional production, the effect is usually so subtle as to be

446
inconsequential. H owever, in the far more critical realm of
composite photography, such effects can be very serious.
Thus it is ever more im portant to test both the film stock
and the camera prior to em barking on any composite cin­
em atography.
Split-screen composites are particularly susceptible to
high-speed emulsion stress syndrome, as the two (or more)
elements will be acquired from different takes. Since the
effect is erratic, the result is to reveal the split. In blue screen
composites, the effect can cause the mattes (usually derived
from the blue record) to beat (fluctuate) from subtle size
changes.
Therefore, film stocks and cameras u n d er consider­
ation for the production should be subjected to a simple
test. Expose the candidate film stock in the camera of choice
so that a uniform ly illuminated 18 percent grey card fills
the frame. Include a slate in the field to record pertinent
data. M ake two successive takes. In take one, allow the
camera to run normally for several seconds. In take two,
allow the camera to come to speed and then intermittently
interfere w ith the feed pulley of the m agazine by pinching
the pulley w ith the fingers. This action has the effect of
sending a shock wave through the film as it passes through
the camera, exacerbating any tendency on the part of either
the film stock or the camera to em ulsion stress syndrome.
On projection, the print may exhibit density and colorim­
etry changes corresponding to the interference applied to
the magazine. If the print does exhibit such changes, it is
probably die result of emulsion stress.
W hat is occurring is a transient disorientation of the
silver-halide crystals d u e to their uniquely thin and flat
structure. The consequence is a piezoelectric effect in which
electrons are mom entarily dislocated. This temporary phe­
nom enon affects the relative speed of the emulsion, which
translates into the characteristic fluctuations in image den­
sity. The degree of fluctuation observed will indicate the
m agnitude of risk. If fluctuations are observed in the ini­
tial and unstressed take, the stock should be absolutely
avoided. If needed, a careful analysis can be m ade by h av­
ing black & w hite color separation positives m ade from the
negative on a high-contrast stock such as Eastm an 5269.
This test will more readily reveal the degree of densi ty fluc­
tuation in the separate color records of the stock. Alterna­
tively, the negative may be run on a telecine, permitting any
fluctuations to be observed on a waveform monitor.

447
 Remember that the stress syndrom e is a function of
both the stock and the camera, so that a change of either
may rectify the problem. In some cases the necessary cam­
era modification is quite simple. For example, the modifi­
cation for the Mitchell Standard is the substitution of a large
diam eter (.700") first idler roller for the stock (.366") roller.
The camera m ust also be rigorously tested for steadi­
ness of the m ovem ent and should preferably have provi­
sion for the inclusion of a film clip in the viewfinder sys­
tem to facilitate the lineup of the other elements of the com­
posite photography.
Colorimetry tests should now be conducted which will
determ ine the suitability for the color difference traveling-
matte technique. For these tests, the frame should consist
of a blue field of the type anticipated in production (a dis­
cussion of various types of backing follows). Also included
in the frame should be an 18 percent grey card, as well as a
black void. The black void is created by lining a box, tin can
or other vessel with black velvet and displaying it to the
camera in such a way that no light falls on the interior, the
object being to provide an area on the negative in which
no exposure has occurred.
This particular test is useful in revealing any tendency
of the lens to "veil" blue light across non-blue areas of the
image, and also to indicate the presence of excessive ultra­
violet radiation scattering in the lens and camera body.
While the ultraviolet can be blocked w ith a filter (such as a
Wratten 2E), nothing much can be done about a lens that
is veiling blue, and in such a case an alternative lens should
be selected. If possible, the frame should also contain a pure
blue reference. For the test only, both the blue backing field
and the gray card should be illuminated equally w hen read
by a spotm eter. A w edge should be shot extending two
stops above and three stops below nominal at half-stop in­
crements.
The developed negative should be read on a color
densitometer, preferably in consultation with the technician
responsible for the compositing process. For simplicity, the
densitometer can be nulled to zero on a clear, unexposed
portion of the negative. This perm its subsequent readings
to produce values for each record above D min. For a p h o ­
tochemical com posite process, the candidate film stock
should exhibit a high degree of color discretion. (For an
electronic composite process different criteria apply, and
these will be discussed separately). Sample readings from

448
an actual desirable film stock are: Red .02, Green .16, and
Blue 1.20. This yields a Blue/G reen difference of 1.04 den­
sity units. Sample readings from a less-than-desirable film
stock are: Red .04, Green .44, and Blue 1.24., yielding a Blue/
Green difference of .80 density units.
As is observed in Petro Vlahos’ tutorial on blue screen,
the degree of green density in the blue-screen area will
determ ine the density of the cover matte, which in turn
determines the quality of the final composite. Thus the low
green reading of the first example is very desirable com­
pared to the considerably higher reading of the second
example.
If the w edge reveals that a desired balance between a
low green density and a sufficient blue density results in
an underexposed gray card, then an adjustm ent to the lu­
minance of the blue backing is called for. In practice, this
frequently results in a blue backing luminance about one
stop lower than the foreground illumination. Some optical
camera operators prefer a slightly overexposed foreground
scene, w hich can increase still further the spread between
foreground and blue backing. O n the other hand, other
operators prefer a higher backing luminance. Moreover, the
luminance of the background plate will influence the selec­
tion of backing lum inance values, w ith high-lum inance
plates (i.e., bald sky) requiring higher lum inance backings
and night scenes calling for lower backing levels. The les­
son here is to consult w ith the operator at the earliest pos­
sible opportunity.
While the catalogue of techniques for enhancing the
results of blue screen process is too extensive to explore in
this tutorial, there are two relatively sim ple tactics that can
make a significant difference. The first procedure is to re­
rate the film stock to half its norm al rated speed, thus over­
exposing it by one stop, and then compensate for this over­
exposure by instructing the lab to pull process one stop,
thus reducing the development. This m aneuver results in
a normally exposed negative but w ith a noticeable reduc­
tion in graininess and im proved resolution. The second
procedure is to select a fine-grain daylight-balanced stock
for the blue screen photography. This requires either light­
ing with HMI or filtering tungsten light appropriately. The
main reason this is effective is that the blue screen process
m akes use of the blue record of the negative to derive
m attes; and w hile this is a fast, relatively coarse-grain
record in a tungsten-balanced stock, it is a very fine-grained

449
record in a daylight-balanced stock. The tradeoff for both
of these maneuvers is the relatively extravagant use of light.

Video and Electronic Scanning

The criteria for backing exposures for telecine trans­
fer and electronic scanning intended for com puter image
m anipulation can differ quite significantly from p h o to ­
chemical requirem ents. In general, a negative properly
exposed for film compositing will have a blue luminance
level at, or above, the u p per limit for optim um video m at­
ting. A sophisticated video m atting system such as the
Ultimatte is capable of producing a matte from as little as
40 1.R.E. video units, which would occur at about four stops
lower backing luminance than for a film blue screen com­
posite. Video "clipping" occurs at about 100 I.R.E. video
units. Thus, with a high-luminance blue backing, the blue
level will reach clip and cannot increase further, while the
inevitable green density may continue to rise, reducing the
degree of separation between green and blue. Moreover,
excessive lum inance of the backing threatens the image
detail at the m atte edge, which will detract from the qual­
ity of the composite. A target, then, is a point within the ca­
pability of both the optical and video processes, and this
occurs at the 1.20 density units above D min. in the blue
record. Below this point, film compositing becomes diffi­
cult, while above it, video matting suffers.

Ultimatte "Screen Correction"

Video m atting from film via the U ltim atte can also
avail itself of the screen-correction feature. To use this at­
tribute, a take should be prepared of the blue-screen scene
exactly as it will be shot for the production, w ith a locked-
off camera but w ithout any of the live action. If the scene
requires camera moves, a motion-control system should be
provided for the camera, and the calibration take run with
the m otion-control p ro g ra m for each shot. N o further
changes should be m ade to such motion-control program s
unless another calibration take is also made.
In the postproduction compositing process, the cali­
bration take will be used to "m ap" the blue-screen area and
correct for any deficiencies. Thereafter, actual production
takes will use this information as a reference and correct
the deficiencies for all subsequent takes. The m ain advan­
tage of this procedure is to lessen the b urden on the stage
450
crew in providing effective m atting backings, thus speed­
ing setups and reducing costs. Permitting this technology
to become a panacea, however, entails risk; if the Ultimatte
is unavailable or the calibration take is unusable for any
reason, it will then be difficult to fall back on more conven­
tional techniques. The result will be very costly and time-
consum ing to overcome. It's a good idea to m ake screen-
correction calibration takes while also making every rea­
sonable effort to provide a functional blue screen in the
original photography, relying on the screen correction only
as an insurance policy.

Electronic Scanned Film for Feature-

Quality Composites
As this edition of the m anual goes to press, a variety
of digital electronic film scanning systems are making their
ap p e ara n ce in the feature film in d u stry . The Eastm an
Kodak facility, Cinesite, is one. Others include: Com puter
Film Co. (London and Los Angeles); C om ponent Video,
(Los Angeles); Pacific Title, (Los Angeles); Pacific Data
Images, (Los Angeles); Video Image, (Los Angeles) and
Sony H igh-D efinition Facilities, (Los Angeles). Various
other facilities are providing w ork stations for digital im­
age m anipulation. As w ith photochemical and video m at­
ting technique, these new systems have their ow n optimal
perform ance parameters.
W hile it is theoretically true that digital electronic
m atting can be perform ed on any color coordinates, the
safer practice is to select one of die three primary colors. The
main determ inant in selecting the backing color will be the
color content of the foreground scene. H owever, other is­
sues to be considered are: the m atting perform ance of the
particular film stock, the software program on which die
com posite will be perform ed and the circum stances in
which the m atte will be acquired. In the latter case, a vari­
ety of new options will become available to the cinematog­
rapher. Green backings, for example, can be provided for
effective daylight exterior traveling mattes more readily
than can blue.
U ltim atte com posites including the "screen correc­
tion" feature are also available on workstations that have
licensed the process. Feature-film productions intending to
use this m ethod of com positing should observe the guide­

451
lines for preparing for video matting via Ultimatte, and the
lower backing luminance values generally apply.
It is always wise to shoot a w edge test, if the op po rtu­
nity exists. Such tests should include foreground detail
similar to the actual shoot. Thus costum e m aterials and
colors, as well as props, should be included w here possible.
Stand-ins for principal players w ith similar hair and other
characteristics are helpful. The foreground should be pro p­
erly exposed so that an 18% gray card will yield proper
LAD#'s. (Laboratory Aim Density values are read from the
developed negative and should be approximately: Red 80,
Green 1.20 and Blue 1.60). Artistically desired "deviations"
from this "norm al" exposure and developm ent can more
effectively be accomplished in the subsequent im age pro­
cessing than in original photography, w here they can com­
promise the scanning process.
A series of short takes is then m ade in w hich the lu­
minance of the backing screen is progressively adjusted
from "par" w ith the foreground to two and a half stops
below par, in half-stop increments. This test is then scanned
and test composites m ade on the workstation of choice. In
practice, it may be m ore practical to adjust the foreground
light than the backing illumination, com pensating for ex­
posure via ND filters.
The cinem atographer should make it a practice to in­
clude the gray card and gray scale at the head of each take.
It is convenient to display these to the camera along with
the slate unless the slate is illuminated w ith a separate slate
light. Additionally, the running camera should be briefly
"capped" so as to provide a short length of film devoid of
exposure, so that a D-min. reference is produced to assist
in calibration at the scanner.

Front-Lit Backing Materials

As with film stocks, backing materials currently u n ­
dergo revision too rapidly to perm it full discussion here.
The new ly em erging electronic m atting processes will
m ake use of paints, fabrics and plastics only now being
developed. Inquiry directed to the following providers of
such materials will yield current information: 7-K Color
(Los Angeles); C om posite C om p on ents C om p any (Los
Angeles); Daizians (New York and Los Angeles); Gothic
Color (New York); Param ount Paint (Los Angeles); Rosco
(worldwide); Stewart Filmscreen (Los Angeles).

452
Transmission Blue Screen
In transmission blue screen, the source lights, pow er
supplies and color of the screen itself have all seen changes.
Incandescent lights, impractical because of their low blue
content, have been replaced by fluorescent lamps, in par­
ticular by lam ps containing the single phosphor strontium
pyro ph osp hate: E uropium . Such lam ps hav e a narrow
band o utp u t peaking at 420 nanometers. They may be ob­
tained from the major lam p m anufacturers and are identi­
fied by the prefix SDB (Super Diazo Blue). These lamps (in­
deed all fluorescent lamps) emit a certain am ount of ultra­
violet light; therefore, it is wise to use a W ratten 2E at the
camera or a com parable UV filter at the lamp.
It should be m entioned that there is som e evidence to
suggest that the blue end of the spectrum, particularly the
area around 440 nanom eters, causes accelerated aging of
the retina. This should not be confused w ith cataracts and
problems that relate to short-wave ultraviolet. There is no
cause for concern for people w ho are casually exposed to
blue light, such as actors or stage crew, w ho m ay only
spend a few d ay s a year w orking aro u n d blue screens.
However, people w ho spend m any weeks a year working
with significant am ounts of blue light should take some
precaution to limit their exposure. Excellent filtered glasses,
known as "Blue Blockers," are now available that will com­
pletely block not only the UV bu t m ost blue light.
Stewart Filmscreen can produce transmission green-
screen material; a polychromatic screen can be m ade from
Rosco black-screen rear-projection m aterial and illum i­
nated w ith the ap pro priate filtered light to achieve any
desired backing color.
The strobing associated w ith 60-cycle AC-driven fluo­
rescent lam ps m ay be essentially overcome by the use of
special high-frequency solid-state pow er supplies.

Reverse Blue Screen

This process w as developed in response to a require­
ment to be able to m atte objects incorporating highly reflec­
tive surfaces, such as glossy p ain t (even blue paint) or
specular metallic materials, as well as details such as mesh,
thin wires, and the like. Such characteristics have proved
to be difficult, and in some cases, impossible to m atte by
conventional blue screen or frontlit/backlit processes. The
process requires a sophisticated motion-control system
453
capable of multiple passes in registration, and consequently
cannot be used for live-action filming.
Reverse blue screen derives its nam e from the basic
concept that, instead of trying to photograph an opaque
object against an illuminated screen, it is desirable to pho­
tograph an illuminating source against a black or otherwise
contrasting background. In this way, limitations inherent
in the blue screen process, notably the tendency of the
screen to reflect off the surface of the foreground subject,
can be avoided.
The subject to be photographed, for example a model
on a motion-control stage, is coated w ith a transparent
medium, such as lacquer or acrylic, containing one or more
phosphors which are invisible im der w hite light. The sub­
ject is photographed, illuminated by norm al stage lighting
sources. A second pass is then filmed, on the same film load,
but consecutive to it. This time the stage lights are extin­
guished, and the subject is irradiated w ith ultraviolet ra­
diation of a wave length of about 360 nanom eters (black
light). This process is applied to stop-m otion by sim ply
filming alternate white light and black light frames instead
of com plete sequences. The ultraviolet radiation is con­
verted by the phosphors on the surface of the subject from
360 nanom eters to either 450 (blue); 550 (green); or 650 na­
nom eters (red) and re-emitted as visible light. If a color
stock (such as EK 5248) is being used, this will usually be
red so it will record on the finest-grain em ulsion layer.
The subject is now functioning as an illum inating
source rather than as a reflector of light falling upon it. It is
this source which is photographed. Further refined by the
use of a color separating filter at the camera lens, the im­
age is formed primarily by the selected phosphor coating
on the surface of the model, with relatively little vestigial
imaging from the model itself. (In the case of red, a Wratten
23A; blue, a blue dichroic plus a W ratten 2E; and green, a
green dichroic alone.) In this way, variations on the model
brought about by paint color, texture changes, etc. are mini­
mized, as the object is to produce a m onochrom atic image
with as uniform a density as possible. It is sometimes help­
ful to reduce the contrast range in the subject to avoid the
juxtaposition of brilliant w hite and jet black areas (i.e.,
space-shuttle models), but this should usually be done as
a m atter of course in preparing subjects for composite pho­
tography, since the ensuing optical processes will build up
contrast in the final composite image.

454
 In addition to the desired elimination of restrictions on
subject characteristics, this m ethod of obtaining m attes
provides the following advantages: First, there are fewer
steps and fewer pieces of film required in the optical com­
position sequence. Second, even un der some extreme con­
ditions, such as a subject receding into the distance and
becoming quite small, the m atte image retains its integrity
and refuses to disintegrate, as happens w hen the same shot
is attem pted via conventional blue screen. Third, camera
freedom increases, in that a backing screen is not required
to be kept in the camera view; consequently, the camera can
make a 360-degree turn around a subject.
The procedure in the optical departm ent is straightfor­
w ard, fast an d economical. The original negative m atte
image is printed to a high contrast stock via the appropri­
ate filter. The exposure of best contrast between the clear
subject area and the opaque background area, usually a
density of approxim ately 2.6 to 2.7, is printed. The selected
density tends to "pinch" the subject image slightly, thus
affording a tight fit. The reverse is then printed from this
matte, completing the set. The first matte, or "burn-in," is
then sim ply bi-packed w ith a positive of the original nega­
tive, printed and followed by a bi-pack of the background
scene w ith the "hold-out" matte.
A more complex version of this process provides for
the addition of a contrasting phosp ho r backing (usually
blue) and model m ount w hich is recorded via the app ro­
priate filter onto the previously recorded phosphor image.
Or, w ith appropriate filtration (Wratten #31) both phos­
phors m ay be recorded simultaneously. The result is the
creation of an im age capable of providing both male and
female mattes in one generation. One situation in which this
is helpful is the case of a m odel with extreme texture or
holes that cannot be adequately penetrated by the black
light. If used alone, such an incomplete image w ould re­
sult in holes in the matte. However, w hen each side of the
set of mattes is m ade from its ow n respective phosphor, the
result is that d ark areas of the burn-in m atte remain dark
and do not p erm it the print-through of the background
scene.
Such mattes can have the ad ded property of contain­
ing slightly b u t im portantly different inform ation from
each other. Subtracting one m atte im age from the other
therefore yields a third w hich represents the difference
between its tw o predecessors. This is know n as a "matte-

455
difference-matte" and m ay be used to create additional
effects (such as the re-entry glow on a spacecraft). Further,
it naturally follows that this concept can be extended to
include the green record, obtaining a total of three original
m attes plus any n u m b e r of p erm utatio nal derivatives.
Apogee, Inc., holds a Patent (#4,417,791) on Reverse Blue
Screen and supplies the process u nd er license.

Front Projection Blue

This process provides a m ethod for producing blue
screen of exceptional purity, w ith great economy and, if
needed, on a truly large scale.
Dem ands m ade for very large-scale blue screen com­
posites prom pted Apogee to build a dedicated, high-power
blue flux front projector. This device, know n as "Blue-
Max," incorporates the best features of both blue screen and
front-projection compositing. From blue screen, we acquire
the ability to com posite a final image in which the fore­
ground and the background are of the same generation one
to the other. From front projection, we acquire the absence
of blue spill and the almost unlimited screen size plus the
m odest expense of operating a 5000-watt lam p rather than
a large transm ission screen. M oreover, w e can perform
multi-plane effects w hich perm it the actors to appear both
in front of and behind portions of the blue field, or w e can
use flags to obscure apparatus such as lights and rigging.
At the same time, we have dispensed w ith the front-pro-
jection restrictions of poor re-photography of the projected
plate. By using a narrow band interference coated beam
splitter designed to split only the desired m atting line, we
can eliminate the necessity of lighting the foreground scene
one stop hotter to com pensate for the one-stop loss of a
conventional beam splitter.
The "Blue-Max" consists of the following basic ele­
ments:
1. The light source, a 5000-watt Mercury-Xenon short-
arc lamp.
2. A light collection and delivery system based on a
modified Abbe illumination system in which the arc is re­
imaged by an optical integrator and from there modified
by lenses to conform to the characteristics of the camera lens
in use.
3. A series of filters designed to isolate with great ac­
curacy the selected matting color: Red, Yellow (for Sodium
Vapor two-strip process), G reen or Blue.
456
 4. An attenuation system which can modify the out­
p u t of the projector du ring a shot in order to maintain a
specified screen brightness level.
5. A selection of beam splitters of various reflection and
transmission ratios, including some having the property of
splitting only the m atting line in use, so as to reduce un­
necessary foreground light losses.
6. A light trap incorporated w ith the projector so as to
allow for relatively unlimited camera movement.
The set-up for a "Blue-Max" shot is very similar to that
for conventional front projection. It is perhaps even more
essential to keep ambient light contamination off the screen.
The light level at the screen is m easured on a ground glass
m ounted in the film gate by use of a fiberoptic probe con­
nected to a light meter. In front-projection blue, it is not
necessary to carry focus to the screen as in conventional
front projection.

Reverse Front Projection

In both front projection and transmission blue-screen
compositing, extrem e close-ups have presented various
problems. In close-up photography via transmission blue,
blue spill is the principal villain encountered. In front pro­
jection, if a subject approaches very close to the cam era/
projector apparatus, the projected light will record on the
subject in spite of the vast difference in gain between the
subject and the Scotchlite screen. Furthermore, certain rules
have long existed in front projection technique regarding
the spatial relationships between the camera, the subject
and the screen. (See Front Projection section.) These rules
are directed at preventing the fringing of the subject that
results from having a soft shadow rendered at the screen,
the consequence of a relatively short subject-to-camera dis­
tance versus a relatively long subject-to-screen distance.
Additional problem s are introduced if the subject includes
highly reflective surfaces, e.g., silver lamé clothing or space
helmets; and all these problem s are exacerbated if the sub­
ject is backlit.
In "Blue-Max" compositing, these difficulties can be
resolved by the adoption of "Reverse Front Projection." In
its sim plest term s, Reverse Front Projection can be d e ­
scribed as a radical rearrangem ent of the basic front-pro­
jection setup. In conventional front projection, in which a
camera and a projector are disposed at 90 degrees to each
other with a beam splitter arranged betw een them at 45
457
Figure 1. Diagram of reverse front projection.

degrees to both, a subject to be photographed is positioned

in front of the cam era/projector apparatus, and a front-
projection screen on which the projector will form an im­
age is deployed beyond the subject. The camera is thus able
to record and combine both the returning projected image
and the foreground subject.
In Reverse Front Projection, the camera and projector
are still at 90 degrees to each other, but separated by a con­
siderable distance, and the foreground subject is placed
between a very large beam splitter (which m ay be plain
glass, or preferably a pellicle) and the camera. The front-
projection screen faces the projector instead of the camera,
while the camera faces the light trap normally confronted
by the projector. (See Figure 1.) The effect of this arrange­
m ent is to take the diverging projected cone of light from
the projector and deliver it as a converging cone of light,
having turned it 90 degrees. We then position the camera
so that the nodal point of its lens coincides w ith the focal
point at which the projected cone of light converges.
By this process, we acquire all the advantages of front-
projected blue, in terms of the purity of color as well as the
absence of blue spill, without having to project the blue onto
the subject. We have also eliminated the fringing resulting

458
from poor alignment of projector and camera nodal points,
as there is no shadow at all cast upon the screen by the fore­
ground subject. Furthermore, we have eliminated the h a­
loing resulting from the backscat-tered light that occurs
w hen the subject is backlit. This is d ue to a "diode effect"
produced by the arrangem ent of elements in Reverse Front
Projection. In normal front projection, a ray of light strik­
ing the back surface of a foreground subject is reflected back
to the Scotchlite screen and then returns again along the
sam e axis, plus or m inus som e 2%. Therefore som e of the
light restrikes the subject, while some passes the subject,
m aking its way back to the camera to produce the objec­
tionable halo.
By contrast, the "diode effect beamsplitter" handles the
situation in the following manner: a ray of light striking the
rear of the foreground subject is reflected back tow ards the
beam splitter; approxim ately 92% of it is passed through
the beam splitter to the black velvet screen, w here it is ab­
sorbed. The remaining 8% is reflected back to the Scotchlite
screen, and from thence returns to the beam splitter, where
again 92% is passed through and 8% is reflected towards
the foreground subject. Thus, only 8% of 8%, or .64%, is
made available to the camera to record as halo. To be sure,
only 8% of the projected blue light is being m ade available
to the camera also, b ut that is not a serious problem to the
Blue-Max with its massive output. It should also be borne
in m ind that in conventional front projection, only a theo­
retical 25% of the projected light survives the journey to the
camera, so we are, in fact, sacrificing approxim ately one
and a half stops.
We sacrifice some degree of camera flexibility in us­
ing Reverse Front Projection, as the camera cannot move
from the nodal point defined by the projector unless pro­
vision is m ade to move both the camera and projector in
synchrony. In some cases, it may be easier to move the sub­
ject in relation to the camera. Zooming is certainly possible,
as are all nod al-po in t m oves for the cam era, an d these
should cover most requirem ents for close-ups. Apogee has
applied for patent protection on Reverse Front Projection
as well as the "Blue-Max," and both are available to the
industry under license.
Current backing materials include the following paints
and fabrics. Paints: Param ount Ultra-Marine Blue #8580 (a
tough surface paint that resists scuffing, but is more appli­
cable to television than to film, as it lacks sufficient color

459
saturation); 7-K Infinity Blue (for years the industry stan­
dard); Apogee Process Blue, Rosco Ultra Blue and Gothic
U ltra Blue. Fabrics: "FRP 100" (flam e re ta rd a n t) and
"Tempo," (not flame-retardant though it has superior color
saturation and a felt-like texture w ith a thin foam-rubber
backing), both available from Daizians in N ew York and
Los Angeles, and a new material from Rosco. Besides these
there is a vinyl plastic sheet material from Stewarts called
Ultimatte Front Lit Blue. This material, besides providing
a very clean blue, is also very durable —sturdy enough to
drive vehicles on.

Digital Effects Cinematography

by D ennis M uren, ASC

The arrival of theatrical-quality digital image m anipu­

lation brings to the cinem atographer new responsibilities.
It is important that we do our best to understand and even­
tually master the capabilities of this new tool. O n the set,
we will soon be asked, "C an we keep shooting and fix it
digitally?" or "C an't we just paint out the wires?" As of
now, there are no industry-w ide standards defining image
quality, and there are only a handful of com puter artists
w ho know our expectations. O u r participation is vital. Per­
haps w ithin this decade entire films will begin passing
through a digital printer, where the choices of color timings
will be only one of a dozen possible alterations. The cinema­
tographer will need to be at these sessions to follow through
on his vision. He may have chosen to light and expose the
negative in specific ways, know ing that w ith digital m a­
nipulation he will later alter the image to best create a spe­
cific mood or effect.
Many of these techniques are available for TV at video
post houses. But w e have no control over how a hom e
viewer chooses to adjust his TV. In feature films, it is the
cinem atographer w ho can have the final say, because he
works w ith the color timer and often approves the release
prints.
For a few years, digital manipulation will be restricted
to special instances where the expense is justified. The work
will be done at a film effects house or a high-end video

460
house. One way to begin feeling comfortable w ith this tech­
nology is to tour a num ber of suppliers' facilities. Ask to
see their sample reel on film, not tape. Then trust your own
eye in evaluating the work. Since equipm ent costs change
as technology advances, pricing should not be assumed.
Feel free to consult experts w hom you trust. There is still
no substitute for experience on a set. O n a show with diffi­
cult effects w ork, an experienced expert should be there
w henever possible. Later, you may w ant to check the final
manipulated film that has been cut into the workprint, and
project it if possible. It should be u p to the video house to
ensure that a shot will intercut, but they m ay in fact have
very little film experience.
Here is a brief sum m ary of the three steps needed to
transfer film into a com puter and back onto film. Each step
is controlled by a computer:
1. Input: The original neg ative o r in terp o sitiv e is
scanned by a sensor, which produces the electronic equiva­
lent of a photograph. Each frame is subdivided into millions
of discrete dots, and each dot's position, color and bright­
ness is stored on digital tape or disks.
2. Manipulating: The digital tape or disks are read into
a com puter w here the image is reassem bled on a monitor
for viewing. It can then be m anipulated w ith computer-
painting and image-processing program s, either by an art­
ist a frame at a time or preprogram m ed and recorded u n ­
attended, and then stored onto digital tape or disks.
3. Output: The digital tape or disks are read into a com­
puter w here the image is p u t back onto film, either through
photographing a high-quality TV image or by lasers scan­
ning onto film and reconstructing each dot's position, color
and brightness. The film is then processed a nd printed for
viewing.
It is d uring step tw o that we have an opportunity to
alter the image. We w ork w ith a com puter artist w ho runs
the com puter, m uch like in a postproduction video suite.
For now , m onitors are not exact representations of w hat
will show on film. But their usefulness lies in making judg­
ments of images relative to one another or within the frame.
As we have learned to interpret how a set will look on film
by using our eye, w e will need to learn to interpret how a
m onitor's im age will look on film. Today, the processing
of the images happens m uch m ore slowly than in a post
suite. So before a job is completed, a w edge of one frame
can be requested an d checked for final approval before

461
running the job. Here are a few specific manipulation tech­
niques now available:
Image Processing: This will become both a creative tool
and a worry for cinematographers. Color, contrast, satura­
tion, sharpness, and even the apparent shape of objects can
be altered. Single color can be changed, areas can be iso­
lated, and the changes will only affect that area. These tools
may eventually be in the printing laboratory, which will
make a com pletely new negative to be used for release
printing.
Painting: Wires or supports can be painted out and not
appear on the film. This can make stunt w ork safer. U n­
wanted objects can be painted out. If a difficult effects shot
has an artifact, it might be easier to paint the defect out than
try to correct it at an earlier step.
Compositing: For blue-screen work, in some cases the
quality of the blue background need not be prefect if the
composite is to be made digitally. This means we can set
up faster. The screen can be positioned in difficult places
or at extreme angles. Green or red screen may w ork bet­
ter, depending upon the colors in the subject. Mattes can
be m ade from differences in color and brightness at the
same time. Since the process is self-contained w ithin the
computer, there are no problem s w ith film shrinkage, un­
steadiness, exposure fluctuation, or photochemical devel­
opm ent as there are w ith optical printing. The composite
is viewed on a monitor and adjusted at every step. W hen
properly photographed, compositing can now be perfectly
executed.

High-Resolution Electronic
Intermediate System for Film
by Don Miskowich

Eastman Kodak Com pany has developed a high-reso-

lution electronic intermediate system designed for the con­
temporary needs of the motion-picture industry. This sys­
tem can be used to scan and digitize frames of motion pic­
ture film so they can be interactively m an ip ulated and
composited at com puter workstations. The digital pictures

462
can be recorded back onto film w ith o u t com prom ising
im age quality.
There are m any significant advantages to this technol­
ogy. By converting film to digital form (l's and 0's in the
computer), the images can be endlessly m anipulated w ith­
out losing quality. The system is capable of accom modat­
ing the full-resolution an d dynam ic-range of analog pic­
tures ca p tu red on currently available fine-grain 35mm
films. W ith this technology it is as feasible technically to
combine 25 layers of imagery as it is to combine a simple
foreground and background. Image input and outpu t time
is approximately three seconds per frame at full resolution.
The system can also be used at one-quarter and one-half
resolution, w hich is comparable to N TSC /PA L and HDTV
im age quality.
Applications fall into three general categories — paint­
ing, im age processing and compositing. Painting includes
such applications as guide w ire and artifact removal. It is
also possible to repair scratched or otherw ise dam aged
film.
Im age processing includes such applications as the
m anipulation of colors, contrast, saturation, sharpness and
even the ap paren t shape of images. Single colors can be
altered in isolated areas of individual frames. While this
capability can be used to resolve problems, it also is a po­
tentially pow erful artistic tool which gives the cinematog­
rapher a second chance to alter the emotional content as
well as the quality of images.
Digital im age compositing should m ake the biggest
impact. There will be less stringent requirements for setting
up blue-screen pho to grap hy since it is possible to solve
many problem s at the image com posing workstation. For
example, blue-spill — blue reflections on shiny objects that
get too close to the blue screen — can be eliminated at the
image-computing workstation.
The Kodak system has four m ain components: a film
scanner, an im age com puting w orkstation the necessary
software, digital d ata cassette recorders, an d a film re­
corder.
The scanner uses a proprietary CCD trilinear sensor
with three linear 4096-pixel photosite arrays. The arrays are
covered w ith red, green and blue filters. These are opti­
mized to match the dyes in contem porary color negative
films. A xenon light source and integrating filter provide
high-pow er diffused illumination.

463
 The scanner also em ploys unique signal processing
electronics and a proprietary transport design using frame-
indexed, pin-registration and film-surface positioning. The
latter features are crucial for seamless compos-iting of dif­
ferent picture elements.
The image com puting w orkstation is based on cur­
rently available technology. It incorporates a Sun micropro­
cessor platform with VME backplane and UNIX operating
system. The w orkstation can be in a stand-alone or n et­
worked environment. It provides a preview ing capability
on a video monitor. This allows the operator and members
of the creative team to m ake interactive decisions in a very
tight loop. They can look at images composited in various
ways, make decisions, and view the results in minutes.
A transputer-based, image-processing accelerator was
developed for the workstation to provide high-speed im ­
age m anipulation. In addition its capability was extended
to provide direct memory access (DMA) on the edge nodes.
The design flexibility allows users to size the transputer
processing array to match their budget and their image-
processing interactivity and productivity needs. The sys­
tem is configured w ith a m inim um of 8 gigabytes of paral­
lel disk storage and uses a high-speed, industry-standard
SCSI-2 data bus for data transfer. On-line disk storage can
be increased by adding disk drives to the array. Industry-
standard peripherals can be used, including the Exabyte
8m m d ata recorder, and DD-2 digital cassette recorders
which can support data transfer rates in excess of 15 m ega­
bytes per second.
State-of-the-art software has been developed for the
w orkstation. It uses concepts an d sym bols fam iliar to
people already w orking w ith im ages at video p o stp ro ­
duction facilities, com puter-generated im age houses and
optical effects facilities. Main features include interactivity
with selectable w indow s providing im mediate updates of
processed images.
The software uses flexible image processing tools, in­
cluding color grading, filtering, resizing, repositioning and
painting. Images can be im ported from and exported to
other major software packages. Kodak has also licensed the
use of adjustable algorithms for blue screen compositing
developed by the U ltim atte C orporation. U ltim atte has
been a leader in the developm ent of flexible program s for
electronic compositing at NTSC, PAL and HDTV resolu­
tion. This is the first use of these program s for m aking film-

464
resolution composites. The latest generation of Ultimatte
software provides filmmakers w ith greater flexibility for
creating credible composites.
Previously, blue screen photography was limited to
silhouette-style shots against rear-lit, perfect blue screens.
The new algorithms allow actors to move in the foreground
of front-lit blue screens and cast shadows. They can climb
on a nd around blue set pieces, and move within the back­
ground instead of just perform ing in the foreground.
The final com ponent is the film recorder. The recorder
uses three visible gas lasers to copy digital pictures onto a
liigh-resolution color intermediate film. Blue light is pro­
vided by a 458nm A rgon laser; green light by a 543nm
Helium Neon laser; and red light by a 633nm Helium Neon
laser. The film recorder also uses unique lenses and beam-
shaping optics optimized for this application. The propri­
etary transport design em ploys the sam e precise frame-
indexed pin registration and film surface positioning used
by the film scanner.
Both the scanner and recorder are designed to work
at a resolution of 167 pixels per m m in the film plane. This
was selected to preserve the resolution of the original cam­
era film, and also to provide the m axim um sam ple size of
4096 pixels across full-width formats such as Super 35 and
VistaVision. Preserving the aspect ratio of the Super 35
camera aperture, the system produces an image w ith 4096
pixels across and 3114 lines dow n. This is m ore than twice
the horizontal sam pling of the 1125 line HDTV format,
which has 1920 samples horizontally and 1035 visible lines
vertically. The following table sum m arizes the image di­
mensions for the formats supported by the scanner and the
recorder.

H orizontal Vertical Aspect

Form at Lines Lines Ratio

S uper 35 4096 3112 1.32:1

A cadem y
A perture 3656 2664 1.33:1
CinemaScope 3656 3112 2.36:1
VistaVision 6144 4096 1.50:1

For example, an A cadem y-aperture 35m m frame is

scanned to capture 3656 lines of horizontal resolution with
2664 picture elements, or pixels, on every line. To record

465
the range of density captured on the negative, while p ro ­
viding "headroom " for creative digital im age m anipula­
tion, the system accommodates u p to 10 bits of information
in each of three color records every pixel.
This feature requires some 40 megabytes of magnetic
computer storage for every frame of 35mm film. One frame
w ould use the entire hard-disk capacity of m any popular
personal computers. It's enough data to w rite som e 8-10
million w ords in the English language. Remember, both the
scanner and recorder can handle one frame of film in a p ­
proximately three seconds.
There are other flexible alternatives. For example, the
system provides an option for scanning, storing and pro­
cessing 8 bits of data in each color record of every pixel for
applications not requiring headroom. The user can also opt
to w ork at one-quarter or one-half resolution, w hich re­
quires only 'A or '/i<>of the storage space, respectively.
The equipm ent has been designed in an open archi­
tecture m ode w hich provides compatibility w ith standard
peripheral interfaces used in the com puter industry. Also,
a digital picture file format w hich simplifies the exchange
of images between workstations and betw een different fa­
cilities, has been developed.
Other applications for the high-resolution electronic
interm ediate system include restoration of vintage films
that have been m arred by scratches, blotches and other
damage. It is even possible to restore torn images or miss­
ing parts of images based on the image information in a d ­
jacent frames. This should prove to be a valuable tool for
protecting and preserving films that have cultural a n d /o r
historic significance or that have potential value for future
redistribution.
Considerable interest has been expressed to establish
image databases of stock footage from Iive-action and com-
puter-generated im age libraries. Stock footage stored in
digital format w ould then be easily accessible. The image
quality w ould be equivalent to first-generation negative
film. T his w o u ld a s su re th a t stock fo o tag e in te rc u ts
smoothly w ith live-action photography.
O ver the long term, it could eventually become prac­
tical to integrate a high-resolution electronic intermediate
system into the print distribution chain. A digital interm e­
diate could be used to generate a high-quality interm edi­
ate film w hich w ould be used as a printing master. This
w ould eliminate several generations of film from the re­

466
lease-printing process, resulting in a significant im prove­
m ent in im age quality.

Computer Graphics
by Michael W hitney and Allan Peach

C om puter-generated im agery (CGI) has become an

im portant addition to the working world of the cinematog­
rapher. CGI is the simulation of real or imagined objects
and environm ents using com puter-based mathem atical
models. Just as a director and cinem atographer light and
compose shots on an actual three-dimensional set, the CGI
director w orks w ith an interactive com puter display to set
the lighting and block the shots on a sim ulated set. The
director can then transfer the com puter created imagery to
video or film.
C om puter simulation of reality can be quite effective,
but sim ulated objects, lighting, and environm ental effects
only approxim ate reality. Light may pass right through a
sim ulated object w itho ut casting shadow s, solid objects
may themselves pass magically through one another, and
environm ental effects m ay drift from the realistic to the
comical within the sam e scene. The com puter artist needs
to be aw are of the imperfection in the software's sim ula­
tion of the world. Typically, the m ore accurately the direc­
tor simulates a scene, the longer it takes the com puter to
generate the image. Because of this, the com puter artist
m ust be cognizant of the cost of "reality" in setting up a
shot.
CGI for m otion pictures is an inherently expensive
process because of the time it takes to generate and record
a single frame of film. Although high-end production work
is still best served by supercom puters and advanced w ork­
stations, com puter-graphics softw are is fast becoming a
prevalent commodity in the personal com puter world. This
trend, coupled w ith the proliferation of faster and more
inexpensive com puters, is slowly reducing the cost of pro­
ducing quality com puter graphics.

Basic Tools and Terms

The atomic unit of com puter graphics is the pixel (a
contraction of picture element). Low -resolution displays,
467
often fo und in p ersonal co m p u ters, h av e resolutions of 640
X 480 pixels. T his resolu tio n is sufficient for m o s t NTSC
video work. H ow ever, m otion picture w ork requires higher
resolution d isp lay s w ith resolu tio ns of 1280 pixels X 1024
lines o r greater. U p co m in g h ig h-definition television sy s­
tem s will h a v e disp la y s a p p ro a c h in g 2,000 h o riz o n tal pix­
els by 1,000 vertical lines.
T he c o m p u te r calculates the color for each pixel an d
d isp lay s it by v ary in g the intensity of the Red, G reen a n d
Blue (RGB) signal. To re p rese n t color as p erceived by the
h u m a n eye, each pixel m u s t sp a n a ran g e of 16 million to
68 billion colors (256 to 4,096 intensity valu es p e r R, G, B
com ponent). Internally the c o m p u te r stores the RGB v al­
ues in m e m o ry , w ith b e tw e en 8 a n d 12 bits re p rese n tin g
each R, G a n d B value. Each pixel, therefore, requ ires 24 to
36 b its of sto rag e. E v e n for th e lo w re s o lu tio n of N TSC
video, the c o m p u te r m u s t calculate a n d then store ov e r 1
m eg ab y te of d a ta for each frame. A single A cad em y -ap er-
ture 35m m color neg ativ e fram e, a t the theatrical screen ­
ing resolution of 4,096 pixels x 3,072 lines, req uires a ro u n d
56 m e gaby tes of storage. A 65m m 5-perf m o tio n -p ic tu re
im age requ ires a screen reso lu tio n of 6,000 X 2,500 pixels
or higher. W ith 12 bits p e r R, G an d B value, a fram e w o u ld
require 67.5 m e gaby tes of m e m o ry , i.e., 6,000 pixels X 2,500
lines X 3 colors (RGB) X 1.5 bytes (1 b yte = 8 bits). T he co m ­
p u te r m u s t calculate this d a ta then m o v e it from its in ter­
nal m e m o ry to the d isp la y m e m o ry of the film recorder.
The film record er d isp la y s th e d a ta o n a cath od e-ray
tube (CRT) o r w rites directly to the ra w cam era stock w ith
a sca n n in g RGB laser. T his m e an s th at in o rd e r to m ak e
c o m p u ter grap hics econom ical, y o u m u s t n o t only h a v e an
e x tre m ely fast c o m p u te r, b u t y o u m u s t also h a v e h ig h
b a n d w id t h p a th w a y s (called channels) b e tw e e n sto ra g e
devices, the c o m p u te r an d the film recorder. For co m p ari­
son, p erso n al c o m p u te rs w ith 2,400 b a u d m o d e m s tran s­
fer d a ta at 240 bytes p e r second. A hig h -p e rfo rm a n ce CRT-
b ased film recorder, in o rd e r to record a single 3 5 m m fram e
in app ro x im ately six seconds, n ee d s the ch an n els to tran s­
fer 56 m egabytes of d ata a t 10,000,000 bytes (10 m egabytes)
p e r second.
C u rren tly , n o c o m p u te r can create c o m p u te r g rap h ic
fram es a t film resolution in real time. O ften a fram e m a y
take from several seco n d s to m a n y h o u rs to c o m p u te a n d
record. W hole scenes often take d a y s to w eeks of c o m p u te r
time. Because of these factors, c o m p u te r grap h ic s can be

468
expensive, b u t the v irtues of c o m p u te r im ag ery often o u t­
w eig h th e costs.

2-D and 3-D Images

T w o -d im e n sio n a l c o m p u te r g rap h ics are a stap le of
video p o s tp ro d u c tio n houses. T h e low resolution of v ideo
allo w s rea l-tim e m a n ip u la tio n o f im ag es by the g rap h ic
artist. T he u se r interface of a tw o -d im en sio n a l system is
usually a graphics tablet. T h e artist uses an electronic stylus
to d ra w o r p a in t o n the tablet m u c h as a p a in te r w o u ld use
a b ru s h a n d canvas. Because of this, these c o m p u te rs are
called paintbox system s. V ideo artists u se p ain tb o x system s
to create special effects a n d to m a n ip u la te the original video
so u rce m aterial. For ex am p le, a p a in tb o x sy stem can re­
touch tape d ro p o u ts o r re m o v e u n w a n te d objects.
Digital frame stores are m e m o ry devices th a t scan a n d
store co m p lete fram es of video in a digital form at. Several
c om p an ies m a k e tw o -d im ensio nal c o m p u te r grap hics sys­
tems, su c h as th e A D O , th a t utilize digital fram e stores to
d o freeze fram es, zo o m s, v id e o c o m p ressio n a n d e x p a n ­
sion, v id eo positioning, c h an ges of aspect ratio, p ro g ra m ­
m able p attern s, p ic tu re flips a n d tum bles, etc.
T h ree-d im en sio n al c o m p u te r graph ics are b eing used
m o re a n d m o re in th e m otio n -p ictu re field. F ro m pio n e er­
ing efforts su c h as Tron a n d The Last Starfighter to m o re re­
cent special-effects ex trav a g an z as su ch as Terminator 2 an d
Lawnmower M an, three-dim ensional co m p u ter graphics can
create im ag es th a t w o u ld b e im po ssib le to p ro d u c e usin g
n o rm a l special-effects technologies.

Modeling
The creatio n of th ree-d im ension al c o m p u te r g raphics
involves sev eral steps. T h e first of these is the m o d e lin g
process. Modeling refers to the creation of the sim u la te d
objects in the c o m p u te r's m e m o ry , the m o d e lin g of optical
elem ents su ch as light, tran sp aren cy , sh ad o w s, reflectivity,
etc., a n d the sim u latio n of cam era p la c em en t a n d m o v e ­
m e n t w ith in the c o m p u te r-g e n e ra te d w orld.
The c o m p u te r constructs objects from a series of points
defined by the m o d e l m aker. The points rep resen t locations
in a C artesian co o rd in ate system . O ften the m o d el m a k er
m ay u se several c o o rd in a te sy stem s to facilitate the con­
struction a n d interaction of objects. These sto red p o in ts (the
object database) c an re p re se n t the vertices of p o ly g o n s o r the

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control p o in ts of m o re com plex co n stru cts such as splines
or nurbs (m athem atical representations of com plex curves).
T he c o m p u te r can create a sim plified version of the object,
called a wire frame, by sim ply con n ectin g the p o in ts w ith
lines. This w ire-fram e m o d e l is a useful re p re se n tatio n of
th e o bject as the c o m p u te r c a n r e n d e r th e w ir e fra m e
quickly. T his allo w s the c o m p u te r artist to p re v ie w the
scene in real time or n e a r real time. E ventually, h o w ev e r,
the c o m p u te r m u s t create surfaces o n the objects to facili­
tate realistic lighting a n d shadin g.
T he c o m p u te r artist assigns attrib u tes to the object's
surfaces. These can in clu de color, shininess (non-reflective
to h ig h ly reflective), a n d opacity. Recent features in CGI
so ftw are allow for m o re realistic-looking a tm o sp h e ric ef­
fects a n d the creation of organic objects su ch as trees a n d
shrubbery.
Objects m ay h ave picture textures projected o r w ra p p e d
o n their surfaces for a m ore n atu ral effect. T hese textures
are tw o -dim en sion al p ictu res th at give the surface of the
object the ap p e a ra n c e of b eing m a d e from real m a terials
su c h as, for e x am p le, w o o d o r concrete. P a ra m e te rs for
bump mapping are also m o d e le d in the c o m p u te r. A n ex­
a m p le of b u m p m a p p in g m ig h t be the d im p le s o n a golf
ball or the p itted surface of a n orange. P ro c ed u ral surface
effects a re fo rm u la s for cre atin g su rfaces a n d a re useful
rep lacem en ts for scan n ed texture m aps.
Lighting is also sim u lated in the m o d e lin g stage. The
c o m p u te r artist m u s t take into acco un t m a n y of the con­
cerns of a trad itio n al lig h tin g d irecto r. C o m p u te r lights
com e in m a n y form s from d is ta n t lights th a t sim u late the
sun, to p o in t lights a n d sp o t lights that sim ulate m a n -m a d e
light sources. Lighting the scene involves placing the lights
in the sim ulated three-dim ensional space, ad ju stin g their
intensity, the angle of their cone, their direction a n d their
color.
The co m p u te r can also sim ulate cam era attributes such
as d e p th of field, focal length, asp ect ratios, etc. O n ce the
object m o d e ls are in place, the m o d e le r can p o sitio n the
c a m e ra a n y w h e r e in th e s im u la te d th r e e -d im e n s io n a l
space. T his is a m a jo r a d v a n ta g e o v er tw o -d im e n s io n a l
anim ation, w h e re each ch an g e in cam era p o sition req u ires
a n e w d ra w in g of all the objects in the scene. T he c o m p u te r
m o d e ler d o es not n ee d to reconstruct the objects to create
a n e w shot. H e can sim p ly reposition the cam era.

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 T h e n e x t step in the m o d e lin g process is specifying the
m o v e m e n t of a n y a n im a te d objects a n d a n y m o v e m e n t of
the cam era. T h e c o m p u te r c a n b e a n excellent aid in this
a n im a tio n p ro ce ss. T h e c o m p u te r a n im a to r crea tes key
frames a n d tells the c o m p u te r the m e th o d of interpolation.
T he c o m p u te r th e n creates the in-betw eens.
In a d d itio n , trad ition al an im a tio n stu d io s are tu rn in g
to c o m p u te r g rap h ics to assist in the cel a n im a tio n process.
W ith CGI, the an im a to r can create a c o m p u te r a id e d ca m ­
era m o v e th r o u g h a th re e -d im e n sio n a l w o rld a n d then
p rin t the scene as tw o -d im e n sio n a l p e rsp e ctiv e d ra w in g
directly o n to a n im a tio n cels. A rtists can then u se the com-
p u te r-g e n e ra te d lines as g u id e s to ink a n d p a in t the cels
o r use o th e r specialized co m p u te rs to d o th e ink a n d p a in t
w o rk . T h e se p ro ce sse s c an sa v e h o u rs of a n a n im a to r's
tim e in figu rin g o u t com plex m o tio n a n d p erspectives a n d
red u ce p ro d u c tio n costs. Recent e xam p les of c o m p u te r-as­
sisted a n im a tio n a n d digital ink a n d p a in t inc lu d e Beauty
and the Beast, Ferngully an d Aladdin.

Rendering
Rendering consists of taking the digital attributes of the
m odel, the lig h ting a n d the cam era a n d creating a n im age.
R en d erin g is a co m plex process a n d req u ires m u c h m o re
c o m p u te r p o w e r th an the m o d e lin g stage. Before e x p e n d ­
ing the time a n d m o n e y to re n d e r a n en tire shot, the co m ­
p u te r artist m a y w ish to r e n d e r sin g le key fram e s of an
a n im atio n seq u en ce to check that the sim u la te d im ag e is
the d esired one. T he artist m a y also re n d e r w ire fram e or
low -reso lu tio n ap p ro x im a tio n s of the sh o t to get a feel of
the look of the an im a tio n before fully re n d e rin g the scene.
Because the objects in th e co m p u te r-g e n e ra te d scene
are only sim u latio ns, they act q u ite differently fro m real-
w o rld objects th a t m u s t o b ey th e ru les of physics. If no t
p ro p e rly a n im a te d in three d im en sio n s, c o m p u te r objects
m ay in te rp en e tra te o n e an o th e r, destro y in g the illusion of
solid, real objects. If n o t p ro p e rly co n structed , sea m s m ay
sh o w b e tw e e n su p p o se d ly seam less p arts. T he artist m a y
discover u n w a n te d artifacts created by the size an d sh ap e
of the pixels, the scan lines of the m o n ito r, o r e rro rs in tex­
ture m a p p in g o r surface g e n era tio n for the first tim e in the
re n d e rin g process. T he m o d e lin g a n d re n d e rin g cycle is
often an iterative a n d interactive one, w ith the CGI d esigner
returning to the m o d elin g stage to correct p ro b lem s that can
only be d etec ted after ren d ering .
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 Final re n d e re d im ages can ra n g e from sim p le w ire ­
fram e ap p ro x im atio n s of objects, to hig h ly faceted objects,
to realistic smooth shaded objects. T he style in w h ich an a rt­
ist ren d e rs an im age is often a factor of aesthetics te m pered
b y the p ra g m a tism of m e e tin g a p ro d u c tio n d e a d lin e or
b u d g e t constraints.
D u ring the re n d e rin g process, the c o m p u te r m a y also
control a scan n er to d igitize film fram es a n d to c o m p o s­
ite them w ith the c o m p u ter-g e n e ra te d im ages.

Scanning
T he seamier is a device tha t translates an im age from
p rev io usly exp osed film into a digital form at. C u rre n t d e ­
vices use a CRT or laser to scan a film fram e o n a point-
to -p o in t basis o r u se a c h a rg e -c o u p le d d e v ice (CCD) to
digitize the fram e by area or line by line.
The CRT o r laser is the moving spot illum ination source
that scans the im age a t a co n stan t intensity. C o n tro llin g the
beam d iam eter can d eterm in e the size of the pixels a n d thus
the resolution of the sc an n ed im age. A s the b e a m scans the
film fram e pixel by pixel, light g a th ere d b y an optical sys­
tem passes th ro u gh dichroic filters a n d splits into red, green
a n d b lu e co m p o nents. T he intensity of the light h ittin g R,
G & B light sensors co nverts to a n an alo g electrical signal.
A n an alog to digital co nv erter translates the an alo g signal
into a digital v alu e for each color.
C C D scanners utilize a technology em p lo y e d in p ro ­
fessional video cam eras. Instead of a scann in g light source,
the C CD scanner uses an incandescent or xenon light source
sim ilar to the optical printer. The n u m b e r of pixel elem ents
in the C C D arra y d e term in es the reso lu tio n of the scan n ed
im age. Grid arrays of 2,000 pixels by 2,000 lines o r 4,000 pix­
els by 4,000 lines en ab le sc an n in g a n en tire fra m e w h ile
h o ld in g the film o n fixed registration pins. Line arrays of
2,000 to 4,000 pixels req u ire tha t the film be rolled p ast the
C CD to scan the entire film frame.
The c o m p u te r c a p tu re s the n u m b e r stre a m p ro d u c e d
by the scan n er a n d creates a pixel array database in a for­
m a t com p atib le w ith the d a tab a se of a sim u la te d im age.
The time req u ire d to scan a fram e varies fro m u n d e r five
seconds to several m in u te s d e p e n d in g o n the device a n d
the resolution.
T he c o m p u te r c a n co m p o site b o th fo r e g ro u n d a n d
b ac k g ro u n d elem ents in w h a t m ig h t b e called digital film
printing. A lth o u g h the c o m p u te r can u se a n y color to ex­

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tract a m atte, it is m o st practical to use a sp ectrally p u re
color su c h as U ltim a tte b lue or green. H o w e v e r, it is n o t
n ecessary to h a v e a b lu e - o r g reen -screen e x p o su re lim ­
ited to o n e color reco rd of th e film as is n e e d e d in film-
b a s e d m a ttin g sy stem s. T he sa m e qu alification ap p lies,
h o w e v e r, in tha t the b a c k g ro u n d screen color c a n n o t be
in the fo re g ro u n d subject.

Recording
CRT a n d la ser-b ased /;/» ; recorders p ro g ressiv ely ex­
p o se each pixel o n to film by electronically controlling the
p o sition a n d intensity of a CRT beam or b y m echanically
deflecting R, G, B laser beam s. R ecorders (and scanners)
that d eflect in b o th the X-axis a n d Y-axis use traditional
registered p in film m o v em ents. O th e r laser reco rd ers d e ­
flect in the X-axis o nly a n d rely on rolling the film sm o o th ly
in the Y-axis to reco rd the film fram e area. O n ce the m e­
chanical stability p ro b le m s are resolved, a n a d v a n ta g e of
laser-beam rec o rd e rs is th at they h a v e sufficient light o u t­
p u t to expose h ig h e r resolution lab interm ediate film stocks.
Film e x p o su re tim es in existing film record ers va ry from
u n d e r te n sec o n d s to several m in u te s p e r fram e d e p e n d ­
ing on the dev ice a n d resolution.
It is im p o rta n t to a d d re s s several issues before film ing
a CGI shot: h o w the c o m p u te r will translate the calculated
p ix e ls in to c o lo r e x p o s u r e v a lu e s a n d h o w th e spectral
em ission characteristics of the c a th o d e ray tube (CRT) or
RGB laser b e am s will m a tch th e film sensitivity curves. The
c o m p u te r can d efin e color v alu e s accord in g to a sy stem of
hue, lu m in a n c e a n d saturatio n , or acco rd in g to a system of
R ed, G re e n a n d Blue v alu es. In e ith er case, three sets of
n u m b e rs d escribe the color of each pixel in th e final im age.
Color calibration, w h ic h is the relatio nsh ip b e tw e e n the cal­
c u la te d c o lo r s p a c e a n d th e a c tu a l film e x p o s u r e , is
achieved th ro u g h the use of a color lo ok -up table (CLUT),
an d o th e r m a trix tran sfo rm color corrections.
T he C LU T is a g ra p h of film d en sity p lo tte d against
calculated color exp osure. T he technician d o in g color cali­
b ratio n d e riv e s th e C L U T fro m carefu lly p lo tte d c u rv es
d eterm in ed th ro u g h den sito m etry of the exp osed negative.
U sing the C LU T th e technician m atch es the em ission e n ­
ergy of the CRT o r laser, co m b in e d w ith high-efficiency
RGB filters, to p ro v id e e x p osu re in the straight-line p ortio n
of the film e x p osu re curve. T he c o m p u te r accom plishes this
b y translating color sp ace n u m b e rs into the RGB ex po sure

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values d ete rm in e d fro m the color lo ok -up table. It is p o s ­
sible, th ro u g h the use of the CLUT, to precisely control film
im age contrast. It is often useful to use logarithm ic re p re ­
se n tatio n for the pixel v alu es. L o g a rith m ic pixel v a lu e s
translate easily to logarithm ic film d en sity d u rin g calibra­
tion of scann in g a n d reco rd in g devices.
O n e prob lem th a t is typical for h ig h-reso lutio n CRTs
is th e creation of a n u n w a n te d halo b y intern al glass reflec­
tions in the CRT faceplate. The halo affects the im ag e in the
form of an u n w a n te d e x p o su re su rro u n d in g the hig h ligh t
areas. T echniques to red u ce this p ro b le m in clud e the a d ­
d ition of a n eu tral-d en sity p an el b o n d e d to the surface of
the CRT, the tinting of th e CRT faceplate, a n d th e b o n d ­
ing of a thick clear p an el to the CRT faceplate.

Image Processing
Image processing, a b ra n c h of c o m p u te r g ra p h ic s, in
so m e w a y s rep resen ts the reverse of the c o m p u te r g ra p h ­
ics process w e h av e been describing. Im age p ro cessin g in­
volves the c o m p u te r m o d ify in g th e d a ta from a tra d itio n ­
ally sh o t piece of film or video. A film sca n n e r or a digital
v ideo process first digitizes the im ages into a form the co m ­
p u te r can use. T he c o m p u te r c an then m a n ip u la te the d ig i­
tal rep resen tatio n by ch an g in g the attrib u tes of the pixels
th a t m a ke u p the im age.
Im age-processing techniques can sh a rp e n o r defocus
an im age, solarize or reverse an im a g e's colors, o r re p o si­
tion th e im ag e. A d d itio n a lly , o n e im a g e c a n b e tr a n s ­
form ed into a n o th er th ro u g h a technique called morphing.
For years the aerospace in d u s try h as u se d im ag e p r o ­
cessing te chniques to en h a n ce satellite sp ace footage taken
u n d e r su b-op tim al v ie w in g conditions. T o day, im a g e p r o ­
cessing creates fantastic effects for rock vid eo s a n d special-
effects films.

Summary
P ro du cin g effects for m otion pictures is a t the h ig h en d
of the c o m p u te r graphics w o rld . It is here that all the to u g h ­
est p rob lem s of CGI occur. A lth o u g h c o m p u ters are becom ­
ing m o re po w erfu l, the so ftw are n e e d e d to create realistic-
looking e n v iro n m en ts, effects a n d ch aracters is still tech­
nically difficult to pro d u ce. R eco rd ing a n d sca n n in g m o-
tion-picture-resolution film req u ires com plex eq u ip m e n t,
w h ile g e n e r a t in g , m o v in g a n d s t o r in g th e e n o r m o u s
a m o u n ts of d a ta n e e d e d b y the c o m p u te r can b e tim e-con­
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su m in g a n d expensive. Still, C GI is h ere to stay, a n d ever
evolving!
It is im p o rta n t tha t the cin em ato g ra p h e r u n d e rs ta n d
th e v o c a b u la ry o f c o m p u te r-g e n e ra te d im ag ery . A s the
c o m p u te r artist takes a place beside the traditional special
effects artist, the aesthetic goal rem ains the sa m e —creat­
ing visual m agic th at will in tercu t w ith the cam era im a g ­
ery of the director of p h o to g rap h y . To fully utilize co m p u ter
sim ulatio n , it will beco m e necessary for all those involved
in the v a rio u s p h a s e s of the m o tio n -p ic tu re in d u s try to
u n d e rs ta n d its g re at creative po tential, as w ell as its lim i­
tations a n d cost.

Cinemagic of the Optical Printer

b y L in w o o d G. D u n n , ASC
F o rm e r p re s id e n t, Film Effects of H o lly w o o d

T he earliest optical p rin te rs w ere cu sto m b u ilt by the

m ajor stu d io s a n d film la boratories, a n d w ere u sually d e ­
sig n ed a n d m a d e in their o w n sh o p s to fit their p articular
requirem ents. M od ern stan d ard ize d optical prin tin g e q u ip ­
m ent, cap ab le of creating the in n u m e ra b le effects h e re to ­
fore p o ssible o n ly in th e m ajor stu d io s, becam e available
to the entire m o tio n -p ic tu re in d u s try in 1943 w ith the in­
troduction of the A cm e-D u n n O ptical Printer, desig n ed and
b u ilt for the U n ite d S tates A rm e d Forces P h o to g ra p h ic
Units. Later the O xberry, P roducers Service, Research P ro d­
ucts, a n d o th e r o ptical p rin te rs a p p e a re d o n the m arket.
C om m ercial availability of this ty p e of e q u ip m e n t greatly
s tim u la te d a n d w id e n e d the sco p e of the special-effects
field. E ven the sm allest film p ro d u c e rs n o w could m a ke
m otion p ictu res w ith special effects lim ited only by their
im agination a n d b u d g ets, utilizing the services of g ro w in g
n u m b e rs of in d e p e n d e n t special-effects laboratories w hich
could n o w o p e ra te com petitively u sin g e q u ip m e n t avail­
able to all.
D e v e lo p m e n ts o v e r the y ears of m o re so ph isticate d
eq u ip m en t, n e w d u p lic a tin g films, sp ecial-p u rp o se lenses,
a n d im p r o v e d film -p ro c e s s in g te c h n iq u e s , a s w e ll as
skilled technicians, h a v e inc reased the use of the optical
p rin te r to a p o in t w h e re its g re a t creative a n d econom ic

475
v alu e is co m m o n k n o w le d g e in the m o tio n -p ictu re in d u s ­
try. In m o re recent years, the a d a p ta tio n of c o m p u te r tech­
nology to the optical effects p rin te r h as basically sim p li­
fied the control an d accuracy of so m e of its im p o rta n t func­
tions, thus m a k in g it m u c h easier to p ro d u c e certain c o m ­
plex visual effects at lo w er cost as w ell as to g rea tly ex­
p a n d its creative scope. This h as m a d e it p o ssible to p r o ­
g ram , record, an d to re p ea t the m o v e m e n t of certain of its
devices w ith su ch a d eg ree of accuracy that area-blocking
fu n c tio n s can n o w p r o d u c e tra v e lin g -m a tte c o m p o s ite
scenes that w ere heretofore highly im practical, if n o t im ­
possible. O n e can truly say tha t the creative capability of
the m o d e rn visual effects optical p rin te r is only lim ited by
the creative talent a n d technical skills of the o p erato r. In
recent years such m ajor film p ro d u c tio n s as Star Wars, The
Black Hole, The Empire Strikes Back, a n d Cocoon h a v e all u ti­
lized the full capabilities of the m o d e m optical p rin te r to
create a w hole n ew w o rld of im aginative creativity th ro u g h
their ex tensive u se of v ery so p h istic ate d m o tio n -p ic tu re
visual effects. T he follow ing list of so m e of the w o rk that
is d o n e on the m o d e rn optical p rin te r will illustrate its vast
scope a n d trem e n d o u s im p o rtan ce to m o d e rn film m aking.

Transitional Effects
E m ployed to create a definite ch an g e in tim e o r loca­
tio n b e tw e e n scenes. T h e fad e , la p d is s o lv e , w ip e -o ff,
p u sh -o ff, rip p le d isso lv e , o u t-o f-fo cu s o r d iffu sio n d is ­
solve, flip-over, p age turn, zo o m dissolve, sp in-in a n d out,
a n d an u n lim ite d v ariety of film m a tte w ip e effects, are all
typical ex a m p le s of the m a n y optical tran sitio na l effects
possible.

Change of Size or Position

M ay be u se d to e lim in a te u n w a n te d are a s , o b ta in
closer an g les for extra ed itin g cuts, re p o sitio n action for
m u ltiple-exp o su re fram ing, in c lu d in g m o n tag e , a n d b ack ­
g ro u n d s for titles.

Frame Sequence Modification

Screen action m a y b e sp ed u p o r slo w e d d o w n in or­
d e r to: c o n v e rt old 16 fram e s-p er-se c o n d silen t film s to
s t a n d a r d 24 fr a m e s - p e r - s e c o n d s o u n d s p e e d ; c h a n g e
sp eed of action a n d le ng th of certain scenes o r sections of
scenes; p ro v id e spot-fram e m odification to give realism to

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specific action in fights, falls, chases, etc.; h o ld a specific
fram e for freeze effects a n d for title b ack g rou n d s; a d d foot­
a g e for c o m e d y effects; re v e rse d ire c tio n of p rin tin g to
le n g th e n action a n d for special-effects use; ex tend scenes
th ro u g h m u ltip le-fram e p rin tin g for action analysis in in ­
stru m e n ta tio n , train in g a n d e d ucatio n al films.

Optical Zoom
O ptical z o o m is u sed to c h an g e fram e area coverage
an d im age size d u rin g fo rw ard an d reverse zo om in g action
in o rd e r to: p ro d u c e a d ra m a tic o r im p act effect (according
to sp e ed of the m ove); cou n teract o r a d d to th e sp ee d an d
m o tio n of c am e ra zo o m s o r do lly shots; re-fram e b y e n ­
la rg e m e n t a n d / o r a d d fo o ta g e to e ith e r e n d of cam era
zo o m s o r d o lly sh o ts b y e x te n d in g the ra n g e of m oves;
m om entarily elim inate u n w a n te d areas or objects b y zo o m ­
ing fo rw a rd a n d b ack a t specific footage p o in ts (such as
w h e n a m ic ro p h o n e or la m p is accidentally fra m e d in d u r ­
ing p a r t of a scene); a d d o p tical z o o m to static scen e to
m a tch cam era zo o m or dolly in a su p e rim p o su re . The out-
of-focus zo o m also is effective to depict delirium , blindness,
retrospect, transition, etc.

Superimposure
S u p e rim p o su re is the capability u se d to p rin t a n im ­
age from o n e o r m o re film s o verlaid o n o n e film. T his is
co m m o n ly d o n e in p o sitio n in g title le tte rin g o v e r b ack ­
g ro u n d s . A lso u se d for m o n ta g e s, v isio n a ry effects, b as
relief; a d d in g sn ow , rain, fog, fire, clouds, lightning flashes,
sparks, w ater reflections a n d a m y riad of o th e r light effects.

Split-Screen
E m p lo y ed for m u ltip le im age, m o n tag e effects, d u a l
ro le s p la y e d b y o n e a c to r, a n d for d a n g e r o u s a n im a ls
s h o w n a p p e a r i n g in th e s a m e scen e w ith p e o p le , a s in
Bringing Up Baby, w h ich sh o w s K ath erine H e p b u rn w o rk ­
ing w ith a le o p a rd th ro u g h o u t the p ic tu re (in this film, the
split screens m o v e w ith th e action). M atte p ain tin g s often
utilize this te ch n iq u e w h e n live-action areas req u ire m a ­
n ip u la tio n w ith in a n in v o lv ed co m po site scene.

Quality Manipulation
T he q u ality of a scene, o r a n area w ith in a scene, m a y
b e altered in o rd e r to create an en tirely n e w scene or sp e ­

477
cial effect or to m atch it in w ith o th e r scenes. T here are in­
n u m e rab le w ay s to accom p lish this, su ch as a d d in g o r re­
d ucin g diffusion, filtering, m a ttin g an d d o d g in g areas, a n d
altering contrast. O ften library stock m aterial m u s t b e m o d i­
fied to fill certain needs, su ch as creating n ig h t scenes from
d ay; rep ro d u c in g black & w h ite o n color film th ro u g h fil­
tering, p rin te d m a sk s, or a p p ro p ria te ly co lo rin g certain
areas th ro u g h localized filtering; a n d the c om b in in g of cer­
tain areas of tw o or m o re scenes to obtain a ne w scene, such
as the w ater from o n e scene a n d the terrain o r clo u d e d sky
of another.

Adding Motion
E m plo y ed to create the effect of sp in n in g o r rotating,
as in plane an d au to interiors a n d in certain m o n tag e effects;
rocking m o tion for b o a t action, s u d d e n jarring o r sh ak in g
the scene for explosion an d e a rth q u a k e effects; disto rtio n
in m o tio n th ro u g h special lenses for d ru n k , deliriou s a n d
visionary effects.

General Uses of the Optical Printer

T he p reced in g represen ts so m e of the special categ o ­
ries of effects that can be p ro d u c e d o n the optical printer.
The following are a few of the m ore im p o rta n t general tech­
niq u es em p lo y in g this useful cinem atic tool.

Traveling Mattes
U sed to m a tte a fo re g ro u n d action into a b a ck g ro u n d
film m a d e at a n o th er time. T he v ario u s m a tte system s in
use to da y require the optical p rin te r in o rd e r to p ro p e rly
m a n ip u la te the se p arate films to o btain a realistic quality
m a tch in g b alan ce b e tw e e n th e m w h e n c o m b in e d in to a
co m p o site. U se of this p ro c ess h a s g re a tly in c re a se d as
m o d e rn te chniques p ro d u c e im p ro v e d results a t red u c ed
costs. M otion control, referred to earlier, h as greatly w id ­
en ed die scope of this visual-effects category.

Blow-Ups and Reductions

T he fixed set-u p optical p rin te r is u se d for 1 6m m re ­
duction negatives a n d prints, an d for certain lim ited release
p rin tin g from 35m m originals. This is utilized w h e n sm all
v o lu m e m a k e s th is p r o c e d u r e m o r e e c o n o m ic a l th a n
th ro u g h a co nv erted negative, a n d w h e n m a x im u m q u a l­
ity is o f g re a te st im p o rta n c e . E n la rg in g fro m 1 6 m m to

478
3 5m m color o r black a n d w h ite is a v ery im p o rta n t fu n c­
tion of the optical p rin ter. M a n y fine theatrical films, such
as th e A c a d e m y A w a rd -w in n in g The Sen Around Us, The
Living Desert, a n d Scenes From a Marriage, h a v e b een p h o ­
to g ra p h e d in 16m m , a n d h a v e enjoyed g rea t financial su c­
cess th ro u g h 3 5m m release p rin ts m a d e from 3 5m m b lo w ­
u p in tem e g ativ es.
Special n e w lenses, film ra w stocks a n d im m e rsed -
m o v e m e n t p rin tin g h a v e e n h a n c e d the overall qu ality to a
p o in t w h e re the 1 6 m m -3 5 m m b lo w -u p m e d iu m is p re s ­
ently enjoying v ery successful com m ercial usage. C o n v e r­
sions betw een 65m m a n d 35m m also are an im p o rta n t func­
tion of the optical printer. P ro d u c tio n s m a d e in alm o st an y
film fo rm at are b eing release-prin ted in d ifferent types to
m e et certain theatrical d istrib u tio n req u irem en ts. The Con­
cert fo r Bangladesh w a s the first fe atu re -le n g th film to be
en larg ed from 16m m color in tem e g a tiv e directly to 70m m
th e ate r prints.

Anamorphic Conversions
The sta n d a rd optical p rin te r e q u ip p e d w ith a specially
d e sig n e d " s q u e e z e " o r "u n s q u e e z e " lens can b e u sed to
p ro d u c e a n a m o rp h ic p rin ts from "flat" im ages, o r to re­
verse this function. The possibility of the "flat" o r sp h e ri­
cal film b e in g c o n v erte d fo r a n a m o rp h ic projection w ith ­
ou t serio us loss of q u ality h a s g reatly w id e n e d this field of
theatrical exhibition. T he m a n ip u la tio n s available o n the
optical p rin te r also m a k e it possible to scan an d reposition
any scenes th a t re q u ire re fra m in g w h e n c o n v e rted to or
from w id e-screen p ro po rtio n .

Doctoring, M odifying and Salvaging

So m e of th e im p o rta n t u ses of the optical p rin te r are
no t reco gn ized as special effects in the finished film, an d
often are n o t a p p a re n t as su ch ev en to skilled m otion-pic-
ture technicians. O n e of th ese ap p lic atio n s is the field of
"d o c to rin g " b y m o d ify in g scenes w h ich , for a v ariety of
reasons, m a y n o t be acceptable for use. T his in clu des sal­
v aging scenes that a re co m p letely u n u sa b le d u e to som e
m echanical failure o r h u m a n e rro r d u rin g p h o to g ra p h y ,
an d also th e m odification of stock film m aterial th ro u g h the
v ario us m e th o d s n o te d to fit specific req u irem en ts. M any
expensive retak es h a v e b e en av o id ed by the in g e n io u s a p ­
plication of su c h op tical-p rin tin g reclam atio n techniques.

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Tine liquid, o r im m ersion, film g ate p ro d u c e s d ra m atic re­
sults in the rem oval of scratches.
Citizen Kane is a n excellent ex a m p le of scene m o d ifi­
cations created o n the optical p rin te r d u rin g the p o s tp ro ­
duction period. N ew ideas w ere applied to existing p ro d u c ­
tion sc en e s for w h ic h n e w s u p p le m e n ta r y sc en e s w e re
p h o to g ra p h e d an d in teg rated to en h an ce a n d create v a ri­
o u s n e w concepts.
In It's A Mad, Mad, Mad, Mad World, an im p o rtan t scene
w as p h o to g ra p h e d in w h ich a truck w a s s u p p o s e d to back
into a shack an d knock it over. T he b re a k a w a y shack w a s
rigged to collapse w h e n w ires w e re p u lled on cue. Signals
becam e crossed, an d the sh ack w a s p u lle d d o w n w ell b e ­
fore the truck touched it. A v ery costly retake w as indicated,
so the optical p rin te r w a s called to the rescue. T he task of
correcting the erro r th rou g h a split screen seem ed relatively
sim ple m i til it w as discovered that the cam era p a n n e d w ith
the falling shack. It then becam e necessary to p lo t a nd m o v e
the sp lit m a tc h in g p o in t fra m e -b y -fra m e o n the optical
p rin te r to follow the p a n . T h r o u g h th is tra v e lin g s p lit­
screen technique, the pro g ress of the sh ack 's falling action
w as d elay ed until the tru ck h a d reach ed the p o in t of im ­
pact. P erh ap s the entire cost of the optical prin ter w a s saved
b y this salv ag in g job alone. Such clever te ch n iq u es h a v e
b een u sed m a n y times to brin g explosions close to p eop le
w o rk in g in a scene, su ch as in One M inute to Zero, w h e re a
line of so-called refugees w a s "b lo w n to b its" b y artillery
shelling. Split screens in m otion, a n d trick cuts, w ith s u p e r­
im p o se d sm ok e a n d flame, d id the job in a m o s t effective
m an n er.

N ew Systems
T he optical p rin te r is b eing u sed to d e v e lo p n e w h o ri­
z o n s in the creation of sp ecial c am e ra m o v e s w ith in an
o v ersized ap ertu re. This is particu larly effective in the cre­
ation of cam era m o v e m e n t in a co m p o site scene, su ch as
one inv olving a m a tte p ainting , th ereb y g iv in g a g reater
illusion of reality. V istaVision a n d v ario u s 6 5m m n egative
form ats, in c lu d in g 16-perforation Im ax a n d 8-perforation
D ynavision, as w ell as sta n d a rd 5 perfo ra tio n fram es lend
them selves to this technique.
C o p y in g o n to 4 p e rfo ra tio n 3 5 m m m a k e s p o ssib le
sp ectacular pans, zoom s, dolly shots, etc. w ith o u t sacrific­
ing screen quality, a n d w ith full control ov e r su c h m o v e ­
m en ts, all of w hich is created o n the optical p rin te r in the

480
in tern eg ative stag e a n d m a d e d u rin g the p o stp ro -d u ctio n
p e rio d . U se of this te c h n iq u e m a k e s it possible to av o id
tim e-co n su m in g a n d com plicated setu p s d u rin g p ro d u c ­
tion, w ith the a d d e d a d v a n ta g e of flexibility in later ch ange
of ideas.
P robably the m o st exciting n e w optical p rin ting d ev el­
o p m e n t h a s been in the field of electronics. The a d ap tatio n
of v id e o im ag e transfer th ro u g h sophisticated high-resolu-
tion scan n in g system s in conjunction w ith the n ew d ev e l­
o p m e n ts in catho d e-ray tubes, lenses, film -m oving m e ch a­
nism s, sp ec ial-p u rp o se film raw stocks a n d the latest re­
search in electronic im ag e c om p ositin g , h av e o p en ed u p
exciting n e w vistas in special visual effects. T he m odifica­
tion of film ed color m o tio n -p ictu re im ages th ro u g h co m ­
p u te riz ed electronic transfer back to film is m ak in g it p o s­
sible to create p h o to g ra p h ic effects o n film o r ta p e faster,
m o re econom ically, a n d w ith a scope of creativity h e reto ­
fore n o t possible. T he ability to easily a n d quickly transfer
areas o r m o v in g objects from o n e film to a n o th e r th ro u g h
their in stantaneous electronic isolation a n d self-matting will
be of tre m e n d o u s econom ic b enefit in this area of film p ro ­
duction, as w ell as in stim u latin g creativity in the w id e r use
of special effects.

Aerial Image Cinematography

by M e h rd a d A zarm i, Ph.D.

A n im age w h ich is fo rm ed by a lens in the air instead

of on a film o r o n a g r o u n d glass is k n o w n as a n "aerial
im age." Such a n im ag e c an be see n a n d p h o to g ra p h e d b u t
it cann o t b e to u c h ed o r felt. T he im a g e w h ic h is observ ed
th ro u g h a telescope, a m icroscope o r a sim p le m ag n ifyin g
glass is a n aerial im age. Because of its clarity, sharp n ess an d
its in ta n g ib le p rese n ce , it h a s le d the c a m e ra m a n to the
d ev e lo p m en t of the technique of "aerial im ag e cin em a to g ­
ra p hy ," w h ic h is, in fact, a m e th o d of co m b in in g tw o im ­
ages: a n aerial im age, a n d a n o th er im age w h ic h is reco rd ed
on film. T he aerial im a g e can b e m o d ifie d , en la rg e d , re­
d u c e d o r d is to rte d w h e n c o m b in e d w ith th e cine action
footage. A erial im a g e can originate from a film, a rtw o rk or
sim ply from an object. Selection of the tool a n d the tech-

481
niq ue is d e te rm in e d b y the c o m b in a tio n of the e lem ents
involved. T he technique of aerial im age c in e m a to g ra p h y
can b e d iv id e d as follows:

The Technique The Required Tool

Film -to-Film A erial Im a g e O p tic a l P rin te r
F ilm -to -A rtw o rk A erial Im a g e A n im a tio n
S tan d
O bject-to-Film O bject-to-Film A.I. O p tical
P rin te r

Regardless of the m e th o d used , an aerial im ag e p ro ­

d u c e d by a lens is a lw a y s u p s id e -d o w n b u t no t flo p p ed
over. T his sim p le ru le of th u m b a id s the c a m e ra m a n in
correct po sitio nin g of the object, the a rtw o rk or d e te rm in ­
ing the head-tail an d cell-em ulsion o rien tatio n of a roll of
film w h e n th re ad in g an aerial-im age projector.

Film-to-Film
T h e m o st p re d o m in a n t aerial im age technique is film-
to-film, a n d th e use of an aerial im ag e optical p rin te r is in ­
evitable. T he process is u sed in a variety of effects w h e n ­
ev er tw o o r m o re elem ents are involved, su ch as traveling
mattes, titles, w ipes, m ulti-panels a n d split screens. T he tool
e m p lo y ed for this p u rp o s e is either a dual-, triple- o r q u a ­
d ru p le -h e a d optical p rin te r w h ic h co m b in e s im a g e axes
th ro u g h p artially reflecting m irro rs. A n a d d itio n to this
eq u ip m en t, as w ell as to the a n im atio n sta n d s, is a m u lti­
axis electronic m otion-control sy stem w ith a m e m o ry ban k
a n d p l a y b a c k s y s t e m w h i c h a l l o w s fo r a u t o m a t i c
re p h o to g ra p h y of certain effects a n d c o m p lic a te d , tim e-
c o n su m in g m oves. The d u a l-h e a d e d aerial-im age optical
printer is used pred om in an tly th ro u g h o u t the in d u stry , an d
it h as p ro v e n to b e a d e q u a te for m o st p u rp o ses. T h e triple-
a n d q u a d ru p le -h e a d p rin ters find their g reatest a p p lic a­
tions in com po site p h o to g ra p h y of traveling-m atte shots,
such as the blue-screen process, w h e re th e o p erato r can ac­
tu ally p h o to g r a p h the b a c k g ro u n d a n d fo r e g ro u n d ele­
m e n ts sim u lta n e o u sly w ith th eir resp ectiv e m a ttes. T he
c am eram an , in this case, has the privilege of o bserv in g the
com posite im age before shooting, in o rd e r to reassu re h im ­
self of an accurate m a tte fit. H e c an then zo o m , enla rg e or
red uce d u rin g the sa m e operation.

482
 In sp ite of the versatility of the triple- a n d the q u a ­
d ru p le -h e a d p rin ters for traveling-m atte shots, m o s t cin­
e m a to g ra p h e rs p refer to w o rk w ith a d u a l-h e ad aerial-im -
age optical p rin te r b ecau se of the loss of light in the b e a m ­
splitter m o d u le s a n d the com plexity of its alignm ent. C o m ­
posite m a tte shots are p h o to g ra p h e d on a du al-h ead prin ter
in tw o sep a ra te operations. A fter a perfect one-to-one, first,
the fo re g ro u n d a n d the fem ale m a tte are p h o to g ra p h e d ;
then, the b a c k g ro u n d an d the m ale m a tte are sh o t in sync
o n the sa m e piece of film. In o rd e r to avoid the possibility
of an y m isalign m en t d u rin g b o th operations, the m attes are
inten tio n ally th rea d ed in the sam e projector h ea d , p refer­
ably in th e fro n t m o d u le , by w h ich the m attes are g e n er­
ated.
Before actu al c o m p o site p h o to g r a p h y , the o p e ra to r
m ay check clippings of the male a n d fem ale m atte s bi-pack
in sync in the m a in projector, lo ok in g for a v ery thin a nd
e ven w h ite m a rg in w h e re the m atte s fit together. H e m ay
even go fu rth er to the extent of ru n n in g b o th m atte s in sync
a n d bi-pack, carefully lo o kin g for the co n sisten cy of the
sam e c o n to u r an d possible m a tte shrinkage. Since vario u s
elem ents are p h o to g ra p h e d in sep a ra te m o d u le s in film-to-
film aerial im a g e cin em ato g rap h y , tw o ad v a n ta g e s are in ­
h e re n t in the system :
1. T h e p ro c ess elim in ate s the possibility of N e w to n
rings, a p h e n o m e n o n w h ich frequently a p p e a rs w h e n tw o
pieces of film are sa n d w ic h e d to gether in bi-pack.
2. T he e lem en ts d o n o t necessarily h a v e to b e of the
sam e size. T hirty-five m illim eter titles, for exam ple, can be
r e d u c e d to fit a 1 6 m m fo o ta g e . By th e s a m e to k e n , a
sh ru n k e n m a tte so m etim es can b e m odified in size to fit the
action footage.

Film-to-Art work
T he tool for this m e th o d is b asica lly a n a n im a tio n
stan d w ith a n aerial-im age projector installed on its side
below the stand . A 45-degree m irro r carries the projected
im age th r o u g h th e c o n d e n se r lens a b o v e the m irro r an d
brings it into focus a t th e sam e level as the a n im a tio n cels.
The serial im age, in this case, is perceivable only th ro u g h
the cam era lens. T he c am eraperson stan d in g o n the side can
observe the im ag e by p la cin g a tracing p a p e r o n the p e g
unit; o th erw ise th e im ag e is im perceptible. A n e w ad d itio n
to so m e of the recen t electronic m o tion-control sy stem s al­

483
low s for a n interlock h o rizo n ta l rear-projection o n to the
artw ork.
M a n y o ptical effects can be a c h ie v e d th r o u g h this
m e th o d , p articu larly c o m b in in g live-action footage w ith
artw o rk , w h e re the m o v e m e n t of a n im a te d a rtw o rk h as to
co rresp o n d to th a t of the live-action fram e by frame. The
projector w h ich is e q u ip p e d w ith reg istratio n -p in m o v e ­
m e n t carries color positive o r sep aratio n m asters. T he ca m ­
era carries color n egative stock. T he artw o rk , w h ich h a s a
self-m atting function, is illu m in ated from ab o ve front. The
top lights h a v e no effect o n th e b a c k g ro u n d im ag e since
there is n o reflective surface involved in the projected aerial
image. N evertheless, po larizing filters are rec o m m e n d e d
for the top lights to elim inate multi-reflections from the field
lenses.
By cross-w edg ing the a rtw o rk to ge th er w ith its back ­
g ro u n d im age, the p ro p e r ex p o su re a n d filter c om b in atio n
is achieved for each elem ent. T he color ab erra tio n s often
o b serv ed in such tests are n orm ally d u e to im p ro p e r flat­
n ess of cels. It is essential, therefore, to select the p ro p e r
m aterial for this p u rp o se. K o dak T riacetate #21 h a s d e m ­
o n strate d con siderable stability w ith respect to this p ro b ­
lem.
Film -to-artw ork aerial-im age c in e m a to g ra p h y h a s its
o w n d isadv antag es. T he cam era-field lens-projector in the
aerial-im age anim ation stan d sh o u ld be considered a single
optical sy stem w ith a fixed central optical axis. T he aerial
im age m u s t b e cen tered o n th e c o n d e n se r le n ses a n d in
sh a rp focus on the cel area. T he c am era lens m u s t b e c en ­
tered a n d focused fro m the p ro p e r d istan c e to co v er the
field c o n d e n s e r lenses. A n y d e v ia tio n of th e a fo re m e n ­
tioned elem ents can p ro d u c e less-than-satisfactory results.

Aerial-image Zoom for Oxberry

Animation Stand
A lth o u g h it is n o t possible to z o o m the cam era w h ile
using an aerial im age o n an a n im a tio n stan d , it is possible
to zo o m the aerial im age itself. T he area taken b y the c am ­
era lens will still be the sam e 10 Vi field of the table top c o n­
d enser, b u t the aerial im ag e g en erate d will be a z o o m ed
version of the fram e in the aerial-im age projector.
To generate a z o o m aerial im age, the s ta n d a rd aerial-
im age projector is replaced b y an aerial-im age co n fig u ra ­
tion very sim ilar to th a t of an o ptical p rin ter. A 150m m

484
 A E R IA L IM A G E P R O JEC TO R ZOOM

p rin tin g N ik k o r lens is u se d to en larg e or red u ce the fram e

by over fo u r d ia m e te rs a n d this im age is th e n projected by
a system consisting of a field lens an d a projection lens. The
projection lens system m u s t stay a t a fixed p o sitio n to g en ­
erate the aerial im age, b u t the 150m m lens a n d projector can
be m o v e d to enla rg e o r red u c e the g en e ra te d im age. The
zo o m aerial im age u n it is available w ith a n au to m a tic fol-
low -focus system . In o rd e r to keep the light intensity con­
stant d u rin g a zoom , an auto m atic lightvalve system is also
available. This lightvalve o p e rate s off a cam th a t is sh ap e d
to keep the in tensity of the projected im ag e co n sta n t over
m u c h of the zo o m range.

485
 LIV E FOOTAGE

( • V ___ A N IM A T E D OR
STlLLART
GA TE
LE N S

: -----1:
4-
CAMERA

IN VE R T E D
A
PROJECTOR

Object-to-Film
This method allows the aerial image of an actual ob­
ject to be composited with live footage. The required tool
is an aerial-image optical printer in which the aerial p ro ­
jector is replaced by a standard animation plate mounted
some ten feet away from the main projector. This distance
allows adequate reduction of an object m ounted upside-
dow n on the ground glass while permitting sufficient depth
of field for sharp focus through the aerial-image lens in­
stalled behind the main projector aperture. In one pass, the
footage in the main projector is recorded while the object
is backlit, thus appearing as a silhouette whose background
illumination serves as printing exposure for the film. The
footage is then removed, and the object backed by a black
card or velvet is then frontlit and photo graph ed on the
same piece of film. The result appears as a matte shot with
a perfect fit.
In order to achieve a well-balanced exposure and con­
trast, both the object and the footage m ust be cross-wedged.
As with "Film-to-Artwork" previously described, the pro­
jector film must be color positive or separation masters. The
background exposure can be filtered behind the m ain pro­
jector aperture, or large filters can be m ounted directly in
front of the light sources or behind the anim ation glass.
When front-lighting the object, adequate attention m ust be
paid to the contrast. Flat lighting is preferable, since a real
object is photographed with a prerecorded film.
This method can also be used for combining animated
art work with live-action footage. However, because of the
lack of requirem ents for depth of field in the artwork, an
aerial-image animation stand may prove less cumbersome
for this particular purpose.

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 Special Techniques
Aerial Cinematography
by Jack C o o p e rm a n , ASC

M o tio n p ic tu re s o ften re q u ire scenes p h o to g r a p h e d

from th e air, p rin cip ally u tilizin g fixed-w in g p la n es an d
helicopters.
In a d d itio n , th e re are occasional d e m a n d s for sh o ts
m a d e fro m gliders, balloons, a n d w h ile sk y d ivin g. M an y
fixed-w ing aircraft h a v e b e en a d a p te d for va rio u s cam era
m o u nting s.
W h en p h o to g ra p h in g air-to-air it is necessary to c o n­
sid er w h ic h ca m era aircraft is correctly m a tc h e d to the air­
craft b eing p ic tu re d in reg ard to safety, sp e e d a n d m a n e u ­
verability. T he c in e m a to g ra p h e r m u s t also d ecid e w h a t is
the rig h t k in d of cam era m o u n t for the job, b u d g e t a n d type
of cam era sh ip available.
M o st fix ed -w in g aircraft p e rm it o p e ra tin g the cam era
from o ne side o r an o th er. A n ex ception w o u ld be specially
a d a p te d aircraft w ith a p h o to g ra p h ic n o se section a n d / o r
o p e n tail. In a n y ty p e of fixed position, rigid m o u n tin g is
d esirable to m in im iz e vibration. All screw s, n u ts an d bolts
sh o u ld be safety w ired o r taped.
T he A stro v isio n sy ste m p e rm its the use of a relay lens
u nit th ro u g h eith er the top o r b o tto m of a Lear jet. Z o o m
lenses ca n n o t b e u se d w ith this system . T he m a x im u m lens
o p e n in g is f/6 .3 /T -7 .2 . T h e Vectorvision unit, a n o th e r re­
lay lens sy stem , will zo o m as w ell as roll the h o rizo n 360°
w ith a m a x im u m lens o p e n in g of f/2 .8 /T -3 .
H elicopters are highly favored for aerial p ho to g rap h y ;
they p e rm it a la rg e ra n g e of m o v a b ility a n d air speed s.
Tyler C a m era S ystem s is a m ajor m a n u fa c tu re r of helicop­
ter m o u nts; a listing of these a n d o th e r m a k es a re fo u n d o n
p ag e 256. The d o o r / s i d e m o u n ts allow for free m o v e m e n t
of the cam era in all axes as w ell as control of cam era an d
zo o m lens fu n ctio n s w hile u sin g the m o u n t. Tyler h as tw o
size m o un ts; M id d le m o u n t for video, A rri 16m m , A rri IIC,
Arri 35 III; a n d the M ajo rm o u n t, for A rri IIC, A rri 35 III,
M itc h e ll M a r k II ( w it h s p e c i a l h o r i z o n t a l m a g a z in e
a d ap te r), as w ell as Im ax, V istaV ision, 6 5 m m a n d o th e r
h eavier cam era packages. C o ntin en tal C am era also h a s the
M & M side m o u n ts for m o st video, 16m m a n d 35m m ca m ­

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eras. T he M a g n u m Elite m o u n t h a n d le s cam era p ackages
u p to 100 p o u n d s.
V arious belly m o u n ts (w h ich fit u n d e r the helicopter)
are available. A quick m o u n t/r e le a s e nose m o u n t b y Tyler
C am era System s offers rem o te controls a n d cam era re a d ­
outs in clud ing tilt a n d video-assisted view ing. L arger th an
n o r m a l f o r m a t s s u c h a s V is t a V i s io n , 6 5 m m Im a x ,
O m n im ax, etc., n eed to be m o u n te d fairly far fo rw a rd to
clear the sk id s a n d nose from the field of view . M ost nose
a n d belly m o u n ts req u ire the use of a p rim e lens or a very
sho rt ra n g e zoom . Z o o m lenses sh o u ld h a v e rem o te co n­
trols for focusing as well as focal length adjustm ent. Remote
a p e r t u r e c o n tr o l is a d v a n t a g e o u s o n all le n s e s . T h e
W escam , Spacecam an d o th e r ball m o u n t units in c orpo rat­
ing gyroscopic an d rem ote control o peratio n are especially
useful for m ak in g extrem ely u n d e rc ra n k e d shots, long lens
shots, a n d obtaining certain angles n o t available from other
m o u n t positions.
Tyler h a s a n ew , three axis gy ro -stab ilized ball type
m o u n t (Skygro). C o m p a r e d to p re v io u s m o u n ts of this
style, the Tyler gyro m o u n t h as a faster p a n a n d tilt rate a n d
is desig n ed to allow the helicopter unlim ite d flight m a n e u ­
vering. T he m o u n t can be au tom atically locked into p osi­
tion, w h ic h allow s the sh o t to go fro m gyro-stabilized an d
level to b eco m ing p a rt of the helicopter a n d g o in g off-level
as a POV of tine helicopter. The m o u n t does n o t h av e a sepa­
rate o u tsid e h o u sin g a n d w in d o w like p re v io u s m o u n ts of
this type, thereby elim inating any chance of seeing reflected
light on the in sid e of the w in d o w .
S kydiving c in em ato g ra p h y is d o n e b y specially q u ali­
fied skydivers, u sually w e a rin g a h e lm et-m o u n ted cam era
o r cam eras. The m o st c o m m o n 3 5 m m cam era u sed for this
p u r p o s e is a m o d ifie d a n d m o to r iz e d Bell & H o w e ll
Eyemo.
In c id e n t lig h t re a d in g s ca n s o m e tim e s b e ta k e n in
aerial situations. It m a y p ro v e n ecessary to h a v e the pilot
turn or tilt the aircraft for this p u rp o se . M o st e x p o su re s are
b ased o n a c o nsid eratio n of sp o t m e te r re ad in g s a n d cal­
culation of subject gray scale. L ight co n d itio n s m a y change
d u rin g a shot.
The pilot of the aircraft has to u n d e rs ta n d the sh o t an d
h o w the c in em a to g ra p h e r p la ns to p h o to g ra p h th e scene.
H e will b e flying the aircraft for the p o sitio n s n ee d ed . It is
n o t usually safe for the c in em a to g rap h e r to directly control

488
an aircraft b eing p h o to g ra p h e d ; h e sh o u ld co m m u n ic ate
th ro u g h the p ilo t of the cam era sh ip to the oth e r pilot.
W h en w o rk in g in the U n ited States it is im p o rta n t to
k n o w th a t there are Federal A viation A d m in istratio n re g u ­
lations re q u irin g certification of an y th in g that is a d d e d to
a n aircraft. (M ost oth e r coun tries h av e sim ilar regulations.)
1. 337: Field insp ection of a specific m o u n t o n a s p e ­
cific aircraft m u s t b e d o n e before each use.
2. STC: A llow s m o u n ts o n any n u m b e r of a p a rtic u ­
lar m a k e a n d m o d el of aircraft.
Before the flight, pilots, cam era crew a n d all o th e r con­
cern ed p arties s h o u ld discu ss all sho ts for safety a n d effi­
ciency. Fam iliarity w ith the safety guid elin es se t u p b y the
In d u s try W id e L abor M a n a g e m e n t/S a fe ty C o m m itte e is
essential.

Guidelines: Fixed-wing Aircraft,

Helicopters, and Skydiving
1. Except w h e re necessary for takeoff o r la nding, the
FAA p ro h ib its the o p eration of an aircraft below the
follow ing altitudes:
A) O v e r C o n g e ste d A reas
O v e r a n y con g ested area of a city, to w n o r settle­
m e n t, o r o v er a n y o p e n air assem bly of perso n s, an
a ltitu d e of 1000 feet a b o v e th e h ig h e s t o b stac le
w ith in a h o rizo n tal ra d iu s of 2,000 feet of the a ir­
craft.
B) O v e r o th e r than C o n g e ste d A reas
A n a ltitu d e of 500 feet a b o v e the surface, except
o v e r o p e n w a te r o r sp a rse ly p o p u la te d areas. In
th a t case, th e aircraft m a y n o t b e o p e ra te d closer
th a n 500 feet to an y person, vessel, vehicle, or struc­
ture.
T he p ilo t m u s t ob ta in a p ro p e r w a iv e r before o p ­
e ratin g a n aircraft in the situ atio n s o u tlin e d above.
T hus, the p ilo t m u s t either h a v e h i s / h e r o w n FAA-
a p p ro v e d m o tio n p icture m a n u a l or o pe ra te u n d e r
a n F A A -a p p ro v e d c o m p a n y m a n u al. A certificate
of w a iv e r, w h ic h is u s u a lly in c o rp o ra te d in the
m a n u a l, m u s t b e in effect.
2 A) Before a s tu n t or seq u en ce is to b e p erfo rm ed
all p e rs o n s in v o lv ed shall be th o ro u g h ly briefed.
T here sh o u ld b e a d ry r u n o n th e g r o u n d a t the site.

489
 B) Per FAA g u idelines, the p e rs o n s n ecessary for
the film ing will b e b riefed as to an y po ten tial h a z ­
a rd s a n d safety q u e stio n s p rio r to the filming.
C) A p re -p la n n e d stu n t will n o t b e c h an g ed in an y
w a y w ith o u t the a u th o riza tio n of the pilot a n d the
aerial co ord in ato r, if any.
D) If there is a question as to the safety of an y aerial
film ing seq u en ce inv o lv in g low , over-the-cam era
shots, a briefing will b e h e ld b e tw e e n the p ilo t an d
c o n c e r n e d p e r s o n s a s to w h e t h e r th e u s e o f a
locked-off cam era is necessary.
3. O n ly p e rso n s a n d crew necessary for the p u rp o s e
of film ing will be in the area. FAA reg u latio n s re­
q u ire all o th e r p e rso n n el to be five h u n d r e d (500)
feet aw ay from the flying aircraft. All perso ns w ith ­
o u t w ritten or verbal perm issio n shall b e e x clu ded
from the area.
4. C o m m u n ica tio n b e tw e en g ro u n d an d air m u s t b e
m a in ta in e d at all tim es d u rin g the o p e ra tio n of the
aircraft.
5. W h ere re q u ire d by the F A A -a p p ro v e d m a n u a l or
a p p ro p r ia te g o v e rn m e n ta l agency, th e re w ill a l­
w ay s be a n aerial c o o rd in ato r o n the g r o u n d w h e n
an aircraft is in the air o r taxiing. A n aerial c o o rd i­
nato r will be ap p o in ted b y the ho ld e r of the m a n u a l
o r the d e sig n ated chief pilot.
6. If safety b ecom es a q u estio n a t a n y tim e, the aerial
co o rd in ato r o r the involved pilot shall hav e the a u ­
thority a n d responsibility to call an a b o rt of the o p ­
eration.
7. A) A ircraft eng in es shall n o t be sta rte d a n d the
aircraft shall n o t be taxied in spectator, cast o r crew
areas unless a p p ro p ria te m e a su re s are ta k en to
p re c lu d e creating a h a z a rd to spectators, cast or
crew.
B) C ast, crew a n d e q u ip m e n t shall be p ro te c te d
fro m d e b ris th ro w n back by a irp la n es taxiing or
taking off.
C) If an aircraft is being film ed w ith the engine ru n ­
ning, a d e q u a te safety prec au tio n s shall b e tak en in
connection w ith activity in fro n t of the propeller,
w hich inc lu d es d esig n a te d g ro u n d person n el.

490
 8. N o sm o k in g is p e rm itte d w ithin on e h u n d re d (100)
feet of the aircraft o r s u p p o r t truck.
9. A) A ircraft stru ctu res can be d a m a g e d easily w hile
o n the g ro u n d . N e v e r p u sh , han d le , sit o n or in, or
lay an y objects of an y k ind o n an aircraft w ith o u t
the p ilo t's perm ission.
B) If a foreign object falls in to o r ag ain st an aircraft,
re p o rt it im m ed iately to the p ilot o r aerial co o rd i­
nator.
C) N e v e r allow cast o r crew to o ccupy a n aircraft
w h ile e n g in e s are sta rte d o r ru n n in g , un le ss the
pilot is in full co m m an d .
10. Each e n d of an o peratio nal ru n w a y o r la n d in g area
s h o u ld b e cleared d u rin g take-off a n d la n d in g an d
a p p r o p r ia te safety e q u ip m e n t w h e n film ing the
take-off o r landing.
11. A crobatic m a n eu v ers shall be co n d u c ted in a direc­
tion w h ich will m o st n early parallel the bo u n d aries
of the d e sig n ated crew a n d e q u ip m e n t areas o r in
a directio n a w a y from su c h area.
12. T he fro n t of the stu d io call sh e et sh o u ld contain a
sta te m e n t to th e effect that: "A n aircraft is b ein g
u se d a n d will b e flow n in close p ro x im ity to crew
a n d eq u ip m e n t. A n y o n e objecting will notify the
p ro d u c tio n m a n a g e r o r 1st A D p rio r to a n y film­
ing."

Helicopter Safety Procedures

1. C o m m u n ic a tio n b etw e en g r o u n d a n d air shall be
established a t all tim es d u rin g o p e ratio n of the h e ­
licopter u sin g o ne g ro u n d contact.
2. T h e in d iv id u a l atta ch e d to the helico p ter su p p o rt
truck shall be d esig nated as the p erso n to su p ervise
safety a ro u n d the helicopter.
3. N o sm o k in g w ith in 50 feet of the helicopter.
4. Unless y o u are n eeded - rem ain at least 50 feet aw ay
from the helicopter.
5. E xercise e x tre m e c a u tio n w h e n w o rk in g a ro u n d
helicopters especially w h e n the h elico p ter en gine
is ru n n in g . Leave an d a p p ro a c h the helicopter from
the front-w ith caution. A t all tim es, keep y o u r eyes
a n d h ea d fo rw ard .

491
 6. A v o id re a r a n d tail se c tio n s of h e lic o p te r a t all
times.
7. N e v er w alk u n d e r tail section of helicopter.
8. D o n o t ex ten d an y e q u ip m e n t vertically into rotor
blades, such as cam eras, lights, s o u n d b oo m , etc.
9. C arry all e q u ip m e n t parallel to g ro u n d w ith in 50
feet of helicopter.
10. Pilots are the au th o rities co n cern in g all helicopter
operations-if yo u h av e q u e stio n s ask them.
11. N ev er, u n d e r an y circum stances, th ro w a n y th in g
such as g rip tape, clothing, p a p e r, etc. a ro u n d the
h elico p ter-w h eth er it is ru n n in g or not.
12. The la n d in g area sh o u ld be cleared of d eb ris an d ,
w h e re necessary, w e t d o w n .
13. A void rear area of helicopter a t all times.
14. Protect y o u r eyes as w ell as y o u r e q u ip m e n t w h e n
helicopter is la n d in g or taking off.
15. Plot p la n s a n d g rap h ics will b e p re p a re d to locate
la n d in g sites, a n d location, as w ell as types of ex­
plosives o r squibs.
16. T he pilot in c o m m a n d will h a v e final a p p ro v a l as
to aerial traverse a n d ho v e rin g po sitio n s of th e air­
craft.

Safe Practice: Parachuting, Skydiving

The follow ing reco m m en d atio n s an d guidelines are to
aid in the p ro m o tio n of safety w ith respect to p a ra c h u tin g
a n d sk yd iv in g film sequences. A d ju stm e n ts m ay h av e to
be m a d e in an y g iven case as circu m stan ces w a rra n t for
the safety of the p e rs o n s in v o lv e d in th e p a ra c h u tin g or
sk y d iv in g activity or o n the set or location.
1. R ad io c o m m u n ic a tio n s sh a ll b e m a in ta in e d b e ­
tw e e n th e airc raft c a rry in g the ju m p e rs a n d the
la n d in g site a t all times. G ro u n d signals (Smoke,
panels, etc.) shall be p ro v id e d as a backup.
2. T he "p a ra c h u tin g co o rd in a to r" shall b e a qualified
ju m p er. W h en only on e ju m p e r is e m p lo y e d , that
ju m p e r sh o u ld be the coordinator.
3. T h e p a r a c h u t i n g c o o r d i n a t o r s h a ll d e t e r m i n e
w h eth er o r not security is necessary to exclude non-
e ssen tial crew a n d n o n p a rtic ip a tin g sp e c ta to rs

492
 from the lan d in g area. O p e n field lan d in g s m a y n o t
re q u ire security.
4. T h e p r o d u c e r shall re q u ire e ach p a r a c h u tis t o r
p a ra c h u tin g c o o rd in ato r to h o ld a U nited States
P a rac h u te A ssociation professional exhibition rat­
ing, o r p re s e n t satisfactory evidence of the neces­
sary experience, k n o w le d g e a n d skill req u ire d to
attain this rating. USPA E xhibition R atings are is­
su e d to m e m b e rs w h o h a v e a Class D license w h o
h a v e a c c o m p lis h e d 10 su c c e s siv e p re - d e c la re d
ju m p s into a 10-meter (32 foot) d ia m eter target area,
la n d in g n o t m o re th a n 5 m eters fro m target center.
All la n d in g s m u s t b e m a d e sta n d in g up.
A m in im u m of 350 ju m p s on the ca n o p y ty p e to be
u se d is rec o m m en d ed .
5. Parachutists w h o h o ld a USPA Class D license w ith
an Exhibition Rating, w h o certify tha t they will use
a steerable sq u a re m a in an d reserve canopy, will be
p e rm itte d to exit over o r into a co n g ested area. The
selected la n d in g area m u s t p e rm it the ju m p e r to
lan d n o t closer th a n 16 feet from a n y spectator an d
w ill n o t in v o lv e p a s s in g o v e r n o n -p a r tic ip a tin g
p e rs o n s o n the surface a t a n a ltitu d e of less th a n 50
feet.
6. All ju m p s shall be co n d u c te d in acco rdan ce w ith
F ederal A v iatio n R egu lation s P a rt 105.
7. T h e p a r a c h u t i n g c o o r d i n a t o r w ill d e t e r m i n e
w h e th e r o r n o t the visibility, c lo u d ceiling h e ig h t
an d velocity of w in d , as it a p p lie s to the particu lar
s itu a tio n , is safe o r u n sa fe . (L a n d in g a re a size,
canopy type, n u m b e r of ju m p ers an d p la n n ed stu n t
will be tak en into consideration.)
8. Before each ju m p is to b e p e rfo rm e d , all p e rs o n s
involved shall be th o ro u g h ly briefed. T here sh o uld
b e a d ry ru n o n the g ro u n d a t the site.
9. All e q u ipm ent, pro p s, w ard rob e, etc., shall b e m a d e
available to the coo rd inato r p rio r to the s tu n t/ju m p
for safety ev alu a tio n . Final safety a p p ro v a l rests
w ith the co ord in ato r w ith respect to e q u ip m e n t and
w a rd ro b e u se d in the ju m p .
10. T h e c o o rd in a to r shall h a v e th e resp o n sib ility to
te m p o ra rily ho ld o r cancel the a u th o riz e d o p e ra ­

493
 tions if a t a n y tim e the safety of p erso n s o r p r o p ­
erty o n the g ro u n d o r in the air is in je o p a rd y o r if
there is a co n trav en tio n of the term s o r con d ition s
of a ny FAA letter of au th o rizatio n.
11. T he FAA req u ires th at each reserv e p a ra c h u te be
packed by an ap p ro p riately rated p arach u te rigger.
If a p a ra c h u tist h a s a m alfu n ctio n o n the job a n d
u ses h is rese rv e ch u te , a s p a r e p a ra c h u te o r the
presence of a certified rigger can usually save m a n y
sh o o tin g hours.
12. All o p e ra tio n s in v o lv in g fixed w in g aircraft a n d
helicopters shall conform w ith the guidelines estab­
lished by the L abor M a n a g e m e n t Safety C o m m it­
tee.
13. All p ilots m u s t b e fam iliar w ith the d r o p p in g of
jum pers, including the peculiarities of the operation
to include flight w ith the d o o r re m o v e d , FAR P art
105, reh earsals of all exits, all g r o u n d signals, sig­
nals to a b o rt ju m p , p ilo t's responsibilities, p ro v i­
sions of all Letters of A u tho rizatio n or w aivers. The
pilot m u s t an aly ze w e ig h t a n d balance of the a ir­
craft w ith ju m p e rs in exit position.
14. Ju m p s n ea r o r into p o tentially h a z a rd o u s la n d in g
areas (w ater, p o w e r lines, etc.) s h o u ld be c o n sid ­
ered carefully.
P ickup b o ats a n d flotation g ear sh o u ld b e available
w h e n the possibility of a w a te r la n d in g exists a n d
each b o a t p ilo t shall p a rtic ip a te in th e p re -ju m p
briefing.
O n in te n tio n a l w a te r ju m p s th e re sh all b e o n e
p ic k u p boat for each ju m per.
15. Lighting for n ig h t sh o ts s h o u ld be review ed w ith
the P a ra ch u te C o ordin ato r. T he la n d in g site for a
n ig h t shot sh o uld be v ie w e d d u rin g daylig h t h o u rs
before ju m p ing .
All the a b o v e g u id e lin e s a n d p ro c e d u r e s a re in ­
te n d e d to co nform w ith applicable law s a n d g o v ­
e rn m en ta l regu latio n s a n d in the e v e n t of a n y co n­
flict, applicable law s an d g o vern m en tal regulations
will prevail.

494
 Underwater Cinematography
b y Jack C o o p e rm a n , ASC.

All g o o d u n d e r w a te r c in e m a to g ra p h e rs m u s t h a v e
one thing in com m on: they m u s t also b e experienced divers.
It is n o t e n o u g h to p u t g o o d cin em ato g ra p h e rs u n d e rw a ­
ter a n d ex p ect g o o d results. T h ey sh o u ld b e go o d e n o u g h
d iv e rs w ith e n o u g h experience u n d e rw a te r to enab le them
to b e u n c o n ce rn ed w ith d iv in g techniques. T hey m u s t be
at ease w ith the ca m e ra u n d e r all conditions, anticipating
b ein g s w e p t a ro u n d the ocean floor a n d still b e able to o p ­
erate th e cam era efficiently.
A n d it is w ell to re m e m b e r th a t u n d e rw a te r film ing
can b e — a n d often is — h a z a rd o u s a n d difficult. E xperi­
ence u n d e rw a te r co u n ts for a g re at deal.
N o t e n o u g h can b e said re g a rd in g safety. K n o w led g e
of d iv in g physics, a w a re n e ss a n d c o m m o n sense are m a n ­
d a to ry . F o llo w in g a re th e sa fe ty g u id e lin e s s e t b y th e
In d u stry -W id e L abo r M a n a g e m e n t Safety C o m m itte e for
situ atio n s w h e re scu ba e q u ip m e n t is u se d in filming:
1. T he fin aliza tio n of a n u n d e r w a te r lo c atio n shall
d e p e n d u p o n th e safety a n d h e a lth co n d itio n s of
th e location as d e te rm in e d b y su p erv iso ry film in ­
d u s try p e rso n n el, o n e of w h o m shall be a certified
d iv e r in c on su ltatio n w ith th e director.
2. A n y p e rs o n u sing scu b a e q u ip m e n t w h ile film ing
o r b e in g film e d u n d e r w a te r sh a ll b e a certified
d iv e r, w ith th e exception of pla y ers w h o are essen­
tial for a n u n d e rw a te r close-up. W h en this excep­
tion arises, for safety reasons, these p la yers shall be
u n d e r the su p e rv isio n of a c u rre n tly certified in­
structor, a n d shall h a v e received sufficient in struc­
tions for the job at h a n d . T he a p p ro p ria te d e p th for
safe film in g sh all b e d e te rm in e d b y the certified
in s tru c to r su p e rv isin g th e safety of th e p la y er or
players. P laye rs w h o are n o t certified d iv e rs shall
n o t be re q u ire d to w o rk in d e p th s in excess of ten
feet.
3. All safety d iv e rs shall b e d u ly certified a n d w h e n
scuba is u se d , h e o r sh e shall b e e q u ip p e d w ith an
altern ate air s u p p ly , i.e., O c to p u s o r bail o u t bottle,
etc.

495
 4. A ny p erso n p erfo rm in g a stu n t w h e re w a te r safety
is in v olv ed shall re q u ire p ro p e rly e q u ip p e d safety
d iv e r or divers.
5. A ny perso n p e rfo rm in g a s tu n t w h ere the possibil­
ity of b ein g tra p p e d u n d e rw a te r exists shall h a v e
stan d -b y b re a th in g e q u ip m e n t im m ed iate ly avail­
able.
6. For div es below 30 feet each in d iv id u al d iv e r shall
be concerned w ith follow ing his or h er d ec o m p res­
sion p ro c e d u re as necessary a n d safety ru les shall
b e available a t a p p ro p riate d e p a rtm e n ts a n d on the
job site.
a. A ny in d iv id u a l d esig n ate d to log div e s shall be
a certified d iv e r a n d shall b e k n o w le d g eab le as to
p ro p e r logging p roced ures.
b. T h e c o m p a n y w ill d e term in e th e ne arest loca­
tion of d e c o m p re ssio n c h a m b e r a n d m e th o d s of
tran sp o rtatio n to that c h a m b er a n d notify all co n ­
cerned persons.
c. F u n c tio n a l recall sy ste m e q u i p m e n t sh all be
m a d e available o n site.
7. It shall be the responsibility of the c o m p a n y to e n ­
su re th a t an y p e rs o n s u sin g re -b re a th in g e q u ip ­
m e n t or m ixed gas system s will h a v e been p ro perly
trained in the u se of the eq u ip m en t.
8. Scuba tanks w h e n tran sp o rted to a n d from location
will b e se cu re d in su ch m a n n e r as to p re v e n t them
from rolling o r allo w in g the valves to be stru c k b y
o th e r objects.
9. W h e n n o t in u se, scu b a ta n k s shall b e e q u ip p e d
w ith valve covers a n d shall be sto red in the shade.
10. A d e q u a te m edical oxygen (100% oxygen) a n d re ­
suscitation e q u ip m e n t shall be available at all times
w h e n scuba eq u ip m e n t is in use. Do no t u se the air
in the scuba tanks as they d o n o t contain 100% oxy-
gen.
11. N o electrical p o w e r o th e r th an DC shall b e used in
the w a te r o r in a vicinity w h ich co u ld lead to con­
tact w ith the w ater.
In film ing u n d e rw a te r theatrical o r television p ro d u c ­
tions the c in em a to g ra p h e r is co n cerned w ith telling a fic­
tionalized sto ry ra th e r th a n p h o to g ra p h in g a real exp eri­
496
ence su ch as a scientific ex p ed itio n o r a d o c u m e n ta ry film.
W h e n w o rk in g w ith a scrip t, ac to rs a n d a d irecto r, an d
b e in g con fin ed to telling a story the situ atio n d o es n o t al­
w a y s p e rm it the fre e d o m to p h o to g r a p h scenes of g rea t
n a tu ra l b e a u ty unless there is a place for them in the script.
F ilm in g m a y b e d o n e in a n a tu ra l o cean location u n d e r
o p tim u m co n d itio n s or in a stu d io tank w ith all the facili­
ties on e usu ally associates w ith a stu d io operation. T he key
to a successful u n d e rw a te r p ro d u ctio n is planning. First, the
d irecto r, a n d u n d e r w a te r c in e m a to g ra p h e r o r d ir e c to r /
c a m e ra m a n a n d talent talk o v er the scenes ab o ve w ater.
A fter blocking o u t the action, the p la yers (or their doubles)
w a lk th ro u g h the action topside.
Entrances, exits a n d tim ing sh o u ld be rehearsed so that
e v ery on e co m pletely u n d e rs ta n d s the scene to be p h o to ­
g rap h e d .
S o m etim es the p la y e rs are experienced e n o u g h in ei­
ther sk in d iv in g o r scuba d iv in g to p e rfo rm u n d e rw a te r
scenes, b u t in m a n y cases d o u b le s o r s tu n t p e o p le will be
used . T he sa m e h o ld s true w ith directors. If they a re not
experienced d iv e rs they m a y leave the actual film ing to the
u n d e rw a te r cin em ato g rap h er.

Equipment
A n y g o o d p ro fe ssio n a l-ty p e m o tio n p ic tu re cam era
can be a d a p te d for u n d e rw a te r cinem atography. U n d e rw a ­
ter films h ave been successfully m a d e in all form ats includ­
ing 6 5 m m an d 3-D. T h ere are m a n y h o u sin g designs, both
tu b u lar a n d irre g u lar cubic, for vario u s p u rp o ses. For sta­
bility u n d e rw a te r they sh o u ld h av e lightly neg ativ e b u o y ­
ancy. Film cap acity of 400 ft. is m o st co m m o n ly u se d in
u n d e rw a te r c am era h o u sin g d esign. Such fu n ctio n s as fo­
cusing, a p ertu re, a n d cam era sp e e d ideally sh o u ld be con­
trolled o u tsid e the h o u sin g w h ile o p e ra tin g u n d e rw a ter.
It is im p o rtan t to h a v e easy access to the cam era so that
the lenses a n d / o r filters c a n be c h a n g e d o r a d ju ste d o n
deck. Film a n d b atteries will n e e d to be ch a n g ed easily an d
quickly. It is a g re a t a d v a n ta g e to h a v e a ca m era w h ic h
p erm its throu g h -th e-len s v ie w in g a n d offers a clear, easily
read im age. A sp o rts find er m a y be m o re co n v en ient w h e n
fast action is b e in g p h o to g ra p h e d .
T he cam era ideally sh o u ld b e balan ced in the h o u sing
so that the c in e m a to g ra p h e r can take a d e e p breath a n d go
u p o r exhale a n d go d o w n w ith it. C a m eras are q u ite m o ­
bile u n d e rw a te r.

497
 T h e c in e m a to g ra p h e r c an b e c o m e a c ra n e o r d o lly
because of in d ivid ual requ irem ents a n d familiarity w ith the
eq u ip m en t, m a n y of the p eo p le w h o m a k e a specialty of
u n d e rw a te r p h o to g r a p h y d e sig n a n d / o r o w n th eir o w n
equ ip m en t.

Lenses and Lens Ports

P orts are availab le b o th w ith a flat su rface a n d as a
corrected do m e . W ith a flat p o rt the m ag nification created
by the w ater (air to w a te r refractive in de x is 1.33) causes
the cam era lenses to a ssu m e the characteristic of slightly
longer lenses a n d objects a p p e a r closer b y 'A. T he corrected
d o m e p o rt p e rm its th e lenses to fun ctio n w ith their true
focal lengths. T he d o m e rad iu s is critical a n d its center m u s t
be on the n o d al p o in t of the lens to function correctly, if no t
d io p ters will be necessary, u su ally a +2 will b rin g objects
into p ro p er focus. The d o m e p o rt can be of a d v an ta g e w h en
w o rk in g in areas of low visibility or in a con fin ed sp ace or
w ith extrem ely w id e-an g le lenses.
Both glass a n d plastic p o rts are available. Glass can be
m o re perfect optically an d it is virtually scratch-proof. P las­
tic is stronger, b u t is v u ln e ra b le to scratchin g (a scratch on
the ou tsid e of the p o rt w ill b e filled b y w a te r a n d n o t be
ap p a ren t, b u t a scratch o n the inside is a d ifferent m atter).
W h en the h o u sin g is u se d ab o ve o r a t split level w ith the
w ater, the front p o rt (preferably flat) can be k e p t clear of
w a te r d ro p s w ith the u se of a w e ttin g agent. W ide-angle
o r sh o rt focus lenses are usu ally p referred becau se of the
m agnification d u e to w ater, a n d the necessity to w o rk close
to the subject because of scattering a n d ab so rp tio n of light
by the w ater. T he in creased d e p th of field afford ed is also
a factor. For 35m m film, a co m m o nly u sed lens is the 16m m
Zeiss D istagon, a n d for e x trem e w id e -a n g le, a 9 .8 m m is
useful, alth o u g h d isto rtio n is m o re a p p a re n t; a d o m e p o rt
is re c o m m e n d e d for this lens.
O th e r le n ses u p to 7 5 m m a re u se fu l for clo se-u p s.
C o rre sp o n d in g lenses for 16m m p h o to g r a p h y a re 10m m
an d 8.9mm; the 10mm is relatively distortion free. For 35m m
a n am o rp h ic p h o to g ra p h y , the 3 0 m m a n d 3 5 m m lenses are
p re fe rre d . A flat p o r t is re c o m m e n d e d for a n a m o rp h ic
lenses. A ccurate u n d e rw a te r focusing p resen ts n o p ro b le m
if the distance is ju d g e d by eye; if the distan ce is m e a su re d
by tape, the lens is focused a t 75% of the m e a su re d distance
(w ith no diopter).

498
Care Of Equipment
A t th e e n d of a d a y 's w o rk a n d if possible w h e n ch an g ­
ing m a g az in es th e cam era h o u sin g sh o u ld be w a sh e d off
w ith fresh w ater. T his will h elp p reserv e the h o u sin g an d
will also m in im ize the chance of salt sp ray d a m a g in g the
cam era m e c h an ism a n d in p a rtic u la r the lens. W h e n the
c am era a n d h o u s in g a re re m o v e d fro m th e w a te r they
sh o uld b e im m ed ia te ly placed in the shade. T his is e sp e ­
cially true in the tropics w h e re ev e n a m in im a l ex p o sure
to the su n can cause h eat inside the cam era h o u sin g to d a m ­
age the film.
All film m a n u fa ctu rers n o w h av e faster, finer g rained
n eg ative e m u lsio n s available in 16m m , 3 5 m m an d 65mm .
N eg ativ e stock is p referred for u n d e rw a te r w o rk o v er re­
versal film s as it h as a g rea ter ex p o su re la titu d e a n d yields
b etter prints. It also transfers w ell to ta p e a n d is ideal for
television p ro d u c tio n . For d irect projection of the original
h ig h sp e e d reversal color films are available.

The Environment
Even u n d e r the b est p o ssible conditions, film ing u n ­
d e rw a te r p re s e n ts the c in e m a to g ra p h e r w ith n u m e ro u s
p h o to g ra p h ic p ro b le m s n o t e n c o u n te re d on land. A tm o ­
spheric haze, w ith the acc o m p a n y in g d esa tu ra tio n of the
w a rm e r color tones, loss of detail a n d contrast, h as its u n ­
d e rw a te r c o u n te rp a rts in turb id ity an d color cast. T u rb id ­
ity, caused by su s p e n d e d m a tte r v a ry in g from sm all san d
p articles to m icroscopic o rg a n ism s such as p la n k to n , re­
d u ces light by a bso rp tio n, diffuses the im age, an d reflects
d irect fro n t lig h t into the lens ("backscatter"). T u rb id ity
affects the q u a lity of u n d e r w a te r c in e m a to g ra p h y m o re
than an y o th er factor. Visibility m a y be red u ced from m any
feet to just a few, a n d vice versa.
W ater ab so rb s the lon g er w a v ele n g th s of light (reds
a n d yellow s); therefore, the farth er the lig ht m u s t travel
from source to subject to lens, the less reds a n d yellow s will
register on th e film. This can b e p artially ov ercom e by arti­
ficial lig h tin g a n d so m e tim e s b y selective u se of K o d ak
color c o m p e n sa tin g (CC) lens filters. P h o to g ra p h ic tests
w ith these filters is su gg ested . Loss of color con trast result­
ing from the selective filtration of u n d e rw a te r light can be
redu ced th ro u g h careful subject color selection.
This will ap p ly to u n d e rw a te r sets, p ro p s an d even the
type of w a rd ro b e w o rn by actors. C o lor interest m a y be

499
a d d e d to objects b ey o n d the ran g e of red o r o ran g e tran s­
m ission th ro u g h the use of b rig h t blue, g reen a n d yellow.
W hite m u s t be u sed w ith care because its reflective q u a li­
ties to g e th e r w ith u n d e rw a te r sca tterin g will p ro d u c e a
haze effect. (U nderw ater visibility of p ro d uctio n eq u ip m en t
can also be increased b y giv in g it a b rig h t ch ro m e yellow
finish.)

Natural Light
O p tim u m u n d e rw a te r c in em a to g ra p h y is u sually o b ­
ta in ed to a m a x im u m d e p th of 50 ft. A t g re a te r d e p th s
things a p p e a r m o re m ono ch ro m atic. T here are also m o re
diving p ro b lem s an d cam era ho u sin g s are subject to greater
stress. N a tu ra l light reaches the o cean 's surface eith er as
direct rays from the su n o r as light d iffu sed by c lo u d s or
oth er atm o sp h eric co n d itio n s su ch as d u s t a n d w a te r v a ­
por. A clear, s a n d y ocean floor is a g rea t asset to g o o d u n ­
d e r w a te r c a m e ra w o rk b e c a u se u n d e r w a te r lig h t is re ­
flected from the o cean floor b ack in to the w a te r. W h e n
sh oo tin g u n d e rw a te r in d a y lig h t co n ditio ns w ith tu n g s te n
(3200K) film, w ith o u t ad d itio n a l lighting, it is ad visable to
use a #85 cam era filter. This subtracts so m e of the b lu e from
the w ate r, p e rm ittin g a tru e r re n d e r in g of sk in tone on
h u m a n s in the scene. If the n egative is fully ex p osed , so m e
fu rth e r co rrectio n m a y b e p o ssib le in p r in tin g fro m the
negative.
T he intensity of d a y lig h t for u n d e rw a te r film ing d e ­
p e n d s also u p o n the a m o u n t lost b y reflections fro m the
w a te r's surface.
This d e p e n d s o n su ch variables as su n angle, surface
ro u ghness, a n d clo u d cover. The light loss d u e to reflection
is least w h en the su n is directly o v e rh ea d a n d do es n o t start
to b eco m e a p ro b le m u ntil the s u n is b elo w a n a n g le of
a b o u t 30 degrees. In the latitu d es of the U n ite d States, su n
h eig h t is generally o p tim u m b e tw ee n 9 a.m. a n d 3 p.m . in
the su m m e r a n d 10 a.m . a n d 2 p .m . in the w inter.

Artificial Lighting
U n d e rw a te r lig h tin g is o ften necessary or d esirab le
b o th in stu d io tank con d itio n s a n d in the o p e n sea. Fill a n d
set lighting for perfo rm ers, n ig h t effect film ing a n d o th e r
co n ditio ns that req u ire special lighting are often a p a r t of
u n d e rw a te r w ork. T he use of artificial light is a n excellent
m e th o d of resto rin g o r correcting color in u n d e rw a te r cin­

500
em ato g rap h y. The effect of u n d e rw a te r filtering varies from
area to area, b u t as a general rule red is lost a t a b o u t 10 feet.
U sing artificial lighting will often a d d the necessary color
co m p en satio n n e e d e d to record an u n d e rw a te r scene m ore
accurately. A n u m b e r of excellent u n d e rw a te r la m p s are
cu rren tly available on the m arket. T u n g ste n h alo g e n units
are available in 2000 w a tt a n d 1000 w a tt sizes, w ith a lu m i­
n u m reflecto rs in a p r e s s u r e re s ista n t h o u sin g . S m aller
lam p s, u su ally b attery p o w e re d , are also available. These
units are generally 250 w a tt a n d are useful in sh o oting very
close to th e subject o r as a fill light. Specially co nstructed
H M I u n its a re also available, extra care a n d g ro u n d fault
in te rru p t p ro tectio n is necessary d u e to A C p o w e r source.
L arge u n d e r w a te r a re a s can also b e illu m in a te d by
su s p e n d in g lights fro m an o v e rh e a d g rid or n ettin g sta­
tioned at the p ro p e r d e p th b y m e an s of floats a n d anchors.
S u b m erg in g th e m m in im izes m o v e m e n t of the light d u e to
w a v e action.

Lighting and Exposure

L ig h tin g u n d e r w a te r is sim ila r to to p s id e lig h tin g,
ex cep t th a t cross lig h tin g is p re fe ra b le to fro nt lighting.
F ro n t ligh ting sh o u ld b e a v o id ed because it lights tu rb id ­
ity "back scatter." T he ex cep tio n to this is in crystal clear
w ater w h e re a fro n t light can b e u se d w ith o u t difficulty.
F ro n t light so m etim es can be u se d for fill.
E ither a reflected or in c id en t ex p o su re m e te r is satis­
factory. W h e n taking a n ex p o su re re a d in g a t the subject,
re m em b er th a t w a te r acts as a filter so o n e m u s t c o m p e n ­
sate for the d istan c e b e tw e e n the cam era a n d the subject
a n d ad ju st accordingly. A rule of th u m b is 'A to Vi stop. A n
u n d e rw a te r reflected light m e te r w h ic h w o rk s o n a g ray
scale p rinciple, such as the Sekonic M arine 164B is ideal.
This type of m e te r req u ires n o calibration after the sh u tter
sp eed a n d the ASA rating h a v e b een set.
U n d e r d a y lig h t conditions, ex p o su res are b ased u p o n
the read in g of the general area in w hich the scene is staged.
The reflected light read in g is m a d e from alongside the cam ­
era a n d d irec te d to w a rd the action. T h e im p o rta n ce of the
angle of the sh o t as a factor in calculating ex p o su re can n ot
be o v erem p h asiz ed w h e n w o rk in g in ocean w aters; there
will b e e x p o s u r e v a ria n c e fo r u p , d o w n a n d h o riz o n ta l
m oves.

501
Night Effects
Sim ple u n d erex p o su re can p ro d u c e acceptable u n d e r­
w ater day-for-n ig ht p h o to g ra p h y . Liaison w ith the labora­
tory s h o u ld h elp in p ro d u c in g the d e s ire d n ig h t effect.
U n d e re x p o su re ten d s to increase the satu ratio n of u n d e r ­
w ater colors a n d accentuates the b lu e c o m p o n e n t of o p en
w ater in the b ack g ro u n d , thereby en h an cin g the n ig h t ef­
fect. The illusion can be intensified if light ripp les from the
w a ter surface are allow ed to play across the scene. Scatter­
ing will cau se them to a p p e a r as tiny light b e am s m o v in g
th ro u g h the w ater. W h en sh o o tin g night-for-night, o v er­
h ead lighting can be utilized for a m o o n lit effect

Studio Tanks
M uch u n d e rw a te r p ro d u c tio n p h o to g ra p h y m a y be
d o n e in stu d io tanks. T hese tanks will vary in size and m a y
either be constructed inside a s o u n d stage or b u ilt o u td o o rs
on the stu d io back lot. They are usually a b o u t 40 or 50 feet
in d ia m e te r w ith d e p th ran g in g u p to 14 or 15 feet. O u tsid e
ta n ks are generally b uilt a b ov e g ro u n d , so m e tim e s w ith
p ro v isio n for a p ain te d back d ro p .
M o st ta n k s are e q u ip p e d w ith stra ig h t o r re d u c in g
p o rts from w hich cam eras can be set u p to sh oo t into the
tank. T he straig h t p o rt is a flat w in d o w lo o kin g into the
tank. R educing p o rts are prim arily used in p h o to g ra p h in g
m in ia tu re s o r sh o o tin g into a c o n fin ed u n d e r w a te r set.
They are concave glass p ro v id in g an an g le sim ilar to th a t
of a w ide-angle lens, also p e rm ittin g m o re leew ay in p a n ­
ning. T he glass sh o u ld be crystal clear. Since tanks are lo­
cated w ith in the confines of the stu d io th ere is a m p le p ro ­
vision for using all types of stu d io lighting units. Inside the
tank sm aller units such as those previously m e n tion e d m ay
b e used.
M iniatures are usually p h o to g ra p h e d in a tank a n d the
sam e rules for film ing sp eed s a p ply as in topside m in iatu re
p h o to g ra p h y . In film ing m iniatures, to sim u late d e e p w a ­
ter, it is im p o rta n t to re d u ce light rip p les by stretch in g a
scrim over the tank or letting it float on the w ater. T he d ee p
ocean h as no ripples. L ight tha t h a s n o t been d iffu sed will
cause w a te r ripples an d give aw a y the d e p th of the w ater,
thereby destro y in g the illusion. Incidentally, even th o u g h
tanks are eq u ip p e d w ith sh o oting p o rts the b est angles and
cam era m o v e m e n ts are o b ta in ed b y d iv in g into the w a te r
w ith the cam era just as if o n a n a tu ral sea location.
502
Safety Bulletin No. 8: Guidelines
for Insert Camera Cars
1. A n In sert C a m e ra C a r shall be a vehicle th a t is
specifically e n g in ee re d for the m o u n tin g of c am ­
e ras a n d o th e r e q u ip m e n t for th e p rim a ry p u r ­
p o se of p h o to g ra p h y from a statio nary o r m o v ­
in g vehicle.

2. A cam e ra car shall b e safety checked before a n d

after u se on a m in im u m of a daily basis by qu a li­
fied experienced p erson n el — specifically brakes,
tires, electrical sy stem a n d tow in g eq u ip m en t.

3. All rigg in g of e q u ip m e n t shall be d o n e in a safe

m a n n e r b y qualified, exp erien ced personnel.

4. A n Insert C am era C a r used for n ig h t film ing shall

b e p ro v id e d w ith tw o p o rtab le tail lights w hich
will be affixed to the tow ed vehicle to p ro v id e rear
lighting in cases w h ere said vehicle's lights are not
operative.
5. M a x im u m p asse n g er allow ances — O p era tio n of
In sert C a m e ra

C ars T ran sp o rtin g P ro d u c tio n Personnel: All in­

v o lv e d p e rso n n e l sh o u ld be m a d e a w a re that, as
m a n d a te d by the California A dm inistrative Code:
T he n u m b e r of e m p lo yees " . . . tra n sp o rted on ve­
hicles . . . shall n e v er exceed a n u m b e r w hich m ay
e n d a n g e r the safe h a n d lin g of the v e h ic le .. Ac­
cordingly, the In d u s try S u bcom m ittee to Investi­
gate Safety A spects of In sert C am era C ars h e re ­
w ith r e c o m m e n d s the fo llo w in g m a x im u m be
a p p lie d w h e n tra n sp o rtin g p e rso n n e l b y Insert
C a m e r a C a rs ( d u r in g re h e a rs a l a n d p rin c ip a l
p h o to g r a p h y sequences): T h a t n u m b e r s h o u ld
n e v e r exceed nin e (9) in c lu d in g the driver. In a d ­
ditio n , it is s tro n g ly re c o m m e n d e d that a ny p e r­
so n n o t directly n e e d e d for actual sh o t sequence
N o t Be A llo w e d o n T he Vehicle A t All.
6. E q u ip m e n t n o t essential to the sh o ts in pro g ress
shall n o t be tran sp o rte d o n th e Insert Cars.

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 7. C o m m u n ic atio n s re g a rd in g Insert C ars shall be
p re c e d e d by a m e etin g o n the site of the e v e n t
w ith all p eo ple concerned. This m eeting sh o u ld
inc lu d e a "w a lk -th ro u g h " o r "d ry -ru n " w ith the
driver a n d all of the perso n s involved in the event.
An u n d erstan d in g of the in tend ed action, possible
deviations a n d auth o rity to abort sh o u ld be m a d e
clear. Following the above a n d before rolling cam ­
eras, sh o u ld any su b sta n tiv e ch an g e becom e n ec­
essary, the d irecto r will ag ain call all p e rs o n s in ­
volved in the sh o t to a n o th e r m e e tin g to confirm
ev ery o n e's u n d e rs ta n d in g a n d ag re em e n t to said
changes.

8. R ear to w in g — no p e rso n n e l n o t b eing p h o to ­

g ra p h e d shall be o n to w b a r o r exterior of tow ed
vehicle. This d o es not include to w e d cam era p lat­
form s such as trailers d e sig n ed for said w ork.
9. It shall be m a n d a to ry that a copy of these rules be
in the glove box of the vehicle at all times.

10. It is recognized that there can be un fo reseen or

u n iq u e s itu a tio n s w h ic h m ig h t re q u ire o n -site
ju d g m e n t differing from these g u idelines. Such
ju d g m e n t m ay h a v e to be m a d e in the interest of
the safety of cast an d crew.

Arctic Cinematography
M ost of the difficulties e n c o u n tered w h e n u sin g m o-
tion-picture eq u ip m e n t in the Arctic are cau sed by extrem e
cold a n d very low relative h um idity. A verage te m peratures
m ay v ary from 45° F (7° C) to -45°F (-43° C), te m p eratu re s
as low as -80° F (-62° C) h av e been recorded. (Such low tem ­
p e ratu res m a y also b e en c o u n te re d a t v ery h ig h altitudes.)
T h e lu b r ic a tin g oils u s u a lly u sed in p h o to g r a p h ic
e q u ip m e n t in m o re tem p erate clim ates will congeal in an
arctic en v iro n m e n t so that m ov in g p arts of cam eras or other
e q u ip m e n t will n o t operate. L eath er a n d ru b b e r also be­
com e brittle a t these te m p eratu res. W ith m o tio n -p ic tu re
films, loss of m o istu re from the film e m u lsio n w h e n the
o rig in al p a c k in g m a te ria l is o p e n e d m a y re s u lt in film

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e m u lsio n sh rin k ag e a n d brittleness, a n d su b se q u e n t film
curl in the cam era gate. Such difficulties are n o t m in im ized
b y u sin g film s w ith a p o ly e ster b ase unless these films (or
those w ith a triacetate base) h ave a gelatin coating on the
s u p p o r t to c o m p e n sa te for e m u lsio n sh rin k ag e . It is the
effect of the v ery low relative h u m id ity (less th a n 5%) an d
its e m u lsio n d ry in g characteristics that p ro d u c e s film curl.
(Small h e ate rs are so m e tim e s u sed in cam eras to p rev e n t
film brittleness w h e n w o rk in g u n d e r conditions of extrem e
cold, b u t u n d e r certain co n ditio ns this practice could ac tu ­
ally increase the ch ance of em u lsio n sh rin k a g e by fu rth er
re d u cin g the relative h u m id ity in the film cham ber.) The
film sp e e d is also lo w e re d b y ex tre m e cold a n d m a y be
a b o u t o n e lens o p e n in g s lo w e r at -50° F (-46° C) to -70° F
(-57° C) than a t 60° F (16° C). Film b ecom es progressively
m o re brittle as the te m p e ra tu re d ro p s below 0° F (-18° C),
b u t th ere is n o m a rk e d c h a n g e a t a n y o n e te m p e ra tu re .
Even at su b -zero te m p eratu re s, film em u lsio n that retains
its p ro p e r m o istu re content in the original package (equiva­
lent to eq u ilib riu m a t 40 to 60% RH) is m o re flexible than
film tha t h as b een allow ed to becom e too dry . Film can also
be b e n t w ith the e m u lsio n side in w ith less chance of b reak­
ing than if b e n t w ith the em u lsio n side out. W h e th e r the
film e m u lsio n cracks or the film s u p p o r t break s at v ery low
te m p e ratu res d e p e n d s on (1) h o w soon the film is exposed
after rem o v al from the original package; (2) the care taken
in h a n d lin g the film; a n d (3) on the type a n d condition of
the cam era in w h ic h it is used.
T e m p eratu re s generally en c o u n tere d in the Arctic will
n o t c au se p o ly e ste r b a se films to break.

Preparation Of Equipment
W hile the difficulties of p h o to g ra p h y u n d e r arctic con­
d itions can b e severe, they are by n o m e a n s in s u rm o u n t­
able. C areful ad v a n c e p re p a ra tio n will p ay rich d iv id e n d s
in the form of easier a n d m o re reliable e q u ip m e n t o p e ra ­
tion a n d b etter pictorial results. T he first ste p in p re p a rin g
for film ing in the Arctic, h ig h m o u n ta in regions, o r in u n ­
heated aircraft a t h ig h a ltitu d es is to select the m o st su it­
able e q u ip m e n t w ith d u e reg a rd for th e w o rk to be d o n e
an d the resu lts desired.
Each k in d of cam era h as its adherents, an d n o one type
seem s to be o u tstan d in g ly su p e rio r to the others. H o w ev er,
co nsiderin g the w o rk in g conditions, g o o d ju d g m e n t dic-

505
fates th a t th e cam era o r c am eras selected sh o u ld be c o m ­
pact, lightw eight, easy to use, de p e n d a b le , ad ap ta b le , a n d
p o rta b le . In c h o o s in g a 1 6 m m m o tio n - p ic tu re c am e ra ,
m a n y arctic exp lo rers prefer the ease a n d co nv enience of
m a g az in e loading. T h rea d in g roll film can be very difficult
u n d e r co n d itio n s of ex trem e cold. C e rtain cam era m o d e ls
are a d v a n ta g e o u s for lo w -te m p e ra tu re use b ecau se large-
ra d iu s b e n d s in the film p a th a n d lo w film accelerations
h elp p re v e n t b ro k e n film. For b est p ro tectio n of th e film
em u lsio n a t extrem ely low te m p e ratu res, film travel roll­
ers sh o u ld h a v e a d ia m e te r n o sm aller tha n Vi in. (13mm).
Electric p o w e r, if available from a reliable so u rce su c h a s a
gen erato r or veh icu lar p o w e r system , is m o re d e p e n d a b le
than sprin g -d riven or battery p ow er. H o w ev e r, u n d e r field
conditions, a sp rin g-driv en m o to r m a y p ro v e m o re reliable
than an electric m o to r d riv e th at d e p e n d s o n p o rtab le or
storage batteries w hich can fail w h e n subjected to extremely
low tem peratures.
C a m eras sh o u ld be w in te rize d for satisfactory service
u n d e r frigid conditions. Som e cam era m a n u fa ctu rers p ro ­
vid e a w in terizing service for cam eras th at are to be u sed
at low te m p e ra tu re s o v e r a long p e rio d of time. W interiz­
ing is a h ig h ly specialized op eratio n , b est e n tru ste d to the
m a n u fa c tu re r o r a c o m p e ten t in d e p e n d e n t c am era service
representative. Essentially, the p ro c e d u re calls for d is m a n ­
tling the cam era a n d re m o v in g the original lubricants. T he
sh u tter, lens d ia p h ra g m , film tra n sp o rt m e c h a n ism , a n d
oth e r m ov in g p a rts are then re-lubricated w ith m aterials
that will n o t thicken w h e n the cam era is expo sed to extrem e
cold. P o w d e re d g ra p h ite is in so m e cases still u s e d for this
p u rp o s e . H o w e v e r, so -ca lle d " b r o a d - r a n g e " lu b ric a n ts
(su ch as Teflon a n d silicone) are b e c o m in g in creasin g ly
p o p u la r, n o t only because of th e ir effectiveness a t low te m ­
p eratu res, b u t also because they can b e left in the cam era
p e rm a n e n tly . In fact, su c h lu b ric a n ts a re b e in g u s e d in
m anufacture. Hence, a cam era that h a s b een lubricated w ith
a b ro a d -ra n g e lubricant, eith er in m a n u fa ctu re o r as p a rt
of a w in terizing op eration , n e e d n o t b e d e-w in te riz ed an d
re-lubricated w h e n it is re tu rn e d to u se u n d e r n o rm a l co n ­
ditions. W h en cam eras are strip p e d d o w n for w in terizin g ,
w eak en ed or d a m ag e d parts m a y be discovered a n d sh o u ld
be replaced to avoid possible failure u n d e r the extra stress
of severe arctic te m peratures.
It is also som etim es necessary to m a c h in e p a rts to al­
low greater clearance b etw ee n com ponents. This is because

506
a lu m in u m a n d certain alloys h ave g re ate r coefficients of
th e rm al co ntractio n a n d ex p an sio n th a n steel. Since sm all
levers an d k n ob s o n cam eras are difficult to o p erate w h en
the p h o to g ra p h e r is w ea rin g thick gloves, extensions can
so m etim e s be a d d e d to levers, a n d sm all k nobs can be re­
placed w ith larger ones.
It m a y b e h e lp fu l to ru n e v e n re ce n tly w in te riz e d
m o tio n -p ictu re c am eras for a p erio d of three or four ho u rs
to b rea k th e m in thorou g h ly . A piece of film three or four
feet long can be spliced en d to e n d (to form a co n tin u o u s
loop), th re a d e d into the cam era, a n d allo w e d to ru n d u r ­
ing the b reak in g in. In c am eras in ten d e d for use w ith film
m a gazin es, the loop sh o u ld b e form ed in a d u m m y m a g a­
zine. A fter the b reak ing -in p e rio d , the cam era sh o u ld be
checked for sp eed an d general behavior. It sh o u ld be noted
that, alth o u g h m ag a z in e -ty p e m o tio n -p ictu re cam eras can
be w interized, the m agazines them selves are not w interized
a n d m a y jam u n d e r c o n d itio n s of e x tre m e cold. If film
m a g az in es a re u sed , each d a y 's w o rk in g reserve carried
into the field sh o u ld be k e p t as w a rm as possible u n d e r the
cin em ato g rap h er's parka. A no th er possibility is to carry the
film su p p ly in an in su lated therm al bag, alo n g w ith o n e or
tw o sm all h a n d w arm ers.
Before y o u r location shoot, a test ru n sh o u ld be m a d e
in a refrigerator or freezer capable of reaching te m peratures
as low as -30° F (-34° C) o r -40° F (-40° C). Even "w in te r­
ized" cam eras can fail in use because so m e detail w as o v er­
looked in p re p a ra tio n , so this final test ru n is quite im p o r­
tant. T he film a n d cam e ra sh o u ld b e cooled for a t least 24
h o u rs p rio r to the test. T his long p erio d of pre-cooling is
often ov erlo o k ed , a n d the test becom es invalid.
M otion-picture cam eras sh o u ld be given as m u c h p ro ­
tection fro m icy w in d s as possible d u rin g use. W hen b a t­
tery-driven m o to rs are u sed o n cam eras, th e m o tors an d
batteries sh o u ld be k e p t as w a rm as possible. A flat black
finish on th e c a m e ras h a s so m e a d v a n ta g e in the Arctic
becau se it ab so rb s h e a t w h e n the s u n is sh ining. C overs
m a d e from black felt m aterial o r fu r an d fitted w ith eye­
lets o r o th e r su ita b le fa sten e rs p ro te c t the ca m e ra from
frigid w in d s an d help to retain its initial w a rm th for a time.
S naps a n d slide fasteners are n o t re c o m m e n d e d for u se in
sub-zero te m p e ratu res. Small m a g a zin e -ty p e m o tio n -p ic­
ture ca m e ra s can b e h u n g in sid e the coat to obtain so m e
w a r m th fro m the b o d y ; y o u m a y e v e n n e e d to w r a p a
c h e m ica l h e a t in g p a d a r o u n d th e c a m e ra . I n s p e c t the

507
ca m era 's lens each time it is re m o v ed from the clothing to
take a picture. T he a m o u n t of "b o d y static" g en e rate d u n ­
d e r cold, d ry co n d itio n s can cause the lens to attra ct lint
from the clothing.
T ripo d s sh o u ld also be c on d ition e d p ro p e rly for use
in the Arctic. W h en lubrication is requ ired, there are oils
available for use a t te m p eratu re s d o w n to -70° F. T rip o d
h e ad s for m o tio n-p ictu re e q u ip m e n t sh o u ld b e w in te rize d
if they in clu de gyros, m otors, o r oth e r revolving p arts. As
n ote d prev io u sly ex trem e cold causes leather a n d ru b b er
to becom e brittle. A w ax le ather d re ssin g of go o d q uality
sh o uld be ru b bed into le ather carry in g cases a n d leather-
covered cam e ras to p re v e n t the a b so rp tio n of m o istu re.
R u b b er sh o u ld be elim inated w h e re v e r possible.
Silk or ligh tw eigh t cotton gloves u n d e r h eavy w oo len
m ittens are re co m m e n d ed . G loves or m itte n s m a d e from
u n b o r n la m b s k in a re e x c ellen t fo r arctic w e a th e r. Silk
gloves will keep the h a n d s w a rm e r a n d will afford co n sid ­
erable protection w h e n the o utsid e m itten s are rem ov ed for
lo a din g the cam era, ad ju stin g the lens, etc.

Equipment and Filming Technique

In the Arctic o r on m o u n ta in clim bing exp editions, as
the a ltitu d e a n d the s u b se q u e n t cold increase, b re a th in g
b eco m es difficult, a n d it in v o lv es a g re a t effort to w o rk
norm ally. Reactions are slow. T herefore, e v e ry th in g p e r ­
taining to the use of the cam era s h o u ld be m a d e as sim p le
as possible. E xp o sure estim ates m a y be p o o r w h e n the fac­
ulties are d u lle d , so e x p o su re a n d o th e r d a ta s h o u ld be
prin ted o n a card an d fastened to the cam era or its co v er in
plain view.
C ertain general co ld -w eath er re co m m e n d atio n s are in
o rd e r for an y cam era, still o r m o tion-picture. B reathing on
a lens or an y oth e r p a rt of the cam era to rem o v e sn o w or
other material will cause condensation that freezes instantly
a n d is very difficult to rem ove.
A n im p ortan t factor to keep in m in d is the ever-present
d a n g e r of frostbite, a particu lar threat w h e n h a n d s o r face
com e in direct contact w ith the m etal of the cam era b o dy.
C am e ra s tha t are u sed at eye level a n d m u s t be b ro u g h t
close to the face for p ro p e r v ie w in g a n d focusing sh o u ld
h av e their exp o sed m etal areas cov ered w ith h ea v y elec­
trical tape, plastic foam , or so m e oth e r in su latin g m aterial.
U n der no circum stances should the p h o to g ra p h er touch the

508
c am era o r o th e r m etal e q u ip m e n t w ith u n g lo v e d h a n d s,
b e cau se th e sk in will freeze to the cold m etal a lm o st in ­
stantly. A p ain fu l loss of skin alm o st alw ay s results.
A thoroughly chilled cam era cannot be u sed in a w a rm
ro o m until its te m p e ra tu re equals the su rro u n d in g w a rm e r
tem p era tu re . C o nv ersely , a w a rm cam era can n o t be taken
o u t into a b lizz ard b e cau se the b lo w in g an d drifting sn ow
will m e lt u p o n strik in g th e w a r m c am era, a n d so o n the
in s tru m e n t w ill b e c o v e red w ith ice. L o a d in g film, e v e n
d u rin g a d riv in g sn o w sto rm , can b e accom plished w ith the
use of a large, d a rk plastic bag, b ig e n o u g h to fit ov e r the
h e a d a n d sh o uld ers.
A d e e p lens h o o d is v ery d esirab le for film ing in the
snow . It will h e lp k eep the lens d ry ev en d u rin g a fairly
severe storm .

Film
G rea t care m u s t be u sed in h a n d lin g film in sub-zero
w eather. T he ed g es of cold, brittle film are extrem ely sharp,
a n d u n le ss c au tio n is exercised, they can c u t the fingers
severely.
It is i m p o r t a n t t h a t film b e l o a d e d a n d e x p o s e d
p ro m p tly after rem o v al from the original p ack in g, n o t left
in the cam era for lo n g p e rio d s of time. If m o tio n-p icture
film is allo w e d to s ta n d in the cam era for a d a y or so, the
film m a y d ry o u t a n d b reak w h e re the loop w as form ed
w h e n the ca m e ra is ag ain started. T he film is a d e q u ate ly
protected ag ainst m o istu re loss as long as the original pack­
a gin g is intact. W h en lo a d in g th e cam era, m a k e su re the
film an d the cam e ra are at the sam e te m p e ra tu re — if p o s­
sible, loa d the cam era indoors.
Static m a rk in g s a re c a u s e d b y an ele ctro static d is ­
charge, a n d they a p p e a r o n the d e v e lo p e d film em u lsio n
as m a rk s re s e m b lin g lig h tn in g , tree b ra n c h e s , o r fu zzy
spots. W h e n static difficulties o ccu r they can u su ally be
traced to the u se of film w h ic h h a s a v e ry lo w m o istu re
content.
Static markings are not likely to occur if the film is loaded
and exposed w ithin a short time after the original package is
opened. In general, field p h o to g ra p h y u n d e r arctic co n d i­
tions inv o lv es subjects of e x trem ely low brig h tn e ss scale
a n d ve ry h ig h levels of illum ination. For this reason, h ig h ­
sp eed e m u lsio n s are n o t generally u sed o utdo o rs. T he b est
choice of film is a m e d iu m -sp e e d m aterial su ch as E astm an

509
Plus-X N egative Film 5231/7231, E astm an C olor N eg ative
Film 5 2 4 8/7 2 4 8 , E a s tm a n E k ta c h r o m e Film (D ay lig h t)
5 2 39/7239, A gfa C o lo r N e g a tiv e Film XT100, F ujicolor
N e g ativ e Film F 125 8530/8630, Fujicolor R eversal Film
RT125 (16m m only-8427), o r Fuji N eg ativ e Film FG 71112/
RP 72161. E xp o sures s h o u ld b e held to a m in im u m a n d
o v erex po su re sh o u ld be avoided.
W h en pictures are to be m a d e u n d e r low-level ligh t­
ing conditions, such as at tw ilight, o r in d o o rs u n d e r exist­
in g a rtificia l illu m in a tio n , a h ig h - s p e e d film , s u c h as
E astm an 4-X N egative Film 5224/7224, E astm an Color EXR
H ig h - S p e e d N e g a t i v e F ilm 5 2 9 6 /7 2 9 6 , E a s t m a n
E k ta c h ro m e H ig h -S p e e d F ilm (D ay lig h t) (1 6 m m o n ly -
7251), E astm an E ktach ro m e H ig h -S p eed Film (Tungsten)
(1 6 m m o nly-7250), A g fa C o lo r N e g a tiv e F ilm X T 3 2 0 ,
Fujicolor F 500 C olor N egative Film 8570/8670, or Fujicolor
R eversal Film RT 500 (16m m only-8428) sh o u ld b e used.

Storage
If a cold cam era is taken in d o o rs w h e re it is w a rm a n d
h u m id , co nd en sation m a y form o n the lens, film, a n d c a m ­
era parts. If the cam era is then taken back o u td o o rs before
the co n d e n se d m oisture ev ap o rates, it will freeze a n d in­
terfere w ith operation; the co n d en sate can also cau se m etal
p a rts to rust. O n e w ay to solve this p ro b le m is to leave the
cam era, w h e n n o t in use, in a ro om a t ab o u t 32°F (0°C).
T. R. S to b a rt, w h o film ed the first c o n q u e s t o f Mt.
Everest, prefers to seal the cam era in a n airtig h t p oly e th y l­
ene or rubber bag a n d then take the cam era into the w arm th
of indoors. A ny co n d en satio n takes place o u tsid e the bag,
n o t inside, a n d the cam era re m ain s b o th d ry a n d w a rm .
This m e th o d has the a d v a n ta g e of keeping the cam era from
b e c o m in g " s a tu ra te d in co ld " for lo n g p e rio d s of time.
T here is no p ro b lem in taking w a rm e q u ip m e n t back o u t
into the cold, p ro v id ed the sn o w isn 't blow ing.
W h en a c a m era is left in its case o u td o o rs, the case
sh o u ld be m a d e reasonably airtight. In the Arctic, b lo w n
sno w becom es as fine as d u s t or sil t an d can enter the sm all­
est slit or crevice. If a llow ed to en te r the cam era a ro u n d the
sh u tter o r oth e r m o v in g p arts, the sn o w will affect the o p ­
eration of the eq u ip m en t. T h e sp ee d an d tim ing of m o tors
sh o u ld be checked frequently. Batteries sh o u ld b e checked
every d a y an d rech arged at a base ev ery night, if possible.

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 Tropical Cinematography
H e a t a n d h u m id ity are tw o basic so u rces of potential
difficulty w h e n u sin g o r storing p h o to g rap h ic g o o d s in w et
tropical climates. H e a t alone is n o t th e w o rst factor, th o u gh
it m a y necessitate special e q u ip m e n t care a n d processing
techniques a n d m a y sh o rte n the life of incorrectly sto red
light-sensitive materials. H ig h h u m id ity is by far the greater
p ro b le m b ecause it c an cau se serio u s trouble at te m p e ra ­
tu res on ly slightly a b o v e n o rm a l, a n d these tro ub les are
greatly in creased by h ig h te m p eratu res.
A ssociated w ith these con d itio n s a re several biologi­
cal factors — the w a rm th a n d d am p n e ss levels en co un tered
in the tropics a re c o nd u civ e to the p ro fu se g ro w th of fu n ­
g u s a n d b acteria a n d e n c o u ra g e the activities of insects.
M an y p h o to g ra p h ic a n d o th e r related p ro d u c ts are "fo o d"
for these o rg a n ism s — gelatin in films, filters, leather, a d ­
hesives, a n d so on. E ven if fu n g us, bacteria, or insects can­
n o t attack m aterials directly, th ey c an d ev e lo p an en v iro n ­
m e n t that can. F u n g u s can also either directly o r indirectly
in d u c e c o rro s io n in m e ta ls, a tta c k textiles a n d le ath e r,
ch a n g e th e co lor of dy es, atta ck glass, a n d c au se a great
variety of o th e r fo rm s of deterioration. T h e p ro bability of
d a m a g e is grea ter w ith fre q u en t h a n d lin g a n d tran sp o rta ­
tion, especially u n d e r the difficulties m e t in h u n tin g a n d sci­
entific e x p ed itio n s a n d in m ilitary o p erations. E x p osu re to
h a rm is g rea ter w h e n e q u ip m e n t is u se d o u t of do ors, o n
the g ro u n d , o r in m ak esh ift facilities.
A tm o sp h eric co n d itio n , w ith respect to m o istu re co n ­
tent, is u su ally d escrib ed in te rm s of "relative h u m id ity ."
This is the ratio, ex p re ssed as a p erce n tag e , b e tw e e n the
q u an tity of w a te r v a p o r actually p re s e n t in the air an d the
m a x im u m q u a n tity w h ic h the air c o uld h o ld a t th a t te m ­
perature. T hus, if a g iv e n sa m p le of air co n tain s only half
as m u c h w a te r as it w o u ld a t saturatio n , its relative h u m id ­
ity is 50 percent.
W h en the te m p e ra tu re rises, a g iven sp ace c an accom ­
m o d a te m o re w a te r v a p o r a n d hence, the relative h u m id ­
ity d ecreases, a n d vice versa. W h e n air (or a n object) is
cooled sufficiently, a sa tu ra tio n p o in t (100 p e rc en t relative
h u m id ity ) is reached, a n d b elo w this te m p e ra tu re d ro p s of
w ater o r " d e w " are d ep o sited . In a n y locality, the te m p era­
ture is m u c h lo w e r a t h ig h altitudes, so th a t d e w is likely
to form o n objects follow ing their arrival by air tran sp o rt,

511
especially w h e n h igh relative h u m id ity is p re se n t at g ro u n d
level. In tropical climates, this " d e w p o in t" is often o n ly a
few deg rees below the actual te m p e ra tu re d u rin g the d ay
a nd is reached w h e n the te m p e ra tu re d ro p s a t night.
The a m o u n t of m oisture absorbed b y films and by non-
metallic p arts of e q u ip m e n t is d e term in ed b y the relative
h u m id ity of the a tm o sph ere. T herefore, the m o istu re ab ­
so rp tio n of p h o to g ra p h ic o r o th e r e q u ip m e n t c an b e re ­
d u c e d by low ering the relative h u m id ity , eith er b y re m o v ­
ing so m e of the m o istu re w ith a d esiccating a g en t o r by
raising the te m p eratu re of the a tm o sp h ere w h e re the e q u ip ­
m e n t is stored.
Extrem es of relative h u m id ity are a serio u s threat to
all p h oto g rap h ic m aterials, even at m o de rate tem peratures.
A t h ig h te m p e ra tu re s , th e effects of h ig h h u m id ity a re
greatly accelerated, p a rticu la rly if the relative h u m id ity
rem ain s above 60 percent. E xtrem ely low relative h u m i d ­
ity, on the o th e r h a n d , is n o t q u ite so serious, b u t if it falls
below 15 p erc en t for a co n siderable time, as is c o m m o n in
desert regions, an electric h u m id ifier s h o u ld b e installed
an d set to m a in ta in a relative h u m id ity of 40 to 50 p ercent
in the storage area.

Storage of Photographic Materials

Sensitized p h otographic m aterials are perishable p ro d ­
ucts w h e n stored u n d e r ex trem e co n ditio ns of h ig h tem ­
p e ra tu re s a n d h ig h relativ e h u m id ity . P ro p e r sto ra g e is
therefore im p o rtan t at all times. Fortunately, a d eq u ate p ro ­
tection of sensitized m aterials can be acco m p lish ed a t rela­
tively low cost a n d w ith o u t extrem e m etho d s. L ig h tw eig ht
portab le refrigerators or oth e r cooling units are available
from ex p ed itio n o u tfitters a n d o th e r sim ila r e q u ip m e n t
suppliers. Desiccants are available in b u lk o r kit form for
re d u cin g the m o istu re co n ten t of the a tm o sp h e re w h e re
film is to be stored. F urther, p o rtab le electric d e h u m id ifi­
ers are also av ailab le to re d u c e the relativ e h u m id ity in
larger q u arters, such as w o rk room s, to aid in the com fort
of the occupants. A n d finally, the film p ac k ag in g red uces
the possibility of d a m a g e w h e n the m aterial is sto red u n ­
d e r re co m m e n d e d conditions. U sually, there will b e little
or no ad v erse effect to the film if it is sto re d a n d h a n d le d
as described below.
Black & w h ite films can be stored at n o rm a l ro o m tem ­
p e ra tu re s in an air-conditioned room . C olor film s sh o u ld

512
alw a y s be sto re d in a refrig erato r at 55° F (13°C) o r lower.
To av o id m o istu re co n d en sa tio n on the chilled surfaces of
the m aterial, take film cans o u t of the carto n s a n d allow
3 5m m rolls to w a rm u p from 3 h o u rs for a 20°F to 5 h o u rs
for a 75°F te m p e ra tu re rise a b o v e sto ra g e te m p e ra tu re .
16m m rolls take a b o u t '/3 those times.
W h e n the orig in al p a c k a g in g seal h as b een b roken,
films sh o u ld be exp o sed a n d p ro cessed as soon as possible.
Since the air in a refrig erato r is m oist, p artially u sed p ack ­
ages sh o u ld be re tu rn e d to the refrig erato r in a sealed c o n­
tainer co ntain in g a desiccant to ab so rb the m o istu re w ith in
the container.
In general, d o n o t keep m o re film th an necessary in
stock, p articu larly w h e n g o o d sto rage co n ditio ns a re not
available. P h o to g rap h ic m a terials can also be affected by
the chem ical activity of fu m es a n d gases. C o n seq u en tly ,
films s h o u ld n o t b e sto re d in new ly p ain te d ro o m s o r cabi­
nets. All films sh o u ld be processed as so o n as possible af­
ter ex p osure. If y o u are u n ab le to d o this for so m e reason,
enclose the films in a n airtig h t jar o r can to ge th er w ith a
d esiccant a n d place them in a refrigerator. E xposed films
can be k e p t for several d a y s in this way.

Preparation and Protection of

Equipment
To save tim e a n d a v o id d a m a g e , c am eras a n d o th e r
e q u ip m e n t sh o u ld be m a d e re ad y w ell in a d v an ce of d e ­
p artu re. It is w ell w o rth w h ile to h ave the e q u ip m e n t th o r­
o u g hly o v e rh a u le d a n d cleaned, preferably by the original
m a n u fac tu re r, w h o sh o u ld be ad v ised as to the type of cli­
m a te in w h ic h it will be used. C ases, pack ing m aterial, an d
m oisture-absorbing m aterial (desiccant) sh ou ld be obtained
for the e q u ip m e n t a n d supplies. Protection d u rin g tran s­
p o rtatio n an d sto rag e is readily obtain ed by the u se of h e r­
m etically sealed cans, m etal-foil bags, o r oth e r w a te r / v a -
p o r p ro o f containers, a n d a suitable desiccating agent. If the
containers h av e b een p ro p e rly sealed an d contain a n a d ­
eq u ate q u a n tity of desiccant, they will p ro tec t the contents
practically indefinitely. T h ere is, h o w ev er, o n e reservation
a n d caution: if p recision in s tru m e n ts th at requ ire lubrica­
tion w ith certain ty p e s o f light oils a re subjected to h igh
te m p e ratu res w h ile in su ch p acking, the oils m a y e v a p o ­
rate, leaving a g u m m y re sid u e o n the in stru m e n t bearings.
This situ atio n m a y p re v e n t p ro p e r e q u ip m e n t functioning

513
until the eq u ip m e n t can b e cleaned a n d re-lubricated p r o p ­
erly.
T he pro tectio n of e q u ip m e n t th at is in active u se re ­
quires a so m e w h a t different ap pro ach . T he relative h u m id ­
ity can be lo w ered in an e q u ip m e n t storag e cabinet th a t is
not u sed for film sto rag e by b u rn in g electric ligh t b u lb s or
o p era tin g an electric resistance h e atin g u n it co n tin u o u sly
in the lo w e r p a r t of th e c ab in e t. T h e n u m b e r o f la m p s
sh o u ld b e adjusted to keep the tem p erature ab o u t 10° above
the av erag e prev ailin g te m p e ra tu re. A ir spaces a n d sm all
holes sh o u ld be p ro v id e d at the top a n d b o tto m of the cabi­
net an d th rou g h the shelves to allow a slow ch an g e of air
to carry off m o istu re in tro d u ce d by the cam eras a n d e q u ip ­
m ent. T he positions of the holes sh o u ld be stag g e red o n the
d iffe re n t sh e lv e s in o r d e r to p ro d u c e a m o r e th o r o u g h
c h a n g e o f air. S in ce h ig h re la tiv e h u m i d it y fa v o rs the
g ro w th of fu n g u s o n lenses, filters, a n d o th e r surfaces, stor­
age in such a cabinet will h elp red u c e the fu n g u s g ro w th
a n d m a y p re v e n t it entirely.
Electric deh u m id ifiers are n o w a p p e a rin g in stores in
m a n y of th e la rg e r cities in tropical reg io ns. W ith th ese
units, w h ole room s a n d their contents can b e dehu m id ified,
p ro v id e d they can be closed to o u tsid e air p en etratio n . In
d eh u m id ified room s, the h u m id ity will n o t increase r a p ­
idly d u rin g sh o rt p o w e r failures, as it w o u ld in h e ate d clos­
ets or cabinets. In a sm all, tightly sealed ro o m , a n av erag e
u n it in o p eratio n for 12 h o u rs o u t of 24 c an k ee p the rela­
tive h u m id ity belo w 60%. T his sh o u ld b e checked a b o u t
once a m o n th w ith a n R H m e te r o r slin g p sy c h ro m e ter.
W h en it is n o t practical to use a h o t cabin et or electric d e ­
h um idifier, e q u ip m e n t sh o u ld be sto re d in an airtig h t case
containing plenty of desiccant. T w o cans of silica gel the size
of shoe-polish cans will d o a very good job of d ry in g e q u ip ­
m e n t in a sealed ten-gallon p ain t can (one w ith a gasket an d
a " p o u n d sh u t" lid).
A half-po u n d b ag of silica gel w o rk s w ell in a gasketed
55-gallon "o p e n top" d r u m that c an be sealed w ith a cover.
H o w e v er, w h e re sh ip m e n t a n d h a n d lin g are in v o lv ed or
w h e re the containers are to be o p e n e d briefly a few times,
d o u b le or even triple the q u a n tity of gel will p ro v id e a re­
serv e of protection. P ro p erly d e h y d ra te d con tain ers will
m o m e n ta rily feel cool to a n in serted h a n d d u e to ra p id
e v a p o ratio n of the n o rm a l skin m oisture. T he sen satio n is
brief, b u t can be easily d etected if on e is lo o kin g for it. Its

514
absence m e an s the silica gel n ee d s re p lac em en t o r re g e n ­
eration.
If n o n e of these m e th o d s are practical, a n d the eq u ip ­
m e n t m u s t of necessity b e left in an a tm o sp h e re of h ig h
relative h u m id ity , the e q u ip m e n t sh o u ld b e o p en e d an d
e xp o sed to the s u n a t fre q u e n t intervals in o rd e r to d rive
o u t m oisture. The exposures, how ever, sh ould be k ep t short
in o rd e r to av o id o v erheatin g . C a m e ra s loa d ed w ith film
sh o u ld n o t be ex p o sed to the su n an y m o re than necessary.
C a m e ra s sh o u ld alw a y s be pro tec te d from excessive
heat because m a n y of th e lenses u se d on cam eras are c o m ­
p o se d of several e lem en ts of glass cem en te d together. Be­
cause so m e cem ents m elt at 140°F (60°C) an d begin to soften
a t 120° F (49°C), it is o b v iou s th a t the lens e lem ents m ig h t
becom e se p arated or air bubbles m ig h t form if the lens w ere
h e a te d to s u c h te m p e r a t u r e s . C a m e r a s s h o u l d n o t be
h a n d le d ro u g h ly or subjected to s u d d e n jarring w h e n used
a t h ig h te m p e r a t u r e s b e c a u s e a n y s lig h t sh o c k m ig h t
c hang e the po sitio n of the lens co m p on en ts.

Maintenance of Equipment
O n e of th e b e st pro tectiv e m e asu re s tha t can b e s u p ­
plied in the tropics is to th o ro u g h ly clean ev ery piece of
p h o to g ra p h ic e q u ip m e n t at freq u en t intervals a n d expose
it to air a n d s u n w h e n e v e r practical. T his is p a rticu la rly
im p o rta n t for re tard in g th e corrosion of m etal surfaces an d
th e g r o w th o f fu n g u s o r m o ld o n le n s su rfac es a n d on
leather coverings. Lens cleaning fluids an d p a p e rs n o w on
the m a rk e t are re c o m m e n d e d for cleaning lenses. D uring
the tropical d ry seaso n, o r in a n y d e se rt areas, an y d u s t
sh o u ld be rem o v ed from the lens surfaces w ith a sable or
cam el h a ir b ru s h before the lens tissue is u se d , to avoid
scratches. Lens cleaning tissues containing silicones sh ou ld
not be u sed for coated lenses. T hey leave a n oily film that
changes the color characteristics of the coating a n d reduces
its anti-reflection p rop erties. This film is alm o st im possible
to rem ov e. L eath er co v erin g s a n d cases can b est be k ept
clean by w ip in g them often a n d th o ro u g h ly w ith a clean,
d ry cloth. F re q u e n t cleaning a n d po lish in g will m in im ize
corrosion on ex p o sed m etal parts.

Black & White Film

T he ex p o su re of black & w h ite film in tropical areas is
s tro n g ly in f lu e n c e d by th e illu m in a tio n in th e su b je ct
sh a d o w areas. T h e m o istu re a n d d u s t co n ten t of the a tm o ­
515
sphere are im p o rtan t because sh ad o w s are illum inated only
by light scattered by particles s u s p e n d e d in the air, except
w h e re s u p p le m e n ta ry lighting o r reflectors are used. Thus,
w h ere the a tm o sp h e re is v ery d ry an d clear, objects th a t d o
not receive the direct light of the s u n a p p e ar, b oth to the
eye an d to the cam era lens, to be in d e e p e r-th a n -n o rm a l
sh ad o w . In regions like the so u th w e s te rn U n ite d States or
central Mexico, for exam ple, the b rig h tn ess ra n g e of a v e r­
age o u td o o r subjects is m u c h g re ate r tha n it is in less clear
climates. In p h o to g ra p h in g people, this effect a n d the h ig h
position of the su n com bine to p u t the eyes in d ee p sh a d o w
an d even som etim es give the effect of backlighting. T h ere­
fore, it is best to a v oid taking p ictures, particularly close-
u p s of people, w h e n the su n is ov erh ead ; if y o u m u s t take
close-ups of people, use reflectors or booster lights to soften
the sh ado w s.
E xposure m eters sh o u ld alw ays be u sed w ith a reason ­
able a m o u n t of ju d g m e n t a n d experience, a n d this is e sp e ­
cially true in locations w ith such u n u s u a l atm o sp h e ric a n d
lighting conditions. In th e ju ng le areas of S o uth a n d C e n ­
tral A m erica, th e local farm ers often clear a n d b u m large
q u antities of trees a n d b ru s h d u rin g the d ry season. The
sm oke, co m p o sed of solid particles, h a n g s in the lo w er at­
m o s p h e re a n d is n o t easily p e n e tra te d e v e n w ith filters.
Also, at the h eig h t of the w e t seaso n in m a n y localities, the
w a te r h a z e b eco m es a lm o st as im p e n e tra b le as a h e a v y
cloud. D istance p h o to g ra p h y is b est d o n e a few w ee k s af­
ter the close of the w et seaso n a n d before b u rn in g begins,
o r a few w eek s after the first rains of the w et seaso n h ave
settled the sm o k e particles a n d before the o n se t of the w et
season haze.
If e x te n s iv e p h o t o g r a p h i c w o r k in th e tr o p ic s is
p la n ned, the d ev elo p m e n t of a few test expo sures m a y p re ­
v en t m ajor failures. It is u sually sufficient to d eterm in e a
basic ex p o su re w hich can then be m o d ifie d to su it o th e r
film s o r c on d itio n s. A llo w a n ce s h o u ld also be m a d e for
different types of subjects. Beach scenes, for exam p le, gen ­
erally req uire ab o u t o n e sto p less ex p o su re th a n a n av er­
age subject.

Color Film
In general, the ex p o su re of color films sh o u ld follow
the sam e basic re co m m e n d atio n s given for tem p erate zone
ex p osure, w ith d u e reg a rd to lighting a n d scene classifica­
tion. T here are, h o w ev er, so m e differences in the lighting

516
 co n d itio n s a n d scene characteristics in th e tropics w hich
justify special considerations.
1. D u rin g the ra in y season, a light h az e is generally
p re s e n t in the atm o sp h ere. W h e n this h aze is presen t, the
disk of the su n is clearly discernible an d fairly distinct s h a d ­
o w s are cast. U n d e r these conditions, the e x p o su re sh o u ld
be in creased b y ab o u t one-half sto p o ver th at re q u ired for
b rig h t sunlight.
2. F re q u e n tly th e b r ig h tn e s s of b e a c h a n d m a rin e
scenes is app reciably greater th a n tha t e n c o u n te re d in tem ­
perate zones. W ith such scenes the cam era exp o su re sh o uld
be d ecreased on e full sto p from that req u ired for average
subjects. It sh o u ld b e re m e m b e re d that the term "av erag e
■ subject" a s u sed in e x p o su re tables a p p lies to a subject or
scene in w h ich light, m e d iu m a n d d a rk areas are rou g h ly
equal in p ro p ortio n . It sho u ld n o t be tak en to m e an "u su al"
for a p a rtic u la r location o r area. For instan ce, the u su a l
d esert scene is a "lig h t subject" ra th e r th an "av erag e su b ­
ject," a n d sh o u ld b e e x p o se d as such.
3. W h e n the su n is h ig h o v erh e ad , h ea v y sh a d o w s are
cast across vertical surfaces, very m u c h like those occurring
in sid e-lighted subjects. Therefore, the ex p o su re sh o u ld be
increased one-half-stop m o re than n o rm al, just as is recom ­
m e n d e d for sid e-lig h te d scenes. For close-ups h a v in g im ­
p o rta n t s h a d o w areas, a full-stop increase in ex p o su re is
need ed .
4. M a n y objects in the tropics, n o t only p a in te d b u ild ­
ings an d light colored fabrics, b u t e v en the leaves of m an y
p lan ts a n d trees, h a v e a h ig h reflectance for direct lighting.
C o n seq u en tly , w ith front to p o r back lig hting they sh o u ld
be co n sid e red av erag e subjects.
5. V ery often the colors of n e arb y objects will b e af­
fected by the g reen light reflected from n e arb y b rig h t green
foliage. Sim ilarly, in c o u rty a rd s o r n a rro w streets, the side
that is in the sh a d e gets m u c h of its illu m in atio n from the
o p po site su n lit w all, w h ic h m a y be strongly colored. T here
is little th a t can be d o n e to correct for this situation, b u t it
s h o u ld be reco g n ized as a p ossible cau se of p o o r resu lts in
color pictures.

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 Day-for-Night Cinematography
The sp eed of m o d e rn color films m a kes it possible to
sh o o t n ig h t-fo r-n ig h t scenes. H o w e v e r, th e re a re n ig h t
scen es th at are im p rac tica l to illu m in a te artificially a n d
actually film at night. S hooting su ch scenes day-fo r-n igh t
elim inates the ad d itio n a l p ro b lem s a n d ex p en se of n ig h t
sh oo tin g a n d can deliver excellent pictorial results.
Techniques for film ing d ay-for-night scenes in color or
black & w hite vary greatly becau se of the m a n y factors in­
volved. C in em ato g rap h ers naturally differ in their interpre­
tation of w h a t co nstitutes a n ig h t effect. T he overall effect
m u s t be one of d ark n ess. Processing laboratories differ in
their n eg ativ e preferences, a lth o u g h m o st prefer sufficient
density o n the original n egative since it is alw a y s possible
to "p rin t d o w n " for a d a rk e r effect, b u t im possible to o b ­
tain a rich, full-bodied p rin t from a thin, sh ad o w le ss origi­
nal negative (if black sh a d o w s are d esired , the scene m u s t
p rin t at center scale o r higher).
C hoice of filters a n d d e g re e of u n d e re x p o s u re will
vary according to sky conditions, color an d con trast of su b ­
ject a n d b ac k g ro u n d , the streng th, quality a n d direction of
sunlight, a n d the p articu lar effect desired. V ery generally
speaking, the m o st convincing day-for-night shots, in either
color o r black & w h ite, are m a d e in stro n g sunlight, u n d e r
b lue skies a n d w ith low -angle back-cross lighting.
D ire c t b a c k lig h tin g re s u lts in a " r im -lig h t" effect
w hich, altho u gh pleasing in a long shot, lacks the necessary
th ree-dim ensional, half-illum inated facial effects requ ired
in m e d iu m a n d close shots. F ro n t lighting will flatten a n d
destroy all sh a d o w s. Side an d front-cross lighting is p e r­
m issible b u t n o t as effective as back -cro ss illu m in atio n .
Since p ro d u c tio n d o e s not a lw ay s p e rm it sh o o tin g w h e n
co n ditio ns arc exactly right, a n d since day -fo r-nig h t shots
m u s t so m etim es be m a d e all d a y long, often the choice of
su n angle m u s t be co m p ro m ised . U n d e r these conditions,
avoid front lighting as m u c h as possible an d stay w ith any
su n an gle that results in p artial illu m in atio n , preferably
w ith sh a d o w s tow ard the cam era.
Skies give the m o st trouble, since they will invariably
read too h ig h a n d a re d ifficu lt to b a la n c e a g a in s t fore­
g ro u n d action. G ra d u a te d n e u tra l d en sity filters, w h ich
c o v er th e sky a re a o n ly , a n d P ola S creen s, w h ic h will
d a rk e n the sky w ith the su n at certain angles, are b o th u se ­
ful for either color o r black & w h ite films because they d o
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n o t affect color valu es a n d can be u sed in com bination w ith
o th e r effect filters.
N e u tra l-d e n s ity filters will tone d o w n a " h o t" sky,
e ven if it is b a ld w hite. A partial o r g ra d u a te d n e u tral-d e n ­
sity filter cov erin g o n ly the sky will therefore b e very u se­
ful for bring ing the sky into e xp o sure balance w ith the fore­
g ro u n d . C are m u s t b e taken, h o w e v e r, th at action d o es not
cross th e d e m arca tio n line b e tw e e n the filter m aterial an d
the clear glass area. Pola Screens are m o st useful w h e n the
s u n is directly o v e rh e a d a t rig h t angles to the cam era.
A Pola Screen sh o u ld n o t be e m p lo y e d if the cam era
m u s t b e p a n n e d th ro u g h a w id e arc, since th e p o la rization
w ill v a ry a n d th e sk y tone w ill c h a n g e in d e n sity as the
cam era revolves. Typical u n d e re x p o s u re is l'A to 21/2 stops,
rarely m ore. Brilliant s u n lig h t will re q u ire greater u n d e r ­
e x p o s u r e , g r a y d a y s less. T h e u n d e r e x p o s u r e ca n b e
h a n d le d in several w ays. O n e is by ig n orin g th e filter ex­
p o su re increase req u ired , if it is close to the a m o u n t of u n ­
d e r e x p o s u r e d e sire d . For in sta n ce , the filter b e in g e m ­
p lo y e d m a y req u ire tw o sto p s increase in ex p o su re for a
n o rm a l effect. TTie increase is ig n o re d a n d th e d ia p h ra g m
set for the ex p o su re w ith o u t th e filter, thu s d eliv erin g the
necessary u n d e re x p o s u re for the n ig h t effect. O r, a n eutral
density o f the d esired stre n g th is em p lo y e d a n d its ex p o ­
su re increase ignored.
P ro ceed as follows: insert the effect filter, o r co m b in a­
tion of filters for the d e sire d effect, a n d allow for their ex­
p o su re increase as in n o rm a l filming. A d d th e d esire d n e u ­
tral (a .30 for o n e stop, .50 for a sto p a n d on e-half or a .60
for tw o stops). Ig n o rin g th e n e u tra l filter's e x p o su re in ­
crease will au tom atically u n d e re x p o se the negativ e b y the
necessary a m o u n t. T his is a quick an d effective m e th o d in
fast p ro d u c tio n sh o o tin g w h e re n ig h t effects are su d d e n ly
req u ired a n d little o r n o tim e is available for com putations.
If the sky is n o t sufficiently blu e to filter p ro p e rly , a n d
if it is im p o ssib le to u se a g ra d u a te d n eu tral-d e n sity filter,
try to avoid the sky as m u c h as possible b y sh ooting against
b u ild in g s o r fo liag e, o r c h o o se a h ig h a n g le a n d s h o o t
d o w n w a rd .
T he co ntrast b e tw ee n the p la yers a n d the b a ck g ro u n d
is v e ry im p o rta n t since a definite sep a ra tio n is desirable.
D ark clothing, for instance, will m e rg e w ith a d a rk b ack ­
g ro u n d a n d the p la yer will be lost. It is better to leave a dark
b a c k g ro u n d a n d p la y e rs in lighter, a lth o u g h n o t n ecessar­
ily w h ite , c lo th in g th a n to h a v e a lig ht b a c k g ro u n d a n d

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players in d a rk clothing. T he latter co m bin atio n will result
in a silhouette, rather than a n ig h t effect. T his is the reason
th a t b ack -cross lig h tin g is p re fe ra b le , so th a t the b a c k ­
g ro u n d is n o t illu m inated a n d the p la y e rs h av e a definite
separation th ro u g h ed ge lighting, w hich also im p arts sh im ­
m ering highlights.

Black & White Film

The illusion of n ig h t in black & w h ite cin em ato grap hy
is o bta in ed by co m b in in g co n trast filtering w ith u n d e re x ­
posure. Since the sky is light by d ay a n d d a rk by n ight, it
is the p rincipal area of the scene re q u irin g correction. A ny
of the y e llo w -o ra n g e o r red filters m a y b e used . A v ery
p o p u la r co m b inatio n is the light red W ratten 23A p lu s the
green 56. This co m bin atio n d o es e v ery th in g the red filters
accom plish — p lu s it d a rk e n s flesh tones, w h ich are re n ­
d e re d too light by the red filters alone. W h e n c o m b in ing
filters, rem e m b er tha t red filters a d d co n trast b u t g ree n fil­
ters flatten; if a greater flattening effect is d esire d , a d d a
heavier green filter. Since flesh to n es are n o t im p o rta n t in
long shots, they are so m etim es filmed w ith h eav ier red fil­
ters, a n d only the m e d iu m a n d close sh o ts are m a d e w ith
the com bination red-green filters. C are m u s t be taken, h o w ­
ever, that clothing a n d b a c k g ro u n d colors d o n o t p h o to ­
g rap h differently w h e n filters are sw itch ed in the sa m e se­
quence. If in d o u b t, sh o o t tests before p ro d u ctio n film ing
beg in s. R e m e m b e r th a t o n ly a b lu e sk y c a n be filtered
dow n. N o a m o u n t of color filtering will d a rk e n a bald w hite
sky. U se g ra d u a te d n eu tral densities, o r avoid th e sky u n ­
d e r these ad v erse conditions. T he 23A-56 co m b in a tio n is
usually e m p lo y ed w ith a filter factor of 6, rath e r th an the
20 n o rm ally req uired (5 for the 23A a n d 4 for the 56, w hich
m ultiplied eq uals 20). T he factor of 6 au tom atically u n d e r­
exposes this filter com bination ap proxim ately 1 'A sto ps an d
achieves the desired effect w ith o u t fu rth e r c o m p u ta tio n . If
a red filter is used alone, b ear in m in d that it will lighten
faces, a n d u se a d a r k e r m a k e u p ( a p p r o x im a te l y tw o
shades) on close shots.

Reversal Color Film

Typical b lu e n ig h t effects can be o b ta in e d w ith rev er­
sal color films balan ced for ex p o su re w ith tu n g sten light
by rem o v in g the W ratten 85 filter a n d u n d e r ex p o sing l'/i
stops. If the b lu ish effect is too great, a n u ltraviolet-absorb­

520
ing filter can be used to filter o u t tine excess ultraviolet. Flesh
to n es in clo seup s can b e ad ju sted by using g old reflectors
o r 3200°K fill lights to light actors faces. C are m u s t b e taken
tha t the actors a re n o t over-lit o r that su ch lights a p p e a r as
a m b ie n t light w ith the su n acting as a m o o n lig h t key.

Negative Color Film

A c in e m a to g ra p h e r sh ooting d ay-for-night w ith n eg a­
tive color film sh o u ld check w ith the processing laboratory
b e fo re th e p r o d u c t io n b e g in s. L a b o ra to rie s h a v e a far
greater ran g e of color correction available than the cin em a­
to g ra p h e r h as at h is d isp osal d u rin g the original p h o to g ­
rap hy . They m a y a d d or su b tract any color, o r com bination
of colors, p ro v id e d the original negativ e h as sufficient ex­
posure. O n ce the 85 filter is rem o v e d , h o w ev e r, it is often
im possible to restore n o rm al color balance to the film.
If the 85 filter is re m o v ed , it sh o u ld be replaced w ith
an ultraviolet filter, w hich will prev e n t o v erex po su re of the
blue sensitive layer a n d k eep the n eg ative w ith in p rin tin g
range. W a rm e r effects m a y be o btain ed b y su b stitu tin g a
light yellow fil ter for the 85. A Pola Screen m a y also be used
to d a rk e n a b lu e sky a n d p ro v id e the req u ire d u n d e re x p o ­
su re (by ig no rin g its filter factor). It will h a v e n o effect o n a
b ald sky, b u t it will act as a n eu tra l-d en sity filter a n d p r o ­
v id e the n e e d e d u n d e re x p o s u re . R e m em b e r th a t a p p ro x i­
m ately 2/i-sto p ex p o su re is g ain ed by re m o v in g the 85 fil­
ter. T his m u s t be in c lu d ed in e x p o su re calculations.

Infrared Cinematography
Because cinem ato graph y by infrared light h as had lim ­
ited pictorial use, this will b e a brief review . For m o re in­
fo r m a tio n , re fe r to K o d a k p u b li c a t io n s n u m b e r N -17
"K odak Infrared F ilm s" a n d M-28 "A p p lie d Infrared P h o ­
to g rap hy ." In frared for p h o to g ra p h ic p u rp o s e s is d efin ed
as th a t p a r t of the sp ec tru m , a p p ro x im a tely 700 to 900 n a ­
nom eters, w hich is b e y o n d the visible red, b u t n o t as far as
w o u ld be sensed b y h u m a n s as heat.
All infrared films a re sensitive to h e at a n d sh o u ld be
k ep t refrig erated before ex p o su re an d d u rin g an y h o ld in g
time before processing. W hile no lo n g e r listed as a re g u lar
catalogue item , E astm an K o dak still m a n u factu res a B & W

521
in frared sensitive film, K o d ak H ig h -S p eed In frared Film
2 4 81, a n d a m o d i f i e d c o l o r s e n s i t i v e film , K o d a k
E ktach ro m e Infrared Film 2236. Both of these film s are o n
Estar base. Before d e cid in g to u se eith er film in a p ro d u c ­
tion the m a n u fa c tu re r s h o u ld b e co n tac te d re g a rd in g its
availability, m in im u m o rd e r q u an tities a n d d elay in d eliv ­
ery.

Black & White Films

For pictorial p u rp o ses, the greatest use of infrared sen ­
sitive film for m o tio n -p ic tu re p h o to g r a p h y h a s b e e n for
"d ay -for-n ig h t" effects. Foliage a n d grass reflect in frared
an d record as w h ite on B & W film. Painted m aterials w hich
visually m a tch in color b u t d o n o t h av e a h ig h in fra red re­
flectance will a p p e a r dark. Skies are ren d e re d alm o st black,
clou d s a n d sn o w are w h ite, s h a d o w s are d a rk , b u t often
sh o w considerable detail. Faces require special m a k e u p an d
clothing can only b e ju d g e d b y testing.
A su g g ested El for testing p rio r to p ro d u c tio n is d a y ­
light El 50, tu n g sten El 125 w ith a W ra tte n 2 5,29 ,70 , o r 89
filter, o r d ay lig h t El 25, tu n g sten El 64 w ith 87 or 88A (vi­
sually o p aq u e) filter. In frared light com es to a focus farther
fro m th e lens than do es v isu al light. A n a v erag e correction
for m o s t le n se s is 0.25 % o f the focal le n g th of th e lens
.0125mm (.005 inches) for a 5 0 m m lens.

Color
N o h u m a n can see infrared; color film can only record
a n d interpret it. K o d ak E ktachrom e Infrared Film 2236 w as
originally d ev ised for cam ou flag e detection. Its three im ­
age layers are sensitized to green, red , a n d in frared instead
of blue, g reen a n d red. L ater app licatio n s w e re fo u n d in
m e dicine, ecology, p la n t p a th o lo g y , h y d ro lo g y , g eo logy
a n d archeology. Its only pictorial u se h a s b e e n to p ro d u c e
w eird color effects.
In use, all b lue light is filtered o u t w ith a W ratten 12
fil ter; visible green records as blue, visible red as green, a n d
in frared as red. The blue, being filtered ou t, is black o n the
reversal color film. Because visible yellow light is u se d as
well as infrared, focus is n orm al, an d the use of a light m eter
is n o rm al for this p a r t of the sp ectru m . W h a t h a p p e n s to
the in frared reflected light is n o t m e a su ra b le b y co n v e n ­
tional m e th o d s, so testing is advisable. A su g g e sted El for

522
testing p rio r to p ro d u c tio n is dayligh t El 100 w ith a W ratten
12 filter.

Ultraviolet Photography
T h e re a re tw o d istin ctly d iffe re n t te c h n iq u e s for ta k ­
in g p h o to g r a p h s u s in g u ltra v io le t ra d ia tio n , a n d since
they are o ften co n fu se d w ith each o th e r, b o th will be d e ­
scribed.
In th e first te c h n iq u e , c a lle d re f le c te d -u ltra v io le t
p h o to g r a p h y , the p h o to g r a p h is m a d e by invisible u ltra ­
v iolet ra d ia tio n reflected from a n object. T his m e th o d is
sim ila r to c o n v e n tio n a l p h o to g r a p h y in w h ic h y o u p h o ­
to g ra p h lig h t reflected from the subject. To take p ic tu re s
by reflected u ltrav io let, m o s t co n v e n tio n a l film s can be
u sed , b u t the ca m e ra lens m u s t be c o v e re d w ith a filter,
su ch a s the W ra tte n 18A, th a t tra n sm its th e invisible u l­
traviolet a n d allo w s no visible lig h t to rea ch the film. This
is tru e u ltra v io le t p h o to g r a p h y ; it is u se d p rin c ip a lly to
sh o w d e ta ils o th e rw ise invisible in scientific a n d te c h n i­
cal p h o to g r a p h y . R e flec ted -u ltrav io let p h o to g r a p h y h as
a lm o st n o ap p lic a tio n for m o tio n p ic tu re p u rp o s e s; if y o u
h a v e q u e s tio n s a b o u t reflected u ltra v io le t p h o to g r a p h y
in fo rm a tio n is g iv e n in the b o o k "U ltra v io le t a n d F lu o ­
rescence P h o to g r a p h y ," a v a ilab le from E a stm a n K o d a k
Co.
T he sec o n d te c h n iq u e is k n o w n a s fluorescence, or
b la ck -lig h t, p h o to g r a p h y . In m o tio n - p ic tu re p h o to g r a ­
p h y , it is u s e d p rin c ip a lly for its v isu a l effects. C e rta in
objects, w h e n su b je cted to in v isib le u ltra v io le t light, will
g ive off visible ra d ia tio n called flu orescen ce, w h ic h can
be p h o to g r a p h e d w ith c o n v e n tio n a l film. S o m e objects
flu o resce p a rtic u la rly w ell a n d a re d e s c r ib e d a s b e in g
fluorescent. T h ey c an be o b ta in e d in v a rio u s fo rm s such
as inks, p a in ts, c ra y o n s, p a p e rs , cloth, a n d so m e rocks.
Some plastic item s, bright-colored articles of clothing, an d
cosm etics a re also typ ical objects th a t m a y fluoresce. For
o b je cts th a t d o n 't flu o re sc e , flu o re s c e n t p a i n ts (oil o r
w a te r base), ch alk s o r c ra y o n s c an b e a d d e d . T h ese m a ­
terials are sold by a r t s u p p ly sto res, craft sh o p s, d e p a r t­
m e n t sto res, a n d h a r d w a r e stores. M an y of th e se item s
can also be o b ta in e d from W ild fire, Inc., 10853 V enice

523
Blvd., Los A n g eles, C a lifo rn ia , 90034, w h ic h m a n u fa c ­
tu res th em specially for the m o tio n -p ic tu re in d u s try .
F luorescence m a y ra n g e from v iolet to red , d e p e n d ­
ing on the m a teria l a n d the film used. In a d d itio n to the
fluorescence, the object reflects u ltra v io le t light, w h ic h is
stro n g e r p h o to g ra p h ic a lly . M o st film h a s c o n sid e ra b le
sen sitiv ity to u ltrav io let, w h ic h w o u ld o v e re x p o s e a n d
w a sh o u t the im age from the w e a k e r visible fluorescence.
T herefore, to p h o to g ra p h o nly the fluorescence, y o u m u s t
use a filter o v e r the ca m e ra lens (such as the W ra tte n 2B,
2E o r 3, o r e q u iv ale n t) to ab so rb the u ltravio let.
T h e w a v e le n g th s of u ltra v io le t lig h t ra n g e from
ab o u t 10 to 400 nan o m e ters. O f the gen erally useful ran g e
of u ltra v io le t ra d ia tio n , the m o s t c o m m o n is the lo n g -
w av elen g th 320 to 400nm range. Less c o m m o n is the sh o rt
to m e d iu m -w a v e le n g th ra n g e of 200 to 320nm . In flu o res­
cence p h o to g ra p h y y o u can u se long-, m e d iu m -, o r sh o rt­
w a v e ra d ia tio n to excite the visible flu orescence d e p e n d ­
ing o n the m aterial. S o m e m a terials will fluoresce in o n e
type of u ltra v io le t ra d ia tio n a n d n o t in a n o th er.
C e rta in p re c a u tio n s a re n ecessary w h e n y o u u se u l­
tra v io le t rad ia tio n . W arn in g : You m u s t u se a so u rc e of
sh o rt- o r m e d iu m - w a v e u ltra v io le t w ith c a u tio n bec au se
its ray s cau se su n b u r n a n d severe, p ain fu l injuries to eyes
n o t p ro te c te d by u ltra v io le t-a b so rb in g go ggles. R ead the
m a n u f a c t u r e r 's in s tr u c tio n s b e fo r e u s i n g u lt r a v i o le t
lam ps.
Eye p ro tec tio n is g en e rally n o t n ec essa ry w h e n y o u
use lo n g -w a v e u ltra v io le t b ec au se this ra d ia tio n is c o n ­
sid e re d h a rm less. H o w e v e r, it's b est n o t to lo o k d irectly
at th e rad ia tio n so urce for an y le n g th of tim e, b e ca u se the
fluids in y o u r eyes will fluoresce a n d c au se so m e d is c o m ­
fort. W e a rin g glass e y eg la sses will m in im iz e th e d is c o m ­
fort fro m lo n g -w a v e sources.
T h ere a re m a n y so u rc es of u ltra v io le t ra d ia tio n , b u t
n o t all of the m are su ita b le for fluorescence p h o to g ra p h y .
T he b est u ltrav iolet sou rces for the fluorescence technique
are m e rc u ry -v a p o r la m p s o r u ltrav io let flu orescent tubes.
If a n object flu o re sc e s u n d e r a c o n t in u o u s u ltr a v io le t
sou rce, y o u can see the flu o rescence w h ile y o u 'r e p h o to ­
g r a p h in g it.
Since the b rig h tn e s s of the flu o rescence is relatively
low , the u ltra v io le t s o u rc e m u s t b e p o sitio n e d as close as
p ractical to th e subject. T h e objective is to p ro d u c e the

524
m a x im u m flu o rescen ce w h ile p ro v id in g e v en illu m in a ­
tion o v e r th e area to b e p h o to g r a p h e d .
F lu o re sc e n t tu b e s d e s ig n e d especially to e m it lo n g ­
w a v e ultrav iolet are often called black-light tu b e s b ecause
they look black o r d a r k b lu e b efo re th e y 'r e lig h ted . T he
glass of th e tu b e s c o n ta in s filter m a teria l w h ic h is o p a q u e
to m o s t visible ligh t b u t freely tra n sm its lo n g w a v e le n g th
u ltrav io le t. T h ese tubes, id e n tifie d by th e lette rs BLB, are
so ld b y electrical s u p p ly sto res, h a r d w a r e sto re s a n d d e ­
p a r tm e n t stores. T hey are av ailable in le n g th s u p to 4 feet
a n d c a n be u se d in s ta n d a r d flu o resce n t fixtures to illu ­
m in a te larg e areas. A lu m in u m -fo il reflectors a re available
to reflect a n d c o n tro l the light.
M e r c u ry -v a p o r la m p s a re p a rtic u la rly su ita b le for
illu m in a tin g sm all a rea s w ith h ig h u ltrav io let b righ tn ess.
W h e n th e se la m p s are d e s ig n e d for u ltra v io le t w o rk they
u s u a lly in c lu d e special filters w h ic h tr a n s m it u ltra v io le t
a n d a b so rb m o s t of the visible light. M e rc u ry v a p o r u l­
trav iolet la m p s are av ailab le in tw o types, lo n g -w a v e an d
sh o rt-w av e. S o m e la m p s in c lu d e bo th w a v e le n g th s in the
sa m e u n it so th a t they can be u se d e ith e r se p a ra te ly or
to g eth er. If y o u u se a lig h t so u rc e th a t d o e s n o t h a v e a
b u ilt-in u ltra v io le t filter, y o u m u s t p u t su ch a filter ov e r
the ligh t source. The filter for the ra d ia tio n so u rce is called
the ex citer filter.
Y ou can u se a K o d a k W ra tte n U ltrav io le t Filter, No.
I8 A , or C o rn in g G lass N o. 5840 (Filter No. CS7-60) or No.
9863 (Filter N o . CS7-54) for this p u rp o s e . T h e K o d a k Fil­
ter, N o. 18A, is a v a ila b le in 2 -a n d 3-in ch g la ss s q u a re s
from p h o to dealers. T h e d e a le r m a y h a v e to o rd e r the fil­
ter for y o u . T h e C o rn in g G lass is av ailab le in la rg e r sizes
from C o rn in g G lass W o rk s, O p tic al P h o to P ro d u c ts D e ­
p a rtm e n t, C o rn in g , N e w Y ork 14830. T h e filter y o u u se
m u s t be la rg e e n o u g h to co m p le tely co v er the fro n t of the
lam p. T h e scen e is p h o to g r a p h e d o n a d a r k set w ith o nly
the u ltrav io let so u rce illu m in a tin g the subject. In o rd e r for
th e film to re c o r d o n ly th e flu o re sc e n c e , u se a K o d a k
W ra tte n g e latin filter, N o . 2A o r 2B, o r a n e q u iv a le n t fil­
ter, o v e r th e c am e ra lens to a b so rb th e u ltrav iolet. W h e n
u s e d fo r this p u rp o s e , the filters are called b a rrie r filters.
Since the fluorescence im ag e is visible n o fo cusing correc­
tions a re n ec essa ry . F o cu s the c am e ra the sa m e as for a
c o n v e n tio n a l subject.

525
Determining Exposure
M an y e x p o su re m e te rs are n o t se n sitiv e e n o u g h to
d e te rm in e e x p o s u re for th e fluorescence. A n e x tre m e ly
sensitive e x p o su re m eter sh o u ld in dicate p ro p e r e x p o su re
of objects w hich fluoresce b rig h tly u n d e r intense u ltra v io ­
let if y o u m a k e the m e te r re a d in g w ith a N o. 2A o r 2B fil­
ter o v e r the m e te r cell. If y o u r ex p o s u re m e te r is n o t se n ­
sitive e n o u g h to resp o n d to the relative brig h tn ess of fluo­
rescence, the m o st practical m e th o d of d e te rm in in g ex p o ­
su re is to m a k e ex p o su re tests u sin g the sa m e type of film,
filters, a n d s e tu p y o u p la n to u se for y o u r fluorescence
p h o to g ra p h y .

Films
W hile e ith e r black & w h ite o r colo r ca m era films can
be u se d for flu o re sc e n c e p h o to g r a p h y , co lo r film p r o ­
d u c e s the m o s t d ra m a tic results. T h e d a y lig h t b a la n ce d
films will a ccentu ate the red s an d y ello w s w h ile the tu n g ­
ste n -b alan ce d film s will a cc e n tu a te the blues. Since flu o ­
rescence p ro d u c e s a relativ ely lo w lig h t level for p h o to g ­
ra p h y , a h ig h -s p e e d film su c h as A gfa XT320, E a stm a n
EXR 500T (5296), E a stm a n HS Day (5297), Fujicolor F 250
D (8560) o r Fujicolor F 500 (8570) is re c o m m e n d e d .

Special Considerations
Som e lenses a n d filters will also fluoresce u n d e r u l­
traviolet rad iatio n . H o ld the lens o r filter close to the u l­
traviolet lam p to look for fluorescence. Fluorescence of the
lens o r filter will c au se a g en eral veilin g o r fog in y o u r
p ictures. In sev ere cases, the fog c o m p lete ly o b sc u re s the
im age. If a lens o r filter fluoresces, y o u can still u se it for
flu o rescence p h o to g r a p h y if y o u p u t the re c o m m e n d e d
u ltra v io le t-a b so rb in g filter o v e r the c a m e ra lens o r the
filter th a t fluoresces. It also h elp s to p o sitio n the u ltra v io ­
let la m p o r use a m a tte box to p re v e n t the u ltra v io le t ra ­
d ia tio n from strik in g the lens o r filter.

526
 Shooting 16mm Color Negative
for Blowup to 35mm
b y Irw in W . Y ou n g
C h a irm a n of the B oard, D u A rt Film L aboratories Inc.

Note: Shooting 16mm for blowup to 35mm requires prepa­

ration and planning. Cameras, lenses and magazines should be
thoroughly checked and tested. When shooting 16mm for blowup
to 35mm, preparation is more critical than if shooting 16mm for
16mm prints.
T he difference in p ic tu re q u a lity b e tw e e n 3 5 m m films
sh o t in 16m m n eg a tiv e a n d those sh o t in 3 5 m m n eg ativ e is
d u e prim arily to differences in graininess. The 16m m frame,
b lo w n u p to 35 m m , is e n larg ed ap p ro x im ate ly 3 to 4 tim es
its original size, g reatly ex ag g eratin g g ra in size. To m a in ­
ta in th e fin est g ra in s tr u c tu r e in 1 6 m m colo r n eg a tiv e,
p ro p e r ex p o su re a n d n o rm a l pro cessin g is m a n d a to ry to
in su re m a x im u m la titu d e an d d etail w ith m in im u m grain
in the s h a d o w area of the b lo w u p . W h e n in d o u b t, if light
is available, it is ad v isab le to le an to overex p osu re. In fact,
co ntrary to w h a t occurs in black & w h ite neg ativ e, w h ere
d en sity is created b y a b u ild u p of grain, color n eg ativ e h as
less g rain in areas of h ig h e r density. A n o ve re x p o sed color
n egative of u p to o n e stop w o u ld tend to p ro d u c e a b lo w u p
w ith the least a m o u n t of grain.
F lashing a n d to n in g s h o u ld be av o id ed . T hese pro ce­
d u re s increase grain, especially in the areas of n o exposure.
A n u n d e re x p o s e d n eg ativ e sh o w s m o re g ra in th a n a p ro p ­
erly e x p osed negative. This g rain is m o st a p p a re n t in w eak
s h a d o w areas. Force p ro cessing increases grain iness to the
extent of th e forcing. 16m m color negative h as considerable
la titu d e a n d it is re c o m m e n d e d tha t scenes th a t are u n d e r­
exp o sed u p to o n e sto p b e p ro cessed norm ally. This u n d e r­
ex p o su re h a s a lesser effect o n the g rain size in the n e g a­
tive th a n force processing. T here are a n u m b e r of p sy ch o ­
logical factors w h ich affect the v iew er's aw aren ess of grain.
W h en th e pic tu re is n o t sh arp , the eye, stru g g lin g to focus
die im age, tends to focus on the grain, m a k in g it m u ch more
ap p a ren t.
D efinition is also a function of contrast. L ow -contrast
p ic tures ten d to be less sh a rp a n d , therefore, a p p e a r m o re
grainy. H ig h co n tra st lim its the d etail in the h igh lig h ts a n d
sh ad o w s. If possible, it is ad v isab le to h a v e a black refer­

527
ence and a whi te reference in a scene. These reference points
can be quite small. The eye, looking at a picture, searches
for these reference points and, if there are none, tends to
focus on the grain.
Special effects which require the blow up negative to
be more than one generation away from the 16mm origi­
nal should be avoided. The build-up in grain and loss in
picture quality d ue to this additional generation is gener­
ally undesirable.

Composing 16mm for blowup to

35mm
The aspect ratio of a picture frame is the relationship
between its w idth and height. The ratio of the standard
16mm and 35mm frame is 1.33:1. Reducing the height of
the picture while maintaining the w idth will increase its
aspect ratio. This is done in 35mm projection by using a
mask to crop equally the top and bottom of the picture
frame. 35mm prints are projected at a 1.85:1 aspect ratio in
the United States and at 1.66:1 in Europe. On TV, the pic­
ture is viewed at a 1.33:1 aspect ratio.
This diagram shows the area of a 16mm camera frame
that the viewer will eventually see w hen screened at an
aspect ratio of 1.33,1.66, and 1.85.

1.33:1 1.66:1 1.85:1

When shooting a 16mm film for 35mm blow up, the

camera person should compose the subject being photo­
graphed for wide-screen projection.
A properly composed 16mm negative can be blown
up to the standard 35mm aperture size (style A, PH22 195-
1992 ANSI). This negative produces a 35mm p rint in a
1.33:1 aspect ratio. This print can be used for TV and pro­
jected theatrically in the United States and Europe with the
appropriate mask. The aspect ratio of the projection mask
and the framing position of the 35mm projector determines
what part of the frame will be screened. The standard Acad­
emy leader is used by the projectionist to center the picture
528
in the a p e rtu re of the projector. If equal c ro p p in g of the top
a n d the b o tto m of the pic ture elim inates im p o rta n t pic tu re
in form ation, vertical sca n n in g can be used in m a k in g the
3 5 m m b lo w u p negative. Scanning enables you to chose the
p a rt of the p ictu re y o u w a n t projected w id e screen. H ere
y ou h a v e the choice of losing p ic tu re inform ation only at
th e top o r b o tto m or in a varied c o m bination of the two.
B low up n e g a tiv e s tha t a re sc a n n e d for a 1.85:1 o r 1.66:1
a sp e c t ratio re q u ire a fram e line w h ic h fixes the d esired
aspect ratio. This fram e line guide s the projectionist in fram ­
ing the pic tu re properly. P rints from these negatives co m ­
p a re d to a sta n d a rd p rin t look as follows:

133:1 1 . 66:1 185:1

3 5m m p rin ts m a d e from a 1.85:1 o r a 1.66:1 negative

c an n o t be u sed for television u nless the im age is enlarged
in the telecine chain w h e n transferring to v id e o ta p e before
broadcast. C ro p p in g w o u ld h a v e to be d o n e on the left and
right side of the picture to achieve a 1.33:1 aspect ratio. M ore
c ro p p in g on the left a n d rig h t side is re q u ire d on a 1.85:1
a spect ratio print. P rints from a scanned 1.66:1 negative are
acceptable in theatrical sc ree n in g for b o th d o m e stic a n d
foreign use. P rints from a sc a n n e d 1.85:1 b lo w u p neg ativ e
w h e n screened foreign a t 1.66:1 aspect ratio sh o w a black
b o rd e r at the top a n d b o tto m of the projected im age.
W e re co m m en d th a t all sc an n in g is d o n e at a 1.66:1
a spect ratio a n d th at the b lo w u p n egative be m a d e w ith a
fram e line p ro d u c in g 35 m m p rin ts in w hich the p ic tu re
in form ation is fram e d in a 1.66:1 aspect ratio. Since there is
n o t m u c h difference in p ic tu re size be tw e e n a 1.66:1 an d
1.85:1 aspect ratio, this type of b lo w u p negative enables you
to m a k e satisfactory p rin ts for b o th dom estic a n d foreign
release.

Super 16mm
T he S u p e r 16m m fo rm a t w a s d e sig n ed to p ro v id e the
g reatest possible p ic tu re area o n a 16m m original for en ­
la rg em en t on to 35 m m for w id e screen theatrical p re sen ta ­
tions. It achieves a w ide-screen form at on single-perforated

529
16m m cam era film by e x te n d in g the p ic tu re area of the
unp erfo rated area of the cam era original. T he S u p er 16m m
a p e rtu re p ro d u c e s an o riginal im age w ith a n aspect ratio
of 1.66:1. T h e b lo w u p fro m this im a g e c a n b e c ro p p e d
slightly in projection to yield the 1.85:1 asp ec t ratio. T he
increase in the useful p ic tu re area of a S u p e r 16m m fram e
results in a substantial increase in the im age quality ob tain ­
able in a 35m m w ide-screen b low up.
To o p tim iz e im a g e q u a lity w h e n s h o o t in g S u p e r
16mm color negative for b lo w u p to 35m m , follow the sam e
reco m m en d ed ex p o su re practices as w h e n sh o o tin g re g u ­
lar 16m m color neg ative for b lo w u p to 35m m .
Super 16m m is a com plete system re q uiring a p p ro p ri­
ately m odified laboratory, e d itin g a n d screening facilities
as well as a m odified cam era. P rincipal cam era m odifica­
tions are: enlarging the aperture, re m a rk in g the view fin d er
a n d re-centering the lens m o u n ts. It m ay be n ecessary to
m odify the pressu re p la te an d o th e r p a rts of the film tran s­
p o rt m echanism in b o th the cam era a n d m a g az in e to p re ­
vent scratching in the e x te n d e d area of the fram e. Lenses
sh o u ld be carefully chosen to be su re th a t they p ro v id e a
w id e en o u g h coverage to a cc o m m o d a te the w id e r frame.
M an y w id e -a n g le 16 m m le n se s c a u se v ig n e ttin g in th e
S uper 16m m frame. C am eras are available w hich h ave been
specifically desig n ed for a d a p tab ility to S u p e r 1 6m m an d
som e conventional 16m m cam eras can also be m odified for
S u p er 16mm.
S u p er 16m m cam eras a n d m a g azin es sh o u ld be th o r­
oughly tested before use in pro d u ctio n . E diting a n d p ro ­
jection e q u ip m e n t m u s t be m odified to d isp la y the entire
S u p er 16m m fram e. S u p er 16m m film se n t to the la b o ra­
tory sh o u ld be clearly identified so it can be h a n d le d p ro p ­
erly. W hen a picture sh o t in S u p e r 16m m h a s a television
or 16m m release, the S uper 16m m im age m u s t be converted
to an im age w ith a 1.33:1 aspect ratio by sacrificing p a rt of
the w id th of the frame. This is achieved by re-centering the
fram e via a n optical p rin te r so th a t a n e q u a l a m o u n t is
cro p p e d on each side of the frame.

Composing Super 16mm for blowup

to 35mm
T his d ia g ra m sh o w s the area of a S u p er 16m m ca m ­
era fram e that the view er will eventually see w h e n screened
at an aspect ratio of 1.33:1,1.66:1,1.85:1.

530
 1 .3 3 :1 1 .8 5 :1

T he aspect ratio of the pic tu re fram e of a S u p e r 16mm

negative is 1.66:1.
W hen sh o o tin g S u p e r 16m m for b lo w u p to 35m m , the
c a m erap erso n sh o u ld co m p o se the scene for w ide-screen
projection. A p ro p e rly c o m p o se d S u p e r 16m m n eg ativ e
s h o u ld p ro d u c e a 3 5m m n egative h a v in g an asp ec t ratio of
1.66:1. Projecting a p rin t m a d e from this negative a t 1.85:1
w ill cro p equally the to p a n d b o tto m of th e p ic ture frame.
If im p o rta n t im ag e inform ation is elim inated, vertical scan­
n in g can be u sed in m a k in g the 35m m negative. B low up
n e gatives that are sc a n n e d for a 1.85:1 aspect ratio require
a fram e line w h ic h fixes the d e sire d aspect ratio. Vertical
scan n in g in S u p e r 16m m sh o u ld be a v o id e d because for­
eign p rin ts are screened at a 1.66:1 aspect ratio.
T his asp ect ratio enables yo u to sh o w all the in fo rm a ­
tion recorded on the S u p e r 16m m negative. Television a n d
s ta n d a rd 16m m p rin ts sh o w the p ic tu re inform ation in a
1.33:1 asp ect ratio. T he S u p e r 16m m im age, in o rd e r to be
c o n v e rte d to this a sp e c t ratio, m u s t sacrifice p a rt of the
w id th of the fram e.

Titles
T o b e su re th a t y o u r titles a re su ita b le for d iffe re n t
a spect ratio req u irem en ts, co m p o se the titles so they will
n o t be cu t off ho rizontally w h e n projected at a 1.85:1 or be
c u t off vertically w h e n v ie w e d a t 1.33:1 for television. If an
action b a c k g ro u n d is u se d for m a in a n d end titles, th e ac­
tion scene sh o u ld be b lo w n u p to a 35m m m a ster positive.
T he titles w ith clear letters on o p a q u e black b a c k g ro u n d
s h o u ld be sh o t in 35 m m hi-con. U sing the m a ster positive
an d the 3 5m m hi-con titles a d u p e negative of the m ain an d
e n d titles is m a n u factu re d . W h ere titles d o no t h av e action
b a ck g ro u n d s, it is often a d visable to p h o to g ra p h the title
scene com pletely in 35m m to m a in ta in m a x im u m quality.

531
Splicing for a blow up requires extra care.

SCRAPE PICTURE ONLY — NEVER SCRAPE EMULSION FROM

BLACK LEADER.

For a b lo w u p , the 16m m original can be spliced in the

stan d ard 16m m A & B format. Besides n o rm a l care in splic­
ing for cleanliness a n d a ssu ran ce tha t the splice w ill h o ld ,
the conform er m u s t be su re w h e n m a k in g a 16m m splice
for b lo w u p th a t the cem e n ted overlap of the splice m a in ­
tains the p ro p e r pitch (x) b e tw e e n th e p e rfo ra tio n of the
splice w h ic h is the first fram e of pic tu re n egative a n d the
perforation of the first fram e of black leader.
If this pitch or distance b etw een these tw o perforations
is n o t the sam e sta n d a rd as the pitch b e tw ee n a n y tw o p e r­
forations w h ere a splice d o e s n o t occur, there w ill be a v er­
tical ju m p in the p ic tu re a t the screen change. T he reaso n
for this is that the registration p in s on all 16m m full-im m er-
sion optical w e t gates a re eith er one o r tw o p e rfo ra tio n s
a w ay from the fram e being exposed. T hus, the fram e b e­
ing p rin ted is in a position established by a p e rfo ratio n o n
the o p p o site side of the splice.
If the splice is off-pitch, as described above, the first
fram e o r the first tw o fram es after the splice are im p ro p ­
erly positioned, w ith the a d ju stm e n t com ing o n the follow ­
ing fram e w h e n the p in is registered after the splice. This
p ro b lem w ill n o t sh o w u p w h e n y o u m a ke a 16m m co n ­
tact p rin t from y o u r A & B original because, on the 16m m
c o n tin u o u s p rinter, the sprocket teeth register the film a n d
the raw stock at the area of exposure. T o help m inim ize the
possibility of ju m p in g splices, physically check y o u r splicer
before you conform the negative. Be su re that the distance
b etw een the pin that positions the black le a d e r a n d the p in
that positions the n egative is correct.
Splice so m e negative o u ttak es in A & B roll form a n d
from this negative m ake a test p rin t using the optical prin ter

532
w ith the 16m m im m e rsio n w e t g ate th a t w ill be u se d to
m a k e the b lo w u p . If ju m p s occur in this p rin t a t the splice,
recheck all ad ju stm en ts in y o u r splicer a n d re-test.

Zero-Cut Editing
To com pletely av o id the possibility of ju m p in g splices,
the negative can be cut into A & B zero-cut format. The zero-
c u t m e th o d , w ith a m in im u m of fo u r fram es for a n o v e r­
lap, will elim inate the splice-jum p problem , b u t 16m m con­
tact p rin ts m a d e from zero -cu t n egatives w ill h av e a one-
fram e dissolve a t the scene changes. Q u ite often this d is­
solve is noticeable w h e n v ie w in g the print.
Since S u p er 16m m contact p rin ts w ith s o u n d can n o t
be m a d e directly from a S u p e r 16m m negative, there is no
p u rp o s e in cu ttin g y o u r S u p e r 16m m original ne g a tiv e in
the co n ventional A & B roll form at. T o av o id the possibil­
ity of ju m p in g splices it is advisable to cu t the S u p e r 16m m
n egative in A & B zero-cut format.

Laboratory Procedures
T he w o rk p rin t a n d the 16m m A & B original sh o u ld
b e d e liv e re d to th e la b o ra to ry in rolls u p to 800 feet in
length. The w o rk p rin t rolls should represent the 35m m reel-
le n g th form at, w h e re u p to 2000 feet of 3 5m m goes on each
reel. T his conform s to s ta n d a rd theater projection practice.
T h e la b o ra to ry p r e p a r e s a c o n ta c t 16 m m a n s w e r p rin t,
w h ic h is screen ed b y the film m a k e r a n d the tim er for cor­
rections. NOTE: S u p e r 16m m co n ta c t p rin ts w ith s o u n d
can n o t be m a d e from a S u p e r 16m m negative.
U sing the corrected color tim in g a n d , if re q u ire d , the
film m akers' scan n in g d ata, the 16m m o r S u p e r 16m m cut
n egative is optically en larg ed to a 3 5 m m m a ster positive
from w h ic h a d u p e n egative is m a de. Before the b lo w u p ,
a n ad d itio n a l p rin tin g o p e ra tio n is necessary, to create a
clear p ic tu re fram e in the 3 5 m m negative. This is d o n e so
th at the p rin ts m a d e from the negative h a v e a black fram e
line to h elp the projectionist center the picture on the screen.
If the b lo w u p negative h as b een scanned, the fram e line size
is d e te rm in e d b y the p ic tu re aspect ratio u se d in scanning.
If it h a s n o t b een scan n ed , the film m aker can decide u p o n
the fram e size. The processed negative is then synchronized
w ith the 35m m s o u n d track for the m a n u fa c tu re of 35m m
release prints.

533
 Stereoscopic Motion Picture
Technology
by C h ris to p h e r Jam es C o n d o n , 3-D C o n s u lta n t
P resid en t, StereoV ision In te rn a tio n a l, Inc.
N o rth H o lly w o o d , C alifornia

Three-dim ensional (stereoscopic) films, w h e n expertly

p h o to g rap h ed and projected, can result in m otion pic tu res
w ith am azin g ro u n d n e s s a n d d e p th . R ecent "state-of-the-
art" exam ples sh o w n at them e parks have pro v en that these
films can be the m ost realistic visual m e d iu m — som etim es
even exceeding the capabilities of o u r "tw o -e y ed " p e rce p ­
tion. This exciting effect can n o w be achieved in local cin­
em as if the process is better u n d e rs to o d by p ro d u c e rs a n d
exhibitors. First they m u s t be w illing to p u t forth c o o p era ­
tive effort, integrity, reasonable resources a n d pla nnin g .
The basic technology of film ing a n d projecting stereo-
scopically has been w idely k n o w n for m a n y years, an d has
been greatly sim plified d u rin g the p a st tw o decades. There
are tw o m ain sy stem s for 3-D cin e m a to g ra p h y . T he light­
weight, m obile single-camera (dual im age) system is suitable
for theatrical feature films. T he heavier, m ore com plex dual­
camera m e th o d is m o re useful for large-screen the m e p a rk
or v en u e films. The va rio u s three-dim ensional cam era sys­
tem s currently available are:
1.) HINES-LAB offers a ve ry sophisticate d d u a l c a m ­
era rig for rental. This system req u ires that o ne of the c a m ­
eras be pointed d o w n w a rd to w ard a horizontal b e a m split­
ter. T his cam era m u s t b e o p e ra te d in reverse. T he o th e r
cam era points forw ard. This rig accepts m o s t interlocked
35mm , 65m m (five and eight-perf), a n d video cam eras, a n d
allow s the w idest-angle lenses of any 3-D system . State-of-
the-art convergence an d 3-D videotap options are available.
The D isney 65m m d u a l cam era 3-D sy stem is sim ilar, as is
the h u g e IMAX 15-perf 3-D system .
2.) STEREOSPACE 2000. A d u al 65m m cam era system.
Uses a vertical beam splitter. This sy stem features M O S as
well as stu d io self-blim ped versions a n d h as in te rch a n g e­
able lenses of 50m m , 70m m , 85m m , 100mm , an d 150m m
focal lengths. Projection is by interlocked 70m m projectors.
3.) STEREOVISION h as a n u m b e r of 3-D cam era sys­
tem s. S tereoV ision W id e S creen is a d is to rtio n le ss h ig h
definition single-strip 3 5m m 3-D system . By far the w o rld 's

534
m o st w idely used, it is a true d u a l optical channel, p a te n te d
c am era lens, n o t a relay system . It stacks b o th the left an d
right im ages precisely o n to each fram e. C an be b lo w n u p
to 70m m . Focal le n g th s a re 15m m e x trem e w id e a n g le,
20m m , 24m m , 32m m , 50m m , 62m m , a n d 90m m . T he s y m ­
m etrical im ag e sp acin g of .374” allow s easy optical effects
p rintin g. A vailable in BNC R style cam era m o u n ts su c h as
h a rd fro n t A rriflex 35, BL4, U ltra -C a m , M itchell BNCR,
M ovieC am an d others. Special m ode ls a re also available for
Panaflex, A rriflex IIC, PL a n d BL. StereoV ision also h a s a
3 5 m m A c a d e m y (1.33:1) fo rm a t 3-D sy ste m c o m p a tib le
w ith video format. StereoVision 70 shoots tw o side-by-side
im ages on to each s ta n d a rd 6 5 m m fram e, a n d is fully co m ­
p a tib le w ith R u s s ia 's S te reo -K in o . N o b e a m s p litte r is
n e e d e d , in c re a sin g d e p th -o f-fie ld sh a rp n e s s . All of the
a bove sy stem s req u ire only one projector usin g a p a te n te d
special d istortionless p o la riz e d d u a l optical ch an n el lens.
A lso available is a StereoVision d u a l cam era 35m m rig
a n d a single-cam era StereoV ision T en p erf 65. T he latter is
a 10-perf a b o v e /b e lo w single 65m m 3-D cam era system ,
su p p lie d w ith 55m m , 80m m , a n d 135m m 3-D lenses. This
cam era sh o o ts tw o 5-perf 70 m m stereo im ages, a b o v e /b e ­
low , re n d e rin g the sam e size im a g e s as hea v ie r m o re co m ­
plex d u a l 7 0 m m rigs. It u se s a special 10-perf 70 projector
an d a 10KW X enon lam p. StereoVision also supplies a large
variety of 3-D projection optics for 35 m m a n d 70m m p ro ­
jection, w h ich it rents directly to theaters.
4.) D IM ENSION 3 w a s designed by stereographer Dan
Sym m es. It h as a focal length of 3 5m m a n d h as sim ilar ch ar­
acteristics to StereoV ision W ide Screen 35. This system is
in the p ro to ty p e sta g e a n d is a v ailab le in BNCR m o u n t.
O th er m o u n ts are available on special o rder. (.374" s y m ­
metrical im age spacing.)
5.) M ARKS DEPIX is a 3 5 m m single-cam era sy stem
(tw o sta c k e d im ag es). Focal le n g th s a re 18m m , 3 2 m m ,
50m m , a n d 85m m . It uses a u n iq u e m e th o d of se p a ra tin g
the im ag es by polarization. T his results in a tw o-stop loss
of light, ho w ev er. (Spacing is .387".)
6.) ARRIVISION is a 35 m m relay 3-D system tha t co n ­
v erts to v ario u s focal lengths. It is a ttached to the cam era
base by m e an s of a special s u p p o rt bracket a n d uses re m o v ­
able optical co m p o n e n ts a n d cam s to obtain 18m m , 32m m ,
50m m , a n d 8 5m m focal lengths. A rrivision is d esig n e d to
be u se d w ith sp ecially m o d ifie d A rriflex c a m e ra s only.
(Tw o stacked im ages, .366" spacing.)

535
 7.) OPTIM AX III attaches to the 35m m cam era w ith a
su p p o rt bracket. It h as relay focal le n g th s of 16m m , 24m m ,
35mm , 50m m , an d 85mm . (Two stacked im ages, .387" spac­
ing-)
8.) IWERKS 3-D is an 8-perf 70m m sy ste m u sin g the
DUAL cam era beam splitter m e th o d for p h o to g ra p h y . Fo­
cal lengths are 50m m , 60m m , 80m m , 100m m , an d 150mm.
Iw erks offers 870 3-D projectors th a t are state-of-the-art, 30
fram es p e r second.
9.) IMAX 3-D is a very large form at (15-perf 70) h u g e
d ual-cam era rig. A range of focal le ngths is available. The
IMAX co m p an y h a s also d e v e lo p e d a d o m e 3-D process,
w hich uses liquid crystal v iew ing glasses. Interlocked d u a l
Im ax projectors are cu rren tly u se d for extrem ely large 3-D
screen im ages. A single projector, d u a l-im age projector has
been developed.
10.) STEREO-KINO 70 is a system that w a s de v e lo p e d
by N. I. K. F. I. in M oscow. It is a single-cam era, side-by-
side im age system w ith a w id e ran g e of focal lengths. The
c a m e ra s r a n g e fro m sm a ll " h a n d h e l d " to s t u d io self-
blim ped. Special 7 0m m 10KW projectors are used, c o m p at­
ible w ith Stereo-K ino projection optics, d e sig n e d for m in i­
m u m distortion. (26.4m m spacing.)
11.) STEREOSCOPE is a single-strip 35m m 3-D system
d esigned by ste re o g ra p h e r John R upkalvis. It is in te n d e d
prim arily for special-effects p h o to g ra p h y , using longer that
n o rm al focal lengths. (.374" sym m etric al spacing.)

A n u m b e r of special optical effects c o m p a n ie s also

h ave built dual-cam era 3-D rigs. These are in te n d e d m ainly
for 3-D m a tte photo g rap h y , m iniatures a n d m otion-control
w ork.
All of the above sy stem s (except for IMAX D o m e 3-
D) are in ten d ed for use w ith the cu rre n t "state-of-the-art"
polarized projection m e th o d , req u irin g a silver screen an d
n eutral po la rizin g glasses. N early all of the m ajor them e
p a rk s an d o th e r special v en u e s use this m e th o d . A p p ro x i­
m ately 2,000 theatrical v en u e s in the USA a n d C a n a d a also
h ave silver screens, w aitin g for a n e w w a v e of b e tte r 3-D
m ovies. F u rth e r in fo rm a tio n is a v a ila b le fro m the in d i­
v idual com panies.
V ery special p h o to g ra p h ic technique is essential for
effective 3-D cinem a to g ra p h y . Som e 3-D co n su ltan ts m ay
prefer com puters, form ulas a n d convergence tables. Books
such as L ipton's "F o u n d atio n s of the Stereoscopic C in em a"

536
can b e of help. H o w e v e r, for truly effective results, w ith ­
o u t costly 3-D errors, p ro d u c ers are a d v ise d to engage only
a n experienced 3-D c o n su ltan t in the p re -p ro d u c tio n stage,
as w ell as d u rin g the sh o o t a n d po stp ro d u c tio n .

Optical "Flat" Projection

Single-strip 35m m 3-D films can easily be conv erted
fo r s t a n d a r d f l a t p r o j e c t i o n b y m a k i n g a n o p ti c a l
in te rn e g a tiv e for no n -3 -D p rin ts. For c o n v e rtin g 3 5 m m
w id e screen, the usual m e th o d is to optically re p rin t one
of the tw o stereo im ages anam orphically, as w a s d o n e w ith
th eT ech n isco p e process, o r crop slightly for 1.85 or 1.66 flat
form at. For single-cam era 70 side-by-side, sim ply convert
o ne sid e to 7 0m m b lo w u p or 35m m 1.85 to 1.66 reduction.
For d u al-cam era system s, no c h a n g e in the p rin t is neces­
sary. E ither left- o r right-eye reels can be s h o w n in d e p e n ­
d en tly as "flat" films.

3-D Projection
Precise theatrical projection is a very im p o rta n t factor
in the success of a 3-D film. P ro p e r installation a n d align­
m e n t of the special 3-D projection optics requires expertise.
Pre-screening of the 3-D p rin t is absolutely necessary. Im ­
p ro p e rly aligned 3-D im ag es can cause a u d ie n c e eye d is­
com fort. Im b a la n c e d o r u n d e rp o w e re d illu m in atio n can
ru in the d im en sio n a l effects a n d can spoil the en joy m en t
of ev en the b est 3-D p h o to g ra p h y .
T he StereoK ino G ro u p of M oscow h as achieved great
success in single-cam era 70m m stereo-cinem atography a n d
70m m stereo-cinem a projection a n d has established 60 sp e­
cial 3-D theaters in the form er USSR. Stereo-K ino w a s re­
cently a w a rd e d , for the first tim e in this field, a Technical
A ch iev em en t A w a rd by the A cad em y of M otion Picture
A rts a n d Sciences. A t least tw o A m erican co -p roductio n s
are pla n n ed .
T he fu tu re success of theatrical stereoscopic m o tio n
p ictures d e p e n d s u p o n a h ig h d e g re e of professional excel­
lence. It w ill also req u ire international s ta n d a rd s a n d co­
operation b etw een innovative w riters, a rt directors, creative
d irectors, p ro v e n stere o g rap h e rs, trained 3-D cam era p e r­
sonnel, d e d ic a te d d istrib u to rs, the finest exhibition e n g i­
n eers, a n d skilled projectionists.

537
 3-D Cinematography
b y D aniel L. S y m m es
Spatial T ech n o lo g ies In c o rp o ra te d

3-D films create an illusion — a sy n th esis of h o w h u ­

m a n s see. Basically, all tru e 3-D (w ith the exception of h o ­
lography) takes tw o (or m ore) im ages of a given scene. T he
v ie w p o in ts (lenses) are g en erally se p a ra te d h o rizo n tally
(interaxial) by a ro u n d 2.5 inches, relating to the d istan ce
b etw een o u r eyes (interocular). T he tw o im ages are th e n
selectively viewed: the left im age is seen only by the left eye
a n d the right by only the rig h t eye. T he visual selection is
g enerally accom plished w ith p o la riz in g projection filters
a n d ap p ro p ria te po la rizin g vie w in g glasses. T he tw o im ­
ages are seen by die b ra in as a rep resen ta tio n of the d e p th
of the original scene. If the screen im age w e re life-size, the
film w o u ld be v ie w e d as a stage p la y a n d sim u late d 3-D
w o u ld be n o problem ; it w o u ld also n o t h a v e the d ra m a tic
im p act of close-ups, m o v in g v ie w p o in ts, a n d in tercu ttin g
scenes p h o to g ra p h e d by lenses of d ifferent focal lengths.
Since the screen im a g e is la rg e r th a n life-size a n d is
v iew ed by p erso n s at v ario u s distances a n d angles relative
to the screen, it is necessary to control the sy n th esis of the
3-D im age. T his is accom plished by a d ju stm e n ts of co n v er­
gence, interaxial distance, focal length, a n d cam era distance
from the subject. P ro p e r a d ju stm en ts p re s e n t a n im ag e that
a v ie w er's b ra in accepts as "real" or p ro d u c e s a d ram atic
effect in te n d e d by the film m aker.
W hile the basic principles of 3-D m a y be easy to grasp,
the actual techniques of 3-D cinem atography are quite co m ­
plex. M athem atical m a n ip u la tio n p ro v id e s p e rh a p s 75% of
the n e e d e d inform ation; the balance com es from e x p e ri­
ence, tests, a n d instinct. O bviously, this p ro cess re q u ire s
e xperienced su p erv isio n . This, a n d the fact th a t 3-D is a
special effect, illustrate the n e e d for a 3-D consultant.
It is the consultant's job to k now from experience w h a t
does a n d do es n o t w ork. Eye fatigue is the m o s t c o m m o n
p roblem associated w ith 3-D, a n d w hile it can be cau sed
b y p o o r projection techniques, it is g en erally in itiated in
p rod u ctio n . It is n o t the co n su ltan t's job to tell the director
of p h o to g rap h y ho w to d o his job o r to tell the director h o w
to sh o o t his film. As w ith special-effects system s, there are
ru le s a n d te c h n iq u e s th a t c a n h e lp a p r o d u c tio n a v o id

538
costly a n d d am ag in g problem s. The consultant will h elp the
d irecto r a n d c a m e ra m a n achieve on the screen w h a t they
h av e in their m inds.
P re p a rin g to sh o o t in 3-D s h o u ld be a p p ro a c h e d as
th oroughly as conventional filming; lenses m u s t be checked
for resolution, d isto rtio n a n d T -stop accuracy. A n y d efi­
ciency in these areas sh o u ld n o t be accepted just because
y o u are w o rk in g w ith specialized eq u ip m e n t. T here are no
ex cu ses for p o o r optical p e rfo rm a n c e . In a d d itio n , y o u
s h o u ld test ex p o su re a n d color balance b etw e e n the tw o
im ages; focus a n d convergence limits an d accuracy; an d for
o d d optical p h e n o m e n a . T hese areas relate specifically to
3-D optica! sy stem s a n d a p p ly to single- a n d dou b le -c am ­
era 3-D. O ptical p ro b le m s can inc lude flare, g h o st im ag es
a n d o th e r visible d isto rtio n s tha t w o u ld also be unac c e p t­
able in n o rm al (2-D) p h o to g ra p h y . If y o u in ten d to use p o ­
larizing filters on the film ing system for reflection control,
sky effects, a n d so on, it w o u ld be w ise to test for exp o su re
im balance betw een the tw o im ages a n d o th e r anom alies.
System s u sin g m irrors, a n d e v en prism s, som etim es yield
o d d results d u e to p o la rizatio n (see "Filters" section).
T he p rim a ry concern in 3-D film ing is p re v e n tin g eye­
strain in au d ien ce m e m bers. T his involves far m ore than
m erely looking at reference charts o r m a king an "inform ed"
guess. T he real questions com e d o w n to w h ere to converge,
h o w close the subject m ay com e to the cam era, an d h o w
far back the b a c k g ro u n d can be. As a very general rule it is
best to co n v erg e o n or n e a r the m a in subject.
U n fo rtu n ately , so m e scenes sh o t this w ay w ill cause
eyestrain. T he only effective m e th o d of d e te rm in in g co n ­
vergence is w ith a co m b in atio n of m a th em atical a n d expe­
riential skills. Strict m athem atics fall short because nu m b e rs
n eed to be in terpreted. H o w e v e r, a 3-D co n su ltan t w ith o u t
s o u n d m athem atics is only guessing. This aspect can n o t be
o v e re m p h a siz e d a n d is the sh o rtc o m in g of m a ny c u rren t
3-D pro d u ctio n s.
M an y film s m a d e since the late 1970s, in c lu d in g the
m ost recent, sh o w excessive parallax (too m u c h "d e p th ").
W ith o u t glasses, im ages are d o u b le to a n extrem e. W ith
glasses, m a n y spectators feel the excessive d e p th in the w ay
their eyes h av e to exercise. T his is often d escribed as ey e­
strain.
Yet, if o ne w atches 3-D films of the 1950s (House of W ax ,
Hondo, Phantom o f the Rue Morgue, Miss Sadie Thompson, etc.)
w ith o u t glasses, there is an im p ressio n of being able to see

539
the im age w ith a m in im u m of "d o u b lin g ". In o th e r w o rd s,
the picture looks fairly clear. W ith 3-D glasses, the d e p th
effects are extrem ely satisfying. O bviously, pnrnllnx m ust be
controlled for confortable view ing by the entire audience, not
just a few w ith s u p e r eye muscles.
The percep tio n of 3-D is an in d iv id u al a n d therefore
subjective experience; no tw o people see 3-D quite the sam e
w ay. W h at m ay be g re a t to o ne v ie w e r m a y se e m p o o r to
another. D irectors a n d p ro d u c e rs m u s t be m a d e a w a re of
this so they m ay avoid m a k in g decisions b a se d o n p o te n ­
tially biased perceptions.
A final factor tha t is often o v e rlo o k e d is the p ro p e r
projection of b o th dailies a n d release prints. T he c a m e ra ­
m a n sh o u ld b e aw a re of projection p ro b lem s that m a y re­
flect on his w ork. Im p ro p e r projection can resu lt in e x p e n ­
sive, n e e d le ss resh o o tin g . W o rk in g w ith 3-D pro je c tio n
eq u ip m en t suppliers and a consultant, y o u sh ould hav e the
picture b rightness u p as high as possible. Balance the illu­
m ination of the tw o im ages. M ake su re b o th im ages are the
exact sam e size a n d focus. M ake su re the p ro p e r m etallic
screen (high gain or silver) is installed a n d that it is clean.
See that the 3-D projection optics a n d projectors are aligned
p ro p erly so the tw o im ages register p ro p e rly on the screen.
Lastly, be su re to use g o o d -q u ality 3-D glasses.
W ith p ro p er h an d lin g find expert consultation, 3-D can
be a n en tertain in g experience.

Synchronizing Methods for

Picture and Sound Systems
by John M osely, CAS

Early Systems
A s far back as 1897, E dison h a d the idea of c o m b in in g
s o u n d a n d picture. H e accom plished syn ch ro n iza tio n by
m echanical m eans, m a k in g the first use of a "D o u b le Sys­
tem ," i.e. a sy stem in w h ich p ic tu re a n d s o u n d track are
re c o rd e d se p arately . M a n y d e m o n s tr a tio n s w e re g iv e n
p rio r to W orld W a r I. E u g e n e L au st in tro d u c e d the first
"Single S ystem " d u rin g the sa m e tim e p e rio d w ith pictu re
a n d so u n d track recorded on the sam e film.

540
 T hese devices w e re re g a rd e d as curiosities by the se­
r i o u s m o t i o n - p i c t u r e m a k e r s , w h o c r e a t e d th e ir
" p h o to p la y s" as silent d ra m a s, telling their stories p u n c tu ­
ated w ith title ca rd s w h e n n e e d e d . T he silent film s w ere
c ustom arily projected in the theater to the a c co m p a n im e n t
of p ia n o s o r th e a te r organs. It w a s n o t u n til the fa m o u s
c o lla b o ra tiv e e x p e rim e n ts b e tw e e n th e Bell T e le p h o n e
L aboratories a n d the then-fledgling W arn e r B rothers Pic­
tu res th a t the s o u n d m o tio n p ic tu re becam e a serious chal­
lenge in the theatrical m a rket. T he W a rn e r B rothers th rew
d o w n the g a u n tle t on A u g u st 6,1926. H o w e v e r, the d a te
that is c o n sid ered to be the form al in tro d u c tio n of s o u n d
to th eatrical featu re film s is O c to b e r 26, 1927, w h e n the
W arn ers la u n ch ed The fazz Singer.
D u rin g the early days, tw o s o u n d re c o rd in g an d re­
p r o d u c in g sy ste m s w e re u s e d sid e b y side: th e disc re ­
c order, w h ic h w a s a s y n c h ro n o u s v ersio n of the p h o n o ­
g r a p h re co rd er, a n d th e film rec o rd e r. Initially the disc
record g av e b etter s o u n d q u ality a n d w a s in com m ercial
u se in theaters all ov e r the w o rld until the early 1930s. By
that time, the so u n d -o n -film sy stem s h a d im p ro v e d suffi­
ciently to displace the disc as a theater re p ro d u c in g system .
Being able to c u t th e so u n d tra c k in the sa m e w a y as the
p ic tu re w a s a m ajor editorial a d v a n ta g e a n d film re c o rd ­
ing quickly b ecam e the preferred m e d iu m . H o w e v e r, since
it w as im possible to h e a r a film re c o rd in g im m e d iate ly af­
ter it w a s m a d e , the disc re co rd er su rv iv e d for this p u rp o s e
until the in tro d u c tio n of m a g n e tic re c o rd in g in th e early
1950s.

Synchronous Motors and Selsyns

In b o th cases, the above sy ste m s w e re d riv e n by sy n ­
ch ro n o u s m otors. T hese n o rm ally took the form of a 220-
volt 3 -p h ase A C m o to rs d e s ig n e d to r u n a t 50 o r 60 H z,
d e p e n d in g u p o n the g e o g ra p h ic area of the w o rld w h e re
they w e re in te n d e d to operate. (60H z for N o rth A m erica
a n d p a rts of A sia a n d 50H z for the rest of the w orld.) The
stato r w in d in g s of these m o to rs p ro d u c e a rotating m a g ­
netic field in the a rm a tu re area of each m otor. T he sp eed
of ro tatio n is the sa m e for all m o to rs a n d th e a rm a tu re s are
sh a p e d so th a t each a n d ev ery a rm a tu re tu rn s in u n iso n
w ith the rotating m agnetic field. This m a kes all m otors tu rn
in synchronism . A fter these m o to rs com e u p to speed, they
function as th o u g h they w e re m echanically interconnected.

541
 The selsyn electrical interlock system a d d s refinem ent.
In co n trast to the sy n c h ro n o u s m o to r, if one a rm a tu re is
h eld statio n ary , all a rm a tu r e s th a t are c o n n e c te d o n the
sam e circuit or " b u s" will re m ain sta tio n a ry a n d the elec­
trical fields of all a rm a tu re s w ill rotate in unison. T his is
achieved by giving die a rm a tu res w in d in g s an d poles sim i­
lar to the stato r w ind ings. Six w ires are b ro u g h t o u t a n d all
a rm a tu re s are connected in parallel, m ak in g the m op e ra te
as th o u g h they w ere m echanically interconnected. A n a d ­
d itio n al sy n c h ro n o u s m o to r is m e ch an ically lin k e d to a
selsyn m o u n ted on the sam e bed. This com bination is called
a "distributor." In operation, all of the fields are electrically
excited, after w hich the a rm a tu re of the d is trib u to r m o to r
is m a d e to rotate. T hus, all of the selsyn m o to rs are electri­
cally interlocked from a sta n d in g sta rt m ark , th e n com e up
to speed to gether an d driv e together u n d e r the rotational
p o w er of the d istrib u to r m otor. In a d d itio n to b e in g u sed
as a cam era a n d recorder d riv e d u rin g p h o to g ra p h y , the
selsyn sy stem has b een used for practically all scoring, re­
recording, ADR, Foley a n d d o u b le system projection. Since
the rotation of a selsyn sy stem is strictly a direct function
of the driv e m otor, it will be ap p reciated that these system s
can be m a d e to opera te ov e r a w id e sp e ed range a n d bi-
directionally. V irtually all d u b b in g (re-recording) system s
have taken a d v a n ta g e of this p h e n o m e n o n .
A third m u lti-d u ty m o to r system w a s u se d for a tim e
in w hich the m otors contained m ultiple w indings, enabling
them to be used as synch ro n o u s, selsyn a n d DC system s.
W hen o p erated as a sy n ch ro n o u s m otor, the a rm a tu re s are
co n n ected so as to form fixed p o le s w h ic h ro tate in the
m agnetic field of die stato r in a m a n n e r sim ilar to th e a r­
m a tu re of a sy n ch ro n o u s m otor. W hen o p e ra te d as a sel­
syn interlock m otor, the arm a tu re w in d in g s are connected
so as to conform to the selsyn system . W h e n p o w e re d by
DC, these m otors o p e rate as a c o m p o u n d D C m o to r a n d
as a 3-p h ase 220-volt A C g e n e ra to r. By in te rc o n n e c tin g
these m otors a p p ro p ria te ly , a selsyn d riv e sy stem results.
In practice, w hen op e rating from DC, the sp eed of the d riv e
m otor is established by a rh eo stat in the su p p ly lines. The
correct speed is verified by a visual tachom eter, u su ally a
reed meter. D ue to the bulk, w eig h t a n d p o w e r requirem ent
of all these system s, they h av e been largely replaced in the
field, slow ly o v e r the last 20 years, b y crystal m o to rs in
c a m e ra s a n d by s te p p in g m o to rs a n d se rv o sy s te m s in
p o stp ro d u ctio n equ ip m en t.

542
 R egardless of w h ich system is used, the sta rt of each
take is m a rk e d b y a c la p p e r b o a rd or slate. T he slate h as the
p ic tu re in fo rm atio n w ritte n on it, usually in chalk. T he top
c o n ta in s a h in g e d pie c e o f w o o d . T he c la p p e r o p e ra to r
w aits for cam era a n d s o u n d rec o rd e r to be ru n n in g at full
sp e e d , th e n a n n o u n c e s th e ta k e fo llo w e d b y th e w o r d
"M ark." A t th a t p o in t, the u p p e r section is b ro u g h t sw iftly
d o w n so th a t it m a k e s a lo u d crack. T he ed ito r looks for the
fram e w h ere the slate closes an d places a china m a rk e r cross
o n it. T he sprocketed m agnetic film, w hich is a direct trans­
fer of the Vi" tape, is pla ced in a s o u n d reader. T he ed ito r
listens for the a n n o u n c e m e n t to m a k e certain that it is the
correct take a n d then finds th e sta rt of the s o u n d w h e re the
top hits th e b oard. T his p o in t is also m a rk e d w ith a china
m a rk e r a n d the tw o film s r u n to g e th e r w ith s o u n d a n d
p ic tu re sy nchronized.

Early Sync-Pulse Systems

T he ad v a n ta g e s of V*' ta p e as a re co rd in g m e d iu m for
m o tio n p ic tu res a n d television w ere recognized as early as
1948, b o t h b y C o lo n e l R ic h a r d R a n g e r a n d S h e r m a n
Fairchild. In b o th the R a n g er a n d Fairchild system s, a s y n ­
c h ronizing p u ls e is taken from the c a m e ra 's sy n ch ro n o u s
m o to r p o w e r source a n d re co rd e r on the tape as a n ind e x
of cam era fram e sp ee d v ersu s s o u n d tim ing.
T he sy n ch ro n iz in g re c o rd in g of the R anger system is
in the center of the stu d io track a n d is rec o rd e d w ith a sp e ­
cial m agnetic h e a d oriented ap p ro x im ately 90 degrees w ith
respect to the a u d io recording. This o rien tatio n p ro d u c e s
a synchronizing signal tha t is self-canceling, or in p u sh -p u ll
w ith re s p e c t to the a u d io signal, a n d therefore d o e s n o t
cau se a n y interference. O n p la y b a c k , the sy n c h ro n iz in g
signal is am p lified to control the frequency of a n oscillator.
W hen n o signal is present, the oscillator is locked to the line
frequency, w h ic h is also u se d as a reference. A n y variatio n
in frequency from the reference is u se d to correct the speed,
thereby m a in ta in in g p ro p e r synchronization.
T he F airchild "Pic-Sync" sy stem uses a 14 K hz carrier
signal th a t is m ix ed to ge ther w ith the a u d io signal. In re ­
p ro d u c tio n the tw o signals are se p a ra te d , w ith the au d io
g o in g th r o u g h a lo w -p a s s filter. T he c a rrie r sig n al goes
th ro u g h a h ig h -p ass filter a n d is d e m o d u la te d to obtain the
sync signal. This signal is am plified a n d fed to a sm all sy n ­
ch ronous m o to r co u p led to the re p ro d u c in g tape driv e cap ­

543
stan and either a d d s or su b tracts p o w e r to the p o w e r d riv ­
ing the ta p e to m a in ta in sy n c h ro n ism . A sta rtin g device
using special b eep tones, spaced one second a p a rt, is u sed
to start the tape in sync w ith the picture.
T he Swiss co m p a n y Perfectone in tro d u c e d a sy stem
in 1959 w h ereb y a sy n c h ro n iz in g signal w a s re c o rd e d in
p u sh -p u ll on the edges of the tape, allow ing room for a 200
mil so u n d track d o w n the m id d le of the tape tha t is co m ­
pletely isolated from the sync signal. T he pla yback device
is the sam e as the R anger system .
It w a s p a rtic u la rly c o m m o n for m a n u f a c tu r e r s of
d o c u m e n ta ry cam eras to inc lude a p u ls in g device d riv e n
by the cam era. A n interconnecting cable feeds the so u n d
recorder w ith a 50 o r 60 H z pulse, w h ic h w o u ld be re p ro ­
d uced by the R anger system . T here w ere a n u m b e r of other
devices on the m a rk e t for a tim e w hich w ere p ro p rie ta ry
to in d iv id u al m an u fa c tu rers, b u t their use w a s relatively
insignificant.

Current Synchronization Systems

and Time Code
V irtually all m o tio n -p ictu re s o u n d cam eras to d a y are
d riv en by crystal m otors tha t m a in ta in precise sp e e d accu­
racy. Field s o u n d recorders rely on 50 or 60 H z sy n c h ro ­
n izing tracks or SM P T E /E B U tim e code. T im e c ode d is­
plays 8 digits denoting hours, m inutes, seconds a n d frames.
T here are 8 ad d itio n a l digits available by selection (k n o w n
as "U ser Bits") th a t can be allocated for special p u rp o s e s
a lth o u g h they bear no d irect re la tio n sh ip to a p a rtic u la r
frame. For exam ple, p ro d u c tio n date, n u m b e r, etc. can be
entered as user bits. T im e c ode can be selected to ru n a t 24,
25 an d 30 fram es an d there is a special fram e rate of 29.97
(called the " d ro p fram e") for u se w ith NTSC color televi­
sion system s.
L ig h tw eig h t b a tte ry -o p e ra te d sy n c h ro n o u s ta p e re­
corders m an u factu res by tw o Swiss com panies, N a g ra an d
Stellavox, are in general use th ro u g h o u t the m otion picture
in d u stry w o rld w id e . W ith the g ro w in g u se of vid e o sys­
tem s for e d itin g an d for electronic c in e m a to g ra p h y , the
S M PT E /E B U tim e codes are g ain in g po p u la rity . T he great
a d v a n ta g e of tim e code is that every fram e of pic tu re a n d
track is individually m a rk e d , thereby sim plifying sy n c h ro ­
nization. Som e m o tio n -p ictu re cam eras record tim e code
on one ed g e of the film contin u o u sly , w h e re a s all pro fes­

544
sional vid eo record ers contain a ded ic a te d tim e code track.
A co m p ro m ise sy stem is also in use, w h ereb y an intelligent
slate is used. T he take in fo rm atio n is w ritte n on the slate
conventionally, b u t ru n n in g tim e code is d isp lay ed in the
m id d le of the slate. T he sam e tim e code will be feeding the
s o u n d recorder. By physical exam ination of the pic ture an d
b y u s in g a n electronic re a d e r on th e track, the re q u ire d
fram e can be easily identified. T im e c ode is usu a lly placed
in the center of the 'A" tape b e tw e e n tw o a u d io tracks. The
tim e-code track is sc a n n ed by a tim e-code re a d e r w h ich
d isplays the tim e a n d fram e inform ation. It is n o t possible
to use m o n o ta p e recorders w ith tim e code, since time code
interferes w ith the a u d io signal. H o w e v e r, there is a co m ­
p ro m ise a rra n g e m e n t tha t is econom ically ad v an ta g e o u s,
w h ich w ill be discu sse d in a la ter p a ra g rap h .

Digital Audio Tape (DAT) Recorder

It m u s t be ap p reciated th a t analog tape recorders have
evolved an d im p ro v e d ov er the last fifty years. By contrast,
digital recorders, w hich re p re se n t a re v olution in technol­
ogy o w in g their genesis to b in a ry c o m p u te rs w h ich relate
all signals to zeroes a n d ones, b u rs t u p o n the m a rk e t d u r ­
ing tlie last decade. T hey are theoretically perfect for record­
ing so u n d . U nfortunately, practice h a s n o t followed theory,
a n d alth o u g h they all h a v e m a n y d e sirable features, they
d o n o t necessarily s o u n d as g o o d as their a n alog c o u n te r­
parts. H o w ev er, d u rin g the last tw o years, g re a t im p ro v e ­
m e n ts h a v e been m a d e in h o w so m e of these system s ac­
tually so u n d . A d irect c o m p a riso n to live so u n d , called an
" A /B " test, is very revealing. Som e of the best so u n d in g
digital reco rd ers h a p p e n to be the D A T system s. D A T re­
co rd ers w ere originally d e sig n e d for the c o n su m e r m a rk e t
an d w ere tried o u t in Japan. F rom a technical sta n d p o in t,
they can b est b e d escrib ed as a tiny v id e o -ty p e re c o rd e r
using ro tating heads. T hey quickly d e m o n strate d their abil­
ity to m a k e tw o channel stereo recordings h aving extrem ely
high quality, in fact even better dian com pact discs. Further­
m ore, the in h e ren t d e sig n of the d riv e m e ch an ism g u a ra n ­
tees ab so lu tely co n sta n t sp e e d , w ith o u t a ny v ariatio n or
" w o w a n d flutter," tw o variables that h a v e p la g u e d a n a ­
log reco rd in g since their inception. This aspect of the DAT
recorder m a k es it p a rticularly suitable for sy n c h ro n o u s re­
cording. Like the crystal-controlled cam era m otor, i t can be
relied u p o n totally to m a in ta in constant speed a n d does n ot

545
n eed any additional external reference, as d o o th e r system s
ou tlin ed in p rev io u s pa ra g ra p h s.
A n u m b e r of p rofessio nals o b ta in e d m a c h in e s from
Japan a n d w ere greatly im p ressed by their initial p e rfo r­
m ance a n d obv io u s potential. T heir w id e d y n a m ic ran g e
(exceeding 90 dB) a n d v irtu a lly flat freq u e n c y re s p o n se
across the full au d io sp e c tru m , w ith very low distortio n ,
m ade th e m ideal can d id a tes to replace c o n ventional tw o-
track an alog reo rd ers w ith a n d w ith o u t sy n c h ro n iz a tio n
system s. A s a n ad d itio n a l a d v a n ta g e , these m a chin es n o
longer n eed noise-reduction e q u ip m e n t, w hich a d d s sig­
nificantly to the cost, w eig h t a n d a lig n m e n t com plexity of
an alog eq u ip m en t. A tw o -h o u r D A T cassette fits into the
p alm of the h a n d a n d w eighs only tw o ounces, in c lu d in g
its box. C onversely, tw o h o u rs of professional an alo g tape
w eighs so m e eight p o u n d s a n d is n o w technically inferior.
T here are alread y m a chines on the m a rk e t from a v a ­
riety of m anufacturers that are classified in the professional
category, i.e. they contain balanced in p u ts a n d o u tp u ts, as
well as digital interface con n e c tio n s th a t co n fo rm to the
A ES/EB U Standards. They have already filled a sm all place
in the field, disp lacin g their b u lkier an alo g m a c h in e s for
recording dia lo g u e a n d effects for film a n d television a n d
e v e n m usic. D u rin g the c u rre n c y of this e d itio n o f the
m anual, it is highly pro b ab le that D A T re c o rd e rs w ill b e­
com e the recording device of choice for b o th film a n d tele­
vision sound.
M ost of these professional m a ch in es d o n o t contain
playback heads, w hich in digital parla n c e are called "re ad
after w rite" o r "co nfidence" h e a d s, so it is im possib le to
m o n ito r the signal co m in g off the tape w h ile reco rd in g .
A lthough there is a school of th o u g h t that w o u ld regard this
sh o rtco m in g as cause to d ism iss the p ro d u c t, it m u s t be
p ointed o u t that this digital form at h as p ro v e d itself already
to be extrem ely reliable. O ne m u s t recall that in the old d ay s
before tape, the sam e situ a tio n existed for fifty years an d
very good recordings w ere m ade.
This g ro u p of professional DATs h as considerable eco­
no m ic a d v a n ta g e o v e r the e x isting co n v en tio n a l an alo g
recorders by alm o st a factor of five. T herefore, if in d iv id u ­
als are w o rried a b o u t the lack of a confidence h ea d (read
after w rite o r s im u lta n e o u s p la y b a ck ), they can a lw a y s
em p lo y a second m achine. T he A E S /E B U S ta n d a rd s p e r­
m it interlocking m a c h in e s a n d a n u m b e r of fea tu re s for
logging a n d identification. T hese are n o t available on a n a ­

546
lo g m a c h in e s , b u t a re s t a n d a r d fare w ith p ro fe ssio n a l
DATs. T heir sm all size also enables them to be used as self-
c o n ta in e d in d iv id u a l re c o rd e rs in pla ce o f ra d io m ic ro ­
p h o n e sy stem s that c au se so m u c h trouble to the p ro d u c ­
tion recordist.
T here are a n u m b e r of second-generation professional
b a tte ry -p o w e re d m a c h in e s w h ic h cam e o n to the m a rk e t
d u rin g 1992 that d o contain confidence heads that also con­
ta in an a d d itio n a l S M P T E /E B U tim e-co d e track. T h ese
m achines will be in the sa m e price ran g e as the c u rre n t full-
fe atu re a n a lo g m a ch in es a n d m a y be re g a rd e d as d irect
replacem ents, assu m in g that their s o u n d quality is satisfac­
tory. This can n o t be ta ken for gra n te d . T he a d v a n ta g e of
re co rd in g tim e code is tha t the so u n d tra c k will be co n tin u ­
o u sly associated w ith its c o rre sp o n d in g fram e of p ic tu re
a n d m ay be ed ited at ra n d o m , w ith o u t resorting to the c u r­
re n t practice of sy n c h ro n iz in g each track w ith its p ic tu re
from a s ta rt m a rk . A s e le c tro n ic e d itin g b e c o m e s m o re
p o p u la r w ith film, this ad d itio n a l feature m a y becom e in­
dispensable.

Synchronizing
with Non-Time Code DATs
From the p rev io u s section, it will be a p p a re n t that even
the sim p le st D A T re c o rd e r can be relied u p o n to ru n at
constant sp eed w ith o u t an additional sy nchronizing device
or special track. T herefore, a sta n d a rd clap p e r can be used
for synchronization. All D A T m achines have an additio n a l
a d v a n ta g e in th a t th ey c o n ta in tw o h ig h -q u a lity a u d io
tracks th a t are actually technically su p e rio r to the best c u r­
rent an alo g recorders. T his feature w ill alleviate the u se of
a second m a ch in e w h e n it is re q u ire d to record effects or a
second d ia lo g u e track concurrently.
A ll film m a n u f a c tu r e r s h a v e a g re e d to m a rk th e ir
negative film s w ith a m a ch in e-read ab le b a r code. D u rin g
the cu rren cy of this edition, the u se of intelligent read ers
w ill u n d o u b te d ly g ro w a n d it m a y be desirable to u se time
code for the so u n d tra c k . S hould the recordist re quire time
code, there are the follow ing three possibilities:
1. U se a m a ch in e th a t contains the ad d itio n a l track.
2. R e c o rd tim e c o d e o n o n e o f th e a u d i o tra c k s.
(C rosstalk betw een tracks exceeds 80 dB a n d therefore will
n o t cause a p ro b le m to the audio.)

547
 3. M ake an interface box that w ill place tim e c o d e o n
one track for a few seco n d s w h ile sim u lta n e o u sly d riv in g
a time-code slate so tha t the sam e n u m b e rs are re c o rd e d on
the film as the tape for post-synchronization. Incidentally,
if this o p tio n is chosen, it w o u ld be sensible to place a voice
slate on the o th e r track so th a t o ne h as b o th h u m a n a n d
m achine-readable d ata at the sa m e p o in t o n the track. This
box sh o u ld be placed a t the in p u t of the D A T recorder. The
sam e device can be used o n a n an alog recorder, too.

Sound-Recording Hints
Before em barking u p o n any recording, it is m a n d a to ry
to check o u t th o ro u g h ly all of the e q u ip m e n t tha t w ill be
used. People often have difficulties in the field w h ich could
h ave been av o id ed if every piece of e q u ip m e n t, in c lu d in g
the cables, h a d been com pletely checked before leaving for
w ork. If one is un certa in a b o u t the u se o r p e rfo rm a n c e of
the eq u ip m en t, ask for a technician to be available to ex­
p la in e v e ry th in g a n d to v erify tha t all of th e in d iv id u a l
c o m p o n en ts are o p e ra tin g correctly.
It is im p o rta n t to u n d e rs ta n d the p ro b le m s th a t are
c om m onplace in re co rd ed s o u n d a n d to u n d e rs ta n d h o w
to avoid them . R ecorded so u n d in the m otion p ic tu re /te le ­
vision context inevitably is quite different to n a tu ra l so u n d ,
since constraints are placed u p o n the rec o rd in g process by
the functioning of the overall e q u ip m e n t a n d the e n v iro n ­
m ent. T he principle co n sid eratio n in re c o rd in g s o u n d for
m otion pictures is that the dia logue shall be clear a n d clean,
i.e. free from defects a n d intelligible a t all times. For ex­
am ple, a q u ie t w h isp e r that is clearly au d ib le in a field in
the c o u n try is n o t likely to be h e a rd a b o v e th e s o u n d of
c runching p o p c o rn or a th e a te r's air-conditioning system .
It is therefore necessary to b rin g u p the low est so u n d s so
th at they are easily u n d erstan d a b le . C onversely, very loud
so u n d s will overload the reco rd in g sy stem a n d cause d is­
tortion, w hich is u n p le a sa n t to he a r a n d m a y d a m a g e the
e q u ip m e n t. If the m ovie p a tro n s c a n n o t u n d e rs ta n d the
so u n d , they w ill n o t enjoy the picture. A lth o u g h the d u b ­
b in g o r rerecording process w ill rectify m a n y defects, the
e n d p ro d u ct, like a g o o d m eal, can only be as g o o d as the
basic ingredients. T herefore, it is w ell w o rth w h ile to take
a lot of trouble to o bta in g o o d original so u n d .
T he u nit of reference for s o u n d is the decibel o r "dB "
a n d is a logarithm ic relationship b e tw e en tw o voltag es or

548
po w ers. In sim ple term s, a c h a n g e of 6 dB w ill d o u b le or
halve the s o u n d level for practical purposes. T he threshold
of h earin g is given as 20 dB, w h ile the th re sh o ld of p a in is
given as 120 dB. T herefore, it can be sa id tha t the d y n am ic
ra n g e of h e a rin g for a n o rm a l h u m a n being is a ro u n d 100
dB. T he frequency ra n g e of n o rm a l h u m a n h e arin g is from
20 H e rtz (H z) to 20 k ilo h ertz (kH z). T his re p re se n ts a p ­
proxim ately 10 octaves musically. Speech is generally in the
ran g e of 200 H z-3 kH z. It is c o m m o n for p eo p le to e x p eri­
ence a loss in th eir ability to h e a r h ig h frequencies as they
g et older.
O n e of the m o st irritating s o u n d s often h e a rd is exces­
sive sibilance, that is, the ex ag g e ra te d s o u n d of the letter
"S." It occurs in n a tu re , a n d so m e p eo p le are m ore p ro n e
to h ave sibilant speech than others. A g o o d test of actor a n d
e q u ip m e n t is to get the actor to say "Sister Susie g athers sea
shells by the sea sh o re." If y o u can record th a t sen ten ce
clearly a n d w ith o u t sibilance, y o u d o n o t h a v e a problem .
M icro p h o n e selection, p la c e m en t a n d m o v e m e n t usually
solve the problem .
T he letter "P " c a n also p re s e n t p ro b lem s, w h ic h are
m an ifested b y a p o p p in g so u n d . H e re again, the p ro b lem
is u su ally resolved by m ic ro p h o n e p la ce m e n t a n d m o v e­
m ent. Som e m icro p h o n e s are partic u larly sensitive to this
p h en o m en o n , since the "P " so u n d often is accom panied by
a steep w a v e fro n t w h ic h d isto rts the sensitive elem e n t in­
side the m icro p h o n e . T o c irc u m v e n t this p ro b le m , so m e
m icro p h o n es are su p p lie d w ith "P op Shields." If y o u have
one, u se it.
D istorted o r u n n a tu ra l s o u n d is usually b u t not alw ays
caused by defective eq u ip m en t. Listen to the n atural so u n d
before assu m in g that y o u r e q u ip m e n t is defective. If ev ery ­
th in g a p p e a rs to b e in o rd e r a n d th e d is to rtio n persists,
check y o u r batteries. Low b a tte ry vo lta g e w ill c au se the
e q u ip m e n t to m a lfu n c tio n . T h erefore, it is im p o rta n t to
m a k e certain that y o u r batteries are fresh a n d p ro d u c in g
their full o u tp u t at all times.
Before starting to w ork, m a ke certain that the recorded
s o u n d q u ality is satisfactory. T he best ju d g e of this all-im-
p o rta n t characteristic is the h u m a n ear. If som ething d o e sn 't
s o u n d right, the chances are that so m e piece of e q u ip m e n t
is n o t functioning correctly. N orm ally, o ne w ill w o rk back­
w a rd s from th e tape o u tp u t to w a rd s the m icrophon e(s).
Listen carefully to w h a t y o u are re c o rd in g n e a r the so u n d
source, then listen th ro u g h y o u r h e a d p h o n e s. If th e so u n d

549
is not the sam e at this juncture, ch an g e the m icropho n e. If
the trou ble persists, change the m icro p h o n e p o w e r su p p ly ,
p ream plifier, m ixer a n d h e a d p h o n e s in th a t order. O b v i­
ously, the s o u n d m u s t be clean before it enters the recorder.
If there is a crackling so u n d , sh ak e the cables to disco v er if
they are causing problem s. Inspect the connectors to m ake
certain that they are clean a n d dry. The pins should b e shiny
and certainly n o t discolored o r oxidized. If a cable a p p e a rs
to be stiff or brittle, it m ay well h a v e p o o r insulation a n d is
likely to a d d noise to the signal, so c hange it. Lastly, set a
com fortable listening level on y o u r he a d p h o n e s. T he level
sh ould be high en o u g h so that yo u h e a r the softest so u n d s
clearly, b u t n o t so loud that the loude st so u n d s are u n c o m ­
fortable. O nce this level has been fo u n d , d o not chan g e it,
as this becom es the reference by w hich y o u will be m a k ­
ing subjective ju d g m e n ts all the time. A llow y o urself su f­
ficient tim e to ex p erim e n t before the sh o o t com m ences, so
th at you are entirely com fortable w ith y o u r e q u ip m e n t o p ­
erationally. D u rin g the shoot, y o u sh o u ld concentrate on
the so u n d subjectively a n d n o t h a v e to w o rry a b o u t tech­
nicalities.
All e q u i p m e n t m u s t be fully te ste d a n d p ro p e r ly
aligned before co m m en cin g operations. D e p e n d in g u p o n
the type of eq u ip m e n t chosen, it m a y be necessary to p e r­
form periodic alignm ent procedures in the field. Should this
be the case, m ake certain that the req u ire d test e q u ip m e n t
a n d / o r personnel are available. O n the w hole, the n e w e r
digital e q u ip m e n t req u ires less m a in te n a n c e in the field.
R em em ber th a t if a bad recording is tu rn e d back to the s tu ­
dio, the front office, p ro d u c e r, o r d irecto r w ill b la m e the
so u n d person, n o t the eq u ip m e n t. If you h ave a n y reser­
vations, take sp a re e q u ip m e n t w ith you, as well as p le n ty
of tape an d extra batteries of all sizes.

Microphone Placement
For the best so u n d p ic k u p d u rin g d ia lo g u e recording,
the m icro p h o n e sh ould be ab o u t o n e or tw o feet in front of
and above the actor. This d istan ce w ill vary accordin g to
the cam era angle. T he tighter the shot, the closer the m icro ­
p h o n e sh o u ld be. H o w ev er, ev e n for a d is ta n t shot, d o n o t
go too far back. R oughly speaking, the efficiency of p ic k u p
of m ost m icro p h o n es decreases w ith the sq u a re of the d is­
tance. A little practice will soon teach you the best position
to place the m icrophone. In general term s, one is best off
to u se a c o n d e n s e r m ic ro p h o n e w ith a c a rd io id (h e a rt­
550
sh a p e d ) p a tte rn pic kup. It is also advisable to use a foam
w in d screen o v e r it to e n su re that m o v e m e n t of the b o o m
o r fishpole d o es n o t pick u p w in d noise. It is p referab le to
use a shock m o u n t b e tw e e n the m ic ro p h o n e a n d the b o o m
so a s to is o la te m e c h a n ic a l s o u n d s w h e n th e b o o m is
m o ved.
W h e n o p e ra tin g ou tsid e, it m a y w ell be necessary to
a d d a w in d screen a n d sock. T hese c o m p o n e n ts sh o u ld be
in the kit. W h e n w o rk in g in noisy en v iro n m e n ts, it w ill be
necessary to use h y p e r-c a rd io id o r e ven s h o tg u n m ic ro ­
p hones. R em em ber, the tighter the p a tte rn o f pic k u p , the
m o re precise the b o o m p e rso n h as to be before the subject
so u n d s "off m ic." "O ff m ic" is a term tha t is u sed w h e n a
s o u n d is n o longer natural. It is easily recognized a n d can
usually be corrected by a m in o r m o v e m e n t of the m icro­
p h o n e to w a rd s the s o u n d source. T he b o o m p e rso n sh o u ld
w ear h e a d p h o n e s connected to the m icro p h o n e so that any
pro b lem will be a p p a re n t im m ediately.
T h e actu al an g le of p ic k u p w ill vary w ith d iffere n t
m icrophones. As a startin g p o int, place the sensitive face
a t 45 d eg rees in front of a n d above the actor. If there is sibi­
lance o r the actor starts to overload the system by sh o u t­
ing (i.e., th e s o u n d becom es brittle o r disto rte d ), roll the
sensitive face aw a y from the actor, so th a t th e voice hits tine
sensitive face at 90 d egrees on its cross-axis, keeping the face
a t 45 degrees. If th e o v e rlo a d persists a n d the s o u n d is n o r­
m al b u t lo u d to the ear, the o v e rlo a d m a y be rem o v e d by
inserting a n atte n u a to r or " p a d " b e tw e e n the cap su le an d
its pre-am plifier. (This accessory will red u c e the in p u t volt­
age to the m ic ro p h o n e 's pre-am plifier. Som e sensitive cap ­
su les h a v e the ability to p u t o u t v e ry h ig h le vels w h e n
placed close to the so u n d source. C ertain m icrophones con­
tain b uilt-in a tte n u a to rs tha t are o p e ra te d by a sw itch on
the m icrophone.) D o n o t u se a la rg e r p a d th a n is necessary
to clear u p y o u r o v e rlo ad p ro b lem , since a n y ad d itio n a l
gain o r level that is n e e d e d to resto re the s o u n d to the re­
q u ired listening p o in t will a d d hiss or noise to the system .
A gain, the so lution a n d correct m o v e m e n t will be le arn ed
by trial a n d error. D o n o t ch an g e m icro p h o n e types w ith in
a scene, or the s o u n d quality w ill ch an g e an d the resu ltin g
re c o rd in g m a y b e u n a c c e p ta b le . If th e re is a r u m b lin g
so u n d , use the low -frequency roll-off o r high-pass filter that
is available o n m o st professional m icro p h o n es a n d mixers.
Do n o t p o in t the m ic ro p h o n e to w a rd s the floor, lest y o u

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pick u p ad d itio n a l noise a n d excessive low frequencies.
This s o u n d is k n o w n as "b o o m in e ss." It is p re fe ra b le to
record flat, i.e. w ith o u t equalization, since alteration of the
s o u n d sp e c tru m , if necessary, is b e tte r d o n e d u r i n g the
p o stp ro d u c tio n m ixing op eratio n . H o w e v e r, sh o u ld y o u
find it necessary to use equalization, lim iting o r co m p re s­
sion, do not change it w ithin a scene. R em em ber once again
th at if the so u n d is n o t clear in y o u r h e a d p h o n e s, it will n o t
b e clear later. T im e s p e n t le a rn in g h o w to g e t a g o o d
pickup, particularly u n d e r adverse conditions, will p ro d u c e
d iv id e n d s d u rin g p o stp ro d u ctio n a n d to y o u r re putatio n .
W hen one is recording m o re than o ne actor sp e a k in g
in the sam e sequence, it m a y be necessary to find a c o m ­
pro m ise position for the m ic ro p h o n e in o rd e r to av o id one
actor so u n d in g off-mic. It will be ap p re ciate d quickly that
the skill of the boom or fishpole op e ra to r can m ake or break
a recording. U n d e r certain circ u m sta n ce s the actor m a y
m ove into a p a rt of the set that is acoustically b ad . Tell the
director ab o u t it before you sh o o t a n d g e t a b ad track. T he
director m ay decide to allow you to correct the deficiency
o r re-shoot the so u n d later in a d ia lo g u e re p la c e m en t facil­
ity. R em em ber that p o o r s o u n d quality often results from
the m icrophone being too far a w ay from the speaker, badly
angled or being in a bad acoustic environm ent. A void plac­
ing it directly ov er or b e hind the h e a d of the actor.
In exterior shooting, one is m o re likely to h a v e p ro b ­
lem s of picking u p e x tran eo u s so u n d s from cars, planes,
p eople a n d the elem ents. U n d e r these circum stances, try a
m o re tightly p a tte rn e d m ic ro p h o n e , o r d iffe re n t a n g le s
below or to the side of the cam era field of view . D o no t for­
get th a t the p re fe ra b le m ic ro p h o n e p o sitio n is slig h tly
above an d in front of the speaker. Body a n d ra d io m icro ­
p h o n e s are often u sed in o u tsid e a n d w id e angle shots. It
is helpful in a v o id in g the s o u n d of clothes rustling, to p u t
a loose kn o t in the m ic ro p h o n e cable a b o u t an inch below
its h ead a n d to place it u n d e r a collar o r on the fron t of a
bra. A lw ays try to av o id the chest cavity since this will in­
evitably so u n d boom y. A void u sin g m o re than o n e m icro ­
p h o n e in the sam e p ic k u p area in o rd e r to av o id interfer­
ence betw een them , w hich results in a stra n g e sw ish in g or
"p h asin g " s o u n d that ca n n o t be rem o v ed later. W hen , a n d
n ot until, the s o u n d is clean a n d as artistically or subjec­
tively required in the m ix er's h e a d p h o n e s, tu r n to the re ­
corder.

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Use of Tape Recorders
A n alo g re c o rd e rs are fitted w ith m e chanical VU o r
p e a k m eters, w h e re a s D A T s u su a lly use electronic p e a k
re a d in g flu o rescen t b a r m eters. T he basic difference b e­
tw een the VU an d p e ak m e ter is tha t the VU m e ter read s
the av erag e level in a given tim e pe riod, w h e re a s the peak
re a d in g m e ter registers the h ig h e st p a rt of the signal at all
times. D iscussion of the v ario u s m e rits falls o u ts id e this
m anual. In general te rm s o ne sh o u ld expect a VU m eter to
re a d ra th e r slow ly. T he level sh o u ld be ad ju ste d o n d ia ­
lo g u e so as to p e a k a t a r o u n d -1 a n d n o t a b o v e 0 VU,
w h ereas a p eak m eter, w hich w ill re sp o n d rap id ly , sh o u ld
n ev er p e a k a b o v e zero. W hen u sin g a D A T recorder, ex­
a m in e it carefully to find o u t if the sa m p lin g frequency is
sw itchable. A lw ays choose the highest sam p lin g frequency
available, a t least 48 k H z , m a k in g certain tha t a ny record
p re-em p h asis circuitry is sw itch ed off.
Before startin g to record so u n d , record a tone on the
tape. M ost m ixers contain an oscillator for this p u rp o se , as
d o m o s t professional recorders. C u sto m arily , -6 dB is used
w ith VU m eters a n d -8 dB on p eak an alo g recorders. For
DATs, -18 dB is the cu sto m a ry setting level for reference
an d aim to p e a k a t -2. N e v e r h it zero. In all cases, o n e is
d esiro u s of finding a reference level that w ill result em p lo y
the full d y n a m ic ran g e of the rec o rd e r w ith o u t o v e rlo a d ­
ing its electronics o r the tape. W h ereas m o st an alo g reco rd ­
ing sy stem s ten d to go into o v erlo ad ra th e r gently, digital
m achines reach their m a x im u m perm issible level a n d then
b reak u p com pletely. T herefore, it is very im p o rta n t to ex­
p e rim e n t w ith y o u r re c o rd e r until y o u a re fully fam iliar
w ith its lim itations a n d then w o rk w ith in them to obtain
the best possible, clean, intelligible s o u n d recording. A d ­
just the in p u t level so that y o u r a v e ra g e re c o rd in g is rea­
so nably h ig h on the scale, m a k in g certain th a t the p eak s
n e v e r q u ite h it the o v erlo ad p o int. O n ce again, trial a n d
e rro r is th e best teacher. B ew are of o v e rlo ad in g eith er the
electronics o r the tape. T his is th e m o st freq u e n t cause of
b ad recordings m a d e in the field. Experience alone will give
you th e rig h t p o in t b e tw ee n a noisy re c o rd in g tha t is re­
co rd ed a t too low a level a n d a d isto rted re cording that is
recorded a t too hig h a level. U n d e r extrem e circum stances,
the d y n am ic range of the incom ing signals m ay be too great
to control m an u ally . S hould this be the case, it m a y be nec­
essary to em ploy a limiter, w hich determ ines the m ax im u m
level that m a y be p asse d thro u g h the system , o r a co m p re s­
553
sor, w hich raises the low -level signals a n d low ers the high-
level signals. It is vital to m a k e certain that these devices
d o n o t give an u n n a tu ra l s o u n d , a n d th ey s h o u ld be re ­
g ard ed , like the equalizer, as tools of last reso rt in the field.
A void m ak in g large a n d rap id changes of levels, as these
w ill s o u n d u n n a t u r a l a n d b e d i f f i c u l t to r e c t if y in
p ostp ro d u ctio n .
M ake certain th a t all tapes are p ro p erly identified a n d
th at they are p acked w ith log sheets that contain full d e ­
tails of the recording. It is preferable to leave analog reco rd ­
ings on the tak eu p reel, o r "tails o u t," for tw o reasons. The
first is to m a k e certain that the tape is tightly w o u n d , so that
it do es n o t b eco m e physically d e fo rm e d d u rin g storage.
U n d e r extrem e conditions, the base of the tape can b eco m e
so d e fo rm e d that it w ill n o t lie on the re p ro d u c in g h ead
properly. Should this occur, the so u n d will vary in level an d
quality an d m a y b e unusable. T he second is to m inim ize
"p rin t-th ro u g h ," a p h e n o m e n o n to w h ic h an a lo g ta p e is
prone. This m e an s that s o u n d recorded, u su a lly a t a h ig h
level, is h e a rd one a n d e ven tw o tu rn s of the tape before
a n d after the actual s o u n d in the form of repetitions. This
effect is a function of the ta p e fo rm u la tio n a n d varies from
ty p e to type. P rin t-th ro u g h te n d s to be d im in ish e d in a
tightly w o u n d tape. Y ou w ill quickly d iscover th a t m o st
m achines d o n o t re w in d ta p e a t a sp e e d to be h ig h e n o u g h
to b e satisfactory for storage. By leaving the tape tails o u t
this p ro b lem is elim inated.
C onversely, giv e n the n a tu re of the D A T system , it is
advisable to re w in d D A Ts fully. In b o th cases, inspect the
tapes to m a k e certain that the w in d is even so that the tape
d o es n o t b ecom e physically d istorted. Place D A T s in th eir
safe, non-recordable m o d e by sliding the safety tab tow ard s
the center of the cassette.
Finally, re m e m b e r th a t w h e n all of y o u r e q u ip m e n t is
functioning correctly, y o u r ears sh o u ld be the final ju d g e
of the quality a n d acceptability of y o u r w ork.

554
 Filming Television Screens
by Bill H ogan
S procket Digital

W hen film ing television screens o r c o m p u te r disp lay s

there are tw o principle obstacles to achieving consistent and
clear im ages on the film ed result. T hese tw o pro b le m s are
the difference in fram e rates b etw e e n the television im age
a n d the film cam era a n d the incorrect color te m p e ra tu re of
the television display. T he follow ing e x p lanation a n d d e ­
scription of s ta n d a rd s for television sets a n d co m p u te r d is­
p la y s is m e a n t to p ro v id e a n u n d e rs ta n d in g a n d m e th o d ­
ology to allow the film ing of these d isp la y s w ith the h ig h ­
est q u ality possible.

Frame Rates
N o rth A m erica an d m any oth e r countries of the w o rld
u se a te lev isio n d e liv e ry s y s te m th a t h a s 30 te lev isio n
fram es p e r seco n d , each c o m p ris e d of 525 lines. M otion
p ic tu re film for theatrical o r television disp lay is usually
p h o to g ra p h e d a t 24 fram es p e r second.
T his difference in fram e rates is the p re d o m in a n t d if­
ficulty in p h o to g ra p h in g television sets as p a rt of a scene.
T he artifact that is m o st visible is the ap p e a ra n c e of h o ri­
zontal bars on the p h o to g ra p h e d TV im age. This is caused
by d o u b le ex p o su re of so m e p a rts of the television screen.
To u n d e rs ta n d w h a t causes this d o u b le e x p o su re a n d the
ho rizontal bars it is necessary to u n d e rs ta n d several oth e r
facts a b o u t the television signal.
W ith 30 fram e television there are 525 lines scan n ed
each 30th of a second. But to avoid flicker in the d isp la y a
m e th o d is u sed th a t is s o m e w h a t a n a lo g o u s to the tw o
b la d ed s h u tte r in th e film projector. This 30th of a second
television fram e is fu rther d iv id ed into tw o television fields.
Each of these television fields lasts for a 60th of a second.
T he d is p la y e d television im age is "re fre sh e d " o r scan n ed
n o w at 60 tim es per second an d the resu lt is no flicker. This
is acco m p lish ed by sta rtin g the sc a n n in g b e a m (a single
p o in t of light o r energy) in the u p p e r left corner of the tele­
vision screen an d m o v in g it left to right a single line a t a
time. W h en this b e a m of light reaches the right side of the
screen, it ju m p s back to the left side of the screen d u rin g a

555
period w h en it has been "b la n k e d " o r tu rn e d off. This is
called the h o rizo n ta l b la n k in g p e rio d . This occurs ev ery
television line or 525 tim es p e r television frame.
In o rd e r to p ro v id e the refresh rate of 60 tim es p e r sec­
o nd, this b e a m skips every o th e r line of the 525 lines th at
com prise a television fram e of a 30th of a second. In o th e r
w o rd s, the scanning beam scans line 1, skips ov e r the p o ­
sition that w o u ld be occupied by line 2 a n d scans line 3. This
continues to the bottom of the TV im age until all of the o d d -
n u m b e re d TV lines h ave been scanned.
A t this p o in t a 60th of a second h as passed. T he scan ­
n in g beam is no w a t the lo w er right co rn er of the screen.
The be a m is "b la n k e d " a n d is m o v e d to the u p p e r left cor­
n er again — ready to sta rt scanning again. This tim e p erio d
of the b e a m m o v in g from the lo w e r rig h t c o rn e r to the
u p p e r left co rn er is called the vertical bla n k in g p e rio d or
vertical interval. This h a p p e n s 60 tim es p e r second — twice
p e r television fram e. T his sc a n n in g b e a m n o w starts its
scan n in g process o v e r one line a t a time, b u t d u rin g this
60th of a second the be a m is positioned to scan lines 2 ,4 , et
cetera — all the ev e n -n u m b e re d lines are n o w scann ed .
N o w let us look at ho w the film cam era vie w s this tele­
vision im age. T he cam era th a t is ch o sen for this exam ple
has a 180-degree shutter. If w e ru n this cam era a t 30 fram es
p er second w ith a s h u tte r o p e n in g of 180 d egrees, the cam ­
era is exposing the film every 60th of a second. F rom the
television scanning ex planation a bove it can be observ ed
that the film cam era is "b lin d " to one of the television fields
a n d is only p h o to g ra p h in g half of the 525 lines that occur
in a television frame. T he resu ltin g TV screen im age o n the
film will be g o o d (w ith no " sh u tte r bars") because the film
cam era a n d the television sc a n n in g are o cc u rrin g a t the
sa m e fram e rate. W h e n the film cam era a n d the television
system are o p e ra tin g a t different fram e rates the resu lt is
d o u b le exp o su re to p o rtio n s of the television screen im age.
Best resu lts are o b ta in e d w h e n th e s h u tte r o p e n in g
coincides w ith the b e g in n in g of the scan n in g of o ne of the
tw o television fields. In o th e r w o rd s, the sh u tte r is o p e n for
only one com plete television field — n o t p a rt of one field
a n d p a rt of the next field. In o rd e r for this precise p h a sin g
(s h u tte r o p e n vs. closed) to o ccur, e x te rn a l sp e c ia liz e d
e q u ip m e n t is u sed in conjunction w ith the film cam era a n d
the video equ ip m en t.
T here are four co m b in atio n s of film rates a n d televi­
sion rates that are possible. T hese are ou tlin ed below:

556
 1. 30 F ram e V ideo a n d 30 F ram e Film: This co m b in a­
tion features s ta n d a rd NTSC 30 fram e vid e o (US S tan d a rd )
a n d the film cam era also op era tin g a t 30 fram es. This a p ­
p ro a c h is a p p ro p ria te if the film is g o ing to be u se d for a
30 fra m e p e r seco n d telecine transfer, b u t if u s e d for 24
fram e projection the re w ill b e a 20% "o v e rcra n k ," an d if
th ere is s o u n d the p itc h w ill be altered. A ny US television
m o n ito r can b e used. S h u tte r p h a sin g a n d synchronizatio n
are re q u ire d a n d the cam era sh u tte r angle is o p tim u m at
180 degrees.
2. 25 F ram e V ideo a n d 25 F ram e Film: This req u ires
the vid eo signal to be the E u ro p e a n PAL-625 line sy stem
a n d also the VTR a n d m o n ito r to be capable of op era tio n
o n this sta n d a rd . If th e film sh o t is projected at 24 fram es
there is only a 4% "o vercrank," a n d the s o u n d pitch ch ange
is u su a lly c o n sid e re d u n d e te c ta b le ex c ep t to m usician s.
S h u tter p h a sin g a n d syn c h ro n iz a tio n are re q u ire d a n d 180
d eg rees is th e p refe rred sh u tte r angle. T his is the sy stem
th a t is ch o sen for m o s t TV m o n ito r film ing in E u ro p e an d
m u c h of the rest of the w o rld th a t o p e ra te s o n 50 H ertz
p ow er.
3. 30 F ram e V ideo a n d 24 F ram e Film: T his features
s ta n d a rd 30 fram e NTSC vid e o a n d a c a m e ra specially d e ­
signed to have a fixed 144 degree sh u tte r o r a cam era w hose
s h u tte r can b e precisely set to 144 d egrees. T his specific
s h u tte r angle allow s the film cam era to o n ly p h o to g ra p h
one set of scan lines p e r film fram e b u t is extrem ely diffi­
cult to adjust. A n y th in g m echanical th a t causes the ca m ­
era to v a ry in sp ee d o r cause d ra g o n the sh u tte r w ill re ­
sult in inconsistent results. Also cam era p a n n in g a n d zo o m ­
ing w ill cause p o rtio n s of the TV im age to be double-ex­
p o sed o r n o t exposed at all, resulting in sm all black o r w hite
b ars to be p resen t in the TV im age. A gain, sh u tte r p h a sin g
a n d sy n ch ro n izatio n are re q u ire d a n d a very precise 144
d eg ree sh u tte r angle m u s t be m a inta ined.
4.24 F ram e V ideo a n d 24 F ram e Film: T his v id e o /film
c o m b in atio n req u ires a specialized video form at, b u t the
film cam era is ru n at a sta n d a rd speed a n d the resulting film
is s ta n d a rd in all w ays. T he choice of sh u tte r an g le sh o u ld
b e 180 deg rees a n d the re is a one-to-one relationship b e ­
tw een TV fram es a n d the p re fe rred film rate of 24 fram es.
S hutter p h a sin g to the TV signal sh o u ld be used. M o st TV
sets a n d m onitors can be adjusted to operate a t this 24 fram e
rate, b u t caution sh o u ld be u sed w ith an u n k n o w n m odel.
Live vid eo cam eras a n d c o m p u te rs h a v e b een m o d ified to

557
ru n at this 24 fram es, offering a w id e choice of source m a ­
terial.
24 F ram e vid e o w a s first u se d for fe ature p ro d u c tio n
in a b o u t 1960. Since th a t tim e ste a d y p ro g re ss h a s b e en
m a d e in sophistication a n d choice of the tools for this one-
to-one relatio nship w ith 24 fram e film. Because 24 fram e
v ideo is a m odification of sta n d a rd NTSC television e q u ip ­
m ent, the TV im age h as the sa m e scan n in g frequencies as
525 line television. T his results in the 24 fram e im a g e h a v ­
ing a total of 655 television scan lines p e r 24th of a second.
T hus, the precise vertical scan rate o r fram e ra te of th e tele­
vision signal is actually 24.01 fram es p e r second.
T he sy n chronization be tw ee n the film cam era a n d the
v ideo system can be achieved in tw o w ays. T his is the s h u t­
ter p h a sin g th a t w a s referred to above. T he first m e th o d is
to obtain a sh u tte r signal from the film cam era a n d h av e
the video system follow th e film cam era. T his allow s the
film cam era to o p era te on its internal crystal a n d to "p u ll
d o w n " the v id e o sy ste m to exactly 24 fram es. W ith this
m e th o d n o connection is m a d e to the s o u n d recorder. The
d isad v an tag e of this m e th o d is tha t the vid eo source is lim ­
ited to videocassette playback. In recent y e a rs this m e th o d
is alm o st n ev er used. O n e m ajor d ra w b a c k is th a t o n ly o n e
film cam era can be rolling sim ultaneously.
T he second m o d e of operation is the preferred m eth o d
a n d offers the g reatest flexibility of operation. In this m o d e
the film cam era is d riv e n by a signal fro m v id e o /film ca m ­
era syn ch ro n izatio n e q u ip m e n t. A signal is still received
back from the film cam era, u se d to p h a se the cam era sh u t­
ter o p en in g to the TV signal scanning. A m ajor a d v a n ta g e
of this m e th o d is that an y n u m b e r of film cam eras can be
o p eratin g in sync a n d the choice of 24 fram e signal sources
is unlim ited. As the film a n d television e q u ip m e n t are o p ­
e ratin g at a slightly h ig h e r frequency (24.01 fram es p e r sec­
ond), a 60.02 hertz frequency s h o u ld be se n t to the s o u n d
recorder to keep the s o u n d in sync o n long takes. W ith o u t
this signal the s o u n d w ill fall b e h in d the p ic ture a b o u t one
fram e every 45 seconds.
Both the above m o d e s of o p e ra tio n can ac co m m o d ate
process o r rear screen projection w ith the a p p ro p ria te c o n ­
nections.
N o a tte m p t w ill be m a d e he re to d escribe the e q u ip ­
m e n t available to sy n c h ro n iz e the film a n d v id e o e q u ip ­
m ent. This e q u ip m e n t is co n stan tly ch a n g in g a n d is avail­

558
ab le fro m m a n y cam e ra m a n u fa c tu re rs a n d specialists in
th e field of v id e o p la yback for film shooting.

Color Temperature
C olor te m p eratu re of the film ed television im age is the
o th e r m o s t im p o rta n t aspect th a t n e e d s to be u n d e rs to o d
a n d corrected for.
T he correctly a d ju sted professional b ro ad c ast m o n ito r
w ill b e a d ju s te d to a color te m p e ra tu re of 6500 d e g re e s
Kelvin. B ut th e n o rm a l ran g e of TV sets a n d m o n ito rs can
v a ry w id ely in their color te m p e ratu re . To b e u se d success­
fully, these TV screens m u s t b e set u p for the correct color
te m p e ra tu re of 6500 degrees. T est e q u ip m e n t is available
to facilitate th is a d ju stm e n t. If film in g is d o n e w ith this
a d ju ste d m o n ito r w ith a tu n g sten -b ala n c e d film d esig n e d
for 3200 d eg rees K elvin, the resu ltin g TV screen im ag e w ill
a p p e a r to b e very b lu e o r h ig h in color te m p e ra tu re . M o n i­
tors n o t ad ju sted to th e correct color te m p e ra tu re w ill re ­
su lt in very u n p red ic ta b le results.
T here are five w a y s to c o m p en sa te for this color te m ­
p e ra tu re difference.
T he first m e th o d is to re a d ju st the TV screen to a lo w er
color te m p e ra tu re — as close to 3200 d eg re e s as possible.
M o st TV m o n ito rs are lim ited in a d ju s tm e n t range. This
m e th o d is u su ally unsuccessful a n d to d a y is alm o st n e v e r
attem p ted .
T he s e c o n d m e th o d m a k e s u s e of th e fact th a t this
h ig h e r color te m p e ra tu re of the television im ag e is n e a r the
color te m p e ra tu re th a t is e x p e c te d w h e n sh o o tin g w ith
d ay lig h t-b alan ced color n egative th a t is n o w w id e ly avail­
able. W ith this m e th o d the television im age is left unaltered
a n d the d irecto r of p h o to g ra p h y lights the rest of th e scene
w ith day lig h t-b alan ce d lighting. T he television im ag e a n d
the scene n o w m a tc h closely in color te m p e ra tu re a n d al­
lo w the u se of d a y lig h t b a la n c e d film.
T he th ird m e th o d is v e ry sim ilar to th e sec o n d , b u t
after lig h tin g w ith da y lig h t-b ala n c e d lig h tin g the cin em a­
t o g r a p h e r u s e s a tu n g s t e n - b a l a n c e d n e g a t iv e w ith a
W ra tte n #85 filter o n the cam era. This m e th o d is som etim es
u s e d o n com m ercials, b u t suffers from the loss o f exp o su re
c a u se d b y the filter.
T he fo u rth m e th o d also uses tun g sten -b ala n c e d film
a n d lighting, b u t a c hange in the color te m p e ra tu re of the
TV screen is m a d e by placing W ra tte n #85 filter m aterial

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on the TV p ic tu re tube. T his is u su a lly unsatisfactory b e ­
cause of loss of TV b rig h tn e ss a n d the visibility of reflec­
tions on th e filter m aterial.
T he fifth m e th o d is the p re fe rre d choice. It involves
p re c o m p e n sa tin g the color te m p e ra tu re of the p la y b a ck
m aterial. W ith this p ro c e d u re the color TV sc re en is a d ­
justed to the p referred color te m p e ra tu re of 6500 d eg rees
Kelvin. If there is m ore th an one TV screen in the scene, they
are all carefully ad ju ste d to this sam e color te m p e ra tu re .
T he next step is the p re p a ra tio n of the v id e o pla yback m a ­
terial. P re c o m p e n sa tio n of the color te m p e ra tu re of th e
p layback m aterial is ac com plished by u sin g a v ie w in g fil­
ter that h as b een arrived a t em pirically w ith m u c h trial a n d
error. This view ing filter raises th e a p p a re n t color te m p e ra ­
ture of the color m onitor, w h ic h causes the telecine color­
ist or video cam era o p e ra to r to a d d a specificate a m o u n t
of "color co m p en satio n " to the video that w ill be d isp la y e d
o n the TV screen.
W h en this color-com pensated vid e o is seen on a p ro p ­
erly a d ju ste d 6500-degree TV screen it w ill a p p e a r v e ry
"red d ish -o ran g e." But to the tun g sten -b ala n c e d neg ativ e
the p icture w ill be the correct color.
W h e n the TV screen is to a p p e a r as a black & w h ite
set, an o th er p ro b lem occurs. A black & w h ite screen will
a p p e a r to be of even h ig h e r color te m p e ra tu re — from 9000
to 11,000 degrees. T here is n o practical m e th o d to c o m p e n ­
sate for this very h ig h color te m p e ra tu re . T he m o s t co m ­
m o n m e th o d a n d th e p re fe rre d so lution is to place a color
screen in w h a t w o u ld a p p e a r to be a black & w h ite cabi­
net. T he playback m aterial is m a d e to a p p e a r black & w h ite
if it originates as a color im age a n d then color co m p e n sa ­
tion is a d d e d to the black & w h ite im age. T his color-com ­
p en sated footage w ill n o w a p p e a r to the color n eg ativ e as
a perfect black & w h ite im age.

General Notes
Playback m aterial can com e from a ny source. T he best
quality is generally obtained from film original that is trans­
ferred specifically for the scene in v o lv e d a n d is color-com ­
p e n sa te d for video playback. Live cam era original footage
at 30 fps can be s ta n d a rd s-c o n v e rte d a n d color-com pen-
sa ted w ith eq u al success. A je rky m o tio n artifact w ill b e
n oticed on 24 fram e film m aterial th a t w a s tra n sferred to
30 fram e video a n d th e n w a s sta n d a rd s-c o n v erted b ac k to

560
24 fram e v id e o for vid eo playback. T his is an undesira b le
so u rce of m aterial.
A lw a y s test n e w o r u n fa m ilia r e q u ip m e n t. T his in ­
c lu d es n e w or u n te sted TV screens a n d co m p u ters. T his is
a ra p id ly c h a n g in g a re a a n d success is g u a ra n te e d only
w ith tlie p ro p e r choice of e q u ip m e n t a n d w ith com p an ies
fam iliar w ith the latest advances.

Television Film Cinematography

b y E d w a r d P. A n c o n a, Jr.

Since th e pu b licatio n of the article on this topic in p re ­

v io u s ed itio n s of the A m e rica n C in e m a to g ra p h e r M an u al,
there h av e b een significant advances in receiver quality a n d
in the sophistication of the telecine e q u ip m e n t w hich trans­
fers the film im ag e to television. H o w e v e r, it is im p o rta n t
to re m e m b e r that the typical h o m e v ie w e r is seeing a n d
h e a rin g film s less th a n th e o p ti m u m c o n d itio n s u n d e r
w h ic h the creative p ro d u c tio n team sa w them.
P ro d u c tio n staffs see th e ir film s in professional m o-
tio n -p ic tu re re v ie w ro o m s a n d th e r e s u ltin g te lev isio n
transfers o n professional m o n ito rs w ith carefully adjusted,
stable color a n d b rig h tn e ss settings. M ost h o m e view ers,
h o w ev er, w atch the sh o w on receivers w h ich m a y be only
casually ad ju sted a n d in a ro o m w ith the lights on. Such
v ie w in g c o n d itio n s act p rim a rily to lim it the p ic tu re con­
tra st r a n g e w h ic h c a n b e e ffectively r e p r o d u c e d in the
hom e. Therefore, the director a n d cinem ato g rap h e r sho u ld
be aw a re th a t th e available ra n g e of p h o to g ra p h ic effects
is lim ited , a n d film p h o to g r a p h y for television m u s t be
a d a p te d to exploit those styles a n d te chniques w h ich are
m o st effective for the h o m e view er.
T his is n o t m e a n t to im ply that the television sy stem
is incapable of high-quality transm ission a n d reproduction.
W ith a high-quality telecine transfer, good signal reception,
a n d o p tim u m receiver a d ju stm e n t a n d v ie w ing conditions,
the re p ro d u c e d im age can be a close du p lic a te of the film
in lu m in a n c e ra n g e a n d color. In d e e d the so p h istic a te d
c o n trast a n d color controls o n the m o d e rn telecine can of­
ten achieve color an d d e n sity "tim in g " c h a n g e s in d im e n ­
sions unavailable in the film laboratory. It is n o t u n c o m m o n

561
o n m ajor television film p ro d u c tio n s for th e director a n d
c in em ato g rap h er to a tte n d the telecine transfer op e ratio n
to g u id e the v id e o o p e ra to r, sim ila r to the color tim in g
o p eration in the film laboratory.

Contrast
Telecine re p ro d u c tio n of a film w ill often re su lt in a
television im ag e w h e rein c o n tra st a p p e a rs h ig h e r th a n in
the im age seen in d irect projection. T his is d u e p a rtly to
inherent lim itations of the electronic devices w h ic h convert
the projected im age to a television signal, p a rtly to th e o p ­
tics of the telecine system a n d p artly to the subjective ef­
fect of the sm aller, b rig h te r television im age. T he chief ef­
fect of this increase in co n trast is a loss of sh a d o w detail.
D arker areas in the p ic tu re m a y a p p e a r p lu g g e d up , su b tle­
ties of m o o d lighting a re lost, a n d story p o in ts o r critical
facial detail in d a rk scenes m a y be o b scu red . A g ain it is
im p o rta n t to n o te th a t n o t all of the loss is in the telecine
reproduction of the film — only a sm all p ro p o rtio n of h o m e
receivers w ill be carefully a d ju ste d a n d v ie w e d in a d a rk ­
ened ro o m to accurately d isp la y the full ra n g e of the trans­
m itted signal.
This increase in contrast req u ires th a t the cine m ato g ­
ra p h e r use m o re fill light th a n w o u ld be u se d for th e a tri­
cal p resen tatio n only, a n d particularly that the a p p ro a c h to
the m o re ex trem e m o o d s o r effects b e lim ited. T he u se of
u n d e re x p o s u re , forced p ro ce ssin g flash in g a n d lo w fill-
light levels to p ro d u c e a realistic or "available light" look
m a y be q u ite effective in d irec t theatrical projectio n b u t
p lu g g e d u p a n d ineffective in the typical h o m e vie w in g
situation. This is n o t m e a n t to im ply th a t television p h o to g ­
ra p h y sh o u ld be "flat." A w id e ran g e of m o o d s a n d effects
can be successfully r e p r o d u c e d o n the typical h o m e re ­
ceiver, b u t the d a rk e r elem en ts o r areas of the scenes m u s t
be m ore fully lit a n d e x p o se d if they are to b e d isp la y e d
effectively.
H ig h er lighting ratios can b e e m p lo y e d for effect, a n d
n ight scenes are best ap p ro a ch ed by a d ju stm en t of the light­
in g r a tio r a t h e r th a n b y s h o o t in g " d a y - f o r - n i g h t" o r
u n d erlig h tin g scenes a n d p rin tin g d o w n . T he ideal n ig h t
effect p h o to g r a p h y for television w o u ld re s u lt in p rin ts
w hich h ave the sam e d ensity ra n g e as fully lit scenes. The
use of little o r no fill light on the key position, sketchy back­
g ro u n d illum ination, lighted w in d o w s, etc., all create the

562
effect o f a n ig h t scen e w ith o u t th e necessity o f p rin tin g
dow n.

Special Print Films for Television

In p re v io u s yea rs w h e n black & w h ite film s w e re the
d o m in a n t m e d iu m for television, it w a s s ta n d a rd practice
to m a k e "te le v isio n g a m m a " release p rin ts w h ic h w e re
d e v e lo p e d to a lo w er c o n tra st th a n for n o rm a l theatrical
release. A lth o u g h these p rin ts, o n direct projection, loo k ed
s o m e w h a t flat w ith tr a n s p a re n t s h a d o w ele m e n ts, their
television re p ro d u c tio n a p p e a re d m o re like tha t of the th e ­
atrical p rin ts in a theater. T he re d u c e d d e n sity ran g e of the
television g a m m a p rin ts e n a b le d the telecine to "see" into
the sh a d o w s m o re easily, th u s reducing the req u irem en t for
lo w er lighting ratios on the stage. U ntil recently, color prints
co u ld n o t b e p ro cessed for a low er g a m m a w ith o u t seri­
o usly u p se ttin g their color tracking, a n d the only w a y to
re d u ce the d e n sity ra n g e of the p rin t w a s to re d u c e the lu ­
m in an ce ran g e of the original scene by lo w e r lightin g ra­
tios a n d careful control of set a n d w a rd ro b e reflectances.
M o d e m telecines a re e q u ip p e d to re p ro d u c e negative
films b y inversion of pola rity a n d a ch an g e of rep ro d u c tio n
contrast. T h e n e g a tiv e film is o b v io u sly o f consid era b ly
lo w er co n trast th a n a color p rin t a n d th e resu ltin g re p ro ­
d u c tio n therefore is m u c h m o re op en , w ith sh a d o w detail
w ell re p ro d u c e d , a n d often w ith brilliant color quality.
T he te rm "film look" really refers to the a p p ea ran c e
of a p rin t as seen in d irect projection. T h ere is m u c h to be
sa id for the subjective a p p e a ra n c e of this im a g e w ith its
sm o o th ly g ra d u a te d h ig h lig h t a n d sh a d o w contrast. It is
n o t in te n d e d to be a n a c c u rate d u p lic a te of th e orig in al
subject co n trast an d color values, b u t in the h a n d s of a skill­
ful cin em ato g rap h er it is a n extrem ely effective storytelling
vehicle. A s sta te d in the o p e n in g p a ra g ra p h s , the aim of
telecine o p e ra tio n is to p ro d u c e a television im age w h ic h
is a close d u p lic a te of th e film p rin t as seen in direct p ro ­
jection. T he a p p e a ra n c e of n eg ativ e o r interpositive films
o n a telecine, w h ile sed uctively ap p e a lin g w ith their o p e n
lo w lig h ts a n d h ig h color satu ratio n , can be distinctly dif­
ferent from th e " p r in t look." It is possible to m o d ify the
telecine characteristic so th a t n eg ativ e transfers w ill com e
close to d u p licatin g the look of a print, a n d it is em p h a siz e d
th at the c in e m a to g ra p h e r sh o u ld be aw a re of these differ­
ences a n d see sa m p le s of n e g a tiv e tran sfers if h is o r h e r
p ic tu re is to involve th a t process.
563
 T here is n o w available a color positive film w h ic h h a s
been m a n u factu red to a low er contrast a n d w h ich d o e s n o t
re q u ire special p ro c e s sin g for "te lev isio n g a m m a ." T h e
lo w er m a x im u m densities of this film benefit telecine re ­
p ro d u c tio n of the im age as c o m p a re d to the re p ro d u c tio n
from n orm al projection co n trast p rin t film. T he co n trast is
n o t so different, h o w e v e r, that it c a n n o t b e satisfactorily
an aly zed for color "tim in g " in the film la b o rato ry . C are
m u s t b e ta k en d u rin g rev ie w -ro o m la b o ra to ry tim in g of
these low -contrast p rin ts n o t to " p rin t d o w n " in a n effort
to achieve the sh a d o w densities of n o rm al-c o n tra st p rin t
stock. W h e n correctly tim ed for o p tim u m telecine re p ro ­
d u ctio n , th e lo w -c o n tra st stock on d irec t pro jectio n w ill
h ave rather tra n sp a re n t sh a d o w regions a n d w ill n o t h av e
th e solid b la ck s of the n o rm a l-c o n tra s t p r i n t stock. T h e
telecine rep ro d u ctio n , h o w e v er, w ill restore the sh a d o w s
to their correct ap p earan ce b u t w ith considerably im p ro v ed
sh a d o w detail ov er tha t obta inable from th e n o rm al-co n ­
trast stock.

Automatic Telecine Operation

T he telecine o p e ra tio n a t m ajor b ro a d c a s te r's installa­
tions or in m o st vid e o p o stp ro d u c tio n h o u se s se rv in g the
b roadcast a n d cable television in d u strie s is characterized
b y a n effort to re p ro d u c e the film as faithfully as possible
w ith in the physical lim itations of the telecine device. D e­
spite the m isgiving s of som e cin e m a to g ra p h e rs, th e video
o p erato r do es n o t m a k e arb itra ry ch an g es in the character
of the im age; w ith a w e ll-p h o to g ra p h e d a n d tim ed p rin t,
the o p e ra to r w ill m a k e a n essentially "h ands-off" transfer.
H o w ev er, som e b ro ad ca ste rs m a y, for reasons of crew an d
tim e econom y, reso rt to a n au to m a tic telecine o p e ra tio n
w h erein the brightest elem e n t of every scene is a u to m a ti­
cally set to 100% vid e o level, a n d the d a rk e s t to 0%. This
u n q u estio n ab ly can d is to rt th e co n tin u ity of th e original
p rin t timing.
A lth o u g h it is d is m a y in g to h a v e to prescribe for su ch
a situ atio n , if the c in e m a to g ra p h e r k n o w s th a t a film is
likely to h av e its m ajor release to su ch syndication, h e or
sh e can in c o rp o ra te a "re fe re n c e w h ite " a n d "refe re n c e
b la c k " in e v e ry sc e n e , w h ic h w ill force th e a u to m a tic
telecine into a p re fe rre d state of ad ju stm e n t. A reference
w hite w o u ld be a near-w hite object in w a rd ro b e o r the stage
illum inated by the key light. A lm o st a n y scene w ill h av e

564
s h a d o w e d or u n illu m in a te d black areas a n d these w ill b e ­
com e the reference black for the scene. W ith su ch w hite a n d
black objects in th e scene, the a u to m atic v id e o telecine w ill
a rriv e a t a n a d ju s tm e n t w h ic h w ill pla ce face to n e s a n d
o th e r lu m in an c e v alu e s correctly.
P e rh a p s the concerns of this section are less p e rtin e n t
n o w , since, practically w ith o u t exception, all m ajor televi­
s io n p r o d u c t i o n s w ill b e t r a n s f e r r e d o n h ig h - q u a li ty
telecines w ith skillful o p erato rs, a n d m o s t sy n d icated m a ­
terial w ill b e sim ilarly transferred a n d deliv e re d on v id e o ­
tape.

Television Film Apertures

In alm ost an y receiver, the accum ulated effects of m ask
sh a p e a n d off-center scan n in g o r excessive h e ig h t or w id th
o f scan n in g w o u ld resu lt in the disp la y of excessive pictu re
in fo rm atio n th a t w a s tra n sm itte d . W hile this area loss is
d ifferent in each receiver, the a v erag e loss, o r to p u t it a n ­
o th e r w ay , the area d is p la y e d b y the a v e ra g e receiver, h as
b e e n n o te d w ith th e e sta b lish m e n t b y SMPTE of a "safe
a ction a re a " a n d a "safe title a re a " (see "C in e m a to g ra p h ic
S ystem s"). M ask s of th e s h a p e a n d relative size of these
S M P T E -re c o m m e n d e d safe a re a s s h o u ld be u s e d in the
c am era v ie w fin d er as a g u id e to the com position a n d fram ­
ing of scenes bein g film ed for television.
Since these areas re p re se n t only selected a v e ra g e c o n ­
d itions, it m u s t be n o te d th a t so m e receivers w ill d isp lay
e v e ry th in g to o n e e d g e or a n o th e r of th e tran sm itte d area.
T herefore, foreign objects su ch as m icrophones, stage lights
o r cam era su n sh a d e s, o r neg ativ e defects su ch as scratches
o r fog sh o u ld n o t a p p e a r inside the tra n sm itte d area, a n d
release p rin ts s h o u ld be free of p h y sic a l defects su c h as
scratches, w e t gate p rin te r m a rk s o r so u n d tra c k applicato r
sp lash es in this area.
D aily p rin ts of sh o w s w h ic h a re bein g sh o t for televi­
sion a n d w hich are being rev iew ed b y the cinem atograp h er
o r o th e rs specifically for action fra m in g m a y b e insp ected
w ith a projector a p e rtu re of the d im e n sio n s of th e safe ac­
tion area. (This w o u ld a p p ly also to rev ie w of theatrical
w ide-fram e features bein g scan n ed for television, w h e n the
re v ie w is for e v a lu a tio n o f th e ed ito ria l a n d p o sitio n in g
aspects of the scanning.) O rd in arily , ho w e v e r, television
d a ily p rin ts s h o u ld be rev ie w ed w ith a projector ap e rtu re
of th e d im e n sio n s of the tra n sm itte d area, since the film

565
cam era action fram ing is u sually carefully m o n ito re d d u r ­
ing shooting w ith the cam era v ie w fin d e r safe action area
m ask. T he p ro d u c tio n staff sh o u ld also be aw a re of p o s­
sible negative defects o r e xtraneous objects ou tsid e the safe
action area b u t still w ith in the tra n sm itte d area. N e w titles
p h o to g ra p h e d for television sh o u ld lie preferab ly w ith in
the safe action area, alth o u g h this should be m o st applicable
to com m ercial copy w h e re full visibility on all receivers is
desired. O n theatrical features released to television, title
copy w ithin the safe action area w o u ld ordinarily be accept­
able.
T here is an artistic co m p ro m ise to be faced in the re­
p roduction of C inem aScope o r other w ide-fram e im ages on
s ta n d a rd television. T he choice is b e tw e e n "sc a n n in g " the
w id e-fram e im age to p ro d u c e a sta n d a rd 3 x 4 aspect ratio
im ag e o r u sin g the "le tte rb o x " fo rm a t w h e re the w id e -
fram e im age is sh o w n in its correct aspect ratio in the cen­
ter of the receiver, b u t w ith w id e black a re a s a b o v e a n d
below the frame. W hile the letterbox form at does reproduce
the o rig in al fra m in g a n d co m p o sitio n , it is far from th e
g ra n d io se large-screen p re s e n ta tio n w h ic h is p a r t of the
original conception; the refore, th e tra d itio n h a s b e e n to
"scan" the w id e-fram e im ages for television presentatio n .
For the m o st part, this is d o n e skillfully, w ith care ta ken for
g o o d fram in g of th e rec o m p o se d im ag es, a n d also w ith
careful reg ard for the editorial c onsiderations in tro d u c e d
w ith the n eed occasionally to c u t or p a n from o ne sid e of
the w id e fram e to the other.

Shooting Videotape
for Transfer to Film
b y G av in S chütz , Im a g e T ra n sfo rm , Inc.

The process of transferring vid e o ta p e to film involves

a n u m b e r of co m p lex steps, n o t th e le ast of w h ic h is the
m e th o d o f c o n v e rtin g 30-fram e v id e o in to a sig n a l th a t
can be re c o rd e d in to 24-fram e film. S o m e of th e field s of
the video signal m u s t be d isc a rd ed . D igital signal pro c e ss­
in g te c h n iq u e s are e m p lo y e d to trea t the v id e o sig n a ls to
m a k e th e m lo o k b e tte r o n film.

566
 T h e c i n e m a t o g r a p h e r w ill n e e d to k n o w s e v e r a l
th in g s a b o u t th e n a tu r e of v id e o sig n a ls a n d h o w th e y
c o rr e s p o n d w ith film a ttrib u te s . T h e fo llo w in g sec tio n
w ill d eal w ith so m e of these p a ra m e te rs, a n d also a d d re s s
h o w th e fin is h e d v id e o ta p e w ill lo o k w h e n it is tr a n s ­
ferred to film. T he ge n e ra l ru le for sh o o tin g v id e o ta p e th at
w ill b e tr a n s fe r re d to film is n o d iffe re n t fro m g e n e ra l
p ractice: m a k e th e v id e o a s g o o d as p o ssib le. T h is w ill
in v o lv e g iv in g a tte n tio n to so m e factors th a t are n o t n o r­
m a lly a p ro b le m w h e n sh o o tin g film. T h ese are all co v ­
e re d below .
T he m o s t c o m m o n q u e stio n th a t is ask e d a b o u t tape
to film is " H o w m u c h re s o lu tio n is lost in the p ro ce ss"?
T h is is a d ifficu lt q u e stio n to a n s w e r b e c a u se it d e p e n d s
u p o n w h a t y o u call re so lu tio n , a n d w h a t y o u r fra m e of
referen ce is. In c o n tra st to film o rig in atio n , in v id e o there
a re tw o ty p e s of reso lu tio n , static a n d d y n a m ic .

Resolution
Static R eso lu tio n is the a m o u n t of d e ta il p re s e n t in a
scene th a t co n tain s n o m o tio n . In th e television w o rld , the
static reso lu tio n is m e a s u re d in te rm s of b a n d w id th of the
v id e o sig n al, o r the a m o u n t of TV lines th a t a re u s e d to
b u ild the signal. For e x am p le , N TSC is a 525-line 4.5 M H z
sy s te m , w h ile P A L is a 625-line 5.5 M H z S ignal. T h is
m e a n s th a t PA L h a s m o re static re s o lu tio n th a n NTSC.
Film reso lu tio n is m e a s u re d in line p a irs p e r m m , a n d
is a n a t te m p t to q u a n tify th e m a x im u m n u m b e r of bla ck
to w h ite tr a n s itio n s in a m illim e te r of film fram e. T his
p a r a m e te r c o n ta in s m a n y v aria b les, su c h as th e optical
tra n sfe r fu n c tio n o f th e film a n d o th e r d ifficult-to-q u an -
tify ass u m p tio n s a b o u t th e film. F ortunately, the line p airs
p e r m illim e te r can b e c o n v e rte d in to m e g a h e rtz o f b a n d ­
w id th to allo w for c o m p a ris o n s to video. F or ex a m p le , it
is g e n e ra lly re c o g n iz e d th a t th e e q u iv a le n t " b a n d w id th "
o f 3 5 m m m o tio n - p ic tu re film is in th e g e n e ra l a re a of
3 5 M H z. T h is is a b o u t six tim e s th e r e s o lu tio n o f m o s t
b ro a d c a s t v id e o system s.
T h is m e a n s th a t a c a m e ra o rig in a l n e g a tiv e c a p tu re s
a b o u t six tim e s the d e ta il of a p ro fe ssio n a l v id e o cam era.
F ig u re s 1 a n d 2 s h o w the d iffe re n c e s in r e s o lu tio n b e ­
tw e e n film a n d vide o. F ig u re 3 is a c o m p a ris o n b e tw e e n
th e form ats.

567
 Video Resolution
1
1 1
Static Dynamic

Units MHz Field Rate

TV Lines Frame Rate

Values NTSC 4.5 MHz NTSC 30FPS

PAL 5.5 MHz PAL 25 FPS

Figure 1

Film Resolution
1 1
Static Dynamic

Units Line pairs Frame Rate

per mm

Values About 35 MHz 24FPS

Figure 2

In the Im age T ransform System , there is no significant

loss of static resolution. T his m e a n s th a t all static d etail
p resen t in the original vid e o m a ste r is tran sferred to the
film. T he use of p aten te d w id e b a n d digital d ec o d in g an d
co m p o n en t signal processing e n su re th a t all detail p re sen t
in the video is p re se rv e d in the T ransform process. H o w ­
ever, it is im p o rta n t to realize tha t the e n d re su lt w ill n o t
h ave the sam e static resolution as original film, sim ply b e­
cause the a m o u n t of inform ation recorded on the vide o tap e
is less than w o u ld h ave b een reco rd ed o n the 3 5m m film.
F ortunately, there are som e things th a t can be d o n e to the
v id eo signal that w ill help its a p p e a ra n c e w h e n taken to
film. T hese are ad d re s se d below .
D ynam ic resolution is d efin ed as the a m o u n t of tem ­
p oral info rm ation co n tain ed in a scene h a v in g m o v em en t.
D ynam ic reso lu tio n d e p e n d s u p o n the u p d a te rate of the
im ages. Both film a n d video im ages are sa m p le d in time,
a n d this leads to a finite loss of d y n a m ic re so lu tio n (com ­
p a re d to real life) in bo th cases. D ynam ic reso lu tio n is d i­
rectly p ro p o rtio n al to the fram e sa m p le rate. In the case of
film, the sam p le rate is 24 fram es pe r second. In NTSC, it is
30 a n d in PAL, 25 fram es p e r second. Film h a s d y n a m ic

568
resolution the video system s, is w h y m o v in g im ages a p p e a r
sm o th e r in vid eo ra th e r than the s te p p e d film im ages. (Fig.
3)

Video Fil m Resolution

Film Video

Static 35MHz NTSC 4.5 MHz

PAL 5.5 MHz

Dynamic 24 FPS NTSC 30 FPS

PAL 25 FPS

Figure 3.

Interlace Artifacts
T h is d i f f e r e n c e in d y n a m i c r e s o l u t i o n is c o m ­
p o u n d e d b y th e in te rla c e s tru c tu re of th e v id e o signal.
T h e fra m e ra te of 24 for film v e rs u s th e 30 fram e u p d a te
ra te of N TSC is b a d e n o u g h , h o w e v e r in m o s t cases p ic­
tu re s o rig in a tin g o n v id e o a re u p d a t e d a t the field rate.
T his re s u lts in h a v in g effectively 60 p ic tu re s p e r se c o n d
(at h a lf th e static reso lu tio n ) in s te a d of the no rm a l 30. The
c h a lle n g e h e re is to take the 60 p ic tu re s p e r se c o n d a n d
re d u c e th e m to 24 p ic tu re s p e r se c o n d w ith o u t re n d e rin g
th e m o tio n artifacts u n a c ce p tab le.
T h e in fo rm a tio n c o n ta in e d in a v id e o fra m e is m a d e
u p o f tw o discrete in te rla c e d fields. C a re m u s t be ta k en
to p re s e rv e th e in te g rity of each of the se fields, as they are
b o th u s e d to p r o d u c e th e final film fram e. By a pro cess
k n o w n as a d a p tiv e in te rp o la tio n , v id e o fields a re a v e r­
a g e d w ith o th e r fields fro m o th e r fra m e s to p ro d u c e the
n e w fram e. T his a v e ra g in g p ro c e ss is p o ssib le (a n d n ec­
e s s a ry ) b e c a u s e o f th e fa c t th a t th e re a re m o r e v id e o
fra m e s th a n th e re are re q u ire d to b e film fram es. In the
T ra n sfo rm p ro c e ss so m e o f the fields are d is c a rd e d , a n d
the in te rp o la tio n p ro c e ss is u s e d to s m o o th th e m o tio n
a r o u n d the d is c a rd e d fields. O b v io u sly , the m o re in fo r­
m a tio n there is to w o rk w ith , th e b etter the d y n a m ic re s o ­
lu tio n (s m o o th e r m otion). B ecause of this, care m u s t be
ta k e n n o t to p a n th e ca m e ra excessively fast, b e c a u se this
w ill re s u lt in a d iffe re n t p ic tu re for ev ery field. W h e n this
fra m e is tra n s fe rre d to film, th e re w ill b e tw o im a g e s o n
th e film fram e. C learer, s h a r p e r im a g e s w ill b e o b ta in e d

569
from slo w e r p a n rates. T his a p p lie s to b o th vertical a n d
h o riz o n ta l p an s.

Digital Effects
A d v a n c e d d ig ita l effects g e n e ra to rs a n d p a in t s y s ­
te m s cu rre n tly in u se te n d to o p e ra te o n the v id e o sig n al
as if it w e re n o t a n in te rla c e d system . T h e se d e v ic e s p r o ­
d u c e a n e w im a g e e v e ry field in s te a d o f e v e ry fram e.
W hile re s u ltin g in m u c h s m o o th e r m o tio n of v id e o tape,
th is m e th o d c a n re s u lt in a film im a g e th a t is fr a g m e n te d
a n d so m e tim e s b lu rre d .
B ecause of the th ro w a w a y field se q u e n c e (see Fig. 5),
a n a p p a r e n t ly s m o o th v id e o e ffe c t g e n e r a t e d in fie ld
m o d e re n d e r in g ca n a p p e a r d is jo in te d a n d u n n a t u r a l
w h e n tr a n s fe r re d to film . T h e a m o u n t o f d e g r a d a t io n
d e p e n d s u p o n the ty p e of v id e o effect. V ery slo w h o ri­
zo n tal or vertical m o v e m e n t is u su a lly acceptable. A s the
rate of m o v e m e n t is in c reased , th e artifacts b e c o m e m o re
objectionable.
T he best w a y to a v o id these te m p o ra l related artifacts
is to refrain from u s in g th e m o re am b itio u s d ig ita l effects
th at are available. A n y effect th a t is charac te riz ed b y ra p id
vertical, h o riz o n ta l o r te m p o ra l m o tio n w ill c a u se th ese
d isco n tin u ities. T h e y w ill b e v e ry notic e ab le in th e film
a n d sh o u ld b e a v o id e d , if a t all possible. Som e of the m o re
recen t d ig ita l effects dev ice s offer tw o m o d e s of re n d e r ­
in g m o tio n — field a n d fra m e m o d e . W h e n g e n e ra tin g
m a te ria l th a t w ill b e tra n s fe rre d to film , u s e th e fra m e
re n d e rin g m o d e .
N o te th a t vertically cra w lin g title se q u e n c e s (su ch as
credits) re p re s e n t a b o u t th e a b so lu te w o rs t case, a n d il­
lu s tra te all o f th e p ro b le m s n o te d above. W h e n e d itin g in
the credits, fad e th e m in a n d o u t ra th e r th a n h a v in g th e m
c raw l vertically.

Graphics Rendering
G ra p h ic a n d C G I (C o m p u te r G e n e ra te d Im ag es) ef­
fects s h o u ld b e re n d e r e d in fram e m o d e (i.e. m a k e su re
th a t b o th fields of a v id e o fram e are the sam e) ra th e r th a n
field m o d e b e c a u se this allo w s b e tte r in te rp o la tio n .
In the case of C GI w h e re th e effects a re re n d e r e d a
field a t a tim e, th e re is a w a y to e n s u re a g a in st a n y m o ­
tion artifacts. B ecause these im a g es are u su a lly re n d e r e d
a field a t a tim e a n d are re c o rd e d by v id e o ta p e m a c h in e s

570
in a n im a tio n m o d e , it is so m e tim e s p ossible to artificially
" b u ild in " a 3:2 seq u e n c e . In th is m e th o d a n im a g e th a t
h a s b e e n r e n d e r e d b y c o m p u te r is r e c o r d e d fo r th r e e
fields of v id e o . T he n e x t im a g e re n d e re d is th e n re c o rd e d
for tw o v id e o fields, th e re s u ltin g a n im a te d im a g e is th e
fu n c tio n a l e q u iv a le n t of a 24 fram e film tra n sfer, a n d (as
d is c u s s e d b e lo w ) ca n b e ta k e n to film w ith o u t m o tio n
a rtifacts of a n y k ind.
B ecause the re n d e rin g of co m p lic a ted g ra p h ic s (such
a s a n i m a t e d s e q u e n c e s ) o r in t e g r a t in g v id e o w ith s e ­
q u e n c e s th a t c o n ta in o rig in a l film m a te ria l is a com p lex
p ro cess, it often p a y s to c o n su lt w ith the facility th a t will
b e d o in g the ta p e-to -film tra n s fe r b e fo re in te g ra tin g or
g e n e ra tin g th e C G I se q u e n ce s. In so m e cases, te c h n iq u e s
c a n b e e m p lo y e d o n so m e of the la test g ra p h ic s p la tfo rm s
(such as the Q u a n te l H a rry ) th a t w ill p r o d u c e a "p e rfe c t"
film tra n sfe r (i.e. a p e rfe c t c o rre la tio n b e tw e e n the v id e o
a n d film im ages).
T he u se of v a ria b le -sp e e d v id e o o r tim e -c o m p re sse d
v id e o m a te ria l s h o u ld be a v o id e d a s it in tro d u c e s easily
n o ticed m o tio n d is c o n tin u itie s in v id e o w h ic h are m a d e
w o rs e in the tape-to-film p rocess.

Film to Tape to Film

A n o th e r a s p e c t th a t n e e d s to be c o n s id e re d is th e
p ro b le m asso ciated w ith e d itin g m a teria l th a t o rig in a te d
o n film w ith m a teria l th a t h a s b e e n o rig in a te d o n v id e o ­
ta p e (i.e. film to ta p e to film). In m a n y cases m a te ria l th a t
h a s b e e n s h o t o n v id e o ta p e w ill be in te rc u t
It c a n b e seen th a t a n ex tra field is in s e rte d in to the
v id eo to m a k e u p for the difference in fram e rates b etw een
2 4 -fram e film a n d 3 0-fram e vide o. In fig u re 4 this is the
field la b eled "3".
T he ta p e-to -film sy ste m m u s t d etec t w h ic h field w a s
in s e rte d in th e telecine p ro c e ss a n d u se it as the th ro w ­
a w a y field. If this is successful, th e re s u ltin g film tra n s­
fer w ill be p e rfe c t — th e re is n o w a y to tell the differen ce
b e tw e e n it a n d o rig in a l film. In m o s t cases, the se q u en ce
is re p e titiv e a n d w ill n o t c h a n g e for the d u ra tio n of the
transfer. M oreo v er, th e re a re on ly tw o w a y s the seq u en ce
c a n b e m a p p e d out: 2 / 3 / 2 / 3 . o r 3 / 2 / 3 / 2 . T his is illu s­
trated in figure 5. T he p ro b le m arises w h e n m ate ria l from
d ifferent so u rces is e d ite d to ge ther on v ide otape. It is then
p o ssib le that, once the pie ces are ass e m b le d to g e th er, the
field se q u e n c e is d is ru p te d , g iv in g a se q u e n c e su c h as 3 /
571
 Frame Rate Conversion

24 Frames per Second -

Film Frame 1 Film Frame 2

1 2 3 4 5 6

Field 1 Field 2 Field 1 Field 2 Field 1 Field 2

Video Frame 1 | Video Frame 2 | Video Frame 3

--------------------------- 30 Frames per S econd-------------------------

Film to Tape Field Sequence

Figure 4

Frame Rate Conversion

30 Frames per Second

Video Frame 1 Video Frame 2 Video Frame 3

1 2 3 4 5 6

Field 1 Field 2 Field 1 Field 2 Field 1 Field 2

Field 3 is dropped

Film Frame 1 | Film Frame 2

-----------------------24 Frames per S e c o n d ------

Tape to Film Field Sequence

Figure 5.

2 / 2 / 3 , 2 / 3 / 3 / 2 , etc. T h e re s u lt is th a t a d is r u p te d F ram e
3 seq u en ce w ill p ro d u c e ve ry n o tic ea b le d is c o n tin u itie s
in all scenes th a t c o n ta in a n y m o tio n b e c a u se th e w ro n g
field w ill be d is c a rd e d d u rin g th e ta p e-to -film tran sfer.
U n fo rtu n a te ly , th e re is n o w a y of k n o w in g th a t the se ­
q u e n c e h a s b een d is tu rb e d u n til the v id e o is ac tu a lly b e ­
ing tran sferred , sim p ly b e c a u se it is n o t p o ssib le to p r e ­
dict w h e re the v id e o ta p e e d its w ill o c cu r a n d w h a t the
se q u e n c e is a t th a t p o in t. O th e r e x a m p le s o f this o ccu r
w h e n f o r e g r o u n d /b a c k g r o u n d m a ttin g is d o n e a n d o n e
of the ele m e n ts is o u t of se q u e n c e w ith th e other.

572
 In o r d e r to p r o d u c e th e b e st p o ssib le tra n sfe r, it is
d e sira b le th a t the ta pe-to-film h o u s e u s e d for th e tr a n s ­
fer is ab le to d y n a m ic a lly d e te r m in e th e se q u e n c e a n d
a d a p t th e th r o w a w a y field se q u e n c e acco rd in g ly . T h is is
d o n e a t Im ag e T ra n sfo rm b y c o m p u te r-c o n tro lle d sig n al
p ro cessin g . It is o ffered as p a r t of the scene-to-scene color
co rrectio n p rocess.

Video Signal Processing

S cene-to-scene co lo r c o rre c tio n , d y n a m ic e n h a n c e ­
m e n t, s m e a r c o rre c tio n a n d p h a s e c o rre c tio n a re so m e
m e th o d s u s e d in th e ta p e -to -film p ro c e s s to o v e rc o m e
lim itatio n s of the v id e o e n v iro n m e n t. T hese te c h n iq u e s
are e m p lo y e d to h e lp m a k e th e v id e o ta p e look as m u c h
like film as p ossible. F o r e x a m p le , th e g a m m a a n d clip ­
p in g levels a re c h a n g e d to e m u la te th e tra n sfe r fu n c tio n
o f film. W h e re p o ssib le, th e u se of electronic p ro c e ssin g
to the tran sfer p ro ce ss s h o u ld be k e p t to a m in im u m . This
w ill h e lp a v o id a n o v e rp ro c e sse d look in th e p ro d u c t.
A lw a y s b e a r in m in d th a t a m o tio n -p ic tu re screen is
m u c h la rg e r th a n a te lev isio n m o n ito r a n d care m u s t b e
ta k e n in the v id e o p r o d u c tio n to allo w fo r th e b e st p o s ­
sible e n d resu lt. Sm all d e fe c ts in th e v id e o c a n be q u ite
o b jectio n ab le w h e n p ro je c te d o n a la rg e screen.

Lighting and Cameras

In m o s t cases, it is su ffic ie n t to s h o o t u s in g e s ta b ­
lished practices for v id e o p ro d u c tio n . It is valid to say that
the q u a lity of a film p r i n t w ill be in d ire c tly p ro p o rtio n a l
to th e q u a lity of th e v id e o so u rc e m a te ria l. W h e n sh o o t­
in g the v id e o , u s e th e full d y n a m ic ra n g e a v ailab le a n d
a v o id c ru s h in g the b la c k s o r c lip p in g w h ite a re a s of the
scene. E n su re that the ca m e ra clip levels for each color are
set th e sam e.
Scene-to-scene color co rre c tio n is u su a lly p e rfo rm e d
as p a r t of th e tape-to-film p ro c e ss to e n s u re th a t th e re ­
s u l ti n g film is c o lo rim e tr ic a lly c o rre c t. T h is in c lu d e s
scen e-to -scen e m a n ip u la tio n of RGB gain , g a m m a a n d
p e d e s ta l, as w e ll a s h u e a n d s a t u r a tio n c o n tro l. In the
p ro cess of tra n sfo rm in g tape-to-film , color m a trix in g a n d
tran sfer ch aracteristics of the v id e o a re c h a n g e d to h elp
m a k e v id e o lo o k m o re like film.
In o rd e r to a ch ie v e b e st re su lts, th e v id e o s h o u ld be
sh o t w ith a d e q u a te a n d even lighting, usin g the b est avail­

573
able cam eras. T he choice of c a m e ra w ill d e p e n d u p o n the
n a tu re of the subject m a te ria l. T h e choice of C C D or co n ­
ven tio n al (tu b e-b ased ) v id e o c a m e ra s w ill d e p e n d o n th e
available lig h t as w e ll a s th e a m o u n t of co n tro l th a t the
d irecto r of p h o to g ra p h y h a s ov e r the scene. In a d e q u a te ly
lit scenes m a y su ffer from d e c re a s e d re s o lu tio n a n d ex ­
cessive noise. In g en era l, C C D c a m e ra s are b e tte r su ite d
to low light levels. P ro p e r care s h o u ld be dire c ted to m in i­
m ize n o ise a n d o th e r a rtifacts in tro d u c e d a s a re s u lt of
u s in g th e c a m e ra s o u ts id e o f th e ir n o rm a l ra n g e . T h e
v id e o m e d iu m d o es n o t h a v e the sa m e d y n a m ic ra n g e as
film.
R ecent d e v e lo p m e n ts in the field of C C D te ch n o lo g y
h a v e m a d e these c a m e ra s v e ry p o p u la r. T hey d o n o t s u f­
fer from reg istratio n , o v e rlo a d , lag o r co m et-ta ilin g like
their tube c o u n te rp a rts. In the case of tu b e c am eras, m a k e
su re th e reg istra tio n is se t correctly as this is o n e of th e
few p ro b le m s th a t c a n n o t be c o rre c te d d u rin g the trans-
form -to-film process.
M ost m o d e rn v id e o c am e ra s com e w ith a knob called
" e n h a n c e m e n t." " a p e r tu r e " o r "c o rin g ." T h e se a d ju s t­
m e n ts are to increase th e a p p a r e n t re s o lu tio n of the p ic­
ture, an d m a k e the im a g e s sh a rp e r. T hey also m a k e th e m
noisier, a n d w h e n o v e ru s e d , they w ill p u t a d a r k black
e d g e a ro u n d subjects in th e p ic tu re s. T hese artifacts w ill
look very u n n a tu ra l w h e n tra n sfe rre d to film. W h e n a d ­
justing these controls, m a k e su re th a t they a re n o t subject
to o veruse. M o st g o o d v id e o ca m e ra s w ill re q u ire a m in i­
m u m a m o u n t of this ty p e of c o rre ctio n . In -c a m e ra e n ­
h a n c e m e n t a n d co rin g s h o u ld be k e p t to a m in im u m . A
g o o d g u id e w h e n se ttin g u p c a m era e n h a n c e m e n t is fo­
c u sin g to a n optical m u ltib u rs t c hart, a n d se ttin g th e e n ­
h a n c e m e n t to p ro v id e a flat fre q u en cy re s p o n se a t 400 TV
lines o n the w a v e fo rm m o n ito r. A v o id u sin g an im a g e in
the v ie w fin d e r o r m o n ito r to se t e n h a n c e m e n t levels b e ­
c au se o v e rc o m p e n s a tio n c a n o c c u r as a re s u lt o f p o o r
m o n ito r resolution.

Videotape Formats
T h ere are m a n y d iffere n t v id e o fo rm a ts av ailab le for
re c o rd in g video. T hese in c lu d e the Vi' c o n s u m e r a n d -W
in d u s tria l form ats, u p to th e 1" co m p o site a n d D -l c o m ­
p o n e n t professional form ats. T he fo rm er (Zi," Va ') a re g e n ­
erally n o t su itab le for tra n sfe r to film b e c a u se th e y lack
the necessary b a n d w id th a n d d o n o t h a v e th e re q u ire d
574
sig n al-to -n o ise ra tio s n e e d e d for a g o o d tra n sfe r to film.
S o m e in d u s tria l film s, h o w e v e r, are s h o t o n v id e o ta p e
a n d tra n s fe rre d su ccessfu lly to 1 6m m film for in -h o u se
d istrib u tio n . T he resu lts can be acceptable w h e n projected
o n sm a ll screens. M a te rials s u p p lie d o n o n e of th e se fo r­
m a ts u s u a lly n e e d so m e form o f n o ise re d u c tio n a n d e n ­
h a n c e m e n t p rio r to b e in g tra n sfe rre d .
S cene-to-scene color co rrec tio n re q u ire s 1" C fo rm at,
D - l, D -2 o r D -3 v id e o ta p e . M a te ria l s u p p lie d o n o th e r
fo rm a ts w ill n e e d to b e d u b b e d to o n e of th e se fo rm a ts if
sc e n e -to -s c e n e c o lo r c o rre c tio n is r e q u ire d . T h e u s e of
h ig h -e n e rg y , lo w -n o ise , lo w -d r o p o u t p ro fe ssio n a l g ra d e
v id e o ta p e is re c o m m e n d e d , a n d th e n u m b e r of g e n e ra ­
tio n s s h o u ld be k e p t to a m in im u m .
T h ere is n o d o u b t th a t th e b e st ava ila b le fo rm a ts for
ta p e-to -film tra n sfe rs a re 1" C form a t, o r o n e of th e d ig i­
tal fo rm a ts th a t h a v e b e e n s h o t w ith s tu d io -q u a lity c a m ­
eras. If 3 5 m m th e atrica l relea se is d e sire d , th e u se of o n e
o f th e se fo rm a ts is m a n d a to ry .
T h e u s e o f c o m p o n e n t s y s te m s , s u c h a s th e S o n y
B etacam SP a n d the P a n a s o n ic M II fo rm a t, as w e ll as
o th e r sy ste m s w h e re th e v id e o sig n a l is re c o rd e d a s a se­
ries o f lu m in a n c e a n d c h ro m in a n c e (i.e. n o t c o m p o site
v id eo ), ca n be successful to full 1" p ro d u c tio n . W h e n c o n ­
sid e rin g th e u se o f in d u s tria l a n d c o n s u m e r form ats, c o n ­
su lt w ith th e tra n sfe r facility p rio r to b e g in n in g p r o d u c ­
tion.
Im a g e s p r o d u c e d b y th e B e tacam SP s y ste m o fte n
a p p ro a c h th a t o f 1" q u a lity w ith o u t so m e o f th e 1" lim i­
ta tio n s (su ch as cost a n d ea se o f u se in th e field). H ig h e r
c h ro m in a n c e re s o lu tio n a n d th e lack of cross-color effects
a re b ig a d v a n ta g e s . T hese a d v a n ta g e s , h o w e v e r are on ly
m a in ta in e d if the sig n a ls sta y in c o m p o n e n t fo rm all the
w a y th r o u g h o rig in a tio n , p o s t p r o d u c t io n a n d e d itin g .
T h ey are lost if th e sig n a l is e n c o d e d a t a n y stage.
O n e m e th o d o f p ro d u c in g e x tre m ely g o o d p ic tu re s
is to s h o o t v id e o u sin g a c o m p o n e n t sy ste m , th e n m a ste r
to th e d ig ita l D -l ta p e fo rm a t. G re a t su cc e ss h a s b e e n
a c h ie v e d b y s h o o tin g u s in g a B e ta c am SP c a m e r a / r e ­
c o rd e r, th e n e d itin g c o m p o n e n t u s in g SP p la y b a c k m a ­
c h in es a n d the D -l a s a m a s te r re c o rd m a c h in e. T h e re are
several p o s tp ro d u c tio n facilities tha t specialize in c o m p o ­
n e n t e d itin g sy stem s. M a k e su re th a t the sig n a l is a lw a y s
k e p t c o m p o n e n t — n e v e r e n c o d e d to N TSC . M a n y d o c u ­

575
m e n taries a n d full-length feature p re se n ta tio n s h a v e b ee n
sh o t in th is w ay.
T he u se of d o w n s tr e a m n o ise re d u c tio n d u r in g e d ­
itin g s h o u ld be a v o id e d a s this is a n in te g ra l p a r t of th e
film tra n sfo rm pro cess. D o u b lin g u p o n n o ise re d u c tio n
w ill p ro d u c e im a g e s th a t a p p e a r b lu r re d a n d u n n a tu ra l,
as w ell as d e c re a s in g the ava ila b le re s o lu tio n a n d le a v ­
ing objectionable artifacts.
A ll of the active p ic tu re area is p re s e rv e d in the tape-
to-film tran sfer p rocess. T h e re is a slig h t loss of p ic tu re
area in the p rin tin g p rocess; h o w e v e r, th e n e g a tiv e w ill
c ontain all the in fo rm a tio n o riginally in the v id e o pic tu re.

576
 References
Books and Pamphlets
A b b o tt, L.B., ASC: "Special Effects w ith W ire, T a p e a n d
R u b b er B ands," ASC Press, 1984.
A C V L H an d b o o k , A ssociation of C inem a a n d V ideo L abo­
ratories.
A N SI S tan d a rd s, A m erican N ational S ta n d a rd s Institute.
Cox, A rth u r, "O ptics...T he T e chnique of D efinition," Focal
Press, L ondon, 1961.
D u n n , L in w o o d G., ASC, a n d T u rn e r, G e o rg e E., "ASC
T reasu ry of V isual Effects," ASC Press,1983.
E astm an K odak Publication B-3: Filters.
E astm an K o d ak P ublication H-23: T he Book of Film Care.
E astm an K o d ak Publication: U ltraviolet a n d Fluorescence
P h o to g rap h y .
E astm an K odak P ublication N-17: Infrared Films.
E vans, R.M., W.T. H a n so n Jr., a n d W.L. Brewer, "Principles
of C olor P h o to g ra p h y ," John W iley & Sons Inc., N ew
York, 1953.
Fielding, R ay m o n d ,"T h e T echnique of Special Effects C in ­
em a to g ra p h y ," Focal Press, L ondon, 1972.
H a p p e , B ernard, "Y o u r Film a n d the L a b /' Focal Press,
L o n d o n , 1974.
H a rriso n , H .K., "T he M y ste ry of Filters-II," H a rriso n &
H arrison, 1981.
H y p ia , J o r m a , " T h e C o m p le te T iffen F ilte r M a n u a l,"
A m P h o to , N ew York.
K ingslake, R udolf, "L enses in P h o to g ra p h y ," G a rd en City
Books, 1951.
Kisner, W.I. (editor), "C ontrol T ech n iq u es in Film P rocess­
in g ," SMPTE, N e w York, 1960.
M ees, C.E.K., "T he T heory of the P h o to g ra p h ic Process,"
M acm illan, N e w York, 1942,1945,1954,1966,1977.
M ertens, L aw rence, "In W a te r P hoto g rap h y : T heory a n d
Practice," W iley Interscience, John W iley & Sons, N e w
Y ork, 1970.

577
Ryan, R.T., "A H isto ry of M otion Picture C olor T echnol­
ogy," Focal Press, L o n d o n , 1977.
R yan, R .T.(E ditor), "P rin c ip le s o f C o lo r S e n sito m e try ,"
SMPTE, N ew York, 1974.
R yan, R.T., " U n d e rw a te r P h o to g ra p h ic A p p lic a tio n s —
Intro d u ctio n ," SMPTE Journal, D ecem ber 1973, Vol­
u m e 82, N u m b e r 12.
Spottisw ood, R aym ond, "T heory of Stereoscopic T ran sm is­
sion," VC Press, 1953.
T hom as Jr., W oodlief, "SPSE H a n d b o o k of P h o to g ra p h ic
Science a n d E ngineering," John W iley & Sons, N e w
York, 1973.
Tiffen M anufacturing C o rp o ratio n Publication T179: Tiffen
P h o tar Filter Glass.
W ilson, A n to n , "C in e m a W o rk s h o p ," A SC P ress, 1983,
1991.

Journals
A m erican C in em ato g ra p h er, ASC H o ld in g C orp.
BKSTS Jo u rn a l, " I m a g e T e c h n o lo g y ," B ritish K in e m a -
tograph, S o u n d a n d Television Society.
SMPTE Journal, Society O f M o tio n Picture a n d Television
Engineers.

578
 Index
A lighting to eliminate
Aerial cinematography 489 shadow 439
Aerial image cinematog­ lighting to hold Shadow 438
raphy 481 lighting to match back­
Aerial mounts 255 ground 439
Anamorphic other lighting consider­
lenses 13 ations 440
Aperture 261 reverse blue screen 453
Aperture, Academy 13 reverse front projection 457
Aperture, full 13 screen types and lighting 434
Arctic cinematography 504 transmission blue screen 453
equipm ent and filming using the UltiMatte Video
technique 508 Previewer 440
film 509
preparation of equipment 505
c
storage 510 Camera assistant 269
ASA: Exposure Indexes 120 Camera body 260
Aspect Ratios 15 Camera stabilizing systems 253
1.85 Aspect Ratio 15 Cinema Products Steadicam
2.35 Aspect Ratio 18 (Universal Model III) 253
Super 35 Formats 20 Panavision Panaglide 254
Camera supports 246
6 dollies 250
Background plates 394 Camera supports
Barndoors 390 cranes 246
Cameras, 16mm 8 6
Batteries and cables 261
Black & white film 120 Aaton XTRplus 8 6
Arriflex 16BL 95
Black & white negative and
reversal films 283 Arriflex 16S/B; 16S/B-GS;
Blowup: 16mm to 35mm 527 16M/B 97
Arriflex 16SR-2 8 8
composing 16mm for blowup
to 35mm 528 Arriflex 16SR-3 93
composing Super 16mm for Arriflex Super 16 91
blowup to 35mm 530 Bell & Howell 16mm Filmo
laboratory procedures 533 70 101
Super 16mm 529 Bolex 16mm (All Models) 99
titles 531 Cinema Products CP-16 & CP-
16A 102
zero-cut editing 533
Blue screen process Cinema Products CP-16R & CP-
16R/A 104
black & white self-matting
process 445 Cinema Products GSMO
blue floor shooting 436 16mm 105
Eclair ACL 16mm 107
blue screen materials 437
electronic and digital Eclair CM-3 16/35mm 108
compositing 444 Eclair NPR 16mm 109
front projection blue 456 Minicam 16mm (GSAP) 102
Mitchell 16mm Professional, HS
front-lit backing materials 452
laboratory procedures for &HSC 111
compositing 441 Mitchell 16mm Reflex, SSR-16
light level for the Stewart T- Single System, DSR-16 113
matte 437 Panavision Panaflex 16mm
lighting a front-illuminated Camera System 114
Cameras, 35mm 45
backing 438

579
 Aaton 35-11 46 Wilcam W -ll VistaVision
Aaton 35mm Hand- Sound Speed 85
holdable 45 Wilcam W-7 VistaVision High
Arriflex 35-2C 57 Speed 82
Arriflex 35-3 High Speed Wilcam W-9 VistaVision
MOS 52 Lightweight 83
Arriflex 35-3C 56 Catadioptric or Reflective
Arriflex 35BL-4s 54 Systems 152
Arriflex 535 47 Chapman-Electra I Stage
Arriflex 535B 50 Crane 250
Cinema Products FX35 59 Chapman-Nike/Electra II Stage
Cinema Products XR35 Crane 250
Lightweight Studio Chapman-Sidewinder Dolly 250
Camera 61 Chapman-Super Apollo Mobile
Eclair CM-3 16/35mm 108 Crane 249
Feathercam CM35 62 Chapman-Titan II Mobile
IMAGE 300 35mm 63 Crane 248
Mitchell 35mm Standard & Chapman-Zeus Stage Crane 249
High Speed Cameras 67 CID Lamps 350
Mitchell NC, NCR, BNC, BNCR Cinema Products Steadicam
(35mm 64 (Universal Model III) 253
Mitchell S35R (Mark II) Cinematographic Systems 1
35mm 6 6 16mm Systems 9
Moviecam Super 35mm 69 35mm Systems 3
Panaflex Panastar High- special purpose systems 1 0
Speed 75 Cinematography, special
Panavision GII Golden techniques
Panaflex 74 aerial 487
Panavision Panaflex-X 75 arctic 504
Panavision Platinum Panaflex blowup: 16mm to 35mm 527
35mm 70 infrared 521
Panavision Super R-2000 day-for-night 518
35mm 76 stereoscopic technology 534
Photo-Sonics 35mm 4B/4C 79 television film 561
Photo-Sonics 35mm-4ER 79 3-D cinematography 538
Ultracam 35mm 80 tropical 511
Cameras, 65mm 31 ultraviolet photography 523
Arriflex 765 31 underwater 495
Cinema Products CP-65 33 Color difference traveling matte
Fries Model 865 65mm/8- system 431
perf 34 Color film 119
Mitchell 65mm Reflex TODD- Color Rendering Index 320
AO 36 Color reversal films 282
Mitchell FC, BFC (65mm) 64 Color temperature 316
MSM Model 8870 65mm/8- Commercial/Industrial light
perf 37 sources 354
Panavision 65mm AC AC arc lamp flicker prob­
(Auxiliary Camera) SPC lem 376
(Speed C 39 AC discharge lighting 355
Panavision Panaflex System-65 domestic incandescent
Hand-holdable 43 lighting 354
Panavision System-65 existing fluorescent lighting on
65mm 39 location 355
Cameras, VistaVision 81 filter selection 365
MSM Model 8812 35mm/8-perf Common topline 22
VistaVision 81

580
Composite photogra­ D
phy 415, 430, 445
Daily preparation for shoot­
color difference traveling matte
system 431 ing 266
electronic scanned film for Day-for-night cinematog­
raphy 518
composites 451
black & white film 520
film stock 446
negative color film 521
front projection blue 456
reversal color film 520
front-lit backing materials 452
laboratory procedures for DC Carbon Arc Sources 340
compositing 441 color temperature 340
operating characteristics 340
rear-screen projection 415
filters 340
reverse blue screen 453
transmission bl ue screen 453 DCI — DC metal halide arc
discharge lamps 347
Ultimatte "screen correc­
tion" 450 Dedolight 383
video and electronic scan­ Depth of field 161
Depth of field for close-up
ning 450
photography 167
Computer graphics 467
Depth of focus 162
2-D and 3-D images 469
Diffusers 392
basic tools and terms 467
Digital Audio Tape (DAT)
digital frame stores 469
graphics tablet 469 recorder 545
Digital effects cinematog­
image processing 474
raphy 460
modeling 469
paintbox systems 469 Digital frame stores 469
Diopter lenses 166
recording 473
Dollies 250
rendering 471
scanning 472 Chapman-Sidewinder
Continental camera aerial mount dolly 250
Elemack Cricket dolly 251
255
Correlated color tempera­ Fisher Crab dolly 251
FGV Panther 252
ture 318
Dynalens 173
Cranes 246
Chapman-Electra I Stage E
crane 250
Chapman-Nike/Electra II Stage EBU (European Broadcasting
crane 250 Union) 243
Chapman-Super Apollo Mobile Edge numbers 121
crane 249 Electronic intermediate
Chapman-Titan II Mobile system 462
crane 248 Elemack Cricket dolly 251
Chapman-Zeus Stage Emulsion testing 294
crane 249 calibration 294
Louma Crane by Samcine 246 Enclosed AC arcs 341
MC 8 8 Crane 247 Exposure 270
Nettman Cam-Remote by Exposure meters 233
Matthews 247 Cinemeter II 238
The Crane by Matthews 246 incident light meters 233
Crystal-Controlled Cordless Minolta Luminance 239
Camera Drive System 242 reflected light meters 236
time code 243 Spectra Cinespot 1° spot
CSI lamps 348 meter 240
Spectra Professional IV 240
Exposure meters
testing 238

581
Exposure reporting 281 G
Extension of prime lens 166
Gel frames 391
Extreme close-up 165
Gobos 392
depth of field for close-up
photography 167 Graphics tablet 469
Grip accessories 392
lens formulas 168
Gyrosphere aerial mount 255
F
H
FGV Panther 252
Film 119 High-pressure DC short arc
xenon light sources 352
ASA: exposure indexes 120
High-resolution electronic
black & white 1 2 0
color 119 intermediate system 462
HMI lamps 342
color negative 119, 120
Hyperfocal distance 160
color reversal camera
films 119 I
color reversal film 121
edge numbers 121 Illumination data 324
Film handling and storage 125 Image processing 474
processed film storage 126 Image Transform system 568
"Film look" 563 Incandescent light sources 331
Film Perforations 123 boosted-voltage operation 337
16mm films 123 filters for incandescent
35mm Films 124 lamps 338
65mm Films 124 incandescent lamp opera­
70mm Films 124 tion 334
pitch 123 standard incandescent 332
Film tests 266 tungsten-halogen lamps 333
Filters 263 Incident light meters 233
combination filters 331 special effects 235
conversion-type filters 330 specific situations 235
filters for control of natural
daylight 330 K
filters for incandescent Kenworthy Snorkel camera
lamps 338 system 172
neutral-density filters 330
Flicker problems 376 L
Fluorescent lighting for motion Laboratory 280
pictures 359 black & white negative and
Forced development of color reversal films 283
films 283 color reversal films 282
Fresnel lens spotlights 381 exposure reporting 281
Front projection process 399 flashing 284
brightness and color match­ forced development of color
ing 412 films 283
halo effect 409 printer points 280
minimum foreground-object release-printing proce­
distances 411 dures 282
reverse front projection 457 special processing 282
Scotchlite screen 402 Lamps 262
tesselating the screen 404 Lens angle and field of view 163
Z*Axis displacement for Lens aperture 165
closeups 412 Lens extenders (multipliers) 151
Lens focus calibration 264

582
Lens formulas 160 HMI lamps 342
depth of field 161 illumination data 324
depth of focus 162 incandescent light sources 331
hyperfocal distance 160 luminaires 380
lens angle and field of mercury vapor and color
view 163 improved mercury
lens aperture 165 lamps 357
lens displacement 165 metal halide additive
Lens housing 263 lamps 360
Lenses 142, 262 MIRED system 319
anamorphic lenses 142 photographic light
auxiliary lenses 142 sources 328
care and maintenance 143 physical characteristics of light
condensation 145 sources 314
diopter lenses 166 sodium lamps 361
modulation transfer function spectral energy distribution
(MTF) 143 (SED) 324
normal lenses 142 stroboscopic lighting 353
removing lens retainer Louma Crane by Samcine 246
rings 144 Luminaires 380
selection of 142 cyclorama luminaires 388
special purpose lenses 170 dedolight 383
split-field diopter lenses 168 fresnel lens spotlights 381
telephoto lenses 148 light-control accessories 390
testing 143 open reflector variable beam
zoom lenses 142,153 spotlights 385
Light control accessories 390 sealed-beam types (PAR
barndoors 390 lamps) 390
diffusers 392 soft lights 388
gel frames 391 tungsten-halogen flood­
gobos 392 lights 387
grip accessories for light
control 392 M
rcflectors 392 Magazine 264
scrim 391 Matte Box 264
Lighting MC 8 8 Crane 247
characteristics of light Meters sec Exposure meters
sources 313 Microphone placement 550
CID lamps 350 Miniature photography 420
color balancing for photogra­ model size 421
phy 363 shooting speeds 422
color rendering index 320 MIRED Ssystem 319
color temperature 316 Modeling 469
commercial/industrial light Modulation Transfer Function
sources 354 (MTF) 143
correlated color tempera­ Chart 145
ture 318 Motion-control cinematog­
CSI lamps 348 raphy 424
DC Carbon Arc sources 340
DCI — DC Metal Halide arc N
discharge lamps 347
Natural Daylight 328
enclosed AC arcs 341
Filters for control of 330
fluorescent lighting for motion
Nettman Cam-Remote by
pictures 359
Matthews 247
high-pressure DC short arc
xenon light sources 352

583
o Reference black Sir Telecine
operation
Optical printer 475
Reference white See Telecine
P operation
Reflected Light Meters 236
Paintbox systems 469 spot meters 237
Panavision Panaglidc 254 Reflectors 392
Photographic light sources 328 "Relative humidity". See Tropical
natural daylight 328 cinematography
Photographic testing and Release-Printing Procedures 282
evaluation 288 Rendering 471
equipment 288 Resolution 567
laboratory/process/printer dynamic resolution 568
scale/emulsion batch 291 Image Transform system 568
visual effects: lighting, filters,
image modificat 292 s
Pitch 123
"Safe action area” 565. See also
Plate photography
Cinematographic systems
background plates 394
"Safe title area" Sir Cinemato­
Preparation of Equipment 258
graphic systems
aperture 261
Scotchlite screen 402
batteries and cables 261
Scratch test 265
camera assistant 269
Scrim 391
camera body 260
Soft lights 388
daily preparation for
Sound recording 548
shooting 266
microphone placement 550
equipment checkout 259
use of tape recorders 553
film tests 266
Sound systems, synchronizing
filters 263
See Synchronizing methods
inventory 258
Spacecam aerial mount 256
invoice check 259
Special cinematographic systems
lamps 262
lens focus calibration 264 videotape-to-film 566
Special processing 282
lens housing 263
Special purpose lenses 170
lenses 262
Continental Camera sys­
magazine 264
tems 171
matte box 264
Dynalens 173
optional items 268
Kenworthy Snorkel Camera
scratch test 265
systems 172
spreader 259
Panavision 45mm T2.8 Slant-
steadiness test 266
Focus lens 171
tools 267
Swing Shift lens 170
tripod head 260
Special visual effects 394
tripods 259
background plates 394
variable shutter 262
computer graphics 467
video assist: video camera,
digital effects cinematog­
monitor
raphy 460
and record 264
electronic intermediate
viewfinder 262
system 462
zoom lens 263
front-projection process 399
zoom motor 263
miniature photography 420
Printer points 280
motion-control 424
R optical printer 475
rear-screen projection 415
Rear-screen projection 415 traveling matte composite
Recording 473 photography 430

584
Spectral Energy Distribution Time Code 243
(SED) 324 current synchronization
Split-field diopters 168 systems and time
Spot meters 237 code 544
Spreader 259 Tools 267
Steadiness test 266 Traveling matte composite
Stereoscopic motion picture photography 430
technology 534 Tripod head 260
3-D projection 537 Tripods 259
optical "flat" projection 537 Tropical cinematography 511
stereoscopic/3-D camera black & white film 515
systems 534 color film 516
Stroboscopic lighting 353 maintenance of equip­
Synchronizing methods 540 ment 515
Digital Audio Tape (DAT) preparation and protection of
recorder 545 equipment 513
Synchronizing with non-time storage of photographic
code DATs 547 materials 512
current systems and time Tyler camera arial mount 256
code 544
early sync-pulse systems 543 u
synchronous motors and Ultraviolet photography 523
selsyns 541 determining exposure 526
films 526
T special considerations 526
T-Stops 270 Underwater cinematography 497
Tape recorders 553
Telecine Sec Television film V
cinematography Variable shutter 262
and contrast 562 Video assist: video camera,
automatic telecine opera­ monitor
tion 564 and record 264
Telephoto lenses 148 Videotape-to-film 566
catadioptric or reflective digital effects 570
systems 152 film to tape to film 571
filters 149 graphics rendering 570
lens extenders (multipli­ interlace artifacts 569
ers) 151 lighting and cameras 573
Telephoto lenses resolution 567
techniques 149 video signal processing 573
Television film cinematogra­ videotape formats 574
phy 561 Viewfinder 262
contrast 562
"film look" 563 w
television film apertures 565
"television gamma" 563 Wescam aerial m ount 257
The Crane by Matthews 246 z
3-D cinematography 538
3-D motion picture Zoom lenses 153, 263
technology. See stereoscopic cine zoom lenses on video
motion picture technology cameras 159
35mm blowups to 70mm do's and don't's 156
prints 26 maintenance of 159
mechanics of 154
zoom motor 263

585