ICT

Definition of terms

Definition of a computer-A computer is an electronic device that accepts user input (data) and process them to produce desired output (information).
Data- They are raw facts that are meaningless to the user and cannot be used to make decision e.g. Numbers, letters etc
Processing- it is the process of converting data into meaningful information e. g. Arithmetic operation e.g. Addition, subtraction etc.
Information-Refers to data, which has been processed and can be used for decision making
- Peripheral devices- These are devices that can be connected to system unit externally e.g. mouse, keyboard , Monitor, printer, speakers, plotters .

ICT- Information and Communication Technologies. refers to technologies that provide access to information through telecommunications. ... This includes the Internet, wireless networks, cell
phones, and other communication mediums.
ADVANTAGES OF USING COMPUTERS.

Computers have many advantages over other types of office and business equipments that are used for data processing functions. Some of the advantages are:
1) Computers process data faster:
The processing speed of a computer when measured against other devices like typewriters & calculators is far much higher.
2) Computers are more accurate & reliable:
Computers produce more accurate results as long as the correct instructions & data are entered. They also have the ability to handle numbers with many decimal places.

3) Computers are more efficient:

A computer requires less effort to process data as compared to human beings or other machines.
4) Computers can quickly and effectively store & retrieve large amounts of data.
5) They are very economical when saving information, for it can conserve a lot of space.
6) Computers occupy very little office space.
7) Computers help to reduce paper work significantly.
8) Computers are flexible:
A computer can perform a variety of jobs as long as there is a well-defined procedure.
9) Computers are cheap
They can be used to perform a number of organizational functions/ activities, which are meant for individual persons, hence reducing the number of employees & the costs.
10) Computers enhance security & confidentiality:
Data stored in a computer can be protected from unauthorized individuals.
11) Have made communication easier.
12) Computers produce better information:
Computer output is usually tidy and error-free (accurate).
13) Computers reduce the problems of data or information duplication:
14) Computers can operate in risky environments, e.g. volcanic sites, dangerous chemical plants, where human life is threatened:

DISADVANTAGES OF USING COMPUTERS.

1) Computers are very costly in terms of purchase & maintenance.

2) Computers can only be used areas where there is source of power.
3) Requires skilled manpower to operate, i.e., one has to have some knowledge so as to operate a computer.
4) The records are usually kept in a form that is not visible or human-readable. This makes it difficult to control the contents of the computer’s master file.
5) A computer, like any other machine can break down.
6) Information stored in computers can easily get lost due to power interruptions or machine breakdown.
7) A computer doesn’t have its own intelligence, i.e., it cannot do any useful job on its own, but can only work as per the set of instructions issued.
8) Installation of computers causes retraining or retrenchment of staff/ employees.
9) The computer technology is changing very fast such that the already bought computers could be made obsolete/ out dated in the next few years.

In addition, this rapid change in the computer technology makes computers & related facilities to become outdated very fast, hence posing a risk of capital loss.
10) The emergence of computers has increased the rate of unemployment since they are now being used to perform the jobs, which were done by human beings.
11) Computers have led to increase in computer crimes especially in Banks. The computer criminals steal large amounts of funds belonging to various companies by transferring them out of
their company accounts illegally. In addition, they destroy vital data used in running the companies.

AREAS WHERE COMPUTERS ARE USED.

The following are some of the areas where computers are used:

1. Supermarkets.
- Supermarkets and other retail stores use computers for stock control, i.e., to help them manage their daily activities.
The stock control system keeps record of what is in store, what has been sold, and what is out of stock. The Management is automatically alerted when a particular item or items are
running out of stock and need to be reordered.
- For calculating customer’s Balance.
- For production of receipts.
- It can be used as a barcode reader.

2. Industries.
The use of computers has made Industries more productive & efficient. They are used:

 To monitor and control industrial processes. The industries use remote controlled devices called Robots. A Robot is a machine that works like a human being, but performs tasks that are
unpleasant, dangerous, and tedious to be done by human beings.
 For management control, i.e. to keep track of orders, bills and transactions.
 By companies as a competitive tool. E.g., they are used to assist in defining new products & services. They also help industries form new relationships with suppliers and therefore,
enable the producers maintain a competitive edge against their competitors.
 For advertisement purposes, which enable an industry to attract more customers.

3. Banks/Insurance industries
Computers are used by Banks & Insurance industries:

 To manage financial transactions. They use special cash dispensing machines called Automated Teller Machines (ATMs) to enable them provide cash deposit & withdrawal services.
  For processing of Cheques.
 For preparation of Payrolls.
 For better record keeping and processing of documents.
 To provide electronic money transfer facilities.

4. Process control.
Computers are used in production environments such as factories to control chemical & mechanical processes. The computers are usually loaded with specialized programs & each
computer is designed to do a specific job.

5. Hospitals.
Computers are used in hospitals:

 To keep & retrieve patient’s medical records.

 For automatic diagnosis of diseases like Cancer, electro-cardiogram screening & monitoring.
They are used to get a cross-sectional view of the patient’s body that enables physicians to properly diagnose the affected part of the body with high levels of accuracy.

 In medical equipments, e.g. blood pressure monitors, blood analyzers, etc.

 To control life-supporting machines in the Intensive Care Units (ICU).
 To enable medical experts in different countries to share their expertise or labour, thus reducing the transportation of patients & professionals.

6. Offices.
 For receiving & sending of messages through e-mails, fax, etc.
 Production of documents.
 Keeping of records.

7. Government Institutions.
Computers are used in government ministries & agencies:

 To store/keep records and improve the efficiency of work within the Civil service.
If computers were not used, the large number of files in government registries would make information recovery extremely difficult.

 To produce bills & statements.

8. Education.

Computers are widely used in the teaching & learning process. Learning and teaching using computers is referred to as Computer Aided Learning (CAL) and Computer Aided Teaching (CAT).

 Computers are used in learning institutions (schools & colleges) as teaching aids, i.e. to help in teaching various subjects.
E.g., they are used to demonstrate experiments in subjects like Chemistry or Physics using a special program that can illustrate them on the screen through a process called Simulation.

 To assist the Long distance learning in universities usually referred to as the Open University Concept.
 To analyze academic data.
 Computers are used in Aviation for training of pilots. Flight simulators are used to monitor the control movements made by the pilot while the computer is used to physically change the
environment so that the pilot feels as if he were controlling an actual aircraft.

9. Research.

Computers can be used for research in various fields. They are used by:
 Scientists to analyse their experimental data, e.g., in weather forecasting.
 Engineers & Architects to design & test their work.
 Computers have greatly assisted in space exploration.
 They are used to study the movement of stars.
 They have made manned & unmanned space exploration possible – they are used to launch space vehicles and monitor the flights & activities both onboard and around them.

10. Communication industry.

The integration of computers & telecommunication facilities has made the transmission and reception of messages very fast and efficient.

 They are used in telephone exchanges to switch incoming & outgoing calls.
 For sending & receiving electronic messages, e.g. fax and e-mails, if connected to a computer network.

11. Transport industry.

Computers are used in:

 Automobile traffic control, e.g., to monitor vehicle traffic in a busy town.

 Railway corporations to co-ordinate the movement of their goods & wagons.
 Shipping control. The computers are used for efficient management of fleets & communication.
 Airports (Airline industry). The computers are used;
 To control the movement of aircrafts, take off & landing through the use of radar equipment.
 Making reservations (booking purposes).
 Storing flight information.

12. Police (Law enforcement agencies).

 Computers are widely used in fighting crime. The Police use computers to keep databases on fingerprints and also analysed them.

 The Police also use computers for face recognition, scene monitoring & analysis, which help them to arrest traffic offenders and criminals.
The information held in computers such as fingerprints, photographs and other identification details helps law enforcers to carry out criminal investigations speedily.
13. Defence.

 Computers are used in electronic news gathering, efficient communication, detecting and tracking of targets; in radar systems, warning systems & in guided missile systems.
 Computers are used in military defence equipments, e.g. Fighter jets, Rockets, Bombers, etc.

14. Multimedia applications.

 Computers are used to prepare business presentations for advertisement purposes.
The presentations are done using overhead projectors attached to computers running slide shows & digital video clips taken using a Camcorder. An overlaid voice is used to describe the
product.

 Computers are used in music related equipment such as Synthesizers.

 In entertainment (i.e., games & movies), computers are used to add stereo sound & digital video clips, which make games more realistic.
 In Education & Training, Multimedia discs are used as teaching aids for all types of subjects.

15. Domestic and Entertainment systems.

Computers are used at homes:

 For watching movies, playing music and computer games.

 For storing personal information.
 For calculating and keeping home budgets.
 For shopping purposes. They provide people with lists of shopping items as well as their prices. They also provide electronic money transfer facilities.
 In household items, such as, Microwave ovens, Televisions, etc.

16. Library services.

Computers can be used in a library:1

- To enable the library personnel to easily access & keep updated records of books and other library materials.
- To search for book titles instead of using the manual card catalogue.

17. Employment.
The emergence of computers has provided employment opportunities to very many people.

Parts of a computer.

A computer is made up of a collection of different components that are interconnected together in order to work as a single entity.
A Computer consists of the following parts/devices: -

1. The System Unit.

2. Input devices.
3. Output devices.
4. Storage devices.
System Unit.

This is the casing (unit) that houses electronic components such as the ‘brain’ of the computer called the Central processing Unit (CPU) and storage devices.

The components in the System unit include: -

 Central Processing Unit (CPU), which is also referred to as Processor.

 Motherboard.
 Power supply unit.
 Memory storage devices.
 Disk drives, which are used to store, record and read data.

Types of System units

There are two makes of System units:

a) Tower style system unit

This system unit is made to stand alone. They are designed to be placed on the floor.
- Tower style units have more space for expansion than the typical desktop units.

b) Desktop system units

Desktop units lie on the desk with the monitor resting on top of the system unit.

Features of the System unit.

- It houses the CPU.
- It connects to all peripheral devices using ports.
- It has the computer’s Power switch.

COMPUTER LABORATORY.
 Definition:
A Computer laboratory is a room that has been specially prepared to facilitate installation of computers, and provide a safe conducive environment for teaching & learning of Computer
Studies.
SAFE USE & CARE OF COMPUTERS (COMPUTER HYGIENE)
Computer systems are expensive to acquire & maintain, and should therefore be handled with great care. Most computer breakdowns are caused by failure to follow the correct
instructions on use of equipment, carelessness, and neglect.
Computer hygiene involves keeping the computers in good care & order.
Factors to consider when preparing a computer laboratory.
The following factors must be considered when preparing a computer laboratory:
1. Security of the computers, programs and other resources.
2. Reliability of the source of power.
3. Number of computers to be installed, and the amount floor space available.
4. The maximum number of users that the laboratory can accommodate.

Requirements of a Computer Laboratory.

i). Standard and Enough furniture.

ii). Good ventilation.
iii). Reliable & Enough source of power supply.
iv). Free from Dust and Moisture.
v). Enough floor space.
vi). Proper cabling of electric wires.
vii). Fire fighting equipment.
viii). Good lighting equipment.
ix). Strong rooms & doors for the security of computers.

SAFETY PRECAUTIONS & PRACTICES IN A COMPUTER LABORATORY.

After establishing the computer laboratory, a number of safety precautions, rules, and practices need to be observed in order to avoid accidental injury to the users, damage of computers
or lack of a conducive environment for teaching and learning.

The safety precautions and practices include;

1. BEHAVIOUR IN THE COMPUTER LABORATORY.

The following rules must be followed in and around a computer laboratory.

a). Entering the computer room.

 Only authorized people should enter the computer room.

 Avoid smoking or exposing computers to dust. This is because; smoke & dust contain small abrasive particles that can damage computer components and cause wearing of the
moving parts.
 Do not carry foods such as Toffees, chocolates, chewing gums, & drinks/beverages to the computer room.

Food particles may fall into the moving parts of the computer and damage them. Liquids may spill into the computer parts causing rusting or electrical faults.

 Collect any waste materials (e.g., paper bits) which might be lying in the computer room & put them into the dustbin.
 Avoid unnecessary movements, because you may accidentally knock down the peripheral devices.
 Computer users should be trained on how to use computers frequently.
 Computer illiterates should not be allowed to operate the computers.
 Shut the door of the computer room properly.

b). Starting and shutting down the computer.

 Always follow the proper procedure for starting & shutting down the computer to avoid loss of data and damage to computer programs.
 Avoid turning the computer on & off frequently as it is harmful. Every time a PC is turned on, the internal components get heated and again cool down when the computer is
turned off. As a result, the circuit boards expand & contract and this can badly affect the solder-joints of the computer.
 Do not open up the metallic covers of computers or peripheral devices without permission and particularly when the computer’s power is still on.

2. PROTECTION AGAINST FIRE AND ACCIDENTS.

Fire outbreaks in the laboratory can be caused by either:

a). Inflammable chemicals, such as those used for cleaning & servicing the computer equipment.
b). Electrical faults, such as open wires or cables.
c). Smoking.

 Keep the chemicals away in a store after using them to avoid any accidents.
 Ensure that all electrical wires are properly insulated. Open wires or cables must be properly covered with an Insulating tape or replaced with new ones as they can cause fire leading
to damage of equipment.
 The computer room must always have a gaseous fire extinguisher especially those containing Carbon dioxide in case of any accidents.
Note. Water based or Powder extinguishers should not be used in the computer room because; they can cause damage to computer components.

Water causes rusting of the metallic parts and short circuits, while Powder particles normally settle on storage devices and may scratch them during read/write operations.
 Any incidence that may result in damage to equipment should be reported to the person in charge of the laboratory.
 No student should attempt to repair the equipment as this may lead to complete damage of the equipment.

3. INSULATION OF CABLES.

 All power cables in the computer room must be properly insulated and laid away from busy pathways in the room (i.e., preferably along the walls). This prevents the user from
stumbling on the cables, which might cause electric shock or power interruptions.
 System cables should be of the best quality & type, and should also be properly clipped (fixed).
 The cables should be handled carefully especially at the ends to avoid breaking the pins.

4. STABLE POWER SUPPLY.

Computers are delicate devices that require a stable source of power.

 Ensure that there is a steady flow of input power to the computer in order to prevent loss of data or information & also prevent damaging the computer’s secondary storage media.
Note. Power from main supply is not always stable and may sometimes experience power surges or under voltage (also referred to as Brownout). To protect the computer from being
damaged due to power instabilities especially in areas where power fluctuates, avoid connecting it directly to the main supply. Instead, it is important to connect the computer to a special
power correction equipment or device such as a Stabilizer or Uninterrupted power supply /source (UPS), then connect the UPS to the main supply.
The UPS gets charged when the main power is on. When the main power goes off, the UPS gives some sound (usually a beep) to alert the user.

Functions of the UPS

1. It regulates power from an unstable power source to the required clean stable voltage.
2. It prevents power surges and brownouts that might destroy the computer.
3. It temporarily provides power to the computer in case of the main power failure. This allows the user to save his/her work and shutdown the computer using the correct procedure.
4. Alerts the user of any power loss (by beeping).
To ensure that work continues even in the absence of main power, organizations that give important services such as banks, schools, & hospitals usually install devices that provide
alternative sources of power such as standby generators, solar panels, rechargeable batteries, etc that automatically comes on in case of a power failure. Such devices are referred to as
Power backups.

However, note that, power from a generator must pass through a UPS before being fed to the computer, because it is also not stable.
 Ensure that all power or electrical sockets are firmly fixed.

5. BURGLAR PROOFING.

Physical access to the computer room should be restricted to ensure that only authorized persons get access to the computers.
To prevent unauthorized access to the computer room, the following controls should be implemented:
- Fit strong metallic grills and locks on the doors, windows & roofs (in case the roofing is weak).

- Lock the doors, (i.e., keep the computers in a strong room, which should remain firmly locked when not in use).
- Avoid welcoming strangers into the computer room.
- Use of Personal Identification cards.
- Use of fingerprint identification.
- Install security alarms at strategic access points so as to alert the security personnel in case of a break in.
- Use of special voice recorders that would be able to analyse the voice of a trespasser & check against the database containing the voice patterns of valid users.
- Secure/protect the computers with Passwords to minimize chances of theft.

6. VENTILATION.

Both computers and human beings emit heat energy into the environment. Therefore, the computer room must have good circulation of air to avoid overheating and suffocation.
Proper ventilation enables the computers to cool, and therefore, avoids damaging the electronic parts.
The following facilities can ensure proper ventilation in a room:

 The room should have large & enough windows & doors.
 Installing an air-conditioning system.
 Installing cooling fans.
 Avoid overcrowding of either machines or people in the room.

7. DUST CONTROL

 Set up the computer laboratory in a location away from excessive dust.

 Remove your shoes before you enter the computer room to prevent dust.
 The computer room should be fitted with special curtains that would reduce entry of dust particles.
 The floor should be covered with Carpets in order to absorb dust, and also absorb the noise made by chairs.
 Cover the computer devices with Dust covers when not in use or when cleaning the computer room.

NB: If the environment is dusty, the computers should be regularly serviced to get rid of harmful dust.
The service should include; blowing dust from the System unit, cleaning the floppy drives, cleaning the Keyboard, cleaning the Monitor externally, and also cleaning all peripheral devices
such as Printers and Mouse.

8. DUMP CONTROL.

Humidity in the computer laboratory must be regulated to remain at an optimum 50%. If the humidity is low, it allows static electricity to build up and causes damage to sensitive
electronic components. Similarly, high humidity of over 70% causes rusting of the metallic parts of the computer system.
To eliminate low humidity, place humidifiers in the room, while high humidity can be controlled by installing dehumidifiers in the room.
 9. HANDLING OF MATERIALS & EQUIPMENT.

Computer devices must be handled with a lot of care as they are extremely fragile and can easily get damaged. Dropping or bumping can cause permanent damage on the device, e.g., to
transport the System unit always handle it on its frame.

 Always use the manufacturer’s shipping carton when transporting the devices.
 Do not place heavy objects on the computers.
 Protect the computer devices especially the Monitor & the disks from any electrostatic discharge.

 The computer devices should not be exposed to direct sunlight or warm objects. This causes the internal components of the computer to get heated, and as a result, effects the
computer’s solder-joints.

 Students should only perform operations on the computer that they are sure of and under supervision. If in doubt, the student should ask to ensure that no damage is caused due to
lack of proper knowledge.
 Computer equipment should be regularly checked and serviced.

10. LIGHTING & VISION CARE.

A computer room must be well lit to avoid eyestrain that eventually leads to headaches, stress, and fatigue. Similarly, when you work at your computer for long periods of time, your eyes
may become irritated. Therefore, special care should be given to your vision.

 Tilt the computer so that the display faces away from the windows. This will minimize glare (or bright reflections) on the screen.
 Position the lighting equipment or sources of light such that glare (or bright reflections) on the display are minimized. Where necessary, use indirect lighting to avoid bright spots on
the display.
 Use/fit radiation filter screens that are specially tinted to reduce the light that reaches the eye.
 Avoid using a flickering monitor. This causes extreme eyestrain that can damage your eyesight.
 The wall paints used should not be very bright as they reflect too much light causing eyestrain.
 Use the brightness & contrast controls on the Monitor to adjust the brightness of the computer monitor until the eyes feel comfortable, and also to improve image quality of your
display.
 Turn off the screen when not in use or reduce its brightness in order to prevent screen burnout.
 If the room has windows, use blinds or shades to control the amount of daylight in the room.
 Take frequent breaks and rest your eyes.
 You should have glasses that are specifically suited for working with the computer display.
 Keep your glasses and the display clean.
 Have your eyes examined regularly by a vision care specialist.
The distant between the user & screen should be between 450 – 500 mm.

Generations of Computers/History of Computers

i. First generation computers (1940 - 1958)
• They relied on thermionic valves (vacuum tubes) to control internal operations
• These computers were huge
• Expensive
• Often broke down
• They were slow compared to today's computers
• Produced a lot of heat
• Used magnetic drum memory for data storage.
• Their internal storage capacity was limited
• Cards were used to enter data into the computer.
• Difficult to program, use and maintain
Examples of First generation computers
IBM 650
ENIAC (Electronic Numeric Integrator and calculator)
EDVAC (Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer)
Advantages of first generation computers
a) Vacuum tube technology made possible the advent of electronic digital computer.
b) These computers were the fastest calculating devices at their time.
Disadvantages of first Generation computers
a) They were too bulky
b) They were unreliable
c) Had limited memory
d) They generated a lot of heat
e) Consumed a lot of power
ii. Second generation computer (1958 1964)
 They used transistors for internal operations
 magnetic core was use for memory technology
 Card as a primary storage medium
 Less costly than the first generation
 They had increased storage capacity compared to first generation.
 They were slightly smaller than the first generation computers
 Produced less heat than the first generation.
 Increased speed and reliability compared to first generation.
Examples second-generation computers
IBM 1401
UNIVAC 1107
CDC 1604
ATLAS LEO Mark III
Honeywell 200
Advantages of 2nd Generation computers
a) Were smaller in size compared to first generation
b) They were more reliable
c) They generated less heat
d) They were less prone to hardware failure
Disadvantages of 2nd Generation computers
a) Require air conditioning to cool them down
b) Required frequent maintenance
 c) Commercial production was difficult and costly
iii. Third generation computers (1964 1970)
• These computers used Integrated Circuits (ICs)
• Used magnetic disk for data storage hence increased storage capacity
• More flexibility with input/ output
• Smaller size as comparedwith 1st and 2nd gen
• Had better performance and reliability
• Were easier to program, use and maintain
• Had increased speed and storage capacity
• This time saw emergence of microcomputers. It also introduced software industry, operating systems.
Examples Third generation computers IBM, System 360 Burroughs B5500 etc.
ICL 19000 SERIES
Advantages of 3rd generation
a) They were smaller in size
b) Were more reliable
c) They emitted less heat
d) Maintenance cost was low because hardware failure were rare
e) They required less power
Disadvantages of 3rd Generation
a) Highly sophisticated technology required for the manufacture of integrated circuit
b) They were costly
iv. Fourth generation computers (1970 1989)
• These computers used Large Scale Integrated (LSI) and Very Large Scale Integrated ( VLSI) Circuit
• Used semiconductor memories, magnetic memories bubble memories and optical disks for storage purposed. Thus had large storage capacity
• Had a high processing speed
• First operating system was introduced
• Easier to use and program
• The LSI and VLSI were used in the innovation of microprocessor. Microprocessor is a complete Central Processing Unit (CPU) used in microcomputers
• Microcomputers and supercomputers were realized
Examples Fourth generation computers
IBM 370 and 4300
Burroughs B7700
Honeywell DPS-88
Advantages of 4th generation computers
a) They are smaller in size because of high component density
b) Very reliable
c) Generate negligible heat
d) Much faster in computational
e) They are not prone to hardware failure
f) They are portable because of their small size
Disadvantages of fourth generation computers
a) Highly sophisticated technology required for manufacturer of LSI chips. .
( v) Fifth generation computers (1990 Present )
This generation is characterized by the emerging of telecommunication with computer technology. Scientists are working on this generation to bring machines with genuine IQ the ability to
reason logically and with real knowledge of the world. The anticipated computer will have the following characteristics
• It is expected to do parallel processing
• It will be based on logical inference operations
• It's expected to make use of artificial intelligence (AI)
Currently
• Emit negligible heat
• Perform multiprocessing
• Computers have very high processing power and speed
• Size is increasingly becoming smaller because of superior hardware and software products that are small in size
• Therefore the circuit technology is AI, parallel architectures, three Dimensional circuit design and super-conducting materials
• Use advanced hard disks and optical disks for storage e.g. DVDs
• Use multi-user operating systems and advanced application programs Massive connectivity

CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTERS
Computers are classified into three main categories

Classification of
Computers

Physical Size Functionality Purpose

Super computers Analog Computers General Purpose

Mainframe Digital computers Special Purpose
Mini computers Hybrid Computers
Microcomputer

1 . Physical Size
These classification computers are classified according to their physical size. This can be:
a. Super computers
They are the fastest, largest, most expensive and powerful computers. Mainly used in scientific research, simulation, weapon analysis etc
b. Mainframe
They are less powerful and less expensive than the super computers. It finds its application in government agencies, big companies e.g. banks, hospitals etc
c. Mini computers
They are physically smaller and cheaper than mainframes. They are used in research institutions, scientific laboratories etc
d. Microcomputer
The smallest, cheapest, and least powerful type of computers. They are mainly used in learning institutions.
Types of microcomputers
 Desktop computer
Not portable.
It's designed to be placed on top of an office desk
Laptop computer
Portable like briefcase
Designed to be used by placing it on the lap
Palm top computer
Small enough to fit in the pocket and can be held in the palm when being used.
Advantages of laptops computers
i. They are portable
ii. Ruggedness-laptop computers are designed to withstand most of the rigors of travel
iii. Display-Active color screen show sharper, clearer images which prevent eye
strain
iv. Power-Laptop batteries serve as built in un-interruptible power supply
Disadvantages of laptop computers
i. Performance- Many laptops have slower clocks speed to conserve power and also have similar memory capacity
ii. Expandability - Laptops PCs limit your expansion options
iii. Connecting Laptops have few ports and no growth potential
iv. Security- Laptops unlike PCs are easier to steal
v. Display- Laptops screens are limited to VGA resolution

2 . Functionality/DATA THEY PROCESS

In this classification computers are classified according to the type of data they process
a. Analog Computers
They perform arithmetic operations and logical comparisons by measuring changes in physical magnitude e.g. speed, temperature etc.IE they used continuous data
b. Digital computers
Their operations are based on two states namely "on" and "off" or "1" and" 0"
c. Hybrid Computers
They are computers which are built' with the characteristics of both analog and digital computers.

2 . Purpose
In this classification computers are classified according to the purpose they serve
a. General Purpose-They are designed to be able to perform a variety of tasks when loaded with appropriate programs.
b. Special Purpose-They are designed to serve a specific purpose. E.g. robots used in industries, mobile phone for communication only etc

Components of a computer/computer system

i. Hardware
is a term used to describe all the physical & tangible devices that make up a computer system, i.e. it consists of the parts that can be touched and felt. the System Unit, Transistors, Diodes,
bus systems such as electronic paths (channels), the Input devices (e.g., Keyboard, Mouse), Output devices (e.g., Monitor) & the Storage devices.
Characteristics of Computer Hardware.

1. Hardware consists of parts that one can touch and feel.

2. Hardware determines what software will be used in the computer.
3. Computer hardware is expensive to acquire.
4. Hardware devices can only be made by specialist hardware engineers.
5. Not easy to change particular hardware components.
Characteristics of Computer Software.
ii. Software
It is a set of computer programs that guides the computer in each and every activity that happens inside the computer during data processing.

1. They are the programs & data used in a computer system.

2. A Computer Program is usually a set of computer instructions written in any of the computer programming languages, e.g. BASIC, PASCAL, etc.
3. It is not possible to see a program in memory as it exists in magnetic spots, however, you can see & touch a listing of the program on the computer screen.
4. Software enable computer hardware to operate effectively. In other words, software is meant to put ‘life’ into the hardware.
5. Software is flexible, i.e., the software used in a particular computer is relatively easy to change.
6. Software is cheaper compared to hardware devices.
7. Computer software can be written by the user, a Programmer or a Software house.

iii. Live ware (computer users)

Refer to the computer end-user. They are the people who coordinate the various activities, which are necessary to get a computer system to perform useful tasks.

They include; Data entry operators, Computer Operators, Programmers, System Analysts, Data Processing Managers, Database Administrators, Computer Librarians, and the other staff
directly or indirectly involved in the running of the system operations.

COMPUTER HARDWARE

Hardware refers to the physical, tangible computer equipment and devices, which provide support for major functions such as input, processing (computation and control), output, secondary
storage (for data and programs), and communication.

Basic Computer Parts

1. System Unit
The system unit is the core of a computer system. Usually it's a rectangular box placed on or underneath your desk. Inside this box are many electronic components that process data. The most
important of these components is the central processing unit (CPU), or microprocessor, which acts as the "brain" of your computer.
Another component is random access memory (RAM), which temporarily stores information that the CPU uses while the computer is on. The information stored in RAM is erased when the
computer is turned off.
A motherboard (mainboard, system board, planar board or logic board) is the main printed circuit board found in computers and other expandable systems. It holds many of the crucial
electronic components of the system, such as the central processing unit (CPU) and memory, and provides connectors for other peripherals.
The Accelerated Graphics Port (AGP) is a high speed connection to the motherboard for video cards. The AGP port is faster than a PCI card and doesn’t use the system memory.

2. The Power Supply

Power supplies, often referred to as "switching power supplies", use switcher technology to convert the AC input to lower DC voltages, a form that is usable by the Personal computer.
Uninterruptible Power Supply: is an electrical apparatus that provides emergency power to a load when the input power source, typically mains power, fails. The device allows the computer to
keep running for at least a short time when the primary power source is lost. It also provides protection from power surges. A UPS contains a battery that "kicks in" when the device senses a
loss of power from the primary source.

HARDWARE CATEGORIES (Functional Parts)

A computer system is a set of integrated devices that input, output, process, and store data and information. Computer systems are currently built around at least one digital processing device.
There are five main hardware components in a computer system: Input, Processing, Storage, Output and Communication devices.
This includes:
i. Keying devices such as the keyboard, keypad etc.
ii. Pointing devices such as mouse, trackball etc
iii. Scanning and other data capture devices. Such as Optical scanners etc
iv. Speech recognition or voice input devices such as microphone
v. Touch screen, digitizer and digital cameras

a) Keying devices
These devices enter data into a computer by typing. Apart from a few differences, a computer keyboard is similar to the typewriter keyboard. A keypad is a miniature (tiny) keyboard, which is
mostly used on small portable computers, calculators palm notes, mobile phones etc.
Common types of keying devices include:
i. Traditional keyboards: It’s a full sized rigid keyboards
ii. Ergonomic keyboard: It’s specially design to provide comfort and alleviate wrist strain.
iii. Flexible keyboard: It’s a more portable type of a keyboard that can be folded and packed into a bag.
iv. Keypad: Is a miniature keyboard used in portable devices such as PDAs, laptops, palm notes, calculators and mobile phones.
v. Braille keyboard: is a special keyboard for the blind. It consist of keys identified by raised dots
How the keys are organized
The keys on your keyboard can be divided into several groups based on function:
1. Typing (alphanumeric) keys. These keys include the s letters, number, punctuation, and symbol keys.
 Caps lock key:Pressing this key let’s the user to type in upper case letters (capitals). To switch back to lower case letters simply press the same key again.
 Enter key (return key): Pressing this key forces the text cursor to move to the beginning of the next line. A cursor is a blinking underscore (-) or a vertical beam ( I ) that shows where
the next character to be typed will appear. The enter key is also used to instruct the computer to execute a command that has been selected on the screen.
 Tabkey:This key is used to move the text cursor at set intervals on the same line e.g. 10 mm, 20 mm etc.
 The space bar:This bar creates a space between words during typing.
 The backspace key: This key deletes characters from right to left on the same line

2. Special (Control) keys. These keys are used alone or in combination with other keys to perform certain actions. The most frequently used control keys are CTRL, ALT, the Windows key ,
and ESC.
3. Function keys. The function keys are used to perform specific tasks. They are labelled as F1, F2, F3, and so on, up to F12. The functionality of these keys differs from program to program.
4. Cursor Movement (Navigation) keys. These keys are used for moving around in documents or WebPages and editing text. They include the arrow keys, HOME, END, PAGE UP, PAGE
DOWN, DELETE, and INSERT and ARROW KEYS.
5. Numeric keypad. The numeric keypad is handy for entering numbers quickly. The keys are grouped together in a block like a conventional calculator or adding machine.
 Num Lock – activate the numeric key pad when made active and locks the numeric keypads when not activated

Key names
A – Function keys
B – Alphanumeric keys
C – Control keys
D – Navigation keys/cursor movement keys
E – Numeric keypad
The above illustration shows how these keys are arranged on a typical keyboard. Your keyboard layout may differ.
b) Pointing devices
These are the input devices that enter data or instructions by controlling a pointer on the screen.

i. ) The mouse
A mouse is a small device used to point to and select items on your computer screen.

Basic parts
A mouse typically has two buttons: a primary button (usually the left button) and a secondary button (usually the right button). The primary button is the one you will use most often. Most
mice also include a scroll wheel between the buttons to help you scroll through documents and WebPages more easily..

Holding and moving the mouse

Place your mouse beside your keyboard on a clean, smooth surface, such as a mouse pad. Hold the mouse gently with your index finger resting on the primary button and you thumb resting on
the side. To move the mouse, slide it slowly in any direction. Don't twist it—keep the front of the mouse aimed away from you. As you move the mouse, a pointer (see picture) on your screen
moves in the same direction.

Hold the mouse lightly, keeping your wrist straight.

Mouse techniques
Pointing,
Pointing to an item on the screen means moving your mouse so the pointer appears to be touching the item. When you point to something, a small box often appears that describes the item.
For example, when you point to the Recycle Bin on the desktop, a box appears with this information: "Contains the files and folders that you have deleted."

Pointing to an object often reveals a descriptive message about it

Clicking (single-clicking)
To click an item, point to the item on the screen, and then press and release the primary button (usually the left button).
Clicking is most often used to select (mark) an item or open a menu. This is sometimes called single-clicking or left-clicking.
Double-clicking
To double-click an item, point to the item on the screen, and then click twice quickly. If the two clicks are spaced too far apart, they might be interpreted as two individual clicks rather than as
one double-click.
Double-clicking is most often used to open items on your desktop. For example, you can start a program or open a folder by double-clicking its icon on the desktop.
Right-clicking
To right-click an item, point to the item on the screen, and then press and release the secondary button (usually the right button).
Right-clicking an item usually displays a list of things you can do with the item. For example, when you right-click the Recycle Bin on your desktop, Windows displays a menu allowing you to
open it, empty it, delete it, or see its properties. If you are unsure of what to do with something, right-click it.

Dragging
You can move items around your screen by dragging them. To drag an object, point to the object on the screen, press and hold the primary button, move the object to a new location, and then
release the primary button.
Dragging (sometimes called dragging and dropping) is most often used to move files and folders to a different location and to move windows and icons around on your screen.
Using the scroll wheel
If your mouse has a scroll wheel, you can use it to scroll through documents and WebPages. To scroll down, roll the wheel backward (toward you). To scroll up, roll the wheel forward (away
from you).

Mouse Types
i. Mechanical Type
ii. Optical Mouse

ii. Track ball

A trackball works just like the mouse but instead of moving it on a flat surface, a ball fixed on its top is rolled using the index finger. As the ball rotates, it moves a pointer on the screen one
can then click its button to execute the selected command. Advantages
h It does require a flat surface or extra space to operate

iii. Joystick
A Joystick is an input device that looks like a car gear lever, which can be moved sideways, upwards, or downwards to control the position of the cursor or objects on the screen. Just like
the mouse, it has a button, which is used for selecting an item. It is commonly used in playing video game

iv. Light pen

It is a hand held pen-like device that has a light sensitive point. A light pen can make selections, place images, draw and indicate dimensions by simply touching the screen. A light pen does not
emit light but instead, it reacts to the light emitted by the display using a photosensitive detector at its base.
Uses of a light pen
• Are used as design aids
• Used to read bar codes and to indicate a point on the a screen or pad
Advantages
• Provide a direct mode of input
• More precise than using a mouse
Disadvantages
• Can only detect the presence and absence of light
• Can only be used in conjunction with a graphic VDU, which is able to sense special hardware and software.
c) Scanning devices (Document readers )
They are devices that capture data into the computer directly. They are classified according to the technology they use to capture data.
Classification of Scanners
i) Optical Scanners
They capture data using light. A light beam passes over an object and the image is analyzed by specialized software. They are of three types
a) Optical Mark Recognition (OMR)
Detect marks made on a piece of paper using a soft pen or pencil, by passing an infrared beam of light over them. The documents are pre-printed with predefined data positions. The OMR
converts the marks into computer readable data. The reader detects the presence and absence of a mark on a form by sensing reflected infrared light
Advantages of OMR
i. Has low error rates
ii. Conspicuous errors are easily corrected
iii. Data captured at source, hence minimizing amount of manual work
Disadvantages of OMR
i. Mark readers are relatively slow
ii. Verification of marked data is difficult iii. Not widely used in business
Application of OMR
i. Marking of multiple-choice examination papers e.g. KCPE or aptitude test.
ii. Analyzing responses to structured questionnaires
iii. Selecting correct number combinations from lottery tickets
 iv. Payroll data entry
v. Market research questionnaires
vi. Voter's registration process
b) Optical Bar Recognition ( OBR )
These scanners are used to capture data coded as lines of varying thickness known as bar codes or Universal Product Code (UPC). Scan and translate a bar code into machine
understandable mode. Bar codes are lines of different thickness and are common on consumer products and contain item information such as country of manufacture, manufacturer and
the product code. Bar codes do not have the price details because prices vary from one place to another.
There are two types of bar code scanners
i. The hand held wand
ii. The desktop bar code reader
Advantages of OBR
i. Bar codes can be printed by normal printing methods
ii. The type of item or price does not have to be repeatedly written / typed
Disadvantages of OBR
i. Bar codes can only be read by machines ii. Only numbers can be coded in this way
iii. They are relatively fixed, so they are unsuitable for recording prices which can frequently change
Application of OBR
i. On labels and on shelves for stocktaking
ii. Printed on shop goods e.g. Supermarkets, wholesale shops
iii. In libraries

c) Optical charter /image scanner (ocr)

Is the most advanced type of scanner that works like the human eye. It is used to read typewritten, computer printed, or handwritten characters and transforms the images into a
softcopy that can be manipulated using a word processor. Today OCR comes as integrated feature of more advanced scanners called flat-bed scanners are used to capture pictures and
real objects.
Advantages of OCR
i. Data is captured at source hence errors are limited
ii. Its an easier method to use
iii. Document design is less complicated
iv. Characters can be read by people
Disadvantages of OCR
i. Some Optical scanners are expensive
ii. Handling precaution is necessary e.g. document should not be folded or creased for accurate reading.
iii. Only certain font is acceptable
Application of OCR
i. Used in billing
ii) Magnetic Scanners
These scanners use the principle of magnetism to sense the document characters that have been written using magnetized ink. They can also be said to use magnetic technology to capture
data.
a) Magnetic - Ink character recognition (MICR)
This scanner is able to detect characters written in special magnetic ink. It is used in banks to read cheques, credit cards etc.
Advantages of MICR
i. Its fast, accurate and automatic
ii. The codes are' both machine and human readable
iii. Reduces forgery i.e. its difficult to forge
Dis-vantages of MICR
i. MICR system is limited to only 14 characters
ii. MICR system is based on magnetism and can easily be damaged.

b) Magnetic Stripe recognition (Magnetic card reader)

A magnetic stripe is a thin magnetic tape, often found at the back of a plastic card such as ATM card. The magnetic stripe is used to recognize the data in such cards.
Advantages of magnetic stripes
i. Simple to produce
ii. Not easy damaged
iii. Stores fairly large numbers of characters
Disadvantages of magnetic stripes
i. Data can be changed or erased by magnetic fields
Application of magnetic stripes
i. On credit cards
ii. On bank cards e.g. A TM
iii. As tags on clothes
iv. As a phone card
v. Production control where punched cards holds data in a factory like employee's details
vi. Access control for security reasons in many offices to control access to buildings or rooms
vii. Car parks where badges are used to raise car barriers, allowing entry or exit from a car park.

4 . Speech Recognition Devices / voice input

This is a type of input method where microphone is used to enter data in form of spoken words directly into the computer.
Advantages of Speech Recognition
i. No keyboards is necessary i.e. very fast
ii. Useful in situations where
a. Hands or eyes are busy handling documents etc.
b. People are moving around, since wireless microphone can be used
iii. Can be used from remote locations via the telephone
Disadvantages of Speech Recognition
i. Homophones - Some words sound the same.
ii. Recognition is slow
iii. Limited vocabularies
iv. Background noise can disrupt the data entered.
v. Speaker variability i.e. the speed, pitch, loudness, pronunciation of individuals
Application Areas of Speech Recognition
i. Security and Access control e.g. – Office security for room access, House/ car security
ii. Quality control and automatic in factories i.e. speech input used to order Robots.
iii. Automated materials handling in airports to direct luggage to appropriate conveyor belt
iv. Voice activated toys and games
Other Digital Devices a)
a) Touch Screen
 It utilizes the technology of a touch sensitive screen. It works by allowing the, user to touch the screen in order to select an item. The screen consists of infrared light crisscrossing behind
it. When the user touches a location on the screen, this device recognizes the location of a contact on the screen through a built-in grid of sensing lines and sensors.

b) Digital Cameras
Capture the same way as other cameras do but stores image in digital form. Pictures are stored on a memory card instead of a film. The digital image taken can be streamed directly into
a computer, uploaded to internet using a webcam or directly printed using a special photo printer. Are used to take electronic pictures of an object
They are of two types
i. Still digital camera one that can take still images i.e. photographs
ii. A video digital camera that takes motion pictures
c) Digitizers /Graphic table
A digitizer also known as graphic table1 is made up of a flat surface and allows the user to draw an image using a stylus. The image drawn does not appear on the tablet on the computer
screen. The stylus moves on the tablet and the drawing is directly reflected on the screen.

d) BIOMETRIC SYSTEMS It refers to the automatic identification of a person based on his/her individual body characteristics. Among the features that can be measured are: face,
fingerprints, hand geometry (the pattern of lines on your hand), iris, retina, vein and voice. Fingerprint readers are now built into some computer keyboards. Retinal-identification devices use a
ray of light to identify the distinctive network of blood vessels at the back of the eyeball. Use of biometrics to identify people for certain has become more convenient and considerable more
than the current methods such as passwords or PIN (Personal Identification Number), which are used in ATM cards. Biometric technologies require that the person to be identified is
physically present at the point of identifcation. Conclusion They potentailly prevent unauthorized use of ATMs, cellular phones, smart cards, desktop PCs, work stations and computer
networks.
e) INTERACTIVE WHITEBOARD. It is also known as Smartboard. It is a large interractive display that connects to a computer. The computer display is projected onto the board‘s
surface, where users control the computer and write using a pen or a finger. The board is typically mounted to a wall or on a floor stand. Uses They are mostly used in places such as
classrooms, corporate board rooms, seminars and broadcasting studios.

Factors to consider while selecting an Input device

1. Device cost:the initial cost and recurrent cost to be weighed against the expected benefits and operational characteristics of the facility
2. Device speed of data input
3. Data volume: It should cope with that data volume to be input with appropriate timing.
4. Device accuracy: Choosing a bar code instead of a keyboard for a point of sale in the supermarkets
5. Device reliability its should serve without failing
6. Mode of operation: This will depend on the nature of the system i.e. data processing system.

THE CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT (CPU)

The CPU is also known as the Processor. It is the most important component of a computer. It is regarded as the brain of the computer because all processing activities are carried out inside the
processor.
In microcomputers, the CPU is housed inside the system unit. It is mounted on a circuit board known as motherboard or the system board.

The CPU consists of the following functional elements namely: -

i. Control unit.
ii. Arithmetic and Logic Unit.
iii. Main memory.
iv. Input unit
v. Output unit
Arithmetic Logic Unit
Used for carrying out all the arithmetic and logical operations in the CPU. The basic arithmetic operations includes; addition, subtraction, multiplication and division.
Logic operations are based on the computer‘s capacity to compare two or more values. E.g. it may compare whether a piece of data is greater than or less than.

For the ALU to be able to process data, it has a special temporary storage location called registers, which hold the data just before processing. It also holds the results after processing.
Control Unit
It coordinates all processing activities in the CPU as well as input, storage and output operations.
It determines which operation or instruction is to be executed next. It uses a system clock to coordinate all the activities.
Control Unit functions
o Controls execution of programs.
oIt fetches instructions from memory, interprets and send the instructions to other
components.
oMaintains order and controls activity in CPU
o Directs sequence of operations
oCommunicates with Input-Output devices for transfer of data/results into/from storage

Special Purpose Memories

Some minute types of memories are included inside a microprocessor or input/output devices in order to enhance its performance.
Examples of special purpose memories includes: -

a) Buffers
They are special memories that are found in input/output devices. Input data is held in the input buffer while processed output is held in output buffer. For example, computer printers have
buffers where they can store massive documents sent by the CPU for printing hence freeing the CPU to perform other urgent tasks as the printer continues to print in the background. (Buffers:
Special memories that are found in input/output devices which helps in freeing the CPU to perform other urgent tasks e.g. computer printers which store massive documents sent by CPU for
printing, the printer continues to print in the background.)

b) Cache memory

Cache memory is a fast type of RAM used to enhance the processing speed by holding data and instructions that are required instantly by the processor. There are three types of cache memory,
namely:-
Level 1: - It is also known as primary cache; it is located inside the CPU and is used for temporary storage of instructions and data organized in blocks of 32 bytes. Primary cache is the fastest
form of storage. Because it's built in to the chip with a zero wait-state (delay) interface to the processor's execution unit, it is limited in size.
Level 2: - Cache typically comes in two sizes, 256KB or 512KB, and can be found, or soldered onto the motherboard. The aim of the Level 2 cache is to supply stored information to the processor
without any delay.
Level 3: - It is the latest type of cache that works with level 2 cache to optimize system performance.

c) Registers
As opposed to buffers, registers hold one piece of data at a time and are inside the CPU. A register is a temporary storage location that holds a single instruction or data item. They are used to
store data and instructions that are needed immediately and frequently by the CPU. Examples of registers are:-
a) Accumulator: - They temporarily holds the results of the last processing step of the ALU.
b) Instruction register(IR) - It temporary holds an instruction just before it is interpreted into a form that the CPU can understand.
c) Address register: - It temporarily holds the address of next piece of data waiting to be processed.
d) Storage register: - It temporarily holds a piece of data that is on its way to and from the CPU and the main memory.
Computer Buses
.A bus is an electrical path for signal to flow from one point to another in a circuit.
Buses: A collection of wires through which data is transmitted from one part of a computer to another i.e. bus can be regarded as a highway on which data travels within a computer.

There are three types of buses namely

a) Address bus: - Is a computer bus that is used to specify a physical address or where the next instruction data to be processed is held.
b) Data bus: - It is used for carrying the actual data being processed

c) Control bus: This is the pathway for all timing and controlling functions sent by the control unit to other parts of the system.

Computer Memories
Classification of Computer Memories

There are two types of memories or storage devices in a computer, namely: primary and secondary storage devices. Primary storage is used for temporarily holding data and instructions
required immediately by the CPU and are lost once the power is switched off.
Secondary storage is used for permanently storing information that is not needed immediately by the CPU and is not lost when the power is switched off.
Main/Primary Memory
The system memory is the place where the computer holds current programs and data that are in use. There are two types of main memory:-
a. RAM (Random Access Memory).
b. ROM (Read Only Memory).

Read Only Memory

ROM is used to store programmed instructions and data permanently or semi-permanently.
Data and instructions stored in ROM are those which remain unchanged for long periods of time e.g. POST instructions, special purpose computers, computerized fuel pump instructions.
ROM does not change. It forms the basic instruction set for operating the hardware in the system, and the data within remains intact even when the computer is shut down.
It is possible to update ROM, but it's only done rarely, and at need. If ROM is damaged, the computer system simply cannot function.
There are four types of Read Only Memory namely:-

a. Mask Read Only Memory.

 Once the content is written on it by the manufacturer, it cannot be changed.
b. Programmable Read Only Memory (PROM)
It allows the user to alter it only once after the content is written on it.
c. Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory (EPROM)
Can be erased by exposing it to ultra violet (UV) light, and then reprogrammed for anotheruse.
d. Electrically Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory (EEPROM)
Can be erased and reprogrammed using electricity. Example of EEPROM is the memory that stores the basic input/output systems (BIOS)
Characteristics of Read Only Memory (ROM) are:
1. One can only read its content but you cannot write on it unless it is a special type of ROM
2. It is a non-volatile i.e. its content is not lost when the computer is switched off.
3. Stores permanent or semi-permanent instructions from the manufacturer called firmware. It can store semi- permanent instructions because some variations of ROM chips can be
programmed according to the user‘s specifications.
Ram Access Memory
It is also known as working storage. It is used to hold instructions and data needed by the currently running applications. The information in RAM is continually read, changed and removed.
It is called Random Access because its content can be read directly regardless of the sequence in which it was stored.
As opposed to ROM, the content in RAM is held temporarily and its content is lost once the computer is switched off.
NB:
Before switching off the computer, it is important that one stores (saves) his/her work in a device that offers relatively permanent storage facility.
Characteristics of Random Access Memory (RAM) are: -
1. Data can be read (retrieved) and written (stored) in it.
2. RAM is a temporary (volatile) storage because its contents disappear when the computer is switched off.
3. Its content is user defined i.e. the user dictates what is to be contained in the RAM.
There are two types of RAM:
Static RAM (SRAM)
It is a fast type of memory mostly located inside a microprocessor. It is used on special purpose memories such as cache memory. Cache memory is used to enhance the processing speed by
holding data and instructions that are instantly required by the processor.

Characteristics of SRAM
i. It is a very fast memory and holds its contents as long as there is power.
ii. Its content 'does not require refreshment
iii. It is expensive
iv. It is very fast compared to DRAM
v. Found inside a microprocessor
vi. Its mostly used to make special types of memories known as Cache memory
vii. Used for smaller memories since it has low packing density

Dynamic RAM
DRAM is relatively slower type of RAM compared to SRAM. The term dynamic refers to the tendency for the stored charge to leak away, even with constant power supply. For this reason,
DRAM requires periodic recharging (refresh) to maintain its data storage.
Characteristics of DRAM
i. Require constant refreshing to avoid losing of content
ii. Offer slower access time compared to SRAM
iii. Cheaper compared to SRAM
iv. They are located outside the CPU

Types of DRAM
1. Fast Page Mode Dynamic Random Access Memory (FPM DRAM)-uses one row address for multiple accesses.
2. Extended Data-Out Dynamic Random Access Memory( EDO DRAM )-It’s an improvement of FPM DRAM based on the concept of allowing a memory access to begin before the last one is
finished. It performs more than one task at a time.
3. Extended correct code (ECC) is a special type of DRAM that corrects errors and is mainly used in servers
4. Synchronous Dynamic Random Access Memory SDRAM-Has a speed twice that of EDO RAM because its able to run at the speed of the system bus up to 100-133 MHz
5. Rambus DRAM (RDRAM)-Got its name from the company that developed it, Rambus, inc. the memory uses a special Rambus channel that has a data transfer rate or 800 MHz

CLASSIFICATION OF MICROPROCESSORS.

There are 2 basic factors (parameters/ considerations) used to classify Microprocessors.

1. Clock speed.
2. Width of the Data Bus.

Clock Speed.

Every Microprocessor has a clock that drives its operation. Clock speed is the speed at which the processor runs.

Microprocessor speed refers to its Clock speed, which is measured in Megahertz (MHz – 1 million cycles per second).

The Clock speed varies from one processor to another. Microprocessors with faster clocks perform operations much faster compared to those with slower clocks. Therefore, the speed of a
microprocessor gives its power – the higher the speed, the more powerful the microprocessor.

Note. The speed at which a computer can process data is also affected by the speed at which the memory can work.
 Bus Width.

The size of the Data Bus determines the Bus Width of a microprocessor. It indicates the moving capability of information of the chip.

Higher Bus widths provide higher computer performance. For example, fetching a 16-bit instruction from memory using a Data bus width of 16 bits would require a single fetch operation,
whereas an 8-bit Data bus would require 2 cycles to fetch the same instruction; hence slowing the execution of the instruction.

TYPES OF PROCESSORS.

(i). Microprocessors.
(ii). RISC (Reduced Instruction Set Computer) processors.
(iii). CISC (Complete Instruction Set Computer) processors.

MICROPROCESSORS.

The Microcomputers use Microprocessors, which usually have all the required functions on one chip.

Some of the manufacturers who make microprocessor chips include;

 Intel Inc., AMD (American Device Manufacturers) & Cyrix who manufacture microprocessors for IBM compatible microcomputers.
 Motorolla for Apple computers.

SUMMARY OF MICROPROCESSORS TRENDS SINCE 1978

PROCESSOR YEAR MANUFACTURER SPEED AND REMARK

Intel 8086 1978 Intel 5MHz – 10MHz
Intel 8088 1979 Intel Similar to 8086
Intel 80186 1980 Intel 25MHz
Intel 80286 1982 Intel 6 – 12.5MHz
Intel 80386 1985 – 1990 Intel 16 – 33MHz
Intel 80486 1990 Intel Upgradeable
Pentium 1993 Intel 60, 66, 75, 90, 100, 120, 133, 150, 166 and
200MHz
Pentium Pro 1995 Intel 150, 166, 180 and 200 MHz Used on servers
AMD K5 1995 AMD 75, 90, 100 and 116 MHz
Pentium MMX 1997 Intel 166, 200 and 233 MHz with MMX technology
Pentium II 1997 Intel Plugged on to Single-edge contact (SEC)
AMD K6 1997 AMD 166 – 266MHz
Cyrix 6x86 1997 Cyrix 150, 166 or 187MHz
Pentium III 1999 Intel 450MHz to 1.13GHz
AMD Athron 1999 AMD 500MHz to 2.33GHz
AMD Duron 2000 AMD 600MHz – 1.8GHz
Pentium 4 Nov. 2000 Intel 1.4GHz to 3.2 GHz
Intel Core 2 Duo 2006 Intel 1.6GHz x 2
AMD Athron Dual Core 2005 AMD 2.0GHz x 2

ADVANCED CPU’s.

Larger computers such as Supercomputers, Mainframes & Minicomputers use Processors made of separate, high speed sophisticated components. That is, the CPU components in large
computers are not all on one chip.

RISC Processors.

The RISC processors are used in manufacture of Minicomputers.

RISC machines are much faster than Micro-processor based machines, i.e. in RISC machines, the time required to execute an operation is much shorter compared to the time a Micro-
processor would take to execute the same operation.

RISC chips generally use 128 or fewer instructions to execute their tasks. This means that, the processor has few instructions to locate. They can execute these instructions more quickly &
are therefore very fast.

Again, each instruction is exactly 32 bits long. So, the processor does not waste any power determining where the instructions begin or end. This makes RISC processors more superior.

They are also cheaper to produce.

Most of the 64-bit RISC machines are manufactured by: -

 Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC).

 Sun Microsystems.
 Hewlett-Packard, and
 IBM (International Business Machine Corporation).

CISC Processors.

CISC chips use between 200 – 300 instructions. Therefore, the processor has more instructions to look up.

The instructions are usually between 8 -120 bits long. This means that, a CPU devotes at least part of its circuit time determining where instructions begin and end, making them run slowly.
 Factors that affect the performance of a Processor.

- Overheating.
- Incorrect configuration (construction / arrangement).
- Failed components.
- Running the processor at the wrong speed.
- Jammed or clogged or too small heat-sink / cooling fan.
- Incompatibility.
- Processor inserted the wrong way.
 MEASURING THE MEMORY SIZE OF A COMPUTER.




The size of a computer’s memory is the no. of ‘units of storage’ it contains. The unit of storage can be a Bit, a Byte, or a Word.


A Bit is the smallest unit of storage & can be used to store a 0 or a 1.


A Byte is the amount of storage needed/ required to store 1 character.
 A Character is any letter, digit or symbol, which can be obtained by pressing a key on the Keyboard.
 Note. 1 Byte can be used to store 1 character.


 A Word is a collection of bits. It can also be described as a group of bits or characters considered as an entity and capable of being stored in one storage location.


 The no. of bits in a word is called the Word Size. The most common Word sizes are 16, 32 & 64.
 On a given computer, a Word is the amount of storage normally needed to store an instruction.


 Memory sizes.
 Characters
 1 Byte A group of 8 bits 1
 1 Kilobyte (KB) 1,000 (a thousand) bytes 103 1,024
 1 Megabyte (MB) 1,000,000 (a million) bytes 106 1,048,576
 1 Gigabyte (GB) 1,000,000,000 (a billion) bytes 109 1,073, 741,824
 1 Terabyte (Tera) 1,000,000,000,000 (a trillion) bytes 1012 1,099,511,627,776


 A computer memory is made up of many storage cells called Bytes. Each cell (byte) is capable of storing 8 bits (binary digits) and has a unique numeric address.


 Generally, the memory size of a computer is usually measured in Bytes. The prefix K is taken to be 1,024 bytes.
 For example, when the size of a computer memory is quoted as being, say, 256 Kbytes, this implies that, there are 262,144 memory cells or the computer has (256 x 1,024) = 262,144 bytes of
memory.


SECONDARY / AUXILIARY DEVICES AND MEDIA

There is need to have an alternative long term storage location for data and information other than the main memory. These alternative storage devices that are not part of the main memory
are called secondary or auxiliary storage devices. These devices are not directly accessible by the CPU.

Characteristics of secondary storage

i. Non-volatile storage-Data stored in this media is permanent unless erased by user
ii. . Mass storage-Stores large volume of data
iii. Reusability-Stored data can be erased and the media reused to store fresh data and programs

They can be classified according to the technology used to record data. These can be:
i. Magnetic
ii. Optical.

Magnetic storagemedia

Magnetic tapes
It is a ribbon of Mylar (plastic like) material coated with a thin layer of Iron Oxide. The tape resembles the music cassette used in home tape recorders.
In order to read/write data records on the tape, the tape must be inserted in a tape drive that rotates the tape allowing a read/write head to perform the operation.

Advantages of magnetic tapes

i. They are light i.e. portable
ii. High capacity and backup storage at relatively low cost.
iii. Can be erased and re-used
iv. Holds a lot of data in a compact space
Disadvantages of magnetic tapes
i. Very slow in accessing of data This means that you have to access the proceeding records before you get the required
ii. Easily damaged by environmental factors i.e. dust, heat, touching etc.
iii. The inter-block space is wastage of storage space.
Magnetic disks
They have a magnetic disk platter that stores data. Examples of magnetic disks are floppy disks ( diskettes), zip disks and jaz disk.

Floppy disk. Floppy disk (diskette) is made up of a small flexible round disk coated with iron oxide. The disk is covered with a plastic protective case.
They are inserted in a floppy drive which has a read/write head that runs over the magnetized spots that contain data.
Disadvantages of floppy disks
v. Storage area is limited to 1.44 MB
vi. Easily damaged
vii. Are short-lived
viii. Slow access time. Access time is the time taken to read the data from disk to the Main storage.

Zip disk-these are high capacity disks that resemble the floppy disks. They are, however, slightly larger and thicker in size. A zip disk can hold as much as 250 MB. Zip disks mostly come with
separate portable external zip drive.

Jaz disk-these are small portable disks with high storage capacity of about 1GB to 2GB. They are used for storing data that require large storage. Like Jaz disk comes with a portable Jaz drive.
Care of magnetic storage media
To avoid accidental loss of data or information held on magnetic media, the following rules must be observed.
1. Do not touch the magnetic surface.
2. Do not remove a media from the drive when it is still being accessed by the computer because this may result to data loss.
3. Do not bend or fold a magnetic media or put heavy weights on them to avoid breaking or damaging it.
4. Do not drop magnetic media on the ground because the impact weakens magnetism.
 5. Do not expose a magnetic media to strong magnetic fields. This would dis-orient the magnetic dipoles causing erasure of recorded data.
6. Do not expose a magnetic media to excessive heat. Heat energy leads to loss of magnetic strength in materials, hence magnetically recorded data can easily get lost.
Optical storage media
These are disks on which data is recorded using a laser beam. A laser beam is a very strong concentrated light. The beam burns very tiny holes (pits) into a thin shiny surface to record data.
Likewise a laser beam in the optical drive is also used to read, record data on the disk.

Advantages of optical storage media are:

I.They store very large volumes of data.
II.Data stored in them is more stable and more permanent than the
Examples of optical storage disks include: LS-120 super disks (SD), compact disks (CDs), digital versatile disks (DVD), optical card and optical tape.

LS-120 super disk

This is a diskette that resembles the 3 !-inch floppy disk but uses optical technology instead of magnetic technology to record data. It has greater capacity of storage and greater speed of data
retrieval. The LS-120 drive can read and write both the 3 ½ inch, 1.44 MB floppy disk and the 120 MB super disk

Fixed storage
Refers to storage devices that are housed inside the system unit e.g. Hard disk. NB: Some hard disks especially those in small computers such as laptops are removable.

Hard disk or hard drive

It is a thin but rigid, inflexible disks made of highly polished metal. The surface of each side of the disk (platters) is covered with a substance that can be magnetized, thereby allowing data to be
stored on both sides as magnetized or unmagnetized spots.
The surface of a disk is divided into a number of concentric circles, called tracks.

Care of hard disk

i. Keep it away from smoke and dust
ii. Switch off the computer using the correct procedure to avoid crashing on rotating disks.
iii. iii. Do not expose the hard disk to magnetic field or excess heat
Advantages of hard disk
i. It's cheap: their prices compared with their very high storage capacity they are cheap
ii. Store very large volume of data
iii. Very reliable than floppy
iv. Does not deteriorate as floppy disks
v. Has faster access time ( Seek time i.e. time taken to access a given track or sector is very
little)

Disadvantages
i. Are usually fixed and cannot be removed without opening the system unit.
ii. They can suffer a head crash resulting to loss of data
iii. Are sensitive to dust, humidity, magnetism which can corrupt the data stored
iv. They are inflexible i.e. cannot be changed.
v. When the read write head fails or a platter is destroyed it cannot be repaired
Removable Optical storage
Data is written and read from using a laser beam.
Laser disks
Data is recorded using a very concentrated light (laser beam). They store very large volumes of data. Data stored in them is more stable and permanent than the magnetic media. Examples are:
Compact disks (CD), Digital Versatile Disk (DVD), Optical Card and Optical tape.

1) Compact disk (CD)

CD is made of a small plastic disk with a reflective aluminium coating on one side. They hold large quantities of data and information, as much as 700MB.

Forms of CDs:
Compact Disk - Read Only Memory (CD-ROM)
When data is recorded on them one cannot change or add anything on them. Mostly used to store music recordings

Compact Disk - Recordable (CD-R)

They are initially blank but with a CD- Writer (Drive), the user can record data, programs or information on it. Once data has been written on it, one can only read but not change it i.e. it
becomes read only. They are coated with special dye which changes colour to represent data when burned using a laser beam.

Both CD-ROMs and CD-Rs are referred to as WORM (Write Once Read Many) because they allow the use to write (record) data on them once but read them many times.

Compact Disk - Rewriteable (CD-RW)

Data written to the can be erased (overwritten) and rewrite new information.

2) Digital Versatile Disk (DVD)

Resemble CDs but have higher storage capacity of upto 17 GB, approximately 26 CDs of capacity 640 MB. They are suitable for recoding motion pictures like videos because of they offer better
sound and pictures quality. There are three common types of DVDs namely read only, recordable and rewriteable VDs.
3) Optical card
Resemble MICR, but it has optically recordable stripe that store information. Mostly used in Banking to store customer details.
4) Optical tape
Similar to magnetic tape, but data is stored on it using optical technology.
Advantages of optical storage
i. Have massive capacity
ii. Stores data permanently
iii. Accessing of data is fast
iv. Secured i.e. it's hard to copy
v. High quality pictures and sound - Portable
Disadvantage
i. Expensive
ii. Costly hardware and software for reading
iii. It can break easily
iv. Very sensitive to things like dust, water, heat, scratches which easily damage them.

Solid state storage devices

Is a kind of nonvolatile storage media that employs integrated circuits rather than mechanical, magnetic or optical technology. They are regarded as solid state because they do not have moving
parts but everything is electronic as the case of RAM or EEPROM. Examples include flash disks and memory cards.

Flash disk/memory card-It is small in size but with massive storage capacity of as much as 32GB. Its more portable and convenient to carry around than other secondary storage medias.

Advantages of solid state storage over other removable

i. Are noiseless since they have no mechanical parts
ii. Offer faster access to stored data
iii. Are very small hence more portable
Other Backup Options

 SyQuest drive – Uses special cartridges that hold 200 MB

 RAID - RAID stands for Redundant Array of Independent or Inexpensive Disks. RAID technology is fault tolerant; that is, it allows data to be stored so that no data or transactions are
lost in the event of disk failure. RAID involves using multiple hard disks in a special controller unit and storing data across all the disks in conjunction with extra reconstruction information that
allows data to be recovered if a hard disk fails.

 Storage Area Network (SAN) – A storage area network connects servers and storage devices in a network to store large volumes of data. Data stored in a storage area network can be
quickly retrieved and backed up. The use of storage area networks is likely to increase in the near future. The storage devices are accessible to servers so that the devices appear like they are
locally attached to the operating system.

 Cloud Storage
This refers to saving data to an off-site storage system maintained by a third party i.e. the hosting company. People and organizations buy or lease storage capacity from the providers to store
user, organizational or application data.
 Computer Output Microfilm/Microfiche (COM) – A microfilm is a film on which printed materials are photographed and stored at greatly reduced size for ease of storage. Companies
that must store significant numbers of paper documents often use computer output microfilm. These devices transfer data directly from the computer onto the microfilm, thus eliminating the
intermediate step of printing the document on paper. Newspapers and journals typically archive old issues in this manner, although some are now using optical storage devices. Data written on
a microfilm is read using a microfilm reader.

COMPARISON BETWEEN PRIMARY AND SECONDARY MEMORY

Primary storage Secondary storage

i. Data can be processed directly from storage. i. Data cannot be processed directly
but must be moved into main
ii. Located within CPU memory.
iii. More expensive ii. Located outside the CPU
iv. Lower capacity iii. Less expensive
v. Faster access time iv. Higher capacity
v. Slow access time

4.Terabytes:Approximatelyonetrill

OUTPUT DEVICES

They are peripheral devices that a computer uses to give out information produced after the processing operations.
Alternatively;
An output device is any piece of computer hardware equipment used to communicate the results of data processing carried out by an information processing system (such as a computer)
to the outside world.
These devices can be classified into two categories namely:
a. Softcopy output devices.
b. Hard copy output devices.
The output produced can be classified as hardcopy output and softcopy output. Hardcopy refers to information recorded on physical medium such as paper or films while Softcopy refers
to output displayed on screen or listened to i.e. information which is intangible.
The Output devices which give out softcopy are known as softcopy output devices. Examples include: - Monitors, Speakers, LCD projectors, Light Emitting Diode (LED).
Output devices which give out hardcopy are known as hardcopy output devices. This includes: - Printers, Plotters, Computer Output on Microfilm (COM), and Facsimile. (Fax)

SOFTCOPY OUTPUT DEVICES

Light Emitting Diodes

They are indicators that display light when an electric current is passed through them. For example the red or green light displayed by the system unit to help the user know whether it is on
or off. LED‘s are mostly used to give warnings the same way a motorist would use signals to indicate when he/she is overtaking or taking a turn.
Data Projectors
Used to display output from a computer onto a plain white screen like a wall or a whiteboard. It is a creative way of presenting computer output to an audience. This technology is gradually
replacing the traditional overhead projectors.

Sound Output devices

They produce sounds such as beeps, audio or digital. Some computers come with inbuilt speakers, hence eliminating the need to connect external ones. An external speaker must be
connected to a sound card through the jacks on the system unit or on a multimedia monitor.
Computers produce audio data that require output devices such as speakers and headphones to deliver the sound to the user. Audio data is created by the computer and then sent to the
audio card, which is located in an expansion slot. The card translates the data into audio signals, which are sent to the audio output device
Monitors
A monitor is also known as Visual Display Unit (VDU) or the screen. It is used to display information in the form of text, pictures and video, enabling the user to monitor what is going on in
the computer.
There are two types of monitors:
Cathode Ray Tube (CRT) monitors
Flat panel e.g. Liquid Crystal Display (LCD) and Gas Plasma Display (GPD) monitors.

CATHODE RAY TUBE

A cathode ray tube consists of a long glass tube with an electron gun on one end and a screen on the other. The electron gun shoots electrons to illuminate the screen and is coated with
tiny phosphorus dots. The dots consist of three primary display colors i.e. red, green and blue to make a pixel. These colours light the pixels on the screen. When viewed from a little
distance away, the colours appear to blend, forming the full range of colours as required.

GAS PLASMA DISPLAYS

 They resemble LCDs only that they make use of gas instead of liquid crystals. They contain millions of pixels that are illuminated by charged neon gas.
Unlike LCDs, images displayed on gas plasma do not suffer from angle distortion. The technology is currently used to produce high definition TVs (HDTV), and wall display screens.

LIQUID CRYSTAL DISPLAY MONITORS

LCD monitors are the most popular choice at present; and CRT monitors are being phasing out. There are many reasons for this:
Advantages of LCD over CRT.

LCD Computer Monitors: Features and Benefits

a) LCDs have a thinner design that takes up less space.
b) LCDs use less power than CRT monitors.
c) An LCD flat panel computer monitor is much lighter than a CRT, making it much more portable.
d) LCD monitors provide a much sharper image.
e) LCD monitors are able to provide higher resolutions.

HARDCOPY OUTPUT DEVICE

Hard copy is a permanent reproduction, or copy, in the form of a physical object, of any media suitable for direct use by a person (in particular paper), of displayed or transmitted data.
Examples of hard copy include teleprinter pages, continuous printed tapes, facsimile pages, computer printouts, and radio photo prints.
PRINTERS

o In computing, a printer is a peripheral device which produces a hard copy (permanent readable text and/or graphics) of documents stored in electronic form, usually on physical print
media such as paper or transparencies. The quality of the hardcopy depends on the printing mechanism.
o Many printers are primarily used as local peripherals, and are attached by a printer cable or, in most newer printers, a USB (Universal Serial Bus) cable to a computer which serves as a
document source.

CLASSIFICATION OF PRINTERS

Printers can be classified by speed, how they produce the document prints (character, line or page) and how they provide prints onto the stationary (Impact or Non-impact).
Character printer

They print one character at a time and are therefore slower to print than other types. They are also less costly to buy and maintain than other printers. They are mostly used with slow
communicating terminals and stand alone and low volume printing systems where speed is not critical.

Line printer
Line printers print a whole line of text at a time. They are faster and more expensive than the character printers. They are usually used in network environments where several users share
the printer and high speed of printing is required.

Page printer
Page printers provide one whole page of print at a time hence faster than both line and character printers. They are also relatively more expensive. Page printers are non-impact printers
that provide high quality outputs.

IMPACT versus NON-IMPACT PRINTERS

• In impact printing, the printing head element comes into physical contact with the stationery. An inked ribbon placed between the stationery and the printing head elements creates
the imprints when the printing head strikes.
• In non-impact printing, the printing head element does not come into physical contact with the stationery, but by other means like thermal or electrostatic.

Differences between impact and non-impact

impact Non _impact
Slow Fast
Produce multiple copies by use of carbon Produce single copies
papers.
Costy
Cheap
Quiet
Noisy
Use thermal and electrostatic principles
Use inked ribbons

LOW SPEED PRINTERS – IMPACT PRINTERS

Dot matrix printer

A dot matrix printer or impact matrix printer is a type of computer printer with a print head that runs back and forth, or in an up and down motion, on the page and prints by impact,
striking an ink-soaked cloth ribbon against the paper, much like the print mechanism on a typewriter.
Daisy-wheel printer

Daisy-wheel printers operate in much the same fashion as a typewriter. A hammer strikes a wheel with petals, the "daisy wheel", and each petal containing a letter form at its tip. The letter
form strikes a ribbon of ink, depositing the ink on the page and thus printing a character. By rotating the daisy wheel, different characters are selected for printing.

NON-IMPACT PRINTERS

They do not use the striking mechanism to produce characters on a piece of paper. They do not hammer the ribbon hence they are much quieter. The major non-impact printers are inkjet,
thermal transfer and laser printers.
1. INKJET PRINTERS
They print spraying tiny ink droplets onto a paper to create an image. A color inkjet printer may have black and tricolor cartridges that contain cyan, magenta and yellow (CMY)
compartments. The cartridge has nozzles that do the actual spraying of ink on the paper.

2. THERMAL PRINTERS
 A thermal printer (or direct thermal printer) produces a printed image by selectively heating coated thermochromic paper, or thermal paper as it is commonly known, when the paper
passes over the thermal print head. The coating turns black in the areas where it is heated, producing an image. Two-color direct thermal printers are capable of printing both black and an
additional color (often red), by applying heat at two different temperatures.

3. LASER PRINTERS

A laser printer is a common type of computer printer that rapidly produces high quality text and graphics on plain paper.

4. Photo printer
They are special purpose printers designed to print photos.
Factors to consider when Purchasing/Selecting a printer.
i. Speed: - The volume of printing expected, that helps on the selection of the print speed range of the printer.
ii. Print quality: - The nature of the reports to be generated and their recipients‘. Dot matrix printers are good for bulk printing of draft documents; laser is good for printing official
documents while thermal printers are
good for checkout counter receipts.
iii. Initial cost: - Though the prices of printers have come down, laser and thermal printers are still expensive compared to inkjet printers.
iv. Running/Maintenance cost: - The cost of maintaining an inkjet printer is higher than that of maintaining laser printers.
v. The interface with the computer system at hand and /or family of a particular computer make/brand.
vi. Colour printing: - Most printers support black and colour printing. However, colour printers especially lasers are relatively more expensive.
PLOTTERS

A plotter is a peripheral used to draw high quality, high resolution graphics, charts, graphs, maps and vectors coordinate graphics on large sheets of paper.
It is a large type of hardcopy output device. They are mostly used for printing geographical, architectural and engineering drawings e.g. maps, advertisement posters to be placed on
billboards, machine parts etc.
The paper is sometimes laid on a flat bed (flat-bed plotter) or on a rotating drum (drum plotter)

COMPUTER OUTPUT ON MICROFORM (COM)

COM is a method that is used to store computer documents by reducing them in size to fit on very small photographic prints.
COM can also be described as computer originated microform. This output method provides miniature film strips type of computer output into the microform.
Microforms are photographically reduced documents on films. There are two forms of the microforms.
a. Microfilm which is a film reel of 16 mm roll
b. Microfiche which is rectangular shaped measuring about 105 by 148 mm sheet of film on which many frames/pages of information can be stored.
Applications of COM
The COM is conveniently used where the application generates voluminous output and use or update is not frequently necessary. COM is used in: -
a. Library for books, catalogues, references.
b. To retain town plans, maps, statistics etc in government authorities.
c. In bank, insurance companies etc to store personal or customers records and so on.
COMPUTER SOFTWARE dict and cict and aict

Software is a set of programs that a computer uses to perform different tasks. There are several ways of classifying computer software. This includes classification according to: purpose,
acquisition and End-User-License (EUL)
CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO PURPOSE
Computer software may primarily be designed to manage the hardware resources or to help the user accomplish specific tasks. Therefore, software may be classified as either system
software or application software.

SYSTEM SOFTWARE
Systems software consists of programs that co-ordinate the activities of hardware and application program. System software is designed for a specific CPU and hardware class. The
combination of a particular hardware configuration and operating system is called a computer platform. These programs manage the "behind the scenes" operation of the computer.

TYPES OF SYSTEM SOFTWARE

1. Operating systems (OS) – This is a collection of software that manages computer hardware resources and provides common services for computer programs.
Software that acts as interface between the computer hardware and application programs
Examples of operating systems include:
• DOS – Disk operating system
• Windows 3.1, 95, 98, NT, 2000, ME, XPLinux,Windows Server 2003
• Unix
• MAC OS X
• System 7/Mac OS 7
• Solaris

2. Utility Programs – This is system software designed to help the OS to perform its task eg analyze, configure and maintain a computer. Utility programs often come installed on
computer systems or packaged with operating systems.
Utilities can also be purchased individually. Examples of utility programs include:

a.Language processors – Compilers and interpreters.

b. Disk cloning software – This is software that copys the contents of one computer hard disk to another disk or to an "image" file. Unlike standard copying functions, disk cloning
involves copying hidden and in-use files, and thus presents special challenges, as those types of files are typically not available for copying. Examples include Disk Copy by Apple and
DriveClone by Farstone Technology.
c. Disk Compression – A type of data compression that works by storing compressed versions of files on the hard disk. A disk compression utility sits between the operating
system and the disk drive. Whenever the operating system attempts to save a file to disk, the utility intercepts it and compresses it. Likewise, when the operating system attempts to
open a file, the disk compression utility intercepts the file, decompresses it, and then passes it to the operating system.
d. Antivirus software
e. Backup software
f. Disk checkers for scanning operating hard drive.
g. Disk Defragmenter
h. Disk partitioning for dividing an individual drive into multiple logical drives
i. Disk Cleaner
j. Debuggers
k. Registry cleaners clean and optimize the Windows registry by removing old registry keys that are no longer in use.
3. Firmware,
Also referred to as stored logic is a combination of both the software and hardware recorded permanently on an electronic chips that comes from the manufacturer. Firmware is usually a
read-only memory chip that is mounted or
plugged into the motherboard. Firmware may hold an operating system, utility programs, language processors etc.
4. Networking software.
It is mostly used to establish communication between two or more computers by linking them using a communicatio n channel like cables to create a computer network.
Networking software enables the exchange of data in a network as well as providing data security. Network software may come as independent software or integrated in an operating
system. An example of networking software is Novel Netware.
APPLICATION SOFTWARE

Applications software includes programs designed to help end users solve particular problems using the computer or to perform specific tasks beyond the operation of the computer itself.
Examples and uses of common application packages include:

Software Uses Examples

Word Typing documents like letters, reports etc. Ms word, Lotus WordPro, OpenOffice Writer,
processors WordStar etc.

Spreadsheets Displaying and calculating accounts and Ms Excel, Lotus 1-2-3, QuattroPro, VP Planner,
other financial information.
VisiCalc
Performing calculations on data collected
in surveys and experiment.
Producing columns of data form which
graphs can be drawn e.g. population
distribution of each province.
Calculating budgets.

Desktop Designing publications like newspapers Adobe PageMaker, Ms Publisher, Adobe

publishing and books. InDesign.

Computer aided Corel Draw, AutoCAD, Adobe Photoshop.

design
Technical drawing.

Keeping records and files.

Databases Maintaining personal lists such as details Ms Access, MySQL, FoxBASE, Paradox, Oracle,
of customers, addresses, students, Sybase, SQL server, Ingress ,Dbase etc.
suppliers.

Graphics
software
For designing and manipulating graphics Corel Draw, Adobe Photoshop.

MS PowerPoint, Apple Keynote, Corel

Presentation Presentations ,Lotus Freelance Graphics,
packages OpenOffice, NeoOffice, StarOfficeImpress,prezi

CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO ACQUISITION

Software can be classified according to acquisition as in-house developed or vendor off-the-shelf software.

1) Integrated software / Vendor off-the-shelf software

It is a set of related programs combined in a unified package that allows data to be transferred easily between the programs. The programs are packaged together to form a suite or
integrated software as opposed to single -purpose software. Examples include Microsoft Office, Microsoft Works, Lotus SmartSuite, and Corel Word perfect.
Advantages of Integrated software

a) They can easily be installed and run.

b) They are cheaper than in-house developed software.
c) They can easily be modified to meet user‘s needs.
d) Minor or no errors since they are thoroughly tested.
e) They are easier to learn as the user interface for choosing commands in the same.
f) Tends to be more powerful and versatile than individual applications
g) The producer‘s after-sales service is good (on-line help facilities);

Disadvantages of integrated software

a) They may have some features not needed by the user which may take an extra storage.
b) They may require the user to change processes and hardware for compatibility which may in turn be expensive
c) They may lack some features required by the user.

2) In-house-developed /Custom-written (tailor-made) software

These are programs that are uniquely designed and tailored to meet a particular user‘s needs. A bank may decide to manage its banking operations using a unique program developed by
hired programmers. These programs are not available in the shops and once developed for one company or user they may not address the needs of other users.
Advantages of custom-written software include:
a) It offers greater depth, breadth and flexibility in meeting the needs of the organization since the product is
tailored to the organization‘s specifications.
b) Software developer delivers and installs the software and trains the end-users in the use of the new product.
c) It performs tasks that integrated software can‘t perform.
d) The software can be quickly changed when the needs of the business change since the source code belongs to the company.

Disadvantages of custom-written software

i. Cost: The costs of developing the software, on-site installation, support and training are often high.
ii. Lengthy development time: It takes time to acquire the information necessary and write the code for the new software.
iii. Increased probability of undetected error: The probability of undetected error decreases not only with the length of time a product is in service, but also with the number and variety
of users.
iv. 3) Specialized software

These programs provide facilities specifically for the purpose for which they were designed. Example, a payroll program to deal with all aspects of a company‘s payroll. Other examples of
specialized software are expert systems
(software that operate like an expert in a particular field e.g. medical expert systems), accounting programs such as ACCPAC, and theatre or airline booking systems.

Classification according to End-User-Licence (EUL)

Software under EUL can be open source, proprietary or freeware.

i. Open source or non-proprietary software refers to software whose source code (programmed set of instructions) is freely made available to users.
The users are encouraged to use, modify and distribute the modified product. Most distribution of Linux operating systems and OpenOffice are open source software which are made
available to users under General Public Licence (GPL).
ii. Proprietary software are those software whose source code is hidden from users. Modifications are only made by the software manufacturers. They may be licenced to users at a fee
or applied freely. Examples of proprietary software are Microsoft Windows operating systems and Microsoft Office.
Freeware are software products that are freely made available to the user e.g. Grisoft antivirus software known as AVG Free Edition.
Examples of proprietary software retiquired to pay for licence fee include; Microsoft Windows operating systems, Microsoft Office, Adobe PageMaker and CorelDraw suite.

CRITERIA FOR SELECTING A COMPUTER SYSTEM

Before purchasing a computer, hardware or software resources it is advisable for one to do requirement analysis. The requirement analysis involves identifying user needs, hardware and
software evaluating.
HARDWARE CONSIDERATIONS

1) Microprocessor type and speed

The processing power, speed and cost of a computer mainly depends on the type of microprocessor and its clock speed. Examples of microprocessor available today include microprocessor
Intel Duo Core, Pentium IV, Intel Celeron, AMD Athlon and AMD Duron. Consider an acc
2) Warranty
It is an agreement between the buyer and the seller that spells out terms and conditions of after selling a product in case of failure or malfunction. The seller should be able to provide after
sale services.
A good warranty should cover the following points:
a) Scope of cover e.g. six months, one year etc.
b) Callout response and liability agreement. For example, how long should the supplier take to repair a fault or replace the product and if he/she delays who bears the cost.
c) Preventive maintenance for example regulatory of service at intervals.

3) Cost
There are some key factors which the cost of a computer system depends on;
i. Its processing capability
ii. Whether it is branded or a clone. Branded computers are more expensive than their equivalent clones. A
clone computer is a computer that is not made by a tier one manufacturer i.e. Apple Computer, Hewlett- Packard (HP), IBM, and Dell. The clone computers have parts that have been
manufactured by different companies. You could have the case made by one company, the motherboard by one company, the hard drive from someone else. The merit of a clone machine
is that it is cheap (lower cost). The demerit of a clone machine is that it does not have a warranty since components are from different manufacturers.
iii. Itssize. Portable computers are more expensive than their desktop counterparts because of the superior technology involved to manufacture smaller components without losing
performance capabilities.
4) Upgradability and Compatibility
The term upgrade refers to the replacement of a product with a newer version of the same product. It is most
often used in computing and consumer electronics, generally meaning a replacement of hardware, software or firmware with a ne wer or better version, in order to bring the system up to
date or to improve its characteristics.
Common hardware upgrades include (for example) installing additional memory (RAM), adding larger hard disks, replacing microprocessor cards or graphic cards, and installing new
versions of software. Many other upgrades are often possible as well.
Common firmware upgrades include the updating of the iPod control menus, the Xbox 360 dashboard, or the non-volatile flash memory that contains the embedded operating system for a
consumer electronics device.
Hardware compatibility
Hardware compatibility can refer to the compatibility of computer hardware components with a particular CPU architecture, bus, motherboard or operating system.
Hardware that is compatible may not always run at its highest stated performance, but it can nevertheless work
with legacy components. An example is RAM chips, some of which can run at a lower (or sometimes higher) clock rate than rated. Hardware that was designed for one operating system
may not work for another, if device or kernel drivers are unavailable. For example, much of the hardware for Mac OS X is proprietary hardware with drivers unavailable for use in operating
systems such as Linux.
5) Portability
Portable machines such as laptops PDAs are ideal for people who do not take most of their time in office.

6) Special user needs

When selecting computer hardware, consider the unique user needs. For example if a user is physically challenged, consider buying voice input devices.
7) Monitor
The choice of a monitor may depend on size, resolution and the technology used on it. Currently most of the CRT monitors are being replaced with flat panel displays.

8) Multimedia capability
Multimedia capability refers to the ability for a computer to process and output text, sound, video and pictures. A multimedia system consists of speakers, CD/DVD drive, sound card and
SVGA monitor.

9) Other considerations
Ports available, wireless connectivity and the system unit form factor whether tower type or desktop.
SOFTWARE CONSIDERATIONS

One may have a good computer with the best hardware but the actual determinant of a computers‘ value to the user is the software in it.
Factors to be considered include;

a) Authenticity
The term authenticity refers to genuineness, validity and or legitimacy of an item. When you acquire software from the vendor, make sure it is an original copy that is accompanied by the
developer‘s license and certificate of authenticity.
This is because some people illegally produce pirated copies which are an offence.
b) Documentation
It refers to the manual prepared by the developer having details on how to install, use and maintain the software. These include installation guide, maintenance guide and user guide. The
documentation enables the user to work with the software with minimum guidance.
Software documentation, which is usually paper books or computer readable files (such as HTML-Hypertext Markup Language) pages) that describe the structure and components, or on
the other hand, operation, of a system/product.

c) User needs
 User needs dictates the type of operating system and application programs that should be considered for acquisition. E.g. if the user‘s needs is to type document most often he/she would
go for a word processor.
People with special disability will require software that recognizes other forms of input like voice and natural sound. Example, software used in mobile phones to store voice and allow the
user to make a call by just calling a name instead of keying in the number.
d) Reliability and security
Data security is paramount. A good software especially the operating system should have security mechanisms that protect data and information from illegal access.
e) User friendliness
It is a measure of how easily the users can be able to operate the computer. Some programs are more user friendly than others. The ease to use a program will most likely influence
whether the user will prefer it or not.

f) Cost
Software tends to be more expensive than hardware. The cost of acquiring software must be carefully considered before acquiring them against the benefits that it is likely to bring.
g) Compatibility and system configuration
A family of computer models is said to be compatible if certain software that runs on one of the models can also be run on all other models of the family. The computer models may differ
in performance, reliability or some other characteristic. These differences may affect the outcome of the running of the software.
Software compatibility

Software compatibility can refer to the compatibility that a particular software has running on a particular CPU architecture such as Intel. Software compatibility can also refer to ability for
the software to run on a particular operating system.
Software incompatibility occurs many times for new software released for a newer version of an operating system which is incompatible with the older version of the operating system
because it may miss some of the features and functionality that the software depends on. Software that works on older versions of an operating system is said to be backwards compatible.
h) Portability
It refers to whether a program can be copied or installed in more than one computer. Although most soft ware in the market today is portable, some developers produce software which
can be installed on one machine only. This means that if one has twenty computers, one should buy a licence for each.
i) Upgradability
It is the replacement of a software with a newer or better version, in order to bring the system up to date or to improve its characteristics.
Common software upgrades include changing the version of an operating system, of an office suite, of an anti-virus program, or of various other tools.

METHODS OF ACQUIRING SOFTWARE/HARDWARE

1. Buy Off-the-shelf package - This can be sold through retail outlets without any direct contact between the software developer and the customer.
2. Customized software applications - The software developer builds an application that meets the needs of the customer as defined in a specification.
3. Lease or Rent software.
4. Freeware/Shareware
5. Outsourcing

HOW TO AQCUIRE ICT RESOURCES – PROCEDURE

1. Conduct feasibility study: Economic, Operational, Technical etc.

2. Prepare invitation to tender documents

3. Receive response from suppliers

4. Shortlist best suppliers

5. Call them for interview

6. Select one and sign a contract

7. Wait for delivery Ordering/Acquisition Suggestions:

Occasionally group purchases/bundles are available; investigate current or pending offers

 Hardware packages may not provide adequate memory for necessary program functions;

 consideration should be given to the savings of the package vs. the cost of additional memory upgrades. Consideration must be given to whether a line of equipment is being
discontinued; what

 implications does the discontinuance have on issues such as maintenance. Review the type of warranty which is provided on the hardware.

 Maintain copies of all warranties.

 OPERATING SYSTEMS

Definition: -
It is software (programs and data) that provides an interface between the hardware and application software. (Interface - The point at which a connection is made between two elements
so that they can work with one another).
OR
It is a set of programs which manages the resources of a computer system enabling them to be utilized efficiently.
OR
It is the main program that controls the execution of user application s and enables the user to access hardware and software resources of a computer.
OR
It is a set of programs that governs the operation of a computer.

It is responsible for management and coordination of processes and allocation and sharing of hardware resources such as RAM and disk space.
The user application programs do not directly communicate with hardware devices instead they send messages via the operating system which has the capability to give instructions to the
hardware to perform a particular task. In some hand-held computers such as PDAs and palm pilots, the operating system is embedded on a ROM chip.
In most PCs and larger computers, the O/S is switched on as soon as one turns on or ‗boot‘, the computer. The term booting refers to the process of loading operating system software into
a computer‘s main memory from the disk. The O/S remains in the main memory until one turns off the computer.
In the section about hardware, a computer is described as consisting of several component parts including monitor, keyboard, mouse, and other parts. The operating system provides an
interface to these parts using what is referred to as "drivers". This is why sometimes when you install a new printer or other piece of hardware, the system will ask you to install more
software called a driver.
FUNCTION OF A DRIVER
A driver is a specially written program which understands the operation of the device it interfaces to, such as a printer, video card, sound card or CD ROM drive.
- It translates commands from the operating system or user into commands understood by the component computer part it interfaces with.
- It also translates responses from the component computer part back to responses that can be understood by the operating system, application program, or user.
The diagram below gives a graphical depiction of the interfaces between the operating system and the computer
component.

DEVICE DRIVERS
A device driver is a specific type of computer software developed to allow interaction with hardware devices. Typically this constitutes an interface for communicating with the device,
through the specific computer bus or communications subsystem that the hardware is connected to, providing commands to and/or receiving data from the device, and on the other end,
the requisite interfaces to the operating system and software applications.

The operating system manages the following: -

a. Input: - Getting information into the computer from an external source such as the keyboard, mouse, scanner or a disk.
b. Processing: - Manipulation of the input received.
c. Output: - Once the input has been processed, it is output to a monitor, printer, disk or sent via e-mail or the web.

The diagram below shows graphical view/layout of the interaction with the operating system as the Intermediary.
U
(Runs application
se Programs)
r

Application Software
(Sends user request to O/S)

Operatin syst
(Receives,
g executes
emrequests)

Hardware
(Receives and does O/S commands)
NB:
The difference between the function of Control unit and that of operating system in resource control is that: it is the operating system that determines which task or program will be
executed next, while the control unit interprets one instruction from the program at a time and sends control signals to the arithmetic and logic unit for execution and back to the operating
system for hardware and software control.
FUNCTIONS OF AN OPERATING SYSTEM IN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT

An operating system basically consists of two main parts namely; shell and kernel.
Shell: Is the outer part of an operating system used to interact with operating system.
Kernel: It is the core of the operating system regarded as the operating system. It is the kernel that is responsible for managing and controlling computer resources such as the processor,
main memory, storage devices, input devices, output devices and communication devices.
Application
s

Ker
nel

C Memor Devi
P y ces
U
The kernel connects the application software to the hardware of a computer.

FUNCTIONS OF OPERATNG SYSTEM

a) Processor scheduling
It refers to allocating each job a waiting for execution processor time at each given interval. Since a computer may have concurrent processes ready for executions, it is the O/S that
determines which task will be processed first. The operating system schedules jobs according to priorities. The higher the priority, the higher the likelihood of being allocated CPU time.
b) Resource allocation
 Each available resource in a computer is given a unique identification number called an Interrupt Request (IRQ). The O/S uses the IRQ number to identify the resource being requested.
Poor resource allocation would result to an undesirable condition referred to as deadlock. Deadlock is a situation where a particular job holds a requested resource and fails to release it,
yet it is requesting for a resource held by the other job.
c) Managing files
d) Memory
The OS manages all the files on a computer. It keeps track of the location where programs and data are stored in the computer‘s memory. For example opening a file saved in a hard drive
and other secondary storage devices like CD, Flash disk, Memory stick/card.
Other file management include: copying, erasing, renaming and backing-up files.

e) Managing computer resources (Input/output management).

The OS allows application software or user programs such as word processing, spreadsheet and database packages to communicate with computer‘s hardware. For example if one is
working on a document in Excel and wants to print, he/she can access the ‗Print‘ command. Excel directs the O/S to select a printer (if there is more than one) to print the document. The
O/S notifies then notifies the computer to begin sending data and instructions to the appropriate program to get the document printed. The diagram below shows how O/S acts as an
interface between application programs and the hardware.

f) Communication control and management

The OS is responsible for managing various communication devices and provide an environment within which communication protocols operate.
The term protocol refers to the rules that govern communication between devices on a network. The current operating systems come with network management utilities that provide the
external communication by connecting to communication systems using an interface cable or through wireless interface e.g. Bluetooth and Infrared.
g) Error handling
The O/S alerts the user of errors that may arise out of illegal operations, hardware or software failure. Most of the O/S express what the error is and where possible make suggestions on
how to correct the error. The O/S does this by monitoring the status of the computer system and perform audit checks on users, hardware and software.
h) Interrupt handling
An interrupt is a break from the normal sequential processing of instructions in a program. A critical request causes the processor to stop executing the current process to attend to it,
before returning the control back to the process that was initially interrupted.
i) Multiprocessing
It refers to a computer systems ability to support more than one process (program) at the same time. Multiprocessing operating system enables several programs to run concurrently.
This is accomplished by linking two or more computers or processors which can then work on different programs simultaneously. This increases the processing time.
Multiprocessing is much faster than multitasking or multiprogramming as more than one program is processed at the same time. Multiprocessing is mostly used in real-time systems where
fast processing speeds are very important.
j) Logging & accounting

The OS keeps records (internal logs) on how the computer resources (e.g. CPU time, memory, peripherals) are being usedIt also keeps a complete record of all what happens during
processing (usually in the form of a printed log)

TYPES OF OPERATING SYSTEM

Operating System Concerns
Operating systems are written by human programmers who make mistakes. Therefore there can be errors in the code even though there may be some testing before the product is
released. Some companies have better software quality control and testing than others, one may notice varying levels of quality from operating system to operating system.
Errors in operating systems cause three main types of problems:
• System crashes and instabilities - These can happen due to a software bug (an error in a computer program or hardware) typically in the operating system, although computer
programs being run on the operating system can make the system more unstable or may even crash the system by themselves. This varies depending on the type of operating system. A system
crash is the act of a system freezing and becoming unresponsive which would cause the user to need to reboot.
• Security flaws - Some software errors leave a door open for the system to be broken into by unauthorized intruders. As these flaws are discovered, unauthorized intruders may try to
use these to gain illegal access to your system. Patching these flaws often will help keep your computer system secure. How this is done will be explained later.
• Sometimes errors in the operating system will cause the computer not to work correctly with some peripheral devices such as printers.

OPERATING SYSTEM TYPES

There are many types of operating systems. The most common is the Microsoft suite of operating systems. They include from most recent to the oldest:
• Windows 7
• Windows Vista
• Windows XP
• Windows 2000
• Windows ME
• Windows 98
• Windows NT
• Windows 95
There are other worthwhile types of operating systems not made by Microsoft. The greatest problem with these operating systems lies in the fact that not as many application programs
are written for them.
• Ubuntu, Edubuntu
• UNIX - It is very stable. It is primary used to be a server rather than a workstation and should not be used by anyone who does not understand the system. It can be difficult to learn.
UNIX must normally run on a computer made by the same company that produces the software.
• Linux - Linux is similar to UNIX in operation but it is free. It also should not be used by anyone who does not understand the system and can be difficult to learn.
• Apple MacIntosh- Most recent versions are based on UNIX but it has a good graphical interface so it is both stable (does not crash often or have as many software problems as other
systems may have) and easy to learn.
One drawback to this system is that it can only be run on Apple produced hardware.
These operating systems can be classified according to:- a. Size of a computer
b. Number of tasks
c. Number of users
d. User interface

Classification according to size of a computer

Embedded operating systems

It is the one used on hand held devices such as mobile phones and PDAs. Examples include Microsoft Windows CE, Linux, PalmOS and Symbian OS.

Desktop and network operating systems

Some operating systems are meant for home users and are cheaper and easier to use. Such operating systems are referred to us desktop or stand-alone operating systems.
Examples include Windows 98 and Me. On the other hand, network operating systems (NOS) are used on servers and client computers. Examples include: - Windows 2000, XP, Vista and
Windows 7, Novell Netware, UNIX and Linux.
Operating systems used on large computers
There are some specialized operating systems used on mainframes and supercomputers. Examples include; IBM VSE/ESA and zOS are used on mainframe computers. IBM zSeries 900
computer that runs on VSE/ESA and zOS.

Classification according to tasks

 Single task operating systems
They allow processing of one application program in the main memory at a time. This means that the user can only run one interactive program at a time. The user must exit from the
program before loading and running another program. Examples include Microsoft Disk Operating System (MS DOS) and PC DOS.

Multitasking operating system

-

It is also referred to as multiprogramming operating system, allows more than one program to run apparently at the same time. Through processor scheduling, the operating system
allocates a time slice to each ready task. The CPU switches its attention between programs as directed by the operating system. The switching mechanism is so fast that it appears as if the
tasks are being executed simultaneously.

Classification according to Number of users

Single-user operating system

It is designed for use by only one person. It cannot support more than one person and runs only one user application program at a time. Examples include MS DOS and PC DOS.
Multi-user operating system
It allows more than one user to interactively use a computer. For example, server operating system such as Windows 2003 server which they can be installed on a computer that is
accessed by all users in an organization. Other examples include – UNIX, Novell and Windows NT/2000, Windows Server 2008, Windows Multipoint Server 2010, Linux etc.
Classification according to Interface

Interface, the point at which a connection is made between two elements so that they can work with one another. In computing, different types of interfacing occur on different levels,
ranging from highly visible user interfaces that enable people to communicate with programs to often invisible, yet necessary, hardware interfaces that connect devices and components
inside the computer.
User interface refers to the interaction between the user and a computer.
User interfaces consist of the graphical design, the commands, prompts, and other devices that enable a user to interact with a program. Microcomputers have three basic types of user
interfaces (which are not necessarily mutually exclusive):

 The Command-Line Interfacetypified by the MS-DOS A> or C> prompt, responds to commands typed by the user.
 The Menu-based interface(also called Menu-Driven interface, used by many application programs such as Lotus 1-2-3, offers the user a choice of command words that can be
activated by typing a letter, pressing a direction key, or pointing with a mouse.
 The Graphical user interface, characteristic of the Apple Macintosh and of windowing programs, presents the user with a visual representation of some metaphor such as a
desktop and allows the user to control not only menu choices but also the size, layout, and contents of one or more on- screen ―windows‖ or working areas. See also
Graphical User Interface; Icon.
COMMAND-LINE BASED OPERATING SYSTEM
-
It lets the user type a command at a command prompt. The computer reads the typed command from the command line and execute it. For a command to be more user friendly, the
words used should be descriptive verbs e.g. print, copy etc.
Examples of command line interface are early versions of MS DOS, PC DOS, OS/2 and UNIX.
NB:-
-
One must press the enter key for each command to be executed.
Terms used in command line:-

Command description
CD\ Takes you back to the root directory
Ctrl + Z – ^Z
Copy con – For typing any description about something.
RENAME – For changing the name of a directory.
Exit –For ending the command prompt program
Dir lists the contents of a folder
Cd changes folder
cd .. parent folder
Cls clears the window
md or mkdir creates a new folder
Deltree deletes a folder and all sub-folders
copy, xcopy copies a file
Call calls one batch program file from another
Chkdsk checks a disk and displays a status report.
Chkntfs displays or modifies the checking of disk at startup.
Assoc displays or modifies filename extension associations.
Move moves a file
Del deletes a file
Type displays the contents of a file
More displays file contents page by page, pausing after each page
help help for the given command
Print prints the given file
Notepad runs the Windows Notepad text editor
attrib (-/+r, -/+a, -/+s, -/+h) changes a file's attributes (- deactivates, + activates, r: read-only, a: archive, s: systeme, h: hidden file)
Format formats the given drive
Label assigns a drive name to a drive
Ver gives the version number

Command-line operating systems have become unpopular because:-

a. It is difficult to remember the commands.
b. Cannot process complex graphics.
c. They hardly make use of emerging hardware and software technologies.

MENU DRIVEN OPERATING SYSTEMS

- A program that uses menus to present choices of commands and available options. Menu-driven programs are usually considered ―friendlier‖ and easier to learn than programs with a
command-line interface—that is, programs that rely on commands typed at an on-screen prompt.
- They were developed to address the shortcomings of command-line interface.
- Most ATM machines use menu driven interface.
GRAPHICAL USER INTERFACE (GUI)

- It is a display format that enables the user to choose commands, start programs, and see lists of files and other options by pointing to pictorial representations (icons) and lists of
menu items on the screen.
It is the latest effort to make the user-interface more user friendly.
 Besides menus, GUI makes use of rectangular work areas called windows, graphical objects called icons most commands are executed using a pointing device.
These features are given an acronym WIMP which stands for Windows, Icons, Menus and Pointing devices.
Icon – It is a small graphic image displayed on the screen to represent an object that can be manipulated by the user. Icons are visual mnemonics; for example, a trash can represent a
command for deleting unwanted text or files.
Icons allow the user to control certain computer actions without having to remember commands or type them at the keyboard. Icons are a significant factor in the ―user-friendliness‖ of
graphical user interfaces.
- Examples of GUI operating system include:-
Microsoft Windows Versions 2000, XP, Vista and Windows 7; Apple Mac OS, Linux etc.
The Windows GUI is designed to be a natural, or intuitive, work environment for the user. With Windows, the user can move a cursor around on the computer screen with a mouse.
By pointing the cursor at icons and clicking buttons on the mouse, the user can issue commands to the computer to perform an action, such as starting a program, accessing a data file, or
copying a data file. Other commands can be reached through pull-down or click-on menu items.
The computer displays the active area in which the user is working as a window on the computer screen. The currently active window may overlap with other previously active windows
that remain open on the screen.

This type of GUI is said to include WIMP features: Windows, Icons, Menus, and Pointing device

Advantages of GUI
1. It is user friendliness-it is easy to use.
2. It is interactive –it provides dialogs to the user.
3. It does not require one to remember commands.

General types of Operating Systems

• Multi-user: Allows two or more users to run programs at the same time. Some operating systems permit hundreds or even thousands of concurrent users. All mainframes and
minicomputers are multi-user systems, but most personal computers and workstations are not.

• Multiprocessing: Supports running a program on more than one CPU. The system has two or more processing units (multiple processors) each sharing the main memory and
peripherals, in order to simultaneously process programs. This is also calledparallel processingand is made possible by multithreading programs such that several threads of the
same program run on the same CPU.

• Multitasking/Multiprogramming (vs. Singletasking): Allows more than one program to run concurrently thereby ensuring that system resources are utilized effectively. A single-
tasking system has only one running program.

• Multithreading: Allows different parts of a single program to run concurrently. The technology can be applied to a single process to enable parallel execution on a multiprocessor
system. This means that a single process can have many different "functions" executing concurrently, allowing the application to better use the available hardware (multiple
cores/processors).

• Real time: These Operating systems respond to input instantly. They are usually dedicated, embedded systems. They typically read from and react to sensor data. The system must
guarantee response to events within fixed periods of time to ensure correct performance. Real-time responses are often understood to be in the order of milliseconds, and
sometimes microseconds. The predictability of the system behaviour is the most important concern in these systems. Generalpurpose operating systems, such as DOS and UNIX, are
not real-time. The main characteristics of this type of real time systems include:
oDirect connection between input/output devices and the central processor. oFairly fast response time

Typical examples of real-time systems include Air Traffic Control Systems, Command Control Systems.

• Distributed: A distributed operating system is a system that manages a group of networked computers which have the same goal for their work. The components interact with each
other in order to achieve a common goal such as solving a large computational problem. The computers are geographically dispersed but linked by communication lines. This
seamless integration of individual nodes into a global system is referred to as transparency.

•
• Embedded: An embedded system is a computer system with a dedicated function within a larger mechanical or electrical system, often with real-time computing constraints.
Embedded operating systems are designed to be used in embedded computer systems and dedicated to handle a particular task. They are designed to operate on small machines
like PDAs with a limited number of resources. They are very compact and extremely efficient by design. Examples include Windows CE and Minix 3. Embedded systems range from
portable devices such as digital watches and MP3 players, to large stationary installations like traffic lights, factory controllers and large complex
systems like hybrid vehicles, MRI, and avionics.

• Batch operating system: these execute a series of programs ("jobs") on a computer without human interaction. Batch jobs are set up so they can be run to completion without
human interaction i.e. programs and data are collected together in a batch before processing starts. This is in contrast to "online" or interactive systems which prompt the user for
such input. Examples of areas where batch processing is used include:

a. Producing bills
b. payroll
c. stock control
d. processing bank cheques
e. marking multiple choice examination papers

Spooling batch systems use the concept of spooling which is an acronym for Simultaneous Peripheral Operations online.
Spooling refers to putting data in a buffer, a special area in memory or on a disk where an output device such as a printer can access them when it is ready. Spooling is useful because
devices access data at much slower rates than the CPU. The buffer provides a waiting station where data can rest while the slower device catches up.

The most common spooling application is print spooling. In print spooling, documents are loaded into a buffer and then the printer pulls them off the buffer at its own rate.

• Interactive/on-line: User is online with computer system and interacts with it via an interface and the results of data processing are available immediately. It is typically composed of
many short transactions where the result of the next transaction may be unpredictable. Response time needs to be short since the user submits and waits for the result.

FACTORS TO CONSIDER WHEN CHOOSING AN OPERATING SYSTEM

The type of operating one chooses depends on a number of factors. They include:-
a.
The hardware configuration of the computer such as the memory capacity, processor speed and hard disk capacity.
b.
The type of computer in terms of size and make. For example, some earlier Apple computers would not run on Microsoft operating systems.
c.
The application software intended for the computer.
d.
User-friendliness of the operating system.
e.
The documentation available.
f.
The cost of the operating system.
g.
Reliability and security provided by the operating system.
h.
The number of processors and hardware it can support.
i.
The number of users it can support.

Microsoft Windows and Apple Macintosh have the following basic components of GUI
Pointing devices: - A device such as a mouse or a trackball that enables one to select objects on the display screen.
Icons: - A small graphic image displayed on the screen to represent an object that can be manipulated by the user. This makes the program user friendly.
Desktop: - Area on the display screen where icons are grouped.
Windows: - A portion of the screen that can contain its own document or message. In each window one can run a different program or display a different file. One can also enlarge and
shrink individual windows at will.
Menus: - A list of options from which a program user can select in order to perform a desired action; such as choosing a command or applying a particular format to a part of a document.
Choosing from one menu often leads the user to a second menu or to a dialog box containing options that further refine the original menu selection.
Pointer:- An on-screen symbol such as an arrowhead that is controlled by a mouse or other input device and is used as a means of indicating (and selecting) locations or choices on the
screen.
HOW AN OPERATING SYSTEM ORGANIZES INFORMATION
All modern operating system handle information in the same way though they differ in terms of ―look and feel‖.
Factors dictating how an operating system organizes information include:-
a. Rapid Access – It should allow quick access to stored data.
b. Ease of Update – The organization method should allow ease of update and the operating system must be able to keep a record of the date of modification.
c. Economy of storage – The organization method should use the least storage possible because memory is a scarce resource.
d. Simplicity of maintenance- The organization method should enable quick navigation through the file systemand make it easy for it to be maintained.
e. Reliability – file organization method must be reliable.
Most operating systems organize information in a three-tier hierarchy:-
a. Drives;
b. Folders and subfolders;
c. File.

The figure below shows how information is organized by a GUI operating system on drive C:

C:\>

Folder 1 Folder 2 Folder 3

Subfolder 1 Subfolder 2 Subfolder 3 Subfolder 4

File 1 File 2
File 3

FILES
Information is usually stored in main memory as you work, and to save information for retrieval, one uses files. A fileis a collection of related data given a unique name for ease of access,
manipulation and storage on a backing storage. Operating system indicates various properties of a file which includes:-
a) Name of the file.
b) Type of application program used.
c) Size of the file on the disk.
d) Location of the file.
e) Date modified
f) Date created.
g) Date accessed
Every file has the following details:
 1. A unique name and an optional extension. The name and extension are separated by a period (.) e.g.
SCHOOL.DOC. In this case the file name is SCHOOL and the extension is DOC. Extensions are used to
identify the type of file, for example:-
- doc is a word processor file;
- txt is a plain text file;
- sys is a system file.
2. The size, date, and time the file was created or modified.
Type: Microsoft Office Word Document
Author: Microsoft Windows XP
Size: 13.0KB
Date Modified: 19/10/2009. 12.49 p.m.

TYPES OF FILES
There are three types of files namely System files, Application files and Data files.
- System files contain information that is critical for the operation of the computer.
- Application files hold programs and they are executable.
- Data files contains users specific data
The table below shows some file extensions and whether it is a system, application or data file.

Extension File type Description

.doc Data A Microsoft Word document file
.txt Data A plain text file created using Note pad or DOS editor
.tif Data A graphic file created using applications such as Adobe Photoshop
.exe Application file The file that launches a particular application e.g. Winword.exe, PM.70.exe, etc
.bat System files File containing a series of commands loaded during boot up.
.sys System files System files that perform fundamental operations in a computer.

JPEG – It is an extension for a JPEG file. Its acronym is Joint Photographic Expert Group
TIF - it is an extension for a TIFF file. Its acronym is Tagged Image File Format
Folders
- It is also known as a directory in some operating systems, is a named storage location where related files
canbe stored.
- All folders or directories originate from a special directory called a root directory or a folder. The root
directory is represented by a back slash (\).
- A folder or directory may be created inside another folder or directory. Such a folder or directory is called a
subfolder or a subdirectory.
Drives
- The operating system recognizes storage media or devices as drives. The user can access either a physical
orlogical drive to store their data. Drives may be given labels such as letters A – Z to identify them.
The table below gives a summary of how Microsoft operating systems identify drives.
Storage location Drive Remarks

Floppy drive A and B I f a computer has two floppy drives, one will be assigned letter A and the other B
Hard disk C, D, E, F If a computer has 4 hard drives, they will be assigned letters C - F
Optical drives D, E, F, G If a computer has one hard disk and three or more CD/DVD drives, they will take up
any number between D and Z
Other removable D, E, …,
If a computer does not have an optical drive, any removable drive attached to the
Z computer can take any letter between D and Z.
 Network drive Logical Network drives takes D – Z depending on the number of physical drives installed or
attached.

DISK MANAGEMENT USING WINDOWS

- Microsoft Windows provides the user with storage media management utilities such as disk
formatting,scandisk, compression, and defragmenter, disk partitioning and backup utilities.
.
1. Formatting disks
- Formatting is the process of preparing new disk for use by imprinting empty sectors and tracks on the
surfaceof the disk so that the operating system can recognize and make it accessible.
- Or It is the initial part of the process for preparing a hard disk or other storage medium for its first use.
The disk formatting includes setting up an empty file system. A disk formatting may setup multiple file
systems by formatting partitions for each file system.
2. Scanning a storage device for problems
The scandisk is a utility in MS-DOS and MicrosoftWindows systems which checks and repairs file systems and bad
clusters on the hard drive.
3. Defragmenting a disk- Re-arranging scattered folders to speed up access and retrieval.
- A single file may have several pieces (fragments) scattered in several noncontiguous sectors on a disk. The
read/write head has to move back and forth over the disk surface to retrieve the fragmented parts of the
file.This leads to wastage of time and free disk space.
- Disk defragmenter is a computer program included in Microsoft Windows designed to increase access
speed by rearranging files stored on the disk to occupy contiguous storage locations, a technique
commonly knownas defragmenting.
- The purpose is to optimize the time it takes to read and write files to/from the disk by minimizing head
travel time and maximizing the transfer rate.
4. Compressing files, folders or a drive-
Compressing files or folders reduces the amount of space they occupy on a drive while compressing a drive
decreasesthe amount of space used by all of the files and folders stored on that drive.
5. SCANNING FOR VIRUS
Malicious programs such as viruses simply referred to as malware are harmful programs deliberately intended to
make a computer fail or malfunction. Three common types of malicious programs are Viruses, Trojan horse and
Worms.
6. Backing up data:-
. Backup enables the user to create copies of data and programs (on separate storage devices) that help a user to
avoid losing important data and program files in case the storage device or a computer fails.

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 7. Partitioning a disk
Partitioning refers to the process of dividing a large physical disk into two or more partitions called logical drives. Alogical
drive is treated as a separate drive and is assigned a drive letter.
Purposes for partitioning:-
a. For separation of the operating system files from the user files.
b. Having an area for operating system virtual memory swapping / paging.
c. For keeping frequently used programs and data near each other.
d. For the purpose of backup on the same disk but different partitions so that if one partition fails the other willstill be
working.
e. When the user intends to install more than one operating systems on the same disk, install each on a separate
partition.
f. Raising overall computer performance on systems whereas smaller file systems are more efficient. For example
large hard drives with only one NTFS file system typically have a very large sequentially-accessedMaster File Table
(MFT).
g. Having cache and log files separate from other files. These can change size dynamically and rapidly,potentially making
a file system full.
Choosing a file system
Before partitioning a disk, one needs to decide how files are stored on each partition. The following file systems areused on
Windows operating systems:
a. File Allocation Table (FAT):-Was primarily used in MS DOS and Windows 95.
b. File Allocation Table 32 bit (FAT32):- Is primarily used in Windows 98 and Me. FAT32 can also be used onWindows
XP.
c. New Technology File System: - Is primarily used in Windows NT, 2000, XP, 2003, Vista and Windows 7.

TROUBLESHOOTING AND FIXING PROBLEMS

The term troubleshooting is the process of diagnosing and trying to fix hardware or software related problems. When
using windows, you may experience some problems such as:-
1. Failure to load the operating system during the booting process.
2. The computer hangs (stops responding) now and then.
3. Abnormal restarting
4. ‗Fatal exception error has occurred …‘ message.
These problems may result from
a. Problem in installing process missing files
b. Insufficient system memory
c. Problems with hard disk boot sector may be due to virus infection
d. Corrupted window registry system
e. Due to interrupt request conflicts

. The following are some boot and run-time errors and suggested solution:-
a. Invalid system disk
- The error may occur if the drive configured as the active partition no longer contains essential systems files
required to load the operating system.
- Make sure that the active partition is selected as the startup drive or re-install the operating system.
b. Missing operating system
- Missing system files such as CONFIG.SYS, HIMEN.SYS and Autoexec.bat may result to boot failure. If the files have been
deleted, re-install the operating system or start up the computer using a startup or rescue disk and try to copy the files
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into the system subfolder of Windows folder.
c. Corrupted system registry
- Registry is the Windows database that keeps details about all system and application programs installed in the computer. If
 the registry is corrupted, the computer may fail to boot.

INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER NETWORKING

Definition of terms used in Networking

1. Network

A computer network can be defined as a collection 2 or more computers connected together using transmission media (e.g.,
telephone cables, or Satellites) for the purpose of communication and sharing of resources.

The term Transmission media refers to any physical or non-physical link between 2 or more computers, and in which a signal can
be made to flow from source to destination.
2. Network Server.

A Server is a powerful computer that provides services (shared resources) to the other computers on the network. It enables
information, resources & network devices to be shared by users on a computer network.
Network servers;

i) Have a higher hard disk & main memory (RAM) capacity than the other computers on the network.
ii) Store & run a special program called the server software (network operating system), which controls computers on the
network.

3. Clients (workstations)

Clients(also referred to as Workstations) are Personal Computers (PCs) attached to the network, on which the network users do
their work. They are used by network users to send their requests to the server.

Clients;

i) Are usually less powerful than the server, and use the resources provided by the Server.
ii) Have their own operating systems and files.
The PCs can be IBM or compatible running MS-DOS, OS/2, Windows, etc.
The figure below shows a server on a network.

Features Of Computer network

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A list Of Computer network features is given below.

  Communication speed
 File sharing
 Back up and Roll back is easy
 Software and Hardware sharing
 Security
 Scalability
 Reliability

1. Communication speed

Network provides us to communicate over the network in a fast and efficient manner. For example, we can do video conferencing,
email messaging, etc. over the internet. Therefore, the computer network is a great way to share our knowledge and ideas.

2. File sharing

File sharing is one of the major advantage of the computer network. Computer network provides us to share the files with each other.

3. Back up and Roll back is easy

Since the files are stored in the main server which is centrally located. Therefore, it is easy to take the back up from the main server.

4. Software and Hardware sharing

We can install the applications on the main server, therefore, the user can access the applications centrally. So, we do not need to
install the software on every machine. Similarly, hardware can also be shared.

5. Security

Network allows the security by ensuring that the user has the right to access the certain files and applications.

6. Scalability

Scalability means that we can add the new components on the network. Network must be scalable so that we can extend the network
by adding new devices. But, it decreases the speed of the connection and data of the transmission speed also decreases, this increases
the chances of error occurring. This problem can be overcome by using the routing or switching devices.

7. Reliability

Computer network can use the alternative source for the data communication in case of any hardware failure.

PURPOSE OF NETWORKING

Some of the reasons for setting up computer networks include:

1) Resource sharing

A Network resource refers to any component that can be attached to the network for access by users.
Users whose computers are connected to a network share the resources like printer, files.
Some of the shared resources include:

 Application programs. Page 33

 Network Printers
 Data and information.
 Messages.
  Files.

2) Remote communications

Remote communication refers to the transmission of data signals between two communication devices located at different
geographical locations.E.g., using remote communication, one can work from home just as if he/she is in the office.It is mainly
through remote communications that people can be able to share ideas, and pass messages over the Internet.
-A computer that tries to access resources from another computer on the network is called a remote client, while the computer
being accessed is called a remote host.

-Remote communication has been made possible by use of wireless transmission media such as radio waves, microwave, and
satellite.

3. Distributed processing facilities

Distributed processing refers to the act of running the same programs or databases on different computers, which are on the
same network but placed in separate locations.

Each computer has its own local peripherals, e.g., disks, printers, terminals, etc.

For example;

In a large organization, each branch office has its own server that stores data, information, and other resources required for their
daily operations.
This implies that, files reside on the user’s computer rather than on a central computer, and are only transmitted periodically to
update the central computer.

Advantages of distributed processing

1. Failure of the central computer does not affect the operations of the other terminals.
2. Processing load is shared equally; hence, no time wastage.
3. There is faster access of data as each machine can process & store its data.
4. It doesn’t need powerful and expensive servers for data storage.
5. It can accommodate users with variety of needs.

Disadvantages of distributed processing

i. It is more susceptible to virus, as any user could introduce an infected file and spread it throughout the network.
ii. Developing an effective back up plan is more difficult when users store data in their individual systems.
iii. File management (organization) is difficult as the files are stored in different locations.

4. Cost effectiveness
The initial cost of purchasing and laying down of networks components may be expensive. However, the savings experienced and
the value added to service delivery make networks cost effective.

 Networks greatly increase the efficient use of scarce resources. E.g., a large organization with many stand alone computers
will need a printer for each computer. However, if the computers are networked, only one printer is used.

 Computer networks have also enhanced daily communication, i.e., they have made the flow of information from one place to
another easy. Users can send mails (e.g., e-mails) to each other, without having to bear the cost of stamp duty or delivery
charges.
Similarly, company executives can hold electronic video conferences, thus reducing the travelling costs.
5. Reliability
A computer network is reliable especially when communicating or accessing information:
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i) Data can be transferred with minimum errors from source to destination.
ii) In case one computer breaks down; the user can still access data & information from the other computers using another
computer on the network.
LIMITATIONS (DISADVANTAGES) OF NETWORKING

1. Security issues
Data & information held on a network is open to many people across the world, and can easily be accessed illegally.
In addition, when information is sent over the network from one place to another, it can be tapped or listened to by
unauthorized parties.
2. High initial cost
The initial cost of buying network hardware & software is very high.
3. Moral and cultural effects

Large networks such as the Internet have chat rooms and messaging services. These enable underage children to meet peers and
adults on the net, some of whom may have bad intentions.

Access to pornographic and other negative material on the Internet has made the fight against social problems such as HIV/AIDS,
bad sexual behaviour, and drug abuse more complicated.

4. Spread of terrorism and drug trafficking

The Internet makes it easy for terrorists and drug traffickers to operate. This is because; they use information networks for their
business communications.
5. Over-reliance on networks.

Most organizations have done away with manual operations. This means that, all business processes, and the society depend on
computer networks. Therefore, if by any chance the network fails or goes down, then many systems in the society will stop
working.

TYPES OF COMPUTER NETWORKS

Computer networks are usually classified according to size. The three most common types of networks are:

1. Local Area Network (LAN).

2. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN).
3. Wide Area Network (WAN).

1. Local Area Network (LAN).

This is a computer network that is formed whenever computers are connected together in a relatively small geographical area,
e.g., in one building or a school.

LAN is the smallest size of network & it normally covers an area within the radius of 10M – 3 Km.

LAN is usually owned by one organization. However, one LAN can be connected to other LANs over any distance via data
transmission lines or wireless media.

A LAN connects several Personal Computers to a Server computer. The server computer makes available the resources requested
by the other computers (workstations) on a network.
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In most LANs, each workstation has its own CPU which it uses to execute programs, but still the workstation user can also access
data & devices anywhere on the network.
Advantages of LANs

1) They enable many users to share expensive devices such as Laser printers, as well as data. However, the no. of computers
that can be connected & the distance to be covered is limited.
2) Have Low cost (requires less expensive equipment).
3) Enable users to communicate with each other, by sending messages or engaging in chat sessions.
4) LANs transmit data at very fast rates. They are much faster than data transmitted over telephone lines.
5) Small error counts (low error rates).

2. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN).

A MAN is made up of many LANs connected together.

It covers a metropolitan (medium-sized geographical) area, e.g., a town or an entire city, within a radius of 5 – 50 Km.

Characteristics of MAN

- Larger than LAN.

- Slower than LAN, but faster than WAN with data rates of 100MBps & above.
- Are more expensive than LANs, since special equipment is needed to connect the different networks together.
- Prone to few errors (moderate error rates).
3. Wide Area Network (WAN)

This is the largest size of network.

A WAN covers a large geographical area such as an entire country, a continent, or even the whole world.

It consists of many LANs and MANs connected together to form one large network such as the Internet.

Characteristics of WAN

 They cover an unlimited (a very large) geographical area, e.g., can cover the whole world.
 They are expensive to build since it requires special equipment for connection.
 Their transmission links are also expensive.
 Long distance transmission.
 Have low data transfer rates compared to LANs (i.e., they are slower than LANs & MANs)
 More prone to errors (very high possible error rates compared to LANs and MANs).

Differences between a Local Area Network and a Wide Area Network

1. LAN is limited to a small geographical distance.

2. Data transmission speed in LANs is higher.
3. Cost of data transmission in LANs is small.
4. There are less transmission errors in LANs.

ELEMENTS (COMPONENTS) OF NETWORKING

A computer network is made up of several standard components, which can be classified into three (3) major categories, namely:

1. Data communication media.

2. Communication devices.
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3. Networking software.

Data communication (Transmission) media

 A data communication medium is a physical pathway used for carrying data signals & information from one point to another.

Data communication media can be divided into two:

(a) Communication using cable (bound media/guided).

(b) Wireless communication (unbounded media/unguided).
Communication using cables (bounded media).

In bounded media, data signals are transmitted from the source to the destination through a cable.

There are 4 major types of bounded transmission media, namely:

1. Two-wire open lines cables.

2. Twisted pair cables.
3. Coaxial cables.
4. Fibre optic cables.

Two-wire open lines cables.

Two-wire open lines cables are made up of 2 parallel copper wires separated by a plastic insulator.
The Plastic insulator is meant to reduce signal interference called Crosstalk. However, the linear nature of the wires allows an
electromagnetic field to build around them during heavy data transmission, which may cause interference to the signal.

The wires also capture/pick unwanted environmental frequencies, e.g., radio waves, hence causing noise in the transmission
channel.

Two-wire open lines cables are used in telecommunication network to transmit voice (analogue) signals

Twisted pair cables

A twisted pair cable is made up of 2 insulated copper wires twisted around each other in a spiral pattern.The twisting prevents
electromagnetic fields from developing around the two wires as they transmit data.Twisted pair cables can be used to transmit
both voice & data signals (i.e., analogue & digital signals).
Types of twisted pair cables

The 2 common types of twisted pair cables are:

(i) Unshielded twisted pair (UTP).

(ii) Shielded twisted pair (STP).

Unshielded twisted pair (UTP) cables

UTP cables do not have a shield that prevents electromagnetic interference (also called ‘Electric noise’) from the environment.

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 UTP cable is prone to noise & signal interference, and therefore, not suitable for environments that are electrically ‘noisy’.
Noise may come from lightening sparks, radio signal, or radiations from spark plugs in motor vehicles.
Shielded twisted pair (STP) cables
In STP cables, a braided shield is wrapped around the wires to protect them from noise.
Twisted pair cables are grouped into 5 categories according to the type of data transmitted, and the maximum rate of
transmission.

Advantages of
Twisted pair cables.

1. Can support high data rates (bandwidth) of up to 100 Mbps.

2. Telephone systems use UTP, which is present in most buildings. Therefore, it is easier to setup network media because;
connection is readily available.
3. Installation equipment is cheap & readily available.
4. It is cheap because; of mass production for telephone use.

Disadvantages of Twisted pair cables.

1. They suffer from high attenuation. Therefore, for every cable length of 90m, a “Repeater” is needed to amplify (restore) the
signal.
2. It is sensitive to electromagnetic interference & eavesdropping.
3. It has low data transmission rates as compared to other cables.

Coaxial cables
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A Coaxial cable resembles the cable that is used to connect television antenna to a television set.

The cable has;

1. A central copper core (which is either solid or stranded wires).

The diameter of the centre core determines the attenuation rate. If the core is thin, then the attenuation rate will be higher.

2. An insulator (a dielectric material) surrounding the copper core.

3. A hollow braid (mesh conductor) surrounding the insulator. The braid is made of copper or aluminium, and serves as the
ground for the carrier wire.
4. A shield which covers the braid making the core more resistant to electromagnetic interference.

The braid together with the insulator & the foil shield protects the carrier wire from Radio Frequency Interference (RFI) and
Electromagnetic Interference (EMI).

Coaxial cables have bandwidths of up to 1 Gbps (Gigabits per second). Hence, they can be used to link/connect different
networks between buildings, and route trunk calls in telecommunication companies.

Advantages of coaxial cables

1. They are very stable even under high loads.

2. They have a large bandwidth (up to 1Gbps) compared to twisted pair cables.
3. They can carry voice, data and video signals simultaneously.
4. They are more resistant to radio and electromagnetic interference than twisted pair cables.

Disadvantages of coaxial cables

1. Thick coaxial cable is hard to work with.

2. They are relatively expensive to buy & install compared to twisted pair cables.
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Fibre optic cables

A fibre optic cable uses light to transmit data signals from one point to another on the network.

A Light Emitting Diode (LED) is used at the source/transmitter (sending computer) to convert electrical signals to light signals
which are then send along the cable. At the receiving computer, a photosensitive device is then used to convert the light signals
back to electric signals that can be processed by the computer.
A fibre optic cable is made up of;

The Core.

This is the central part of the cable, and is made of a hollow transparent plastic or glass.

Cladding.

This is a single protective layer surrounding the core.

The Cladding is able to bend light rays, (i.e., when light tries to travel from the core to the cladding, it is redirected back to the
core).

Buffer.

It surrounds the cladding. Its main function is to strengthen the cable.

The Jacket.

It is the outer covering of the cable.

Light transmission along a fibre optic cable.

The light signal travels along the core through a process referred to as Total internal reflection.

The process that causes total internal reflection is called Refraction. Refraction is the bending of light when it crosses the
boundary of two mediums that have different densities.

Therefore, when light signal is inserted into the cable, it tries to cross from the core to the cladding. The light is bent back into
the core, hence spreads along the length of the cable.

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 Types of fibre
optic cables

(i) Single mode fibre optic cable.

The single mode fibre has a very narrow centre core. This implies that, the light in the cable can take only one path through it.
 It has a very low attenuation rate, and is preferred for long distance transmission.
 It has a very high bandwidth of 50 Gigabits per second.
 It is very expensive, and requires very careful handling during installation.

(i) Multimode fibre optic cable.

A multimode fibre has a thicker centre core than the single mode fibre.
 It allows several light signals (rays) to be sent through the cable at the same time.
Hence, there are high chances of the signal being distorted.
 It has a high attenuation rate, and is usually used for shorter distance transmission.

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 Advantages of
fibre optic cable

1. It is immune to electromagnetic interference, and eavesdropping.

2. It is fast and supports high bandwidth.
3. It has low attenuation; hence, a long distance can be covered.
4. It does not generate electrical signals; hence can be used in dangerous (highly flammable) places.
5. It is smaller & lighter than copper cables; hence, suitable for situations where space is limited.

Disadvantages of fibre optic cable

1. Requires expensive connectivity devices and media.

2. Installation is difficult because the cable must be handled carefully.
3. It is relatively complex to configure.
4. A broken fibre optic cable is difficult & expensive to repair.
Wireless communication (unbounded media)

Wireless (unbounded) media is a type of media that is used to transmit data from one point to another without using physical
connections.
In this case, a transmitting antenna& a receiver aerial are used to facilitate the communication.

Examples of wireless communication media include:

1. Microwaves.
2. Radio waves.
3. Infrared transmission.
All these waves use different frequencies of the electromagnetic spectrum, and travel at the speed of light.

Microwave transmission

Microwave frequencies have a small wavelength, and can easily release their energy in water as heat. This is why they are used
in making domestic kitchen appliances, e.g., microwave ovens.

In networking, microwaves are suitable for point-to-point transmissions, whereby a signal is directed through a focused beam
from the transmitter to the receiver station.
Types of microwave Page 42
Terrestrial microwave -Terrestrial Microwave transmission is a technology that transmits the focused beam of a radio signal
from one ground-based microwave transmission antenna to another.
 Satellite microwave communication. A satellite is a physical object that revolves around the earth at a known height.
Communication is more reliable nowadays as it offers more flexibility than cable and fibre optic systems. We can communicate
with any point on the globe by using satellite communication.

How Does Satellite work?

The satellite accepts the signal that is transmitted from the earth station, and it amplifies the signal. The amplified signal is
retransmitted to another earth station.

Advantages Of Microwave:

 Microwave transmission is cheaper than using cables.

 It is free from land acquisition as it does not require any land for the installation of cables.
 Microwave transmission provides an easy communication in terrains as the installation of cable in terrain is quite a difficult
task.
 Communication over oceans can be achieved by using microwave transmission.

Disadvantages of Microwave transmission:

 Eavesdropping: An eavesdropping creates insecure communication. Any malicious user can catch the signal in the air by
using its own antenna.
 Out of phase signal: A signal can be moved out of phase by using microwave transmission.
 Susceptible to weather condition: A microwave transmission is susceptible to weather condition. This means that any
environmental change such as rain, wind can distort the signal.
 Bandwidth limited: Allocation of bandwidth is limited in the case of microwave transmission.

Radio communication

 Radio waves are the electromagnetic waves that are transmitted in all the directions of free space.
 Radio waves are omnidirectional, i.e., the signals are propagated in all the directions.
 The range in frequencies of radio waves is from 3Khz to 1 khz.
 In the case of radio waves, the sending and receiving antenna are not aligned, i.e., the wave sent by the sending antenna can
be received by any receiving antenna.
 An example of the radio wave is FM radio.

Applications Of Radio waves:

 A Radio wave is useful for multicasting when there is one sender and many receivers.
 An FM radio, television, cordless phones are examples of a radio wave.

Advantages Of Radio transmission:

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 Radio transmission is mainly used for wide area networks and mobile cellular phones.
 Radio waves cover a large area, and they can penetrate the walls.
 Radio transmission provides a higher transmission rate.

Radio waves can be of:

 High frequency (HF).

 Very high frequency (VHF).
 Ultra-high frequency (UHF).

High frequency (HF) radio waves

The High frequency radio wave signal is transmitted by directing it to the ionosphere of the earth. The ionosphere reflects it back
to the earth’s surface, and the receiver then picks the signal.

Disadvantage of HF communication

 The signal can be intercepted by unauthorized parties.

Very High frequency (VHF) radio waves

They are transmitted along the earth’s surface. However, since the earth is somehow curved, the signal tends to attenuate at the
horizons of mountains and buildings. This means that, repeater stations have to be built on raised areas in order to receive,
amplify, and propagate the signal from one area to another.

Note. The range of VHF is limited, however, it is preferred to HF because; it is possible to make a VHF wave follow a narrower &
more direct path to the receiver.

Ultra-High frequency (UHF) radio waves

The UHF radio waves use the line of sight principle used by the VHF waves. This means that, there should be no barrier between
the sending & the receiving aerial. However, they require smaller aerials.
For example;

The Television aerial for VHF is bigger than the one for UHF radio waves. This is because; UHF radio waves can be made to follow
a narrower & a more direct path to the receiver than VHF radio waves.

The Bluetooth technology

This is a worldwide and short range radio transmission technology that allows all personal, hand-held devices to be able to
communicate with each other through wireless technology.

It enables people to use hand-held communication devices such as mobile phones & Personal Digital Assistants (PDA’s) to access
the Internet.

The main component in Bluetooth is a small low power two-way radio transceiver, which can be inserted in small devices.
Bluetooth enabled devices use a network called the Wireless personal area network (WPAN) or piconet.

Infrared transmission

Communication through infrared waves (signals) is achieved by having infrared transmitters & receivers (transceivers) within a
line of sight in the same room. This is because; infrared signals cannot penetrate obstacles like walls and ceilings. However, the
signal can be reflected off these surfaces until they reach their destination.

For example;

Most mobile phones have an infrared transceiver. Once activated, two people in the same room can send messages
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to each
other on their mobile phones without going through the mobile service provider; hence avoid being charged.
 In computer networking environment, infrared technology can be used to connect devices in the same room to each other
without the need for cables, e.g., a computer and a printer. However, the computer’s infrared transceiver must maintain a line of
sight with the one for the printer.

Advantages of wireless communication

1. Wireless medium is flexible in operation, i.e., devices can be moved around without losing access to the network.
2. Wireless networks can span large geographical areas easily.
3. Wireless communication can take place via satellite even in very remote areas that do not have high cost physical
infrastructure like telephone lines.

Disadvantages of wireless communication

1. The initial cost is very high.

2. It is relatively difficult to establish or configure.
3.
Communication devices

For a network to be fully operational, communication devices are required, and act as interfaces between the Terminal devices.
Terminal equipment are the devices at both ends of the communication link, e.g., computers.

Some of the data communication devices are:

1. Network Interface cards (NIC)

A NIC acts as a physical connection (link/interface) between the computer & a properly terminated transmission cable.

A NIC is plugged into an empty expansion slot on the motherboard, and has ports at the back in which the terminated end of a
network cable can be plugged.

2. Hub

A Hub is a hardware device that divides the network connection among multiple devices. When computer requests Page
for45
some
information from a network, it first sends the request to the Hub through cable. Hub will broadcast this request to the entire network.
All the devices will check whether the request belongs to them or not. If not, the request will be dropped.
The process used by the Hub consumes more bandwidth and limits the amount of communication. Nowadays, the use of hub is
obsolete, and it is replaced by more advanced computer network components such as Switches, Routers.

3. Switch

A switch is a hardware device that connects multiple devices on a computer network. A Switch contains more advanced features than
Hub. The Switch contains the updated table that decides where the data is transmitted or not. Switch delivers the message to the
correct destination based on the physical address present in the incoming message. A Switch does not broadcast the message to the
entire network like the Hub. It determines the device to whom the message is to be transmitted. Therefore, we can say that switch
provides a direct connection between the source and destination. It increases the speed of the network.

4. Modem

 A modem is a hardware device that allows the computer to connect to the internet over the existing telephone line.
 A modem is not integrated with the motherboard rather than it is installed on the PCI slot found on the motherboard.
 It stands for Modulator/Demodulator. It converts the digital data into an analog signal over the telephone lines.

5. Bridges

This is a network device that selectively determines the appropriate network segment for which a message is meant to be
delivered. It does this through address filtering.

Purpose of using a Bridge

a) It can divide a busy network into segments to reduce network traffic.

b) To extend the length & number of workstations that a segment can support.
c) To reduce overall traffic flow by allowing broadcasts only in the destination segment of the network.
The bridge makes sure that packets that are not meant for a particular segment are not broadcast in that segment.
6. Repeater

A Repeater receives a signal from one segment of a network, cleans it to remove any distortion, boosts it, and then sends it to
another segment.
It therefore, enables the network to eliminate attenuation problems.

Note. Repeaters can easily be used to expand a network. This is because; they broadcast the same message to other network
segments.

7. Routers

A Router connects different networks, and directs the transfer of data packets from source to destination.

Note. Routing depends on network addresses. Each network has a unique address (or identifier) called the IP address.

The router will receive a packet of data from another router on the network, and check the network address of the destination. If
the address is the same as the one on which the router is, the router will then read the address of the host and then pass the
data packet to the destination, otherwise the packet will be routed to the next network address.

NB: Network addressing has been made possible because of the use of a special interconnecting protocol called the Internet
Protocol (IP). Page 46
8. Gateways

A Gateway is any device that can be configured to provide access to a Wide Area Network or the Internet.
Note. A gateway may be a router, or a computer configured to provide access to the Internet.

Network software

Network software can be classified into 2 main groups:

1. Network Operating systems.

2. Network Protocols.

Network Operating systems

These are operating systems specifically designed to enable the networked computers to respond to service requests.
Servers run on a network operating system.

Functions of network operating systems

A network operating system performs the following network related functions:

1. Provides access to network resources, e.g., printers and folders.

2. Enables nodes on the network to communicate efficiently with each other.
3. Enables the various processes on the network to communicate with one another.
4. Responds to requests from application programs running on the network.
5. Supports network services such as network card drivers & protocols.
6. Maintains security, ensuring that only users authorized to use the computer system are allowed access to it.
7. Produces logs, i.e., a record of all the programs as they are run.
8. Organises the use of storage, since this has to be shared among different users.
9. Works out the resources used by each program. If the user is paying for the service, then the computer works out the cost of
running the program & charges the appropriate account.

Network OS are normally designed as Multi-user operating systems that run the network server program.

Examples of network operating systems are:

 UNIX - Windows NT
 Linux - Windows 2000
 Novell NetWare - Windows 2003
Protocols

Protocols are a set of rules and procedures that govern the communication between two different devices or people.
E.g., a diplomat from a foreign country must adhere to the set rules and procedures of communication when representing his
country in the host country.

In computer networking, Protocols are the rules and technical procedures that govern communication between the different
computers on the network.

How Protocols work

The data transmission process over the network is divided into steps, and at each step, a certain action takes place.
In addition, each step has its own rules and procedures as defined by the network protocols. The work of these protocols is
usually coordinated through protocol layering so as to ensure that there are no conflicts or incomplete operations.

Network Topologies

The term network Topology refers to the way in which computers, cables, and other devices have been arranged in the network.
Page 47

It can also refer to how data is passed from one computer to another in the network.
Logical and physical topologies

Network topology can be viewed in 2 ways; Logical or Physical.

Logical (Signal) topology

Logical topology deals with the way data passes from one device to the next on the network.

Examples of logical topologies are:

(a) Ethernet.
(b) Token ring.

Ethernet topology

In Ethernet topology, all computers listen to the network media, and a particular computer can only send data when none of the
others is sending.
Token ring topology

In Token ring topology, a special package for data called a token goes around the network. The computer whose address is on
the data held in the token picks it up, reads the data, and then releases the token. The token can then be captured by another
computer which needs to transmit data.

Physical topology

Physical topology refers to the physical arrangement of components on the network.

Examples of physical topologies are:

(a) Star topology.

(b) Bus topology.
(c) Ring topology.
(d) Mesh topology.
(e) Tree (Hierarchical) topology.

The choice of the topology to adopt depends on factors such as Reliability, Expandability, and Performance.

a) Star topology

Star topology consists of computers and other devices, each connected to a common central server called the Hub. However, to
connect to the central machine, each computer uses a separate cable.

Nodes communicate across the network by passing data signals through the hub, i.e., any two computers (workstations) in the
network communicate through the central machine.

When the hub receives data from a transmitting computer, it broadcasts the message to all the other nodes on the network.

Page 48
 Disadvantages of Star
topology

1. If the central switch node (Hub) fails, it may bring down the entire network.
2. It is costly because; each workstation is connected to the central concentrator by is own dedicated cable (i.e., it requires a lot
of cables).
3. Installation is time consuming, because each node forms a segment of its own.
4. May require a special device for signal regeneration across the network.
Advantages of Star topology

1. Allows key networking resources such as concentrators & servers to be centralized.

2. Easy to configure.
3. Enhances operational survivability. The hub isolates the network cables from each other. Even if a wire between a
workstation and the hub breaks or develops a bad connection, the rest of the network remains operational.
4. Simple to control.
5. It can be extended easily, since a workstation is simply connected to the hub.
6. Provides flexibility in adding or deleting devices. The wiring hubs increase the flexibility for growth. Addition & removal of
nodes does not involve cutting and joining of cables.
7. Easier to troubleshoot.When something goes wrong with the network, the administrator can troubleshoot it from the wiring
hub.
8. The Hub can support multiple types of cables.

b) Bus topology (Daisy-chain topology)

-In Bus topology, all the devices in the network are connected directly, through appropriate interfacing hardware, to a single
transmission cable called the Bus (or Backbone) on which information is broadcast.
-Bus topology uses Coaxial cable as transmission medium. The cable can carry only one message at a time and each
workstation on the network must be able to know when it can and cannot transmit using this cable.

-A Terminator is attached to each end of the cable to avoid signals from bouncing back and forth on the cable causing signal
distortion.
- communication to take place, data is addressed to a particular computer & put in the cable in the form of electronic signal.
As the data passes along the cable, each workstation checks whether the data is addressed to it. If the address in the data
matches that of the machine, it picks up the data and processes it.
-Bus topology doesn’t need any special equipment such as switches or repeaters to amplify the signal.
Page 49
Advantages of Bus topology

1. Easy to install.
2. Inexpensive (less costly) because; it does not require a complete cable length per computer.
3. Can easily be extended.
4. It allows the workstations to communicate independently (separately) of each other.
5. Failure of one station on the network does not affect the operations on the bus.
Disadvantages of Bus topology

1. A cable break in each section brings down the whole network.

2. The performance degrades since there is no signal integration.
3. Troubleshooting the cable fault can be quite difficult because; the fault could be anywhere on the cable.
4. Only a limited number of computers can be connected to the cable. This is because; each computer is listening to the cable
in order to transmit. This means that, if the number of computers increase, there will be more collision as the workstations
compete for transmission.

c) Ring topology

In a ring topology, the computers are connected to one another in the shape of a closed loop using a single cable.
Data flows from one computer to another in one direction, and each computer actively participates in data transfer from one
station to the other. In other words, each workstation acts as a booster by regenerating and retransmitting the signals around
the network to its neighbour.

A token is used to exchange data from one station to another. A token can be viewed as an envelope or a bag where data is
placed for transmission and carried around the network.
Advantages of Ring topology
1. They use a short length cable.
2. Simple to install.
3. Provides high performance for many users.
4. Provides an orderly network in which every device has access to the token and can transmit data.

Disadvantages of Ring topology

1. Failure of one computer or the cable will affect the rest in the entire network.
2. Modification is difficult because; adding or removing a device can disrupt the entire network.
3. Troubleshooting can be difficult.

Page 50
Advantages of Ring topology
1. They use a short length cable.
2. Simple to install.
3. Provides high performance for many users.
4. Provides an orderly network in which every device has access to the token and can transmit data.

Disadvantages of Ring topology

1. Failure of one computer or the cable will affect the rest in the entire network.
2. Modification is difficult because; adding or removing a device can disrupt the entire network.
3. Troubleshooting can be difficult.

d) Mesh topology

Mesh topology uses separate cables to connect each device to every other device on the network providing a straight
communication path.

It is mostly used in Wide Area Networks where there are many paths between different locations.

Page 51

Advantages of Mesh topology

 1. It is fast.
2. Failure on one node will not cause communication breakdown.
3. Easy to troubleshoot cable problems. If two machines are not communicating, the administrator will only check the cable
between them.
4. Enhances flexibility in communication.
5. Enhances fault tolerance provided by redundant/ excessive links.

Disadvantages of Mesh topology

1. Difficult and expensive to install and maintain.

2. Very costly as it requires large amounts of cables (or redundant links).
3. Difficult to add more nodes when the network is large.
4. Difficult to isolate faults due to lack of a central control point.

e) Tree (Hierarchical) topology

Tree topologies have a root node, and all other nodes are connected which form a hierarchy. So it is also known as hierarchical
topology. This topology integrates various star topologies together in a single bus, so it is known as a Star Bus topology. Tree topology
is a very common network which is similar to a bus and star topology.

Advantages:

Here are pros/benefits of tree topology:

 Failure of one node never affects the rest of the network.

 Node expansion is fast and easy.
 Detection of error is an easy process
 It is easy to manage and maintain

Disadvantages:

Here are cons/drawback of tree topology:

 It is heavily cabled topology Page 52

 If more nodes are added, then its maintenance is difficult

 If the hub or concentrator fails, attached nodes are also disabled.
 f) Hybrid Topology

Hybrid topology combines two or more topologies. You can see in the above architecture in such a manner that the resulting network
does not exhibit one of the standard topologies.

For example, as you can see in the above image that in an office in one department, Star and P2P topology is used.A hybrid topology is
always produced when two different basic network topologies are connected.

Advantages:

Here, are advantages/pros using Hybrid topology:

 Offers the easiest method for error detecting and troubleshooting

 Highly effective and flexible networking topology
 It is scalable so you can increase your network size

Disadvantages:

 The design of hybrid topology is complex

 It is one of the costliest processes

INTERNETS AND EMAILS

5.1 Definition of the Internet -Internet can be defined as:

1. Internet is a large network of networks that covers the whole world and enables millions of computers from different
organizations and people to communicate globally; or
2. Internet is a vast network of networks ; or
3. Largest net of networks; or
4. Internet is a world-wide computer network linking countless thousands of computer networks, through a mixture Page 53of private and
public data and telephone lines
Internet is sometimes called the Information Superhighway because of its large size and great volume of information that passes
through it.
 Computer Network is formed when two or more computers are connected together to enable communications among them

5.2 History of Network

The Department of USA defense established an agency to fund a project to allow dissimilar computers to communicate with
each other through a WAN. This project started in 1969 and it was referred to as ARPHANET (Advanced Research Projects
Agency Network). The military intention was to build a network that could continue to work in the event of war even if parts
of the network were disabled. ARPHANET connected four universities which were the University of California at Los Angeles
Stanford Research Institute, the University of California at Santa Barbara and the University of Utah.
In 1982 the Defence Communications Agency (DCA) and DARPA(Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency) established a
protocol, known as Transmission Control Protocol and Internet Protocol (TCP/IP), as the standard connection protocol used
on the ARPHANET.
The conversion of TCP/IP on the ARPHANET was completed in January 1983, and the term “Internet” came into use in place
of “the Internet Protocol (IP)”. The Internet Activities Board was formed so as to oversee activities regarding Internet.
National Science Foundation Network was established 1986 which established a network connecting Five supercomputer
centres to enhance and network research capabilities in the United States (US).
As the number of computers connected to the Internet grew, the Internet work bone grew to a 1.54 Mbps WAN in 1988 and
a 44.736 Mbps WAN in 1992. Today the internet has grown and covered the whole world.

5.3 Importance of Internet

- Increased productivity
Staff in a company don’t waste time moving from one office to another to pick a document hence promoting output.
- speedy and inexpensive communication
- Internet provides a speedy, inexpensive and convenient 24-hours world-wide service means of communication via its
electronic mail facility.
- Improved research tool: Internet is well-stocked research tool, which is able to provide any kind of information.
- Sharing of resources and information : Devices like printers scanners and all files containing any information can be shared.
- business transaction
- leisure
- news and information dissemination
- Communication services: It attains three forms as follows; like E-mail, Chat (real-time one-toone or group conversation, with
discussions in typed form), Conferencing (dynamic exchange of all kinds of information where each participant contribute
responses to any items in the conversations. The participants are at different geographical locations.
- Education like Virtual learning whereby students log on to the Internet to attend classes.
- Software downloading: there is a large variety of software on the Internet that users can download and use i.ePublic domain
(free) software.
- E-commerce like online shopping, online Banking, online travel, arrangements.

5.4 Internet Connectivity Requirements

For one to access the Internet the following requirements should be put in place:
a). Data terminal equipments – which are devices used to process, host and transmit data on a network e.g. computer mobile phones
and personal digital assistants (PDAS).
b). Transmission media – refers to physical or wireless pathways used to transmit data and information from one point to
another e.g. telephones lines, radio waves, microwaves and satellite.
c). Telecommunication lines – A computer is connected to the external World through a telephone line and has to dial a remote
computer via modem on the net to establish connection for data transfer. Dial up connection is slow and unreliable and is
being replaced by Dedicated digital leased lines and fibre optic cables.
d). Modem
The modem is a special digital to analog interface card connection, via telephone or cable- T.V lines between your
computer and a computer network that provides Internet access. Modem is a short form for Modulator – demodulator.
Modem changes data from digital to analog (modulation) so as to be transmitted on telephone lines and on receiving
Page 54 end
the data is changed from analog to digital (demodulation) for computer to understand.
The Modem may be external (a separate box connected to your CPU);or internal *built into your CPU so that you do not see it).
 The wires that carry information between your computer and the outside world are plugged into your modem, which in turn
allows your computer and the outside world to connect to the Internet.

e). Satellite transmission – is used for intercontinental transfer of data by having satellite base stations transmitting the data
through a wireless uplink channel to the satellite. The satellite then sends the data signal to the base station on another
continent where it is picked up and sent to telephone exchanges for transfer to the destination computer.
f). Internet Service Providers (ISP’s)
ISP’s are companies that offers Internet services to end users through dial-up connections as well as broadband services at
a fee. There are several ISP services from which a user specifies the one he/she needs. These include:
i). Limited access – this offer is for those who doesn’t need the service all the time. the user sub-scribes for only the number of
hours he/she needs the service per day.
ii). Unlimited Access - this is meant for those users who need to be connected to the Internet all the time (24 hours).

Factors to consider when choosing an ISP

• Ease of use- do they provide you with a simple –to-install set of software that will get you online with no hassle?
• Support – will they provide you with the help you need? Do they offer 24 hours customer support or offer services only
during business hours?
• Cost – consider setup costs, monthly costs and toll costs for extra hours of use.
• Services – should provide up-to-date tools and software to provide e-mail and Internet access.
• Trial – can you try out the services before you buy?
• Content – if you are interested in the information available within a service you should check out their promotional material.
• Performance – watch out for sluggish performance during peak hours or excessive down time. also ask people who have
accounts with the provider about performance to assess.
• Privacy – do they have a solid privacy policy? will they assist you in how to filter undesirable content?
Examples of ISP’s in Kenya and Africa: o Africa Online
oNairobineto Wananchi Online oKenyaWeboFormneto
Telkom o Access Kenya® oSwiftglobal® o Bidii.com o
Interconnect
o Todays Online

g). Internet Software

Communication software is required to manage your connection to Internet. Windows already has built-in
communications software to access the Internet. Internet software help facilitate your access to Internet.
To access internet services, a computer must be installed with an Internet protocol, a browser and e-mail client.

Internet protocol
To achieve communication between computers and telecommunication devices that have different hardware and
software configuration a special software called Protocol is needed. A protocol is a set of rules that governs how two
computers can send and receive data on the network.
There two types of protocols used with Internet:
i. Transmission control protocol (TCP)
It governs how data is transferred from one computer to the next.
ii. Internet Protocol (IP)
It determines the addressing system on the Internet.

Browsers
 Is a special program that lets the user surf or browse the internet
 A web browser can also be defined as a program used for displaying and viewing pages on the World Wide
PageWeb.
55 The most
common Web Browser are:
 Safari
  opera
 Internet Explorer
 Mozilla browser
 chrome browser
Before accessing the Internet, a person must start the Browser software.

E-mail software
E-Mail software is a communication software specifically designed and developed to help a person to compose, send and
receive (read) text documents on the internet. Both the sender and the receiver MUST have an e-mail address. Examples of e-
mail software: Microsoft Outlook Express, Eudora, Yahoo mail, GMail, etc.

5.5 Internet Services

a). E-mail
This is the exchange of electronic letters, data and graphics on the Internet.
b). Electronic learning (E-Learning) Can be defined as:
- The use technology to deliver learning and training programs using interactive medias such as CR-ROM, Internet, wireless and
mobile media to facilitate learning; or - Learning through interaction with special programs on the computer.
c). Electronic Commerce (E- commerce)
Is the trading in the internet where goods and services are sold over the Internet. The Internet gives an opportunity for
sellers of goods to advertise them on the websites where the consumers can be able to place an order from any corner of
the World. Payment is done via internet’s commerce.
Advantages of E-commerce
 Company can access customers all over the world and is not limited by space and time.
 Cost reduction. It has allowed companies to create lo0w cost distribution channel
 Faster buying process.
 Store and product listing creation.
 Affordable advertising and marketing.
 Flexibility for customers.
 No reach limitations.
 Product and price comparison.
 Faster response to buyer/market demands.

d). World wide web

- WWW is a vast virtual space on the Internet where information pages called websites are installed; or
- WWW is a vast virtual space on the Internet where information is made available; or
- WWW is a wide area hypermedia information retrieval initiative that aims to give universal access to a large universe of documents.
The World Wide Web is driven by two fundamental technologies: HTTP and HTML. HTTP is the Hypertext Transfer Protocol that
controls how Web servers and Web browsers communicate with each other. HTML is the Hypertext Markup Language that
defines the structure and contents of a Web page.
In order to connect a network to the internet, the local area network needs an Internet Server. This server is given the name
World Wide Web (WWW) and has all the information that others on the internet access. This information is made available on:
Web pages
A web page is a single screen of information, which may contain text, images, animation, sound and video. You view a web page via
the web Browser software.

A website
Is a collection of web pages, or other resources located on a web server. The first page on a website is called a home page.

Individuals and organizations establish Websites where their web documents can be placed for easy access by external world.
These sites are a special address called Uniform Resource Allocation (URL) is used to access them. Page 56

Web portals – offer specialized services such as searching, e-mail, sports updates, financial, news and links to selected websites.
 A blog – a website that contains personal information which can easily be updated.
Multimedia sites contain photos, movies, music, web TV and internet radio. They are meant for entertainment.
Examples of WWW Client programs are:
(i). Internet Explorer
(ii). Netscape
(iii). Mosaic
(iv). Lynx
(v). Charlotte

Links
To get from one Web page to another within a website, or another Web sites altogether, you have to find Hypertext or Hypermedia
on the Page you are viewing.
Hypertext - a system of storing images, text, and other computer files that allows direct links to related text, images, sound, and
other data
Hypermedia – (multi-media hypertext system): a hypertext system that supports the linking of graphics, audio and video
elements, and text. The World Wide Web has many aspects of a complete hypermedia system.

e). Internet fax

Internet provides you with complete fax facilities from your computer. You can configure fax settings, send and receive faxes,
track and monitor fax activity and access archived faxes.
f). Instant messaging - this a messaging service that allows two or more people to communicate directly. To get the services,
you must first register with an instant messenger such as Yahoo!messenger.
g). Newsgroup
These are organized groups of Internet users who wish to share ideas and interests. Once you join a newsgroup, you can
participate in discussion forums and debates.
h). News media on the net
All major media houses post their daily news on the Internet for clientele to access
i). Health information
Through Internet we can get latest medical news and research findings for practitioners and scholars.
j). Music and entertainment on the net
You can listen to music on the web and watch video clips if the computer is multimedia.
k). Chatting on the net
People can sign into a chat room and exchange ideas freely through discussions.
Try accessing www.try.comto see listings of chat topics you can participate in on-line.
(l) Searching :Search engines Can be defined as:
o Special programs that help the user easily search for information on the internet. o Special programs that maintain lists of
hyperlinks available; or
o It is a program that searches documents for specified keywords and returns a list of the documents where the keywords
were found; or
o Are special programs that allows the user to type keywords that are run against a database. Common search engines
include:
• Google (http://www.google.com)
• Hotmail (http:// www.hotmail.com)
• Yahoo (http://www.yahoo.com)
• Alta Vista (http:// www.altavista.com)
• Excite (http:// www.excite.com/search)
• hotBot (http:// hotbot.lycos.com )
Bing(https://www.bing.com) Page 57
 Multi-threaded search engines are search engines that allow the user to search multiple databases simultaneously via a single
interface.

5.6 Accessing the Internet

Before accessing the Internet, a person must start the Browser software.

a) Log-in / Sign – in
Before you can have access to any mail box, the process of authentication must be done. This is done by providing the correct
user name and password for that account.
Logging-in/signing-in: is the process of authenticating yourself to the computer so as to be allowed to check the contents
(mails) in a mail box.
You will only be allowed entry after provision of the correct username and password. This is normally for ensuring that there is
enough security in storing mails in the internet.
To access the Website, type the full address of the website in the address bar then press enter key or go icon. Some
websites allow free access to all their pages by visitors while others require people to be members hence a new visitor has
to register (sign up).
b) Browsing / surfing
Browsing / surfing is the process of accessing Internet resources like web pages and websites, using URL address or Hyperlinks.
c) Hyperlinks URLs and Search engine
Hyperlink are used to navigate from one web page to another. Cal also be explained as a text or picture on an electronic
document, especially web page that causes web pages to open when the link is clicked.
Uniform Resource Locators (URLs) – is the Internet address of a particular Web page, it connects the user to a particular
website.

The URL has two basic parts

 Protocol – standard used to connect to the resource e.g. Hypertext Transfer Protocol (http://) and file transfer
protocol (ftp://).E.g.http://www.google.co.kedisplay Google home page is displayed.
 Domain name – name of the web server where the resource is located.

d) Downloading / saving / printing web content

Success of finding what you want online increases with experience.
Downloading
Is the transmission of data files or applications from the server on the Internet to your local computer.
Free ware or shareware
Are software available on the web for free downloading. You do not have to pay to use them. Basic guidelines to note when
downloading something:
1) Be careful about Beta (or evaluation) software since these are not fully tested programs and they could end up damaging
your computer.
2) Only download software from trusted sites, so that you do not risk getting viruses.

Downloading procedure
1. Right click the hyperlink to the file
2. On the shortcut menu, click the Save target as command.
3. After some searching the Browser displays the Save As dialog box. Specify the folder or drive where the file is to be saved
then type a unique name for the file in the name box.
4. Click the Save button and the download progress dialog appears on the screen. Unless otherwise selected, the download will
notify the user at the down load process.
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5. Open the file in its application to view it.

Printing
To print a file, open it in the application in which it was created then send it to the printer for printing. You can also print a web
page directly from the browser window by clicking File then Print.

5.7 Electronic Mail (E-mail)

E-mail refers to the sending and receiving of electronic letters ands documents on the internet.

E-mail software
E-Mail software falls under special application packages communication software specifically designed and developed to help a
person to compose, send and receive (read) text documents on the internet. Both the sender and the receiver MUST have an e-
mail address.
The e-mails are usually stored in separate folders as described below:
Inbox – all incoming e-mails are stored here.
Outbox – contains e-mails that are waiting to be sent.
Sent – contains the e-mails that have already been sent.
Drafts – contains e-mails that have being worked on, and are not yet ready been sent.
Deleted items – contains e-mails that have been deleted. You can recover a deleted e-mail as long as you have not emptied this
folder.
Spam – contains mails from suspected sites e.g. may contain computer viruses.

An e-mail address directs the computers on the Internet on where to deliver the e-mail messages. A typical e-mail format is
described below:
Format: Username@Internat_address Example: [email protected]
[email protected]
Each user ID is made up of two components: Username and Internet domain separated by an @ sign.
1) fauzifa – is the User name/ personal identifier and is usually coined by the user during e-mail account registration.
2) @ is the symbol for ‘at’ which separates the username from the rest of the address.
3) Yahoo.com – is the name of the Host computer in the network i.e. the computer on which the e-mail account is hosted.
4) The period “.” Is read as dot and is used to separate different parts of the e-mail address.
5) Com identifies the type of institution offering a particular service(s) and is called the domain name.
6) .ke- is the country indicator.

Other domain names are

.com – commercial institution
.gov – government
.net – network centre
.edu – educational institutions
.mil – military site
.org – organizations
Most network addresses end with a country code, such as:
.ke – for Kenya
.ug – for Uganda
.tz – for Tanzania
.jp – for Japan
.au – for Australia Page 59

.uk – for United Kingdom, etc.

The two letter extension is added after the domain name to show the country where the cite is located e.g. [email protected]
E-mail facilities
1). Mails
a) Checking mails
In order to check mail the user has to open the e-mail account by providing the correct user name and password. In e-mail
account, click the inbox folder command to view link list of all received mails.

b) Compose e-mail
Composing implies writing. To compose click the compose command. The command header element in the new e-mail
window are:
To: here, you enter the e-mail address of the recipient.
From: here, your e-mail software will enter your address automatically.
Subject: should contain a few words outlining the nature of your message. It is not mandatory to enter something here,
but it generally helps the recipient to know what is contained in the e-mail. Cc: stands for Carbon Copy, and is used to copy
an e-mail to other recipients. The main recipient is able to see who the e-mail has been copied to.
BCC: stands for blind Carbon Copy, meaning that a copy of your message is sent to an extra address, without any indication
of that action appearing in the main recipients copy of the message.
Date: the date and time the message is sent are indicated automatically from e-mail software. Attachments – the name and
location of any file you may be sending along with the e-mail.

c) Sending e-mail
To send mail, type the correct e-mail address of the recipient in To: text box, type your letter then click Send command.
d) Forward e-mail – a received mail can be forwarded to another recipient. After reading click Forward command and then
provide the address of the recipient.

2). File Attachment

E-mail software enables a person to attach other files like pictures, music, movie clips, etc. the source of attachment files can be
from the hard disk or other storage devices e.g Flash disk.
To attach click the Attach button on the window; or
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i. Click the Insert menu then File Attachment. A dialog box appears where you choose the file you want to attach.
ii. Select the file then click the Attach button. An attachment bar is inserted in the e-mail window with a name of the file you
choose.
 iii. Click Send to send the e-mail.

3). On-line meeting

It’s possible to hold on-line meeting with people by sending mails to them. E.g. on-line interviews may involve a person sending
electronic mail composed of interview questions to a recipient who can read and question back.

4). Telephone messages

Because of integration between mobile telephony and the Internet technology, wireless Access Protocol (WAP) makes it
possible to send e-mail to a mobile handset and a mobile message to e-mail account.
5). Contact management
Most mails programs allow the user to develop an address book which holds contact information like e-mail address of different
people. To create a new contact:
i. Start e-mail window
ii. Tools menu / Address book. iii. From the address book window click File then Contact.
iv. Click the Name tab and enter the contact details, then click Add.
v. Close the contact window then the address book.

5.8 Accessing Information on Emerging Issues

Internet is a storehouse of information, presented in the from of text, documents, pictures, sound and even video. Emerging
issues refers to things like HIV/Aids, drug Abuse, moral issues and environmental issues.

5.9 Effect of internet on the society

Although internet is such an important resource, it has also brought with it some challenges. These include;
• Accessibility of dirty sites such as pornography by the young hence affecting their morals. The solution is to restrict the
known offensive sites using filter programs such as CyberPatrol, Cybersitter or net Nanny.
• Security and privacy – Internet has made it easy for criminals to illegally access organizations private information
hence posing security concerns. To improve on security, install a Firewall and antispyware programs.
• Spread of malicious software – which includes Viruses, Trojan horse and worm. This results in frustration and loss of
data. Install Internet security program and update it regularly.

Revision questions
1. Define the term Internet
2. What is the difference between internet and Internet?
3. Explain the concept of web page.
4. Explain the following internet address http:// ww.google.com in reference to the structure of a URL.
5. What is Internet telephony?
6. Describe the history of the Internet.
7. What is the world wide web (www)?
8. What is a browser software?
9. Draw a sketch of a simple browser toolbar and label its shortcut commands or icons.
10. Explain the process of loading a website in your browser.
11. List four e-mail services.
12. What is file download? Explain the procedure.
13. Explain the meaning of the word hyperlink.
14. Give three steps that you would follow to search for information on the web.
15. What would you do if a website refuses to load in the browser with the first attempt?
16. What is a search engine?
17. Explain the meaning of the term Internet Service Provider (ISP)
18. What three things apart from the computer itself are needed to connect to the Internet.
19. Explain the term modem.
20. What is a protocol? Write the following in full: TCP/IP, HTML,
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DATA SECURITY AND CONTROL

Objectives
By the end of the chapter you should be able to:
a). Define the terms data security and privacy
b). Identify security threats on ICT and possible control measures c).
Identify types of computer crimes
d). Discuss laws governing protection of information and communication technology

Data Security and Controls

Data security is the protection of programs and data in computers and communication systems, against
unauthorized modification, destruction, disclosure or transfer, whether accidental or intentional.

It involves:
- Protection of data and information against access or modification
- Denial of data and information to unauthorized users
- Provision of data and information to authorized users.
Data control is the measure taken to enforce the security of programs and data.

Data and information privacy

Private data or information is that which belongs to an individual and must not be accessed ordisclosed
to any other person unless with direct permission from the owner.
Confidential data – data or information held by a government or organization about people ,must be
protected against unauthorized access or disclosure.

Data security core principles

Also referred to as information security. They are; Confidentiality, Integrity and Availability.

Confidentiality
Sensitive data or information like employees details, business financial ,etc belonging to the organization
or government should not be accessed by or disclosed to unauthorized people.

Integrity
Means that data should not be modified with without owners authority.

Availability
Information must be available on demand.
6.5 Laws governing protection of information
Computer Ethics – are the moral principles and values that govern the actions and decisions of an
individual or group. They serve as guidelines on how to act rightly and justly when faced with moral
dilemmas.

ICT Legislation – these are laws that govern what information can be kept about an individual and how
that information may be used. Any activity that contravenes these laws is considered illegal.

Security threats and control measures

Threats from malicious programs

These programs affect the smooth running of a system or carry out illegal activities. A good example is a
virus.

Viruses
The term virus stands for: Vital Information Resource Under Siege Page 62
A virus is a program that will change the operation of the computer without the user’s information.
Viruses attach themselves to computer files called executable files such that any time such programs are
run a copy of the virus is sent out. So it duplicates itself continuously.
Therefore a computer virus can be defined as:
- A self -replicating segment of computer code designed to spread to other computers by sharing
“infected” software.

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 - A destructive program that attaches itself to other files and installs itself without permission onthe
computer when the files are opened for use.
- A program that can pass a malicious code to other non-malicious programs by modifyingthem.
- A program or code that replicates itself and infects other programs, boot and partition sectorsor
documents inserting itself or attaching itself to the medium.

Types of computer viruses

 Boot sector – they destroy the booting information on storage media.
 File viruses – attach themselves to files
 Hoax viruses – come as e-mail with an attractive subject and launches itself when e-mail is opened.
 Trojans Horse – they perform undesirable activities in the background without user knowledge.
 Backdoors – may be a Trojan or worm that allows hidden access to a computer system.
 Worms – it attaches it self on non-executable files and it self-replicates clogging the system memory and
storage media. When a document is emailed the worm travels with it and through that easily spreads to
other computers on a network.
 A logic bomb – infects a computer’s memory, but unlike a virus it does not replicate itself. A logic bonb
delivers its instructions when it is triggered by a specific condition, such when a particular date or time is
reached or when a combination of letters is typed on a keyboard. A logic bomb has the ability to erase a
hard drive or delete certain files.

Note: The main difference between a virus and a worm is that a viruses attaches themselves to
computer executable files while a worm attaches it self on non-executable files in the computer.

Symptoms of a computer affected by viruses

- Unfamiliar graphics or quizzical messages appearing on screen.
- Program taking longer to load
- Slow – down of the general operation
- Unusual and frequent error messages occurring more frequently
- Access light turning on for non-referenced devices
- Programs / files mysteriously disappearing
- Executable files changing size for no obvious reason.
- Change in file size
- Loss or change in the file size
- Loss or change of data
- Disk access seeming excessive for simple tasks
- System crash
- Files and programs disappearing mysteriously
- Disk access seems excessive for simple tasks

Sources of virus into the computer system

- Copies of pirated software
- Fake computer games
- Freeware / Shareware and bulletin board programs that have not been checked for viruses.
- Using infected disks from vendors, consulting firms, computer repair shops and main-orderhouses.
- Downloading and opening infected files from the Internet.
- Hackers intent on malicious destruction of networked systems to which they have gainedunauthorized.
- Infected proprietary (private) software
- Updates of software distributed via networks.
- E-mail attachments
- Contacts with contaminated systems e.g. diskettes, flash disks, CDs, etc.

Control measures against viruses

- Install the most latest version of antivirus software on the computer
- Avoid foreign diskettes in the computer system Page 64
- Avoid opening mail attachments before scanning for viruses
- Regular backing-up of all software and data files. Files back-up can be used to restore lost files inthe event
of a system failure.
- When opening e-mails, user should not open attachments from unknown senders.
- All unlicensed software should be carefully examined before use.
- Always check for virus on portable disks when used to move files between computers.

Information system failure

Some of the causes include;
 Hardware failure due to improper use
 Unstable power supply as a result of brownout or blackout and vandalism
 Network breakdown
 Natural disaster
 Program failure

Control measures
 Use surge protectors and UPS to protect computer systems against brownout or black out which causes
physical damage or data loss.
 Install a Fault Tolerant system which has the ability to preserve the integrity electronic dataduring
hardware or software malfunction.
 Disaster recovery plans by establishing offsite storage of an organizations databases so thatincase of
disaster or fire accidents, the backed up copies are used to reconstruct lost data.

Unauthorized access
Physical access to computer system should be restricted to ensure that no unauthorized person gets access to
the system.
Form of unauthorized access:
(i). Eaves dropping / wire tapping
This is tapping into communication channels to get information packet sniffers can eavesdrop on all
transmissions and activities on the system
(ii).Surveillance (monitoring)
This involves where a person may keep a profile of all computer activities done by another person or
people. The gathered information is used for other illegal works. Special programs called cookies are used
by many websites to keep track of your activities.
(iii). Industrial espionage
Spying on your competitor to get information that you can use to counter or finish the competitor.(iv).
An employee who is not supposed to see sensitive data by mistake or design gets it. (v).Strangers
straying into the computer room when nobody is using the computers.
(vi). Network access in case the computers are networked and connected to the external world.

Control measures against unauthorized access:

1. Encrypt the data and information during transmission
Encryption is a process of encoding a message so that its meaning is not obvious; decryption is the
reverse process of transforming an encrypted message back into its normal form. Data can only be
read by person holding the encryption ‘key’. Alternatively the terms encode and decode or encipher
and decipher are used instead of the verbs encrypt and decrypt.
2. Reinforce the weak access points like doors and windows with metallic grills.
3. Installing alarm systems and other security devices.
4. Keeping computer rooms locked after hours and when not in use.
5. Restricting access to areas with computers so that only authorized personnel are allowed touse
passwords.
6. Use file passwords
7. Use of magnetic token or ‘SAMRT’ card or fingerprint or retinal scan for identification. Page 65

Computer errors and accidental access

Errors and accidental access to data and information may be as a result of people experimenting with features
they are not familiar with. Also people may mistaken printing sensitive reports and unsuspectingly giving them
to unauthorized persons.

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Control measures
1. Set up a comprehensive error recovery strategy in the organization.
2. Deny access permissions to certain groups of users for certain files and computers.

Physical theft
This involves the theft of computer hardware and software. It involves breaking into an office or firm and
stealing computers, hard disks, data and other valuable computer accessories by being taken away by either an
insider or an intruder. Most cases of theft are done within an organization by untrustworthy employees of the
firm {Inside job} or by an intruders (outsiders) for commercial, destruction to sensitive information or sabotage
resources.

Control measures
- Employ guards to keep watch over data and information centres and backup.
- Burglar proof the computer room.
- Reinforce weak access points
- Create backups in locations away from main computing centre.
- Motivate workers to feel sense of belonging in order to make them proud and trusted custodians ofthe
company resources.
- Insure the hardware resources with a reputable firm.

Trespass
This is the act of gaining access or entering into a computer system without legal permission.

Cracking
Refers to the use of guess work over and over again, by a person until he/she finally discovers a weak in the
security policies or codes of software. Alternatively refers to someone using his / her knowledgeof information
systems to illegally or unethically penetrate computers systems for personal gain.

Hacking
Refers to when an individual intentionally breaks codes and passwords top gain unauthorized access into a
computer system, but without intent of causing damage.
Tapping
Tapping is when someone gains access to information that is being transmitted via communication links. Any
information that is transmitted across a network is at risk of being intercepted, if appropriate security
measures are not put in place.

Piracy
Is the act of making illegal copies of copyrighted software, information or data.To
eliminate piracy
- Make software cheap, enough to increase affordability
- Use licenses and certificate to identify originals
- Set installation password to deter illegal installation of software
- Enforce laws that protect the owners of data and information against piracy.

Fraud
Refers to leaking personal or organizational information using a computer with the intention of gaining money
or information.
Example of fraud is where one person created an intelligent program in the tax department that could credit
his account with cents from all the tax payers. He ended up becoming very rich before he was discovered.
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Alteration
Refers to illegal changing of data and information with the aim of gaining or misinforming theauthorized users.
When a system is compromised the data lacks reliability, relevance and integrity. Example of data alteration
are when students break into system to alter exam results, or someone breaks into a banking system to
change account details or divert money.

Spam

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A spam is unsolicited electronic junk mail, often commercial, message transmitted through the Internet as a
mass mailing to a large number of recipients. Is send by a person gaining access to a list of e-mail addresses
and redirecting the e-mail through the Mail Server of an unsuspecting host, making the actual sender of the
spam difficult to trace. Spam is annoying, but usually harmless, except in cases where it contains links to web
sites. Clicking on these links may sometimes leave yoursystem open to hackers or crackers.

Junk – is meaningless or worthless information received through e-mail

Description and protection against

computer crimes

Audit trail
Computer Audit Trails are used to keep a record of who has accessed a computer system and what
operations he or she has performed during the given period of time. Audit Trails are useful both for
maintaining security and for recovering lost transactions. Audit Trails help to detect trespassing and
alterations. Incase the system is broken into by a hacker; an Audit Trail enables their activities to be
tracked. Any unauthorized alterations can be rolled back to take the system back the state it was in before
the alterations were done

Data encryption
Data encryption is a means of scrambling (or ciphering) data so that it can only be read by the person
holding the encryption ‘Key or ‘algorithm’. The key is a list codes for translating encrypted data – a
password of some sort. Without the key, the cipher cannot be broken and the data remains secure. Using
the Key, the cipher is decrypted and the data remains secure. Using the Key, the cipher is decrypted and
the data is returned to its original value or state. Each time one encrypts data a key is randomly
generated. The same key is used by the data recipient to decrypt the data.
Data encryption is a useful tool against network snooping (or tapping).

Log files
They are special system files that keep a record (log) of events on the use of the computers and resources
of the information system. The information system administrator can therefore easily track who accessed
the system, when and what they did on the system.

Firewalls
A firewall is a program or hardware that filters information coming through the Internet and connection
into your personal computer or network. Firewalls can prevent unauthorized remote logins, limit or stop
Spam, and filter the content that is downloaded from the Internet. Some Firewalls offer virus protection,
but it is worth the investment to install Anti-Virus software on each computer.

Security monitors
These are programs that monitor and keep a log file or record of computer systems and protect them
from unauthorized access.

Biometric security – is unauthorized control measure that takes the user’s attributes such as voice,
fingerprints and facial recognition.

Authentication policies such as signing users log on accounts, use of smart cards and Personal
Identification Number (PIN).

Difficulty in detection and prevention of computer crimes

1. the crime might be complex
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2. it’s not easy to find clear trail of evidence leading to the guilty party e.g. No finger prints
3. there are no witness
4. Few people in management and law enforcement know little about computers to prevent thecrime.
 Policies and laws governing information security
Bodies governing data security internationally
- International Organization for Standardization (ISO)
- Information Security Forum (ISF)

Regulations and laws in Kenya, United Kingdom and USA that govern data processing and
information security.

ICT Related Acts in Kenya

- The Science and Technology Act, Cap.250 of 1977
- The Kenya Broadcasting Act of 1988
- Kenya Communication Act of 1998.

Kenya ICT policy

Was developed by the government to address issues of privacy, e-security, ICT legislation, cyber crimes, ethical
and moral conduct, copyrights, intellectual property rights and piracy. Down load a portable document file
(pdf) from the Government website titled National {Information & Communications Technology (ICT) Policy,
Ministry of Information & Communications, January 2006.}

United Kingdom Data Protection Act 1998

Protects an individuals privacy

Family educational rights and privacy act (USA)

Is a USA Federal law that protects the privacy of student’s education records. To release any information from
a student’s education record, there must be a written permission from the parent or the student.

Security Breach Notification laws

Businesses, nonprofit and state institutions are required to notify consumers when unencrypted personal
information is compromised, lost or stolen.

Copyright and software protection laws

Hardware and software are protected by either national or international Copyright, designs and patents laws
or Acts.

In Kenya, the Copyright Act was amended in 1996 to include protection for computer programsand
software copyrights.
1. Data and information should be kept secure against loss or exposure
2. Data and information should not be kept longer than necessary
3. Data and information should be accurate and update.
4. Data should not be transferred to other countries without the owner’s permission.
5. Data and information should be collected, used and kept for specified lawful purposes.
6. To observe copyrights for those who create original works.

Some laws governing privacy and confidentiality have been created, and can be summaries asfollows:
1) No secret databases – no keeping of personal data exclusively secret in government or private
organizations.
2) Right of individual access – an individual must be able to find out what information about
themselves is recorded and how it is used.
3) Right of consent – information obtained for one purpose cannot be used for other purposes Page 70
without owner consent.
4) Right to correct – an individual must be able to correct or amend records of his or her
information.
5) Assurance of reliability and proper use – data must be reliable.

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Effects of ICT on health
Some health concerns on the use of ICT devices such as computers and cellular phones are:
 Eye strain and headache – this can be controlled by taking frequent breaks, using
TFT LCD displays or antiglare screen on CRT monitors.
 Back and neck pains – use adjustable and right sitting posture
 Repetitive Strain Injury (RSI) – also known as repetitive motion injury or cumulative
trauma disorders results from fast repetitive tasks such as typing. This results in
damage of nerves and tendons. make sure correct use of the keyboard, and take
frequent breaks in between.
 Noise – some noise, such as that of an impact printer, may leave a person with
“ringing ears”. Use non-impact printers, head mounted earphones and
microphones.

Effects of ICT on the environment

Disposal of dead computer parts, consumption and emissions have resulted in
environmental pollution. Environmental Protection agency (EPA) has created the energy
star compliance policy, which coerces electronic components manufacturers worldwide to
comply to acceptable levels of environmental pollution and radiation.
Computer manufacturers are also avoiding excessive use of harmful chemicals such as
chlorofluorocarbons and nickel cadmium and other heavy metals in their productions.

Revision questions
1. Differentiate between private and confidential data
2. Why information is called a resource?
3. Explain any three threats to data and information.
4. Give two control measures you would take to avoid unauthorized access to data and information.
5. Explain the meaning of industrial espionage.
6. Differentiate between hacking and cracking with reference to computer crimes.
7. What reasons may lead to computer fraud?
8. Explain the term “information security”.
9. Why would data and information on an externally linked network not be said to be
secure evenafter burglar proofing a room?
10. How can piracy be prevented in regard to data and information?
11. Define a computer virus.
12. Give four rules that must be observed to keep within the law when working
with data andinformation.
13. Give and explain two types of computer viruses.
14. What is a program patch? Why are patches important?
15. Explain the measures you would take to protect your computers from virus attacks.
16. What is data alteration? Explain its effects on data.
17. How can you control the threat of user errors to data and information?
18. Data and information security has recently become very important. Explain.
19. Explain tapping while dealing with computer crimes.
20. Why do we need copyrights for data and information?