physics notes

Table of Contents:
❏ Unit 1 - Mechanics
❏ Unit 2 - Motion
❏ Unit 3 - Newton’s Laws
❏ Unit 4 - Energy
❏ Unit 5 - Waves
❏ Unit 6 - Electricity
❏ Unit 7 - Electromagnetism
❏ Unit 8 - Thermal Physics
❏ Unit 9 - Astrophysics

Unit 1 - Mechanics
Forces:
Force = A push or pull upon a body. Force can make a body move that was previously at rest, slow down a moving
body, put a body to rest, accelerate the speed of a moving body or change the direction of a moving body. Force is a
vector quantity as it has a magnitude and a direction.
Contact forces Non-contact forces

Forces that act directly on a body or through a medium. Non-contact forces: Forces that act indirectly on a
I.e. Muscular force, mechanical force, frictional force, body. I.e. Gravitational force, electrostatic force,
etc. magnetic force.

Scalars and Vectors:

Scalar quantities = Scientific quantities that have magnitude but no direction. I.e. Temperature.
Vector quantities = Scientific quantities that have magnitude as well as direction. I.e. Velocity.

Motion:
What is motion? The change in position of an object over time.

Rectilinear motion Motion of an object in a straight line. I.e. A soccer ball being kicked in a straight line.

Circular motion Motion of an object along the circumference of a circle. I.e. The moon’s orbit around the
Earth.

Rotational motion Motion of an object around a fixed axis passing through the object. I.e. The rotation of a
ceiling fan.

Periodic motion Motion of an object that repeats in equal intervals of time. I.e. Pendulum.

Projectile motion The parabola of an object in free fall after a force is applied. I.e. Trajectory of a bomb
shot through a canon.

Mass and Weight:

Mass = The amount of matter in an object.
Weight = A measure of the amount of downwards force that gravity exerts on an object.
Mass Weight

Scalar Vector

Measured with a balance Measured with a spring scale

 Can never reach 0 Can be zero in the absence of gravity

Is controlled (never changes) Changes according to location, environment and atmosphere

SI unit is Kilograms (kg) SI unit is Newtons (N)

***Earth’s value of g is 9.8 N/kg****

***w = mg where w = weight (N) and m = mass (kg) and g = gravitational field strength (N/kg)***

Resultant Force:
Resultant force = AKA Net Force, is the sum of all the forces exerted on an object.
Scenarios for motion when the resultant force on an object is zero (objects at equilibrium):
1. Object is at rest, resultant force and velocity are at zero.
2. Object is moving at a constant velocity (uniform motion).

Moments and Fulcrums:

Moment = The turning effect of a force around a fixed fulcrum/pivot (measured in Newton-meters, Nm)
Formula:
M = FD
➔ M = Moment
➔ F = Force
➔ D = Perpendicular distance
Fulcrum/pivot = The center of rotation.

Unit 2 - Motion
Distance and Displacement:
Distance = 1. How far the object travelled. 2. Size of displacement between two objects (scalar, always positive).
Displacement = The change in position of the object (vector, can be positive or negative).

Speed, Velocity and Acceleration:

Speed = A scalar quantity that measures the distance an object travels per unit of time (positive, measured in m/s).
Formula: S = D/T in which s = speed, d = distance and t = time
Velocity = A vector quantity that measures the speed of an object in a given direction (positive or negative,
measured in m/s).
Formula: V = Δx/t = xf - xi/t

***Average speed or average velocity is over a time interval whereas instantaneous speed or velocity is at a specific
instance of time. Average speed is the distance divided by time whereas the average velocity is the displacement
divided by time.***

Acceleration (a) = The rate of changing speed (measured in m/s^2). Formula: a = xf - xi/t
1. Positive Acceleration (increase in speed)
2. Negative Acceleration (decrease in speed - also called deceleration)
3. Change in direction (regardless of speed)
4. Zero Acceleration (constant or no speed)

Graphs of Motion:
Distance-time graph = Aka DT Graphs are diagrams that demonstrate the motion of an object in relation to how fast
it is.
➔ Speed is the gradient.
Velocity-time graph = Aka VT Graphs are diagrams that demonstrate the motion of an object in relation to its
velocity.
➔ Acceleration is the slope on a VT graph.
➔ Displacement is the area beneath the VT graph.
Speed-time graph = Aka ST graphs are another type of motion graphs.
➔ Acceleration is the gradient.
➔ Distance traveled is the area beneath the ST graph.

Equations of Motion (SUVAT):

Unit 3 - Newton’s Laws

Newton’s Laws of Motion:
1. Law of inertia = A body at rest or uniform motion will continue to be at rest or uniform motion unless a net
external force is applied.
2. Law of acceleration = The greater the mass of an object, the more force it will take to accelerate the object
(f = ma).
3. Law of action and reaction = For every action there is an equal and opposite reaction. (equal magnitude;
opposite direction).
Coefficient of friction (μ) = The ratio of the frictional force resisting the motion of two surfaces in contact to the
normal force pressing the two surfaces together.
Formulas to know:
➔ Net force = force - friction (F - f)
➔ Friction = coefficient of friction x normal reaction (μ x N)

Unit 4 - Energy
Momentum:
Momentum = Represented by the letter P, the unit is kg m/s.
➔ Formula: Momentum = mass x velocity (P = m x V)

Work:
Work = Whenever a force moves something.
➔ Formula: Work = force x distance (W = F x d) where W = joules (J), F = Newtons (N) and d = meters (m)

Work-Energy Theorem:

Power and Efficiency:

Power = The amount of energy transferred per unit of time (represented by the letter P).
➔ The unit of measurement for power is Watts (represented by the letter W).
Formula:
P = W/t
➔ P = Power (Watts)
➔ W = Work done (Joules)
➔ t = Time (Seconds)
Efficiency = A device’s ability to transfer energy as a useful output (a value between 0 and 1).

Formula:

Sankey Diagrams:
Sankey diagrams = Diagrams that show the useful energy, wasted energy and total
energy transferred in order to determine the efficiency.
 Unit 5 - Waves
Waves:
Wave = Transfer of energy from one location to another without transferring matter.
Diagram of a wave:

Characteristics of waves…
Period (T) Frequency (f) Amplitude (A) Wavelength (Lambda - λ)

Time taken to complete Number of oscillations Maximum displacement Distance between two
one oscillation; measured per second; reciprocal of moved from the consecutive crests;
in seconds (s). the period, measured in equilibrium position; measured in meters (m).
Hertz (Hz). measured in meters (m).

Types of waves…
Mechanical Electromagnetic Transverse Longitudinal

Propagates from one Propagates regardless of In which the particles of In which the particles of
location to another by whether or not a travel the medium move the medium move parallel
traveling through a medium is present. I.e. perpendicular to the to the propagation of the
medium which prevents light. direction of the wave. I.e. sound.
them from propagating in propagation of the wave.
vacuum. I.e. sound. I.e. ripples in water.

Formula for calculating wave speed:

***The shorter the wavelength, the higher the frequency (inversely proportional).***

***The pitch of a sound wave can be deduced from the frequency, the volume of a sound wave can be deduced from
the amplitude.***

Refraction = When a wave changes direction.

Compression = When the pressure of a wave is high.
Rarefaction = When the pressure of a wave is low.
Infrasound = Sound frequencies below the minimum hearing capacity.
Ultrasound = Sound frequencies above the maximum hearing capacity.
***Human minimum hearing capacity is 20Hz, human maximum hearing capacity is 20kHz.***

***Sound waves propagate faster in solids as opposed to liquids or gases as there is a higher quantity of molecules
in the medium, making it easier for the sound waves to propagate.***

Electromagnetism, Nuclear Decay and Radiation:

Electromagnetic spectrum = A spectrum that shows a range of transverse waves differing in frequencies and
electromagnetic radiations.
➔ The chronological order of electromagnetic waves is written in increasing order of frequency and energy as
well as decreasing order of wavelength.
➔ When in vacuum, all electromagnetic waves travel at the same speed of 3 x 10^8 m/s.

Isotope = Different forms of the same element. All isotopes for one element have the name number of protons and
different numbers of neutrons. Unstable isotopes will undergo radioactive decay because they have excess internal
energy.

***Atoms contain an equal amount of protons as they do electrons therefore they are neutral whereas ions do not
contain an equal amount of protons as they do electrons. When electrons are removed from a neutral atom, it will
become a positively charged ion and when electrons are added to a neutral atom, it will become a negatively charged
ion.***

Alpha Beta Gamma

Radiation Occurs when the nucleus of an Occurs during radiative decay A form of electromagnetic
atom becomes unstable. To and produces either a positively radiation that occurs in the
restore the stability of the atom, charged particle (positron) or nucleus of an atom. It consists
alpha particles are emitted. negatively charged particle of the shortest wavelength of
Alpha radiation is common in (negatron); is reflected in the electromagnetic waves; is not
elements with high atomic electric and magnetic field. reflected in neither the electric
numbers such as uranium and nor magnetic fields.
radium; is reflected in the
electric and magnetic field.

Nuclear An alpha particle will be A beta particle will be emitted A gamma ray is emitted
decay emitted which means that 2 which means that a neutron will therefore giving off energy
protons and 2 neutrons will be transform into a proton. however no particles are
emitted. Therefore, the mass Therefore, the mass number will emitted. Therefore the mass
number will decrease by 4 and remain the same however the number and atomic number
the atomic number will atomic number will increase by will both remain the same.
decrease by 2. 1.

Nuclear fission Nuclear fusion

➔ Splitting an atom into two or more smaller atoms. ➔ Joining of two atoms to form a larger one.
➔ Occurs in the reactor nucleus. ➔ Occurs in the sun and other stars.
➔ Has a chain reaction. ➔ Does not have a chain reaction.
Light:
The law of reflection = A law stating that on a smooth surface, the angle of
reflection will be equivalent to the angle of incidence and will be on the same
plane.
Specular reflection = When light is reflected on a smooth surface at a definite
angle.
Diffuse reflection = When light is reflected on a rough surface at all angles.

Refraction = When a wave changes direction as it moves from one medium to another.

***Waves travel at different speeds in different mediums as they have different densities. When the density is
higher, the wave is slower and vice versa (inversely proportional).***

Dispersion of light = Splitting a beam of white light into its seven constituent
mediums when passed through a transparent medium.
Snell’s law = States that the ratio of the sines of the angles of incidence and
refraction of a wave are constant when it passes between two given media. Formula
= n1sinθ1 = n2sinθ2
Refractive index/optical density = The measure of how much a light ray bends
when passing from one medium to another (represented by n). Formula = c/cs where
c = light speed in vacuum and cs = light speed in a medium
Critical angle = The angle of incidence when the angle of refraction is
perpendicular to the surface (90º). Formula = sinC = 1/n where C = critical angle
and n = refractive index.
Total internal reflection = When all light propagated from a wave is reflected and not refracted.

***As the critical angle increases, the refractive index decreases and vice versa (inversely proportional).***

Diffraction = The process of a wave passing through a gap or around an obstacle.

Wave interference = The combination of two waves traveling on intersecting paths.
➔ Constructive = When two waves interfere that have the same amplitude and are
traveling in the same direction. This means that the amplitude will increase.
➔ Destructive = When two waves interfere that have the same amplitude but are
 traveling in opposite directions. This means that the two waves will cancel each other out.
Lens = A clear, polished material that alters the course of travel of light rays.
➔ Biconcave/diverging = Has an inward curvature therefore allowing it to refract rays of light and diverge
them in all directions (dispersion of light).
➔ Biconvex/converging = Has an outward curvature therefore allowing it to refract rays of light and converge
them to a single point.
Principal focus = The point on the
principal axis where rays of light converge
from a biconvex lens or diverge from a
biconcave lens.
Principal axis = The axis passing through
the focal length and the centers of
curvature.
Focal length = The distance between the
center of the lens and its focus.
Real image = An image that is formed by
light rays.
Virtual image = An image that appears to
be formed by light rays.
Inverted = When the orientation of an
image is reversed.
Upright = When the orientation of an image is correct.
Magnified = To increase the size of a virtual image in comparison to the real image.
Diminished = To decrease the size of a virtual image in comparison to the real image.

Unit 6 - Electricity
Static Electricity:
Static electricity = The result of an imbalance between negative and positive electron charges in an object.
Example: Thunderstorms begin to build up when an updraft occurs in which warm air in a cloud rises up the
atmosphere. Afterwards, some of the water droplets in the cloud turn into ice crystals. These ice crystals combine
with the water droplets in order to form larger molecules, called graupels, which may be positively or negatively
charged. The graupels will be attracted to a charged source on the ground that has the opposite charge (negatively
charged graupels will be attracted to substances that are positively charged and vice versa).
Charging = The process of an electronically charged object transferring its charge to an object that was previously
discharged.
➔ Conduction = When charging occurs through direct contact between two objects.
➔ Induction = When charging occurs through indirect contact between two objects.

Energy Flow:
Charge = The amount of protons and electrons an object has (measured in coulombs).
Current = The rate of speed of the flow of charge (measured in amperes).
I = Q/t in which I = current, Q = charge and t = time
Voltage = The electrical potential difference (measured in volts).
Resistance = A force opposing the flow of electrical current (measured in ohms).
Ohm’s Law = V = IR in which V = voltage, I = current and r = resistance

Factors affecting resistance…

1. Length = Has a direct proportion with resistance. Therefore, when the
wire is longer, the resistance will be greater.
2. Cross-sectional area = Has an inverse proportion with resistance.
Therefore, when the cross-sectional area of a wire is greater, its
resistance will decrease.
3. Resistivity = Has a direct proportion with resistance. Therefore, when
a wire is more resistive, the resistance will be greater.
4. Temperature = Can have a direct proportion with resistance if the material is a conductor, or inverse
 proportion with resistance if the material is an insulator.
Therefore, the resistance will increase as the temperature
increases in conductors and the resistance will decrease as
the temperature increases in insulators.
Conductivity = The rate at which a material conducts electricity.
Resistivity = The measure of resisting power that opposes the flow
of electric current.
Series circuit = A circuit that has one pathway for electrons to flow.
Parallel circuit = A circuit that has two or more pathways for
electrons to flow.

Unit 7 - Electromagnetism

Magnet = An object that produces a magnetic field.

➔ Permanent magnets = Magnets where magnetism
cannot be turned off and on.
➔ Temporary magnets = Only exhibit their magnetic
properties when placed in a magnetic field.
➔ Electromagnets = Magnets where magnetism can be
turned off and on; magnetic field is produced by electric
current.
Induced magnetism = When an unmagnetized material is in
close proximity to a pole of a permanent magnet, it will become
a magnet itself.
Magnetically hard = The description of a permanent magnet.
Magnetically soft = The description of a temporary magnet.

***The shape of a magnetic field is always circular.***

Factors affecting magnetic field strength in a solenoid…

1. The number of turns of wire is directly proportional to
the magnetic field strength.
2. The current in the wire is directly proportional to the magnetic field strength.
3. The length of the wire is inversely proportional to the magnetic field strength.
In which B = magnetic field strength, n = the number of turns of wire, I = current and k is a constant.

***When the direction of current and the direction of the magnetic field is at a 90º angle, the
magnetic force will be the strongest. When the direction of current and the direction of
magnetic field is at a 180º angle, the magnetic force will be equal to 0.***

Fleming’s Left-Hand Rule Fleming’s Right-Hand Rule

It is used for electric motors. It is used for electric generators.

The purpose of this rule is used for finding the The purpose of this rule is used for finding the
direction of the magnetic force acting in an electric direction of the induced current in an electric
motor. generator.

The middle finger represents the direction of the The middle finger represents the direction of the
current. induced current.
Step-up transformer = Transformers that increase voltage and have more turns on the secondary coil as opposed to
the primary coil.
Step-down transformer = Transformers that decrease voltage and have more turns on the primary coil as opposed to
the secondary coil.

Unit 8 - Thermal Physics

Thermal Energy:
Heat energy = The total energy used for the motion of molecules of a substance.
Internal energy = The total energy stored in the particles of a substance.
Temperature = The measurement of the average internal energy of the particles in a substance.
Translational motion = Side-to-side motion.
Rotational motion = Spinning motion.
Vibrational motion = When the covalent bonds in a molecule bend and stretch.
Thermal equilibrium = A state in which the temperature is balanced and the heat stops flowing.
Thermal expansion = When the state of matter of a substance changes in shape, volume and area in response to a
change in temperature.

***When the temperature of a substance increases, the kinetic energy store of the particles in the substance will
increase therefore causing them to gain internal energy.***

Specific latent heat = The amount of energy required to change the state of matter in a substance without changing
the temperature.
➔ Specific latent heat of vaporization = When the change in the state of matter of a substance is between a
liquid and a gas (evaporation or condensation).
➔ Specific latent heat of fusion = When the change in the state of matter of a substance is between a solid and
a liquid (melting or freezing).

Formula:
E = m x L in which E is the amount of energy required, which is measured in Joules (J), m is the mass of the
substance, which is measured in kilograms (kg) and L is the specific latent heat, which is measured in Joules per
kilogram (J/kg).

Specific heat capacity = The amount of energy required to raise the temperature of 1 kg of a substance by 1ºC.

Albedo = The measure of the diffuse reflection of solar radiation on the Earth.

Unit 9 - Astrophysics
Solar System:
Satellite = Anything that orbits a planet.
➔ Natural = Is naturally occurring (I.e. The Moon is a natural satellite that orbits the Earth).
➔ Artificial = Is not naturally occurring (I.e. The ISS is an artificial satellite that orbits the Earth).
Asteroid = Mostly made of rock and metal; are located in the asteroid belt between Mars and Jupiter.
Comet = Mostly made of ice and dust; have an elliptical orbit around the Sun.
Galaxies = Massive collections of billions of stars which contain their own solar systems.
Universe = Scattered with multiple galaxies.

Geocentric = The belief that the Earth is at the center of the solar system.
Heliocentric = The belief that the Sun is at the center of the solar system.

Evidence proving the validity of the heliocentric model…

The orbit of moons around Jupiter disproves the geocentric model as it shows that there are other orbits within the
solar system, therefore the Earth is not the center of the solar system in which all other structures revolve around it.
The elliptical orbit of the earth is what results in the 4 seasons, which is the byproduct of the change in distance
between the Earth and the Sun. This demonstrates that the Sun is at the center and the Earth revolves around it,
hence the changes in distance.

***The field lines should be drawn radially pointing towards the center of Earth. Gravitational fields can only
produce forces of attraction, whereas electric fields can produce attraction and repulsion.***

Laws of Planetary Motion:

First Law = Planets orbit the Sun in an ellipse.
Second Law = Planets sweep out equal areas during equal intervals of time,
therefore do not orbit the Sun at a constant speed (faster in perihelion as it is
longer and slower in aphelion as it is shorter).
Third Law = The square of a planet's orbital period is proportional to the
cube of its semi-major axis.
Universal Law of Gravitation = Every object in the universe attracts every
other object with a force which is directly proportional to the product of their masses and inversely proportional to
the square of the distance between them. Formula: F = G (m1 x m2)/d^2 - G is the Universal gravitational constant
(6.673 x 10^-11 Nm^2 kg^-2).

Star Life Cycles:

1. A big cloud of dust and gas (nebula) harnesses gravitational attractive force which pulls the dust and
gas together in a structure called a protostar.
2. More particles will collide and join the protostar therefore it increases in size and gains a stronger
gravitational force.
3. Due to the stronger gravitational force, the protostar gains density as well as higher temperature and
pressure.
4. Once the pressure of the protostar is high enough, the hydrogen nuclei begin to fuse together in order
to form helium nuclei via nuclear fusion.
5. This causes the release of significant amounts of energy therefore ensuring that the core of the star
remains hot, hence it becomes a main-sequence star.

Main-sequence star = The outward pressure, caused by energy, is perfectly balanced by the inward pressure, caused
by gravity. This ensures that the star can be stable for a long period of time.

Red giant life cycle:

1. The red giant becomes unstable and expels its outer layers of dust and gas. A hot, dense, solid core will
remain that does not partake in nuclear fusion, which is known as a white dwarf.
2. The white dwarf will gradually become cooler and darker while emitting all of its energy until it
eventually transforms into a black dwarf as it no longer contains sufficient energy to be capable of
emitting light.

Red supergiant life cycle:

1. The red supergiant undergoes several cycles of expansion and contraction which cause it to undergo
more nuclear fusion, therefore becoming brighter.
2. Eventually, the red supergiant undergoes such high levels of nuclear fusion that it explodes and
becomes a supernova.
3. If the star was extremely large, it would condense into a neutron star after becoming a supernova.
However, some stars are large enough to collapse into a black hole after becoming a supernova.

Redshift = When an object travels further away (expansion), its position on the EM spectrum stretches therefore
enters the red region, which can be visually seen as red light.
Blueshift = When an object travels closer (contraction), its position on the EM spectrum condenses therefore enters
the blue region, which can be visually seen as blue light.

Reflective telescope: