Chapter 5 Planning Menus

5.1 Understand how nutrition goals and evidence-based practices are used as the foundation for planning
healthful meals.
5.2 Understand what strategies are available to promote healthful eating habits and prevent obesity.
5.3 Describe the steps for writing menus.
5.4 Discuss strategies for managing young children’s special dietary considerations.
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PART 1: Using Nutrition Goals and Evidence-Based Practices to Plan Healthful Meals
The menu is the foundation of health in the child care setting. Developing a healthful, cost-effective menu
requires an understanding of nutrition goals, evidence-based nutrition practices, and food budgeting.
Menu planning is made simpler by using a three-phase approach:
Phase 1: Understand specific program requirements. Teachers need to be aware of existing nutrition,
licensing, and funding directives when planning menus in early childhood settings. For example, the
Dietary Guidelines for Americans and the Dietary Reference Intakes (DRI) are food guidance systems
that form the foundation for federal food program recommendations, including the Child and Adult Care
Food Program, the National School Lunch Program, and the School Breakfast Program.
Phase 2: Write and implement menus. This is a creative process in which teachers are encouraged to take
into consideration the flavors, textures, colors, and aromas of foods when designing menus that appeal to
children as well as expose them to new flavors and textures.
Phase 3: Adapt menus to support alternative or special diets so that all children, regardless of health
concerns or cultural preferences, receive a healthy balanced diet.

Therefore, early childhood educators must:

• Understand menu planning.

• Identify guidelines and how to apply them.
• Develop a system to organize and access resources.

1-1 Identifying the Teacher’s Role

Teachers in family childcare settings and small childcare centers are often involved in menu planning.
Although teachers may not always be directly involved in preparing menus, an understanding of the
concepts and requirements for menu planning helps teachers reinforce healthful eating practices for
children and their families. The menu is a focal point for teaching children about foods. Teachers can be
advocates and supporters of healthful eating by eating healthfully themselves. They can provide
information about the food at the childcare setting and share with families the menu guidelines they
follow for health and food safety.
1-2 Understanding Menu Planning Resources
Many resources are available to guide menu planning for young children. Health organizations offer diet
guidelines based on evidence-based research. Food safety guidelines are often regulated through various
licensing requirements.
1-3 Federally Funded Food and Nutrition Programs with Menu-Planning Systems
Three child nutrition programs provide the template for menu planning in early childhood settings: the
Child and Adult Care Food Program, which guides menu planning for prekindergarten programs, and the
National School Lunch Program and the School Breakfast Program, which guide menu planning for
schools.
1-3-1 The Child and Adult Care Food Program
The CACFP aims to increase the quality and affordability of early childhood programs by providing
funds for healthy meals and snacks.
1-3-1-1 Eligibility for Participation
Licensed or approved nonprofit public or private child care centers, Head Start programs, family child
care homes, after-school programs, and homeless shelters are eligible to participate in the CACFP. For-
profit child care programs may be eligible to participate in the CACFP if 25% of the children enrolled
qualify for free or reduced-price meals or subsidized child care payments.
To receive CACFP reimbursement, participating programs must maintain accurate records, including
menus planned, foods purchased and served, and numbers of children who ate each meal, called a point-
of-service meal count. The CACFP reimbursement is paid directly to programs. Many child care settings,
unlike primary school settings, do not charge separately for meals. The amount of reimbursement to
programs is determined using guidelines based on the household income of each enrolled child. The
classification of families’ income does not reflect what families are charged, but rather the amount of
reimbursement the program receives from the CACFP funding authority.
1-3-1-2 CACFP Program Requirements
The CACFP has specific food requirements for infants and young children. Also called meal patterns,
these are the food groups, or components, and amounts to be offered at breakfast, lunch, supper, and
snack for infants and children. The meal patterns outline the food groups, or components, that need to be
offered and the amounts of each food required to qualify as a CACFP-approved breakfast, lunch, supper,
or snack. The food group components include milk, grains, meats/meat alternatives, fruits, and
vegetables. CACFP portions represent the minimum portion to serve, but more food can be offered if
children show signs of hunger. Very active children and older children may need larger portions to satisfy
their hunger. Sufficient food should be available; however, consistently offering portions that are too
large encourages children to eat more and could impact weight.
1-3-1-3 CACFP Creditable Foods
Offering nutrient-dense foods is a priority of the CACFP. For example, CACFP guidelines recommend
that foods from the grain group be either enriched or whole grains. If a food does not meet CACFP
specifications, it is not considered a creditable food. A creditable food meets CACFP guidelines and is
eligible for reimbursement. A noncreditable food does not meet CACFP guidelines and is not eligible for
reimbursement. An example of a noncreditable food in the milk group is yogurt, which does not meet the
standard of identity for fluid milk; however, it can be credited as a food choice in the meat/meat alternate
group.
1-3-2 The National School Lunch Program and School Breakfast Program
The NSLP and SBP are USDA programs designed to improve children’s health and well-being by
providing access to nutritious meals. All public and private schools and residential child care institutions
are eligible to participate in the NSLP program if they agree to offer a nonprofit school lunch program
that meets all federal regulations and is available to all children.
1-3-3 Head Start/Early Head Start Programs
Menus in Head Start settings must meet CACFP guidelines and Head Start standards for menu planning.
A few Head Start Performance Standards related to nutrition are summarized below.

• All children’s nutritional needs must be met, including children with special diets and children
with disabilities.
• Programs must serve foods that are culturally and developmentally appropriate.
• One-third of a child’s daily nutritional needs must be met in part-day programs and one-half to
two-thirds in full-day programs.
• Programs must participate in the CACFP if eligible or use Head Start allowable funds to cover
meal service.
• Foods served must be high in nutrients and low in fat, sugar, and salt.
• Children must be free to exercise agency over their eating: they cannot be forced to finish their
meals, and food cannot be used as a reward.
• Safe drinking water must be available to children at all times.

1-3-4 USDA Schools/Child Nutrition Commodity Program

The Food and Nutrition Service of the USDA (2014) manages the distribution of commodity foods
through the USDA Schools/Child Nutrition Commodity Program. Commodity food, also called USDA
foods, are foods the federal government has legal authority to purchase from American farmers and are
used in child nutrition programs. Early childhood programs participating in CACFP are eligible to receive
these foods. Commodity foods typically include some fresh but predominantly canned and frozen fruits,
fruit juices, and vegetables; frozen or canned meats; poultry and tuna fish; cheese; dry and canned beans;
peanut butter; vegetable oils; rice; pasta products; flour; cornmeal; and oats (USDA, Food and Nutrition
Service, 2014). Programs using commodity foods should have a list of these foods on hand when
planning menus.

PART 2: Strategies to Promote Healthful Eating Habits and to Prevent Obesity Through Menu
Planning
Menus should be planned to meet not only the nutrient requirements of meals, but also the dietary
practices that protect children’s health, especially as it relates to obesity prevention. Strategies used to
plan menus that optimize children’s health and to prevent obesity are described below.
 ➢ Offering Children More Fruits and Vegetables
➢ Enticing Children to Eat More Fruits and Vegetables
➢ Menu-Planning Strategies to Include More Fruits and Vegetables
• Consider flavors, textures, and smells when offering fruits and vegetables that appeal to
children. For example, overcooked broccoli has a less desirable texture and aroma than
raw broccoli.
• Offer visually appealing fruits and vegetables. Offer salads with many colors instead of
plain iceberg lettuce. Prepare all fruits and vegetables appropriately to prevent choking
hazards.
• Offer various forms of fruits and vegetables. Fruits and vegetables that are fresh, frozen,
canned in water, and dry without added sugars all count toward good nutrition.
• Plan menu items where shredded, pureed, or chopped vegetables and/or fruits can be
added to foods such as pizza, spaghetti, chili, meatloaf, quick breads, and muffins.
• Offer fruits and vegetables using different methods of preparation (e.g., shredded carrots,
steamed carrots, mashed carrots, carrot soup, or carrot muffins).
• Offer menu items that combine various vegetables or fruits, such as soups, stir-fried
vegetables, or fruit salads.
• Introduce a new fruit or vegetable frequently and offer it with familiar foods. Realize that
children may need numerous exposures before they accept a food.
• Use classroom cooking activities to introduce children to new fruits and vegetables.
• Offer dips with fruits and vegetables to increase the likelihood that children will try them.
• Include dark green, orange, and red vegetables on the menu often (broccoli, spinach, kale,
collard greens, carrots, sweet potatoes, winter squashes, tomatoes, and red peppers).
• Include more protein and fiber-rich legumes on the menu (such as black beans, garbanzo
beans, kidney beans, lentils, pinto beans, soy beans, and split peas).

➢ Choose Foods Naturally Low in Sodium

➢ Menu-Planning Strategies to Include Nutrient-Dense Foods
➢ Limiting Solid Fats and Extra Fats When Planning Menus
➢ Creating Menus That Support Sustainability
• Using Locally Grown Produce
• Recycling and Composting
• Planting School Gardens
➢ Partnering with Children and Families as Resources for Menu Planning

PART 3: Steps for Writing Menus

The following discussion provides six steps for writing menus:

• Gather Tools for Menu Planning

• Prepare to Write the Cycle Menu
• Create a Budget for Menus
• Build the Menu
• Use Meal Service to Enhance Menu Acceptance
 • Manage Foods from Home
Step 1: Gather Tools for Menu Planning

• Old menus and cost analysis of the menus, if available

• Menu templates

• A list of foods that reflects the food preferences of culturally diverse populations within the

• A list of the special diets and food allergies of the children in your care
• Recipes and recipe templates (from the program’s previously used recipes, USDA website, etc.)
• A list of commodity foods
• Price lists for suppliers of local grocers
• A grocery shopping list template
Step 2: Prepare to Write the Cycle Menu
The cycle menu offers a variety of foods every day, is planned for a week or longer, and then repeats
itself. The menu items are offered in the same order as the previous cycle. A repeating 4- to 6-week cycle
menu is often used in early childhood settings and schools. Cycle menus are time and cost-effective.
Step 3: Create a Budget for Menus
➢ Determining Income Sources for Menu Implementation
These sources include:

• Family fees for care and education

• Child care subsidies for eligible low-income children
• CACFP reimbursements for meal service
• Public school district funding
• Grants such as Head Start funds provided for programs that serve low-income families

➢ Using Cost Control Strategies

Besides direct food purchasing expenses, other costs related to food service include the use of disposable
supplies (napkins, straws, dish detergent) and durable items (dishes, silverware, cooking utensils, food
service equipment). Sometimes a very simple change can make a significant difference

Step 4: Build the Menu

Deciding on menu choices and serving sizes requires the planner to consider the age and nutritional needs
of children in the program.
 Selecting the Breakfast Menu
The breakfast menu can be constructed following CACFP guidelines. Selections are made from the three
required components: milk, fruits/vegetables, and starches/grains
 Selecting the Lunch Menu
The following considerations are useful when planning a cycle menu for lunch:

• How often should a particular entrée be served during the menu cycle?
• If an entrée is offered more than once a month, how can the side dish be changed to ensure
variety?
• How often will hot versus cold entrées be served? During the summer, sandwiches and chef’s
salads might be well received, whereas stews and soups may be preferred during the winter
months.
If a commercially prepared entrée (a processed main course item to which ingredients may have been
added) is chosen for the menu, it must be identified by the Child Nutrition (CN) Labeling Program.
  Selecting Snacks for the Menu
Snacks provide nutrients children miss at mealtimes. The CACFP requires snack menus include two
components from any of the five food groups (milk, fruits, vegetables, cereals/grains, and protein/protein
alternate) to meet reimbursement requirements. Although 100% fruit juice may be served as part of a
healthy snack, priority should be given to fresh fruits and vegetables, which provide added fiber and
nutrients and are more likely to help children feel full longer.
 Transitioning to New or Updated Menus
Once the cycle menu for breakfast, lunch, and snacks has been completed, a systematic evaluation of the
menu is conducted to ensure requirements have been met.

 Step 5: Use Meal Service to Enhance Menu Acceptance

Supporting the Development of Eating Skills
The menu creates opportunities for children to gain eating and self-feeding skills. Finger feeding
is an important developmental stage in learning to self-feed. As children learn to manipulate a spoon and
fork, the menu must reflect foods prepared in ways children can manage. Eating oatmeal with a spoon is a
good first step, but peas may be too challenging for toddlers and preschoolers to eat with a fork. Thus,
teachers should allow children to use their fingers as needed. When planning menus for a wide range of
ages (infants to preschoolers), the adaptability of foods served should be considered. Teachers should
allow children to feed themselves as much as they are able, as well as allow for messiness. Spills are to be
expected and should be treated in an unconcerned manner. Teachers can provide verbal and physical
assists by reading children’s cues. Planning meals that challenge children to learn new skills without
frustration is an extra dimension in menu planning.
Use of age-appropriate equipment is important to support menu acceptance and enhance children’s
mealtime experience. Eating utensils, tables, and chairs should be age-appropriate in size.

Enhancing the Social Experience and Social Environment for Children

Mealtimes should be relaxed and enjoyable. Teachers create this comfortable atmosphere by
establishing guidelines for acceptable eating behavior. This includes offering meals on a schedule and
allowing enough time so meals are not rushed. Interruptions during mealtime should be minimal. Parents
picking up children after lunch should be encouraged to avoid entering the room until meal service is
done. If there is a television in the family child care home, it should not be on during meal service.
Teachers should not be talking on the phone during meal service but rather at the table interacting with
children. Social behaviors such as eating etiquette should be introduced and reinforced, such as washing
hands before eating, helping to set the table, waiting until everyone is seated before beginning to eat (if
age appropriate), and helping with cleanup after the meal. However, teachers should remember that
children are learning about eating etiquette and it may take time to master these skills. Mealtimes are
important social times as children talk and visit with each other and their providers.

Selecting a Type of Meal Service

• Family-style meal service (best practice: Children select what they want to eat, and they do
determine the amount.)
• Cafeteria-style meal service (Children select what they want to eat, but they do not determine
the amount. This style of service is common in the primary school setting.)
• Restaurant-style meal service involves portioning food out on plates before it is served to
children at the table.

 Step 6: Manage Foods from Home

Developing policies and procedures for home-prepared meals helps establish a partnership with families
to support a healthful eating environment.

PART 4: Creating Menus That Support Special Diets

4-1 Planning Menus for Children with Food Allergies
4-1-1 Understanding Food Allergies
Food allergy symptoms can include hives; rash; swelling of the mouth, tongue, and throat; red and tearing
eyes; wheezing; difficulty breathing; coughing; shortness of breath; trouble swallowing; vomiting;
diarrhea; and anaphylaxis; anaphylaxis is a severe life-threatening reaction that can lead to a drop in blood
pressure, loss of consciousness, and death if untreated. Some children, however, experience other food
disorders that can result in an assortment of delayed symptoms that occur hours or days after exposure,
making identification of a food allergy more challenging
Infants with Food Allergies
Allergies may begin to appear in infants when solid foods are introduced and they are exposed to new
foods. Foods should be introduced one at a time, waiting 3–5 days before the next new food is offered. In
this way, if allergy symptoms develop, it is easier to identify the offending food (Kleinman, 2009).
Families should provide teachers with a list of foods that have been introduced successfully. Menus
planned for infants emerge from the list of tolerated foods. If a food allergy is identified, the offending
food is eliminated from the infant’s diet.
The family should approve the menu, and with the family’s consent, the child’s diet should be posted
where it is easily accessible in areas where food is prepared, offered, and used for other activities
Food labels should be read carefully. Foods purchased for infants should be single-ingredient foods to
prevent inadvertent exposure to an allergen. Exclusive breastfeeding until infants are 4–6 months of age
may offer protection from the development of food allergies. For infants who are offered formula, extra
care is needed when preparing the formula to avoid cross-contamination. Strategies to avoid cross-
contamination include the following:

• Formula should be prepared in specifically identified containers, using specific mixing utensils.
• Bottles should be cleaned with specific bottle brushes and thoroughly rinsed.
• Special hypoallergenic formulas should be labeled so bottles are not inadvertently given to the
wrong infant. The label on the formula should be double-checked before the infant is fed.
Toddlers, Preschoolers, and Primary-Grade Children with Food Allergies
The challenge in planning menus for children with food allergies is ensuring the foods offered are
allergen-free while still meeting nutritional recommendations. In addition, it is important to create enough
variety so children do not become bored with the substitutes offered. Food for young children should be
prepared and served to avoid cross-contamination. Food purchased for children with allergies should be
labeled with the child’s name and date and properly stored. In addition, special diet items must be labeled
when served so children receive the correct allergen-free foods
4-1-2 Planning Menus for Children with Diabetes
Teachers who have children with diabetes in the class need specialized training by a diabetes educator
about the effects of physical activity, diet, and insulin on blood glucose levels. They also must be trained
in the treatment of diabetes emergencies
Understanding Type 1 and Type 2 Diabetes
There are two types of diabetes: type 1 and type 2. Both result in elevated blood sugar levels, but the
cause of these conditions is very different. In children with type 1 diabetes, the cells in the pancreas that
make insulin are not functioning; therefore, insulin injections are required. Children who have type 2
diabetes still make insulin; however, receptors in the cells are not functioning, which is often associated
with overweight and obesity.
Understanding the Diet for Type 1 Diabetes
The amount of carbohydrate-containing foods served at mealtime and snack time is very important for
children. Carbohydrates (starches/grains, fruits, milk, and sweets) in a diet are broken down to glucose
during digestion. These carbohydrate foods must be balanced throughout the day and in accordance with
insulin injections. Regular meals and snacks with balanced carbohydrate foods help prevent high or low
blood sugar levels.
Diets for children with type 1 diabetes vary depending on the child’s age and calorie requirements.
Teachers will know how much to offer based on the child’s meal plan. To accommodate children who
have diabetes, families need to:

• Provide and review the child’s meal plan and snack schedule.
• Provide instructions on what to do when food is offered at classroom parties or other special
events.
• Provide the supplies needed to treat low blood sugar reaction, such as a source of glucose

For their part in accommodating children with diabetes, teachers need to:

• Learn the carbohydrate content of foods offered on the menu and understand the portions that are
allowed per the child’s meal plan.
• Provide families with information on portion sizes and calorie, carbohydrate, and fat content of
meals served at school.
• Ensure regular mealtimes. If a meal is delayed, a backup plan for providing food is necessary to
prevent the child with type 1 diabetes from having a low blood sugar reaction.
• Review foods planned for special events and receive approval from families about the particular
food items and amounts that should be offered.
• Plan appropriate foods for meals away from the program, such as picnics and field trips.
• Develop strategies and obtain guidance from families on what to do if a child refuses to eat.
• Obtain training and guidance on what foods to feed or medication to administer if the child’s
blood sugar levels get too low.
• Make provisions in case the teacher is absent. A substitute teacher must be trained in diet and
diabetes management
Understanding the Diet for Type 2 Diabetes
The overall goals of diet therapy for children with type 2 diabetes are similar to the goals for children
with type 1 diabetes, which include providing a nutritious diet that minimizes elevations in blood sugar
levels by focusing on the carbohydrate content of meals. However, lifestyle changes that promote healthy
weight and encourage physical activity are also very important objectives.

4-1-3 Planning Menus for Children Who Are Overweight or Obese

Attention is given to improving health rather than focusing on weight. This protects both the physical and
social/emotional well-being of young children.

• Limit sugar-sweetened beverages, soft drinks, and juice at mealtime and snack time.
 • Offer sufficient fruits and vegetables at mealtime and snack time.
• Offer breakfast daily.
• Offer appropriate portion sizes at mealtime and snack time.
• Limit calorie-dense and high-fat foods at mealtime and snack time.
• Serve nonfat or low-fat milk to children age 2 and older

4-1-4 Planning Menus for Children with Special Health Care Needs
 • Food texture: Food may need to be ground or puréed.
• Food consistency: A commercial thickener may need to be added to liquids.
• Special equipment: Special equipment such as a feeding chair or special plate and eating utensils
may be necessary.
• Commercial supplements: Supplements used to boost calorie intake may be necessary.
• Calorie level: High-calorie or low-calorie foods may be needed.
• Mealtimes: More time may be needed for consuming meals.

4-1-5 Planning Menus for Children Following a Vegetarian Diet

Infants with Vegetarian Diets
The age of a child influences vegetarian menu-planning decisions. A vegetarian diet can safely meet the
nutritional needs of infants. At first, infants are breastfed or provided regular formula. Soy formula is an
option for infants whose families avoid all animal sources of food including milk. Solid foods are
introduced gradually, following the same guidelines recommended for nonvegetarian infant diets. In place
of meat or poultry protein sources, eggs, dairy products such as cottage cheese and yogurt, and protein-
rich vegetable foods such as puréed legumes, tofu, and soy yogurts are offered.
Several aspects are important to consider when planning menus to meet vegetarian diet needs:

• Select vegetarian protein products that are fortified with calcium, iron, vitamin D, zinc, and
vitamin B12.
• Use meat substitutes such as soy burgers, soy cheese, vegetarian deli slices, bean loaves, nut
butters, and tofu to maintain variety in the menu.
• Avoid gelatin products made from pork, such as marshmallows, gummy candies, and gelatin
desserts, for children following a vegan diet.
• Plan healthy vegetarian snacks such as whole-grain crackers with cheese or nut butters, whole-
grain corn tortillas with beans, pita bread triangles with hummus, and yogurt mixed with fresh
fruit
4-1-6 Planning Menus to Address Religious Beliefs and Practices
The Islamic Religion
Adherents to Islam follow religious writings recommending that a mother breast-feed her infant until 2
years of age, if possible (Nevin-Folino, 2008). Modesty is an important aspect of this religion. Providing
a private location for Islamic mothers who are breastfeeding supports this feeding relationship. The
traditional dress and head covering of Islamic women cover most of their body. This puts them and their
infants at risk for vitamin D deficiency if the infants are breastfed exclusively.
Many Muslims consume a halal diet, which means they consume foods that are lawful or permitted
according to the Quran (Islamic Food and Nutrition Council of America, 2019). Only the flesh of animals
or poultry killed in a humane way while the name of God is spoken can be eaten, such as beef, veal,
turkey, chicken, goat, and lamb. The halal diet avoids pork and pork products such as the gelatin used in
marshmallows, gummy candies, and gelatin desserts.
The Jewish Religion
The Jewish religion also has rules about how animals are butchered. According to Jewish law, all blood
must be drained from the meat for it to be considered kosher. Kosher symbols are used on processed
foods to designate that they have been prepared in accordance with dietary laws. Milk and meat cannot be
consumed at the same meal (Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics, 2019d). The term pareve on a label
indicates foods that contain neither meat nor dairy products. These foods are therefore considered neutral
and can be served with either meat or milk. Pareve foods include eggs, fish, grains, fruits, and vegetables.
Pork and pork products are not permitted in the kosher diet. Fish with fins are permissible, but shellfish
are not. Eggs and fish can be eaten with milk or meat. During food preparation and service, the cooking
and eating utensils are also kept kosher. This means that those of the orthodox faith have two sets of
serving ware and cooking utensils available for the separate preparation of meat and milk. The restriction
that prohibits drinking milk and eating meat or poultry in the same meal is in conflict with the Child and
Adult Care Food Program and the School Lunch Program requirements for milk and meat components
served at lunch and supper. To address this, the USDA Food and Nutrition Service provide four options
for Jewish schools, institutions, and sponsors to select from and still be in compliance with regulations:

• Option I: Serve an equal amount of approved nondiary milk substitute, such as unflavored soy
milk.
• Option II: Serve an equal amount of 100% juice in place of milk with lunch or supper. Programs
operating 5 days per week may substitute juice for milk twice per week for lunches and twice for
suppers, but no more than once each day.
• Option III: Serve milk at an appropriate time before or after the meal service period, in
accordance with applicable Jewish dietary law.
• Option IV: Serve the supplement (snack) juice component at lunch or supper. Serve the lunch
milk component as part of a supplement (snack).