BIOLOGY UNIT 1 – CELL

BIOLOGY

Study Guide
 1.1) Introduction to Cells
Cell Theory
Cell Theory Statements Cell Theory Exceptional Statements

• All living things are composed of cells (or cell • Straited Muscle Fiber: Challenges that there’s only
products) 1 nucleus. Composed of muscle cells that are
• The cell is the smallest unit of life multinucleated and surrounded by single plasma
• Cells only arise from pre-existing cells membrane
• Aseptate Fungal Hypha:Challenges that cell is a
single unit. They are multinucleated and has
continuous cytoplasm with no cell membrane/wall
• Giant Algae: Challenges that cells are simple and
small in size. They are gigantic in size with complex
structure. It has a single nucleus

Cell Magnification & Microscope

Cell Magnification – magnification and the actual size of structures in micrograph
Image Size (Ruler)
Magnification =
Actual Size (Scale Bar)

Electron microscopes – it uses electron beams to magnify and resolve microscopic organisms.
(Advantages = Better resolution and quality as well as high magnification)
Optical/Light microscope – it uses lenses to bend light and magnify images

Cell Size Limitation/SA: Vol Ratio

Metabolism - large numbers of chemicals reactions take place in an organism. Rate of metabolic
reactions is proportional to cell volume.
Cells need to exchange materials with the environment and move through plasma membrane
produce energy required for survival (via metabolism).

Small SA: Vol Ratio = Substances won’t enter the cell (less material exchange) & more
metabolism
Large SA: Vol Ratio = Substances could enter the cell (more material exchange) & less
metabolism

Functions of life
Metabolism – Chemicals reactions taking place in an organism
Response – How living things interact with the environment
Reproduction – Living things produce offspring, either sexually or asexually
Growth – Living things grow/change in size
Excretion – removal of metabolic waste
Nutrition – Feeding on other organisms or eating organic matter
Homeostasis – Maintenance and regulation of internal cell conditions
 Unicellular & Multicellular Organisms
UNICELLULAR MULTICELLULAR

Unicellular – organisms that consists of only single cell Multicellular - organisms consisting of group of cells,
(eg. bacteria). Simple structure fused together. Complex structure
Emergent properties – new functions that arise from
This single cell has to carry out all the functions of life interaction of component parts.
to stay alive
Multicellular organisms are capable of performing
different functions and tasks efficiently (specialized)

Cell Differentiation& Stem Cells

Cell Differentiation - The development of cells in different ways to
carry out specific functions.
Cell differentiation happens because a different sequence of genes is expressed in different cell
types (via mutation or differentiation)

Stem cells – unspecialized cells that has the capability to divide/replicate continuously. They
could differentiate into different cell types
▪ Totipotent - Can differentiate into any type of cell including embryonic cells.
▪ Pluripotent - Can differentiate into many types of cell.
▪ Multipotent – Can differentiate into a few closely-related types of cell.
▪ Unipotent - Can regenerate but can only differentiate into their associated cell type (e.g.
liver stem cells can only make liver cells).

Stem Cells in Curing Diseases

Stargardt Disease – Embryonic stem cells are used to divide and differentiate to become retinal
cells. These cells are injected into retina to restore the vision and becomes functional

Leukemia - Hematopoetic Stem Cells (HSCs) are harvested from bone marrow.
Chemotherapy/Radiotherapy is used to destroy old WBC and replaced with new WBC. These
cells is transplanted back to bone marrow to form new WBC Cells.

Stem Cells Ethics

These stem cells typically come from Embryo, Adult Tissues, etc
Benefits Drawbacks
• More production of pluripotent stem cells (Embryo) • Requires destruction of the baby, resulting in loss of
• Using multipotent stem cells may be effective for a potential life (Embryo)
certain conditions (Adult Tissue) • Limited in its scope of application in treating
• Useful for therapeutic uses by storing/harvesting diseases (Adult Tissue)
multipotent cells in treating diseases (Umbilical • Cells must be stored and preserved at cost, raising
Cord) issues of financial accessibility (Umbilical Cord)
1.2) Ultrastructure of Cells

Prokaryotic Cell Structure & Components

Prokaryotes – cells that has a simpler cell structure than eukaryotes (no nucleus). They divide
by Binary Fission
Eg. Bacterium cell and Virus

▪ Cytoplasm – internal fluid component of the cell

▪ Nucleoid/Naked DNA – region of the cytoplasm where the
DNA is located
▪ 70’s Ribosmes - responsible for polypeptide synthesis
▪ Cell/Plasma membrane – Semi-permeable/barrier
surrounding the cell
▪ Cell wall – rigid outer covering used for shape and
protection from outbursting Prokaryotic Cell Diagram
▪ Flagella – Long projections that enables movement
▪ Pili – Hair-like extensions that enable surface attachment and bacterial conjugation

Eukaryotic Cell Structure & Components

Eukaryotes – cells that has a complex cell structure (has nucleus).
Organelles – compartmentalized structures that consists of different functions and move inside
the cell
Eg.Plant Cell & Animal Cell

Plant Cell & Animal Cell Structures

▪ 80’s Ribosomes - responsible for polypeptide synthesis
▪ Cell/Plasma membrane – Semi-permeable/barrier surrounding the cell
▪ Nucleus – double membrane organelle that stores genetic information (DNA)
▪ Endoplasmic Reticulum -Transports materials between organelles (smooth ER = transports
lipids , rough ER = transports proteins)
▪ Golgi Apparatus – Folded membranes that involves in sorting and exporting products in the
cell
▪ Mitochondria – Site of aerobic respiration and responsible for ATP Production
▪ Lysosome – Involves Breakdown / hydrolysis of macromolecules

Only Plant Cell Structures

▪ Chloroplast – Double Membrane with internal stacks (thylakoid). It is the Site of
photosynthesis
▪ Vacuole – A fluid like structure that maintains pressure within the plant cell

Eukaryotic Cell Diagram (Animal) Eukaryotic Cell Diagram (Plant)

 1.3) Membrane Structure
Phospholipid Structure
Hydrophilic – substances attracted to water (polar substances)
Hydrophobic – substances repelled by water (Non polar substances)

Amphipathic Property - consists of Phosphate head (hydrophilic) and 2

hydrocarbon tails (hydrophobic). It is arranged into a bilayer that forms
cell membrane and makes it fluid/dynamic

Cell Membrane Models

DAVSON DANIELLI MODEL FLUID MOSAIC MODEL

In Magnification, membranes appeared as 2 dark They used freezing fracturing that rapidly freezes cells
parallel lines (protein) with light colored region and then fracturing them. Bilayer are split at the middle
(phospholipid membrane).
This is contrary to the Davson-Danielli model. The new
They assumed there’s protein coat in outer surface and model consists of phospholipids membrane with
phospholipid bilayer cholesterol and protein between the phospholipids

Membrane Proteins
Membrane Proteins – proteins that are diverse in terms of structure and it’s position in the
membrane.
➢ Junctions – functions to connect/join the cells together (stabilizes the phospholipid)
➢ Enzymes – responsible for metabolic pathways and chemical reactions
➢ Transport – useful for transporting ions/particles through protein pumps in facilitated
diffusion and active transport
➢ Recognition – functions in identifying cellular identification and receptors
➢ Anchorage – Attachment points
➢ Transduction – functions as receptors for hormones and nerve cells

Cholesterol
Cholesterol - a component of animal cell membranes, that functions in maintaining phospholipid
mechanical stability. It prevents them crystallizing and behaving as a solid.

Hydrocarbon tails behaves like a liquid whereas the phosphate heads behaves like a solid.

If too fluid = less able to control of what substances pass through. If not fluid enough =
movement of cell & substances is restricted. It’s essential to control fluidity
 1.4) Membrane Transport

Passive Transport (Diffusion)

Diffusion - the net movement of molecules from a region of high concentration to a region of
low concentration

Cell membranes could be semi permeable (only certain substances can pass) or selective
(membrane that regulates internal passage)
SIMPLE DIFFUSION FACILITATED DIFFUSION

Simple Diffusion - involves particles passing between the Facilitated Diffusion - involves particles passing between
phospholipid membrane directly (only if permeable) the phospholipid membrane through membrane protein
channels
It’s for small & Non-Polar molecules. No need of energy
(ATP). Moves from high concentration to low It’s for small & Polar molecules. No need of energy (ATP).
concentration. Moves from high concentration to low concentration.

Active Transport (Diffusion)

Active Transport – involves the use of energy (ATP) to move molecules against a concentration
gradient. Particle passes through the integral protein pumps (obtains energy from ATP)

It’s for small & Non-Polar molecules. Needs Energy (ATP). Moves from high concentration to
low concentration.

Osmosis
Osmosis – occurs there is a partially permeable cell membrane. It involves moving of water cells
inside and outside of cells freely.
Osmolarity - a measure of solute concentration in a cell

It’s only for water molecules. No Need Energy. Moves from low
concentration to high concentration.
➢ Hypertonic Solution: High osmolarity (concentration) in
which water molecules enters the cells
➢ Isotonic Solution: Same osmolarity (concentration) no change in water flow
➢ Hypotonic Solution: Low osmolarity (concentration) in which water leaves the cells
causing rupture of cells

Vesicular Transport (Exocytosis & Endocytosis)

Phospholipid membrane is generally held together by weak bonds that
may cause bilayer reformation

Endocytosis – process where large substances enter inside the

cell/plasma membrane. Vesicles are formed inside the membrane
Exocytosis – process where large substances exit the cell/plasma
membrane. Vesicles fuse with plasma membrane to release the
ions/particles outside
 1.5) Origins of Cells
Louis Pasteur Experiment
Louis Pasteur Experiment - an experiment to test whether sterile nutrient broth could
spontaneously generate microbial life

He added nutrient broth to flask, heat it up (to kill any microorganisms) and break off the neck.
The nutrient broth was exposed to air in flask 1 where it remained cloudy in flask 2.
Conclusion: Pasteur rejected the hypothesis of spontaneous generation as for growth of
microbes. He verified the cell theory that “cells arise from pre-existing cells”

Origins of Cells
It is being said that first forms of living cells arose from non-living matter. It is composed of
Carbon, Nitrogen, Hydrogen, Oxygen.

1. PRODUCTION OF CARBON COMPOUNDS 2. ASSEMBLY OF CARBON COMPOUNDS INTO

POLYMERS
The Miller-Urey experiment replicated the conditions of
inorganic compounds in order to synthesize organic Deep sea thermal vents like volcanoes. With large amount
molecules of heat energy, it supplies inorganic chemicals into
atmosphere.
There was non-living synthesis of simple organic
molecules from inorganic compounds. Vents provide the right conditions and chemicals to allow
organic polymers to arise

3. FORMATION OF MEMBRANES 4. DEVELOPMENT AS A MECHANISM FOR

INHERITANCE
With the development of plasma membrane, it allowed
the formation of bilayers and amphipathic compounds First life forms was self-replicating RNA. It can both
store information and self-replicate (make copies)

Endosymbiosis
Endosymbiosis – a theory in explaining the evolution of eukaryotic cells that evolved from
prokaryotic cells.

Larger prokaryotes that could only respire anaerobically took them in by endocytosis. Instead of
killing/digesting the prokaryotes, they allowed them to live in their cytoplasm by engulfing them.

Over generations, the engulfed cell developed overtime to become a supplemental organelle.
 1.6) Cell Division

Mitosis/Cell Division
Mitosis - refers to the division of the nucleus into producing 2 genetically identical daughter
nuclei.
Cells divide for growth, replacing damaged tissue for repairs and useful for sexual reproduction.

Cell Cycle
Cell Cycle – it’s the series of events through which cells passes to divide
for mitosis division process to create 2 identical daughter cells.

Cells can be in cycle continuously, cells may temporarily stop cell

division, entering G0 phase for a rest

Interphase
Interphase – it is the longest period in cell cycle. During this period, they
are preparing for cell division
➢ G1: Increases cytoplasm volume, organelles produced, and proteins synthesized
➢ Synthesis (S Phase): DNA replication process (to produce 2nd copy of DNA for mitosis)
➢ G2: Increases cytoplasm volume, organelles produced, proteins synthesized and double
check of DNA

Mitosis Cell Process

PROKARYOTIC CELL DIVISION EUKARYOTIC CELL DIVISION

Binary Fission - a form of asexual reproduction or cell 1. Prophase: Chromosomes decondense, nuclear
division by prokaryotic cells membrane dissolves. Centrosomes moves to opposite
poles that releases microtubules spindle fibers
1. Circular DNA is replicated to produce 2 copies of 2. Metaphase: Microtubule spindle fibers connect to
chromosomes chromosomes centrosome (center). Chromosomes are
2. Chromosomes moves to opposite end poles of the aligned at equator and center of the cell
cells 3. Anaphase: Spindle fibers pulls the chromatids
3. Division of the cytoplasm of the cell quickly follows rapidly to opposite poles of cells. Mitosis produces
so each cell contains 1 copy of chromosomes two genetically identical nuclei
(genetically identical) 4. Telophase: Chromosomes decondense, nuclear
membrane reforms at each chromosome set
5. Cytokinesis: Division of cytoplasm after mitosis
process. As a result, there’s 2 genetically identical
cells/chromosomes produced
Plant & Animal Cell Division
Animal Cells: After Anaphase, microtubules form a concentric
ring and contract towards the centre by the cleveage furrow that
causes separation of animal cells (centripetal)

Plant Cells: After Anaphase, vesicles combine together to form a

row at the center of plant cell. The cell plate extends outwards and
fuses with the cell wall that causes separation of plant cells
(centrifugal)

Cyclins
Cyclins – a group of proteins are used to ensure that tasks are performed at the correct time to
move to next stage in cell cycle.

Cyclins activate cyclin dependent kinases (CDKs), which control cell cycle processes through
phosphorylation

Mitotic Index
Mitotic Index – a measure/ration of how many cells are undergoing
cell division to total number of cells present

The mitotic index may be elevated during processes that promote

division, such as normal growth or cellular repair

Number of cells in mitosis

Mitotic Index =
Total number of cells
High mitotic index indicates higher growth of roots. If too high, there could be a sign of
developing tumors

Tumours and Cancers

Tumours - abnormal cell growths resulting from uncontrolled cell division and can occur in any
tissue or organ
Cancer – a disease caused by the growth of tumours in our body and spreads throughout the
body by proliferation (metastasis)

Mutagens - an agent that changes the genetic material of an organism (acts on the DNA). It may
be caused by X-Ray radiation, Viruses, UV, Smoking, etc
Oncogenes - is a gene that has the potential in forming cancer (carcinogens) via gene mutation.
When oncogenes are involved in the cell cycle, it will go out of control.

The risk of lung cancer is strongly correlated with smoking, with ~90% of lung cancers
attributable to tobacco use and cigarettes.
 BIOLOGY UNIT 2 –
MOLECULAR BIOLOGY

Study Guide
 2.1) Molecules to Metabolism
Metabolism
Metabolism - enzymes and web of chemicals reactions that takes place in an organism or a cell.
• Anabolism: Synthesis of simpler molecules into complex molecules (via condensation)
• Catabolism: Breakdown of complex molecules into simpler molecules (via hydrolysis)

Theory of Vitalism
Vitalism – a theory/statement that organic molecules could only be synthesized from living
system
The artificial synthesis of urea – theory that falsified theory of vitalism, Origins of organic
compounds can only be made with help of ‘vital principle’ or from inorganic compounds.

Molecular Group Names

Carbon & Organic Compounds

Carbon atoms can form 4 bonds allowing a diversity of compounds to exist.
The diversity of carbon compounds is explained by the properties of carbon.
▪ Life based on carbon compounds include: Carbohydrates, Lipids, Proteins, Nucleic Acid
▪ They are composed of carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen and oxygen only.

1. Carbohydrates (acts as source 2. Lipids (acts as long term energy store)

of energy)
Hydrophobic unbranched molecules existing in variety
Glucose Formula: C6H12O6 of forms (Saturated & Unsaturated)
It is a 6 membered ring with a side
chain. 5 Carbon atoms from a ring Carbon atoms are single bonded to 2 hydrogen atoms
and 6th carbon at side chain (middle). 1 end is carboxyl group and other is methyl

Alpha Glucose: OH group is downward at Carbon 1

Beta Glucose: OH group is upward at Carbon 1

3. Proteins (may involve in various roles and 4. Nucleic Acid (the genetic material of
structural functions) cells/organisms)

Proteins units are amino acids. Ribose Formula: C5H10O5

There’s carbon atom in middle. It is bonded to amine It is a 5 membered ring with a side
group, carboxyl group, hydrogen atom and R group chain. 4 Carbon atoms from a ring
and 5th carbon at side chain

DNA: H atom bottom of Carbon 2

RNA: OH group bottom of Carbon 2
2.2) Water

Water Structure
Water structure - made up of 2 hydrogen atoms and 1 oxygen atom via covalent bond and polar
molecule (molecular formula = H2O)
Hydrogen and Oxygen bond is unequal due to weak bonds and slight charge difference.

The oxygen atom is slightly negative (δ–) while the hydrogen atoms are slightly positive (δ+)

Hydrogen Bonding
Water can form hydrogen bonds with other water molecules.
• Cohesive Properties: Binding together of 2 same molecules type (water –
water) due to hydrogen bonding (eg. water flow in Xylem of trees)
• Adhesive Properties: Formation of hydrogen bonds between water and other
polar molecules causing water to stick. (eg. water droplets on top of leaves)
• Solvent Property: Substances could dissolve in water to keep them in solution
(Hydrogen is attracted to negative pole. Oxygen is attracted to positive pole)

Thermal Properties
Water has the capacity to absorb significant amounts of heat before changing state due to
abundant number of hydrogen bonds existing.
➢ High Specific Heat Capacity – It absorbs lot of thermal/heat energy through raising
temperature of 1g by 1ºC in order to break hydrogen bonds within water.
➢ High Latent Heat of Vaporization – When there’s high heat, water molecules
vaporizes/evaporates. Water has high coolant effect in our body (sweat in body due to
heat absorption)
➢ High boiling point - It requires a lot of heat typically for water to reach a liquid state.
(Water Boiling Point = 100 C)

Solvent Properties
Water is commonly referred to as the universal solvent due to its capacity to dissolve a large
number of substances (ionic / polar)
• Hydrophilic: substances that can dissolve in water. Eg. Sugar, Salt, others
• Hydrophobic: substances that can’t mix with water (repels with water). Eg. Fats & oil

These solvent properties make water an important medium for metabolic reactions, as well as a
necessary transport medium

Water VS Methane
Water and methane differ in thermal properties despite having
similar structures. This differences are due to water polarity and
its capacity to form intermolecular hydrogen bonds
 2.3) Carbohydrates and Lipids

Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates are diverse group of compounds. It’s divided according to the number of sugar
units.

➢ Monosaccharide – single sugar units (Glucose, Fructose, Galactose)

➢ Disaccharide - consist of two monosaccharides linked together via condensation
o Maltose = glucose + glucose
o Lactose = glucose + galactose
o Sucrose = glucose + fructose
➢ Polysaccharide - consist of many monosaccharides together. (Starch, Cellulose, Glycogen)

Function: Stores energy in the form of glucose in humans, plants and animals

Condensation & Hydrolysis

Condensation – a process where hydrogen and oxygen are removed from monosaccharides to
form water and disaccharide bond
Hydrolysis – water is broken down inro hydrogen and oxygen. It returns to original place in
monosaccharide

Polysaccharides
STARCH GLYCOGEN

It is composed of α-glucose subunits It is similar to amylopectin (starch) but more of a

• Amylose – straight chain with 1-4 arrangement and branched molecule of α-glucose subunits
bonding
• Amylopectin – branched chain with 1-6 It’s formed and made in animal’s liver
arrangement and bonding
Function: stores energy in the form of glucose in
Function: stores energy in the form of glucose muscles (humans)

CELLULOSE

It is similar to amylose (starch) of unbranched chains. It is composed of α-glucose

subunits
It forms bundles with Hydrogen Bonds

Function: High Tensile Strength and prevents plant cells from bursting at high
pressures.
 Lipids & Triglycerides
Lipids are diverse group of carbon compounds that share the property of being insoluble in water.
It’s divided mainly into triglycerides, fatty acids, and sterols groups.
Function: Lipids is used for long term energy storage.

Triglycerides - made by combining three fatty acids with one glycerol. Each fatty acid is linked
to glycerol so there’s 3 water molecules produced
Function: stored in adipose tissue and used as heat insulator among mammals

Fatty Acids
Fatty acids can be regarded as a hydrocarbon chain. 1 end is bonded to carboxyl group where
another end is methyl group.

Most of the fatty acids have between 14 and 20 carbon atoms.

SATURATED FATS UNSATURATED FATS

Saturated Fatty Acid - Fatty acid with carbonbonded Unsaturated Fatty Acid - Fatty acid with 1 or more
to hydrogen atoms (single bond) carbon double bonded hydrogen atoms.

Cis-Fats: Hydrogen atoms

that are on the same side of
the carbon atom
Trans-Fat: Hydrogen
atoms that are on opposite
sides of the carbon atom

Health Risks of Fatty Acids (Saturated & Trans-Unsaturated Fats)

Coronary heart disease (CHD) – a disease which coronary arteries become partially blocked by
fatty deposits, leading to blood clot formation and heart attack.

A positive correlation has been found between saturated fatty acid

and trans unsaturated fats contributes to heart attack.

Patients who had died from CHD showed high concentration and levels
of fatty deposits.

BMI
BMI - body mass index that is used to calculate the ratio of weight to person’s height
Person′ s Mass (kg)
BMI = (Height in meters)2
Units: kg m-2
2.4) Proteins
Amino Acids
Amino Acids - Proteins are comprised of long chains of recurring monomers.Amino acids are
linked together to form wide range of 20 possible polypeptide synthesized (via condensation)

Polypeptides (one or more) with certain structure will be regarded as a protein of 3D

conformation structure by amino acid sequence

Structure: There’s carbon atom in middle. It is bonded to amine group, carboxyl group, hydrogen
atom and R group

Peptide Bonds (Amino Acids to Polypeptides)

Peptide Bond - It involves a condensation reaction which a new bond is formed
between amino acids (water is eliminated)
➢ Dipeptide bond - a molecule of 2 amino acids linked by a peptide bond
➢ Polypeptide bond - a molecule of many amino acids linked by peptide bonds

Protein Structure
Primary: Amino Acid Sequence that’s formed by peptide
bonds
Secondary: Folding of peptide bonds by Hydrogen Bonds
Tertiary: 3D arrangement of polypeptide determined by
amino acid interaction

Denaturation
Denaturation - a structural change in a protein that results in the loss (usually
permanent) of its biological properties.

Denatured protein happens due to weak bond and high thermal energy
between amino acids. It begins to unfold and doesn’t return to its formal
structure
It could be affected by high temperature and extreme pH value

Proteome & Protein Functions

Proteome – the totality of the proteins produced by a cell, a tissue or an organism.
Function: Involve in various roles and structural functions in an organism
➢ Collagen: Structural, it provides high tensile strength in our muscle cells
➢ Spider Silk: Structural, involves strong and tough silk to resist breaking
➢ Insulin: Hormone, produced by pancreas to reduce blood glucose/sugar level
➢ Immunoglobin: Immunity, secretes antibodies for immune system for our body
➢ Hemoglobin: Transport, it transports protein in red blood cell throughout our body
➢ Rhodopsin: Sensation, A pigment in retina to absorb/detect light
➢ Actin (Thin) & Myosin (Thick): Movement, filaments involved in muscle fiber
contraction
➢ Rubisco: Enzyme, an enzyme that involves in photosynthesis process
2.5) Enzymes
Enzymes & Enzyme Mechanism
Enzymes - globular proteins that work as catalysts that speeds up biochemical reaction in cells.
Substrate - substances that enzymes convert into products in these reactions

Active site - the region on the surface of the enzyme which binds to the substrate molecule

Enzyme Substrate Specificity - Enzyme has an active site to

which specific kind of substrate it binds in the active site (specific
shape).
1) Substrate binds to the active site.
2) When bound together, it changes into different chemical
reaction (products of reaction)
3) The products separate and leaves from the active sitefor
substrates to bind again.

Enzyme Activity
Enzyme catalysis involves random molecular motionof substrates with the active site (in liquid,
molecules move faster)
Collision - The coming together of a substrate molecule and an active site

Successful collisions are ones in which the substrate and active site are correctly aligned to allow
binding to take place.

Factors affecting Enzyme activity

1. Temperature: Increasing temperature increasesspeed &motion of enzymes resulting in
frequent collisions = more enzyme activity (high kinetic energy). At optimal temperature (37
C) it peaks, Higher temperatures causes instability of enzymes and denatures permanently.
2. pH: Changing the pH alter enzymes change, protein solubility and overall shape. Enzymes
has an optimal pH (pH of 7) and moving outside the range decreases enzyme activity.
3. Substrate Concentration: increasing substrate concentration leads to more enzyme activity
and binding to active site. At certain point, increasing concentration doesn’t affect enzyme
reaction rate due to being saturated.

Immobilized Enzymes & Lactose free milk

Immobilized Enzymes - enzymes with restricted movement within a region. Immobilized
enzymes are widely used in industries.
• Enzymes can be easily separated from products of reaction. Enzymes can be recycled
(cost savings)
• Immobilization increases enzyme stability to temperature, pH changes. Substrates can be
exposed to higher enzyme concentrations (speeds up chemical reactions)

Lactose Free Milk: Lactose can be converted back to glucose + galactose by lactase enzyme.
The milk passes through beads, and lactose is broken down during the beads. After filtration, the
milk collected is lactose free milk
2.6) Structure of DNA & RNA
Nucleic Acids & Nucleotides
Nucleic Acids - The genetic code containing the information that’s found
in all organisms. They are polymers called polynucleotides
2 Types: Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and Ribonucleic acid (RNA).

Nucleotides - Each polynucleotide made of monomers (consists of Nitrogenous Base,

Pentose/Ribose Sugar, Phosphate Group)

DNA Structure (Nucleotides to nucleic acids)

Adjacent nucleotides are joined by covalent bonds that form between the — OHgroup on the 3’
carbon of one nucleotide and the phosphate on the 5’ carbon.

Two polynucleotide chains of DNA are

held together via hydrogen
bonding between complementary
nitrogenous bases.
Adenine (A) pairing with Thymine (T)
= double hydrogen bond.
Guanine (G) pairing with Cytosine (C)
= triple hydrogen bond.

2 DNA Strands are anti-parallel

Watson & Crick Model (Structure of DNA)

Crick and Watson used model making and brought other people’s experimental results to
discover the structure of DNA
➢ Watson and Crick assumed the DNA is a double helix with 2 anti-parallel strands
➢ Parallel strands held together by hydrogen bonds based on complementary base pairing
(A to T, G to C)

DNA Vs RNA Structure

DNA and RNA are both polymers of nucleotides, however differ
in a few key structural aspects (Type of sugar, nitrogenous bases
and strand numbers)

RNA Structure: Adenine (A) pairs with Uracil (U) in nitrogenous

base. It is a single strand
2.7) DNA Replication, Transcription & Translation
DNA Replication & Semi Conservative
DNA Replication – process of creating/synthesizing new DNA copies from existing DNA
sequence

1. To replicate the DNA/Chromosomes, hydrogen bonds

between the pairs must be broken
2. Helicase – enzyme that unwinds the DNA double helix
into 2 separate strands
3. DNA Polymerase - an enzyme that links nucleotides via
complementary base (A – T, C – G) pairing after the
unzipping, using existing template strand to create new
synthesized strand
4. DNA Strand resulting from transcription has identical
sequence to existing DNA strand

Semi Conservative model - each new synthesized strand is inherited from the existing strand via
base pairing

Meselson & Stahl’s experiment

Meselson and Stahl experiment - an experiment to prove the DNA semi conservative model.
They did this by using nitrogen isotopes (Light N14 & Heavy N15) and these DNA was separated
via centrifugation

Result: After one division, some DNA molecules had mix of 15N and 14N (contradicts
conservative model) and some only N14 (contradicts dispersive model)

Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR)

Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) – an artificial method of replicating DNA under laboratory
conditions that is used to amplify (make copies) of a DNA sequence

Each reaction doubles the amount of DNA. Large number of copies can be made
➢ Denaturing: High Temperatures causes DNA strands to separate
➢ Annealing: Low Temperatures causes DNA primers to bind
➢ Elongation/Extending: Medium or optimal temperature for DNA strands binding

Taq Polymerase – an enzyme involving in PCR reactions that only works at optimal
temperature
Transcription
Transcription – process of creating/synthesizing mRNA copies from existing DNA sequence

1. Hydrogen bonds between the pairs must be broken

2. A segment of DNA is opened to use it as existing strand
3. RNA Polymerase – enzyme that links nucleotides via
complementary base (A – T/U, C – G) pairing using
existing template strand to create new synthesized strand
4. RNA strand resulting from transcription has identical
sequence to DNA but only differs by few bases
5. RNA strand leaves through the nuclear pores

Translation
Translation – process or creating/synthesizing polypeptides on ribosome

1. Ribosome interprets/scans the mRNA sequence to determine

what proteins are released in cytoplasm
2. Sequence of amino acid is determined by mRNA nucleotides
3. Codons – a group of 3 bases of mRNA strand.
Anti-codon – a group of 3 bases on tRNA strand
complementary to the bases on mRNA strand
4. These anti-codons or codons corresponds to 1 amino acid in a
polypeptide chain based on the genetic code
5. Resulting amino acids on a polypeptide chain is released into
the cytoplasm

Polypeptide synthesis starts at codon (AUG) and completes when the ribosome reaches a STOP
codon

Genetic Code & Universality

Genetic code – the set of rules by which the information is
encoded within the mRNA sequence that’s converted into amino
acid sequence

Using the genetic code, we can determine which codons

corresponds to which amino acid. There could be 20 different ways
in which amino acids are synthesized
 2.8) Cell Respiration
Cell Respiration
Cell Respiration – the controlled release of energy from organic compounds (glucose, lipids,
proteins) to produce ATP
Organic compounds are broken down to release energy used by the cell:
➢ Energy from cell respiration can be used in synthesizing large molecules
➢ Active transport on the cell membrane and moving things around inside the cell

ATP
ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate) - a high energy molecule that functions as an immediate source
of power for cell processes
When ATP is hydrolyzed to form ADP, energy is released to be used in cell

Glycolysis
Glycolysis - break down of glucose molecule that starts the cell respiration process.

Glucose is broken down into pyruvate (×2). There is a small ATP yield (net gain = 2 ATP) and.
requires the reduction of NAD+ (to form NADH)

Aerobic & Anaerobic Respiration

AEROBIC RESPIRATION (In Mitochondria) ANAEROBIC RESPIRATION (In Cytoplasm)

Aerobic Respiration – cell respiration that requires with Anaerobic Cell Respiration – cell respiration without the
the presence of oxygen molecule need of oxygen molecule

If oxygen is available to cells, glucose can be fully broken Yield of ATP is small, but it produced rapid burst of ATP.
down to release a greater quantity of energy around 30 It is useful when there’s lack of oxygen in the
ATP per glucose environment for cells and the need of ATP energy.

Fermentation
Fermentation - reversible anaerobic process allowing ATP production with absence of oxygen.
➢ Humans/Animals: It produces lactic acid that’s used in muscle contraction when oxygen
is limited
➢ Plants/Yeast: It produces ethanol and CO2 that’s used in making of bread, cheese, etc.

Respirometer
Respirometer - device that determines an organism’s respiration rate in
a sealed container through measuring O2 and CO2 exchange rate
(commonly used for invertebrates or seeds)

Pressure change can be measured via U-Tube manometer.

Alkali (like KOH solution) is used to absorb CO2 and measure O2. Rate
Oxygen uptake creates a pressure change which displaces the fluid in the
manometer
 2.9) Photosynthesis
Photosynthesis
Photosynthesis - the production of carbon compounds in cells using light energy to synthesize
organic molecules (glucose + oxygen) from inorganic molecules (CO2 + water)
Photolysis – water molecule is split up by light energy to produce oxygen and hydrogen

It takes place in chloroplast and light is being absorbed by pigment in

thylakoid

Light Absorption
Visible light has a range of wavelengths (400 – 700 nm). Violet has the
shortest wavelength, red has the longest. Pigment color decides what
wavelength it can’t absorb well

Green pigment can’t absorb green light efficiently. These pigments absorb
red and blue light efficiently.

Production of organic compounds

Energy is needed to split molecules and carbon dioxide to produce glucose and other carbon
compounds.
LIGHT DEPENDENT REACTION LIGHT INDEPENDENT REACTION

Light Dependent Reaction – converts light energy Light Independent Reaction – uses chemical energy
(sunlight) into chemical energy like ATP (ATP) to produce organic compounds

Water molecule is split up by light energy to produce ➢ ATP provides energy to produce glucose and other
oxygen (product) and hydrogen carbon compounds from carbon dioxide
➢ Hydrogen (NADPH) is combined with CO2 to form
into complex organic compounds

Effect of Photosynthesis (Oxygenation of Earth)

Prokaryotes were first organisms to perform photosynthesis, about 3,500 million years ago.

One consequence of photosynthesis is rise in the oxygen concentration of the atmosphere. That
increased in oxygen concentrations in oceans, atmosphere, and in life.

Increased O2 concentrations caused oxidation of dissolved iron in water that created oceanic
deposits and iron layer on land
Limiting Factors
Limiting Factor - when a chemical process depends on more than one essential condition rate of
reaction will be limited by the factor
➢ Temperature: Controlled by enzymes. Increasing temperature = more photosynthetic
rate (high kinetic energy). At optimal temperature (37 C) it peaks, Higher temperatures
causes photosynthetic rate to decrease due to enzyme denaturation.
➢ Light Intensity: Light is absorbed by chlorophyll converting in ATP. As light intensity
increases = increased reaction rate. At a certain rate, it plateaus due to chlorophyll being
saturated
➢ CO2 concentration: Involves in carbon fixation to form organic molecules. CO2
concentration increases = reaction rate increases due to more organic molecules produced.
At a certain concentration, it plateaus due to enzymes being saturated

Chromatography
Chromatography – a technique in which pigments can be separated by using a paper or thin
layer chromatography

A mixture is dissolved in a fluid and passed through a static material. Different components of
the mixture travel at different speeds, causing them to separate.

Distanced Travelled by solute (pigment)

Rf Value = (It ranges between 0 to 1)
Distance travelled by solvent (liquid)
BIOLOGY UNIT 3 –
GENETICS

Study Guide
3.1) Genes
Genes, Alleles
DNA is the genetic blueprint which codes and determines the physical, behavioral characteristics
of an organism.

Gene – a heritable factor that consists of a segment of DNA that encodes for a specific trait
Locus - gene occupation at a specific position of a particular chromosome

Alleles – alternative forms of a gene that codes for

different variation of a trait.
Alleles differ from each other by 1 or few bases
(possesses similar gene sequence)

Gene Mutation
Gene Mutation - a change in the nucleotide sequence of a section of DNA coding for a specific
trait. New alleles are formed by mutation (it can be beneficial, neutral or detrimental)

Base substitution (eg. ATG into ACG), Base insertion (eg. ATG into ATCG), base inversion (eg.
ATG into AGT)
Base substitutions create either silent, missense or nonsense mutations.
Insertions &deletions cause frameshift mutations

Genome & Gene Comparison

Genome - The totality of genetic information of a cell or organism that includes all genes and
non-coding DNA sequence

The Human Genome Project started in 1990 - 2003 and mapped the entire base sequence of
human genes. Human Genome: 46 chromosomes, 3 billion base pairs and 21000 genes

Sickle Cell Anemia

Sickle Cell Anemia – a disorder cause by gene mutation due to base substitution of the
hemoglobin

Sickle cell anaemia results from a change to the 6th codon for the beta chain of haemoglobin
(DNA: GAG to GTC, Amino Acid: Glutamic to Valine)

Amino acid change alters red blood cell structure & hemoglobin
that can’t carry oxygen effectively and forming clots/blockages
 3.2) Chromosomes
Prokaryotic & Eukaryotic Chromosomes
PROKARYOTIC (no DNA in nucleus: Naked DNA) EUKARYOTIC (DNA in nucleus)

Consists of single chromosome DNA molecules. Consists of multiple chromosomes DNA molecules
Genetic material is circular in shape Genetic material is linear in shape
Plasmids – extra circular DNA molecules that’s Histone proteins – proteins that results in compact
capable of self replication and exchange (conjugation) structure and more efficient storage

Homologous Chromosomes
Homologous chromosomes – pair of chromosomes that’s inherits genes from
both parents in sexually reproducing organs. These organisms produce 2 copies of
each chromosome

Homologous chromosomes have identical structural features (same size, same

banding, same position) and same sequence of genes.

Haploid VS Diploid
Haploid (n) – organisms only possess 1 chromosome and single copy for
each trait (reproducing organisms only passes half of genes to offspring)
Diploid (2n) – organisms that possess 2 chromosomes and 2 gene copies for
each trait (organisms inherit from both parents)

When 2 gametes fuse together in the sex cells, it forms into a diploid (embryo)

Sex Chromosomes
Sex Chromosomes – a pair of chromosomes that determines the sex of an organisms. Humans
have 23 pairs of chromosomes (22 autosomes pairs & 1 sex chromosome pairs)
➢ Female: possess 2X chromosome (XX).
➢ Male: possess 1X chromosome and 1Y chromosome (XY)

Autosomes – remaining chromosomes that doesn’t determine sex

Karyogram & Karyotyping

Karyogram – a visual chart/diagram that shows homologous chromosomes in decreasing length
Karyotyping – a method of determining the number and types of chromosomes in a cell

It is also used to determine the gender of the unborn child and test for chromosome abnormalities
(via Chronic Villi Sampling at placenta or Amniocentesis at pregnant mother)

Autoradiography
Autoradiography – a technique for measuring DNA molecule length while uncoiled.
Radioactive thymidine is implemented to cell’s DNA. Chromosomes were fixed to photographic
surface by using Silver Bromide.
Radiation converts silver ions into insoluble grains, making it visible under electron microscope.
 3.3) Meiosis
Meiosis
Meiosis – refers to the division of nucleus (or diploid) into 4 genetically distinct haploid nuclei
It is the process by which sex cells (gametes) are made in the reproductive organs.

DNA is replicated before meiosis in order for chromosomes to have 2 sister chromatids or copies

Meiosis Stage
It consists of 2 meiosis division. Meiosis I – separation of homologous chromosomes,
Meiosis II – separation of sister chromatids. (It follows same process as Mitosis)

MEIOSIS I MEIOSIS II

1. Prophase I: Chromosomes decondense, nuclear 1. Prophase II: Chromosomes decondense, nuclear

membrane dissolves. Homologous chromosomes form membrane dissolves. Centrosomes moves to opposite
bivalents (crossing over) poles that releases microtubules spindle fibers
2. Metaphase I: Microtubule spindle fibers connect to 2. Metaphase II: Microtubule spindle fibers connect to
bivalents. Homologous Chromosomes are aligned at chromosomes centrosome (center). Chromosomes are
equator and center of the cell aligned at equator and center of the cell
3. Anaphase I: Spindle fibers pulls homologous 3. Anaphase II: Spindle fibers pulls the sister
chromosomes rapidly to opposite poles of cells. chromatids rapidly to opposite poles of cells.
4. Telophase I: Chromosomes decondense, nuclear 4. Telophase II: Chromosomes decondense, nuclear
membrane reforms at each chromosome set. membrane reforms at each chromatids.

Division of cytoplasm after meiosis I. As a result, Division of cytoplasm after meiosis II. As a result,
there’s 2 genetically identical haploid cells. there’s 4 genetically identical haploid cells.

Meiosis Process Diagram

 Genetic Variation & Exchange
CROSSING OVER RANDOM ASSORTMENT

Crossing Over – involves exchange of genetic Random Assortment – the orientation of homologous
material & DNA during Prophase I (Recombinant) chromosomes during Metaphase I & Anaphase I
Chiasmata – the site where exchange of genetic Orientation of chromosomes is random. It depends on
material occurs between non-sister chromatids whether it has maternal or paternal copy.

Offspring will have unique gene combination and Maternal could be left, Paternal could be right
different from parents Maternal could be right, Paternal could be left

Sexual Life Cycle

Sexual Life Cycle – refers to halving of chromosome
number allowing fusion of gametes through meiosis and
mitosis.

To reproduce, organisms need to make gametes (1 copy of

each chromosome). Fusing of 2 haploid gametes of mother
& father’s genes results in formation of zygote.

Non-Disjunction
Non-Disjunction - refers to chromosomes failing to
separate, resulting in gametes with extra or missing
chromosomes
Failure of chromosome separation may happen during
Anaphase I or Anaphase II.

Down Syndrome/Trisomy 21 – a disorder of individuals

who has 3 copies of chromosomes on 21st chromosome
position.
If a gamete with an extra chromosome fuse with a normal
gamete, the resulting zygote will have three copies
3.4) Inheritance
Mendel’s law
Mendel was a scientist that discovered the principle of inheritance with pea plant experiments in
which large pea plants were crossed
➢ Gametes contain only one allele of each gene (haploid). Parents contribute equally to
inheritance through fusing one version of the gene each (alleles).
➢ Organisms have heritable factors (genes) inherited from parents.
➢ Fusion of gametes results in zygotes with two alleles of each gene (diploid).
➢ One version is dominant over another and will be completely expressed if present.

Homozygous v.s. Heterozygous

Homozygous – When the maternal & paternal alleles are same, offspring
also has same genes.
Heterozygous – When the maternal & paternal alleles are different,
offspring has different genes.
Hemizygous – Only 1 Allele (eg. X/Y chromosome in males)

Modes of Inheritance
Genotype – the gene composition or allele combination for a specific trait
Phenotype – observable characteristics (physical expression) of a specific trait. It is determined
by genotype and environmental influences

Dominant - an allele that’s expressed when present (e.g. P). This allele will be expressed over
and dominates the other (Heterozygous)
Recessive – an allele that’s expressed when there’s no dominant allele present (e.g. p)
(Homozygous)
Codominant – both alleles that are equally expressed in the phenotype of heterozygous allele.

Blood Groups
A group allele = IA (codominant)
B group allele = IB (codominant)
O group allele = i (recessive)
Punnett Squares
Punnett Square – a monohybrid cross that determines the
allele combinations for potential offspring for that particular
gene.
1. Designate letters to represent alleles (dominant = capital
letter ; recessive = lower case ; co-dominant = superscript)
2. Write down the genotype and phenotype of the
prospective parents gametes (F1 generation)
3. Draw a grid with maternal gametes along the top and
paternal gametes along the left
4. Complete the Punnett grid to determine potential
genotypes and phenotypes chances of offspring (F2
generation)

Pedigree Chart & Autosomal Inheritance

Pedigree Chart - a chart of the genetic history of a family over
several generations.
Male are squares & female are squares (shaded – person with
this condition, no shading – person without this condition)

Autosomal Dominant – both heterozygous parents are affected

by trait, but offspring is not affected
Autosomal Recessive – both heterozygous parents are
unaffected by trait but offspring is affected

Sex Linked Traits

Sex Linkage - refers to a gene controlling a characteristic located on sex chromosome (X or Y)
➢ Males has higher rate of X-linked recessive condition (hemizygous alleles)
➢ Females can be carriers (pass genes to offspring but doesn’t have it) of X-linked
recessive condition (Homozygous or Heterozygous)
XHXh – female carrier
Recessive: Affected mothers must have affected sons XhY – male with condition
Dominant: Affected fathers must have affected daughters
H – dominant allele, h – recessive allele
Genetic Diseases
Genetic Diseases – diseases that’s caused by mutation to a gene that alters normal cell function
and leading to diseases (Radiation and Mutagenic chemicals increase mutation rate)

Autosomal Recessive Disease: occurs if there’s both faulty alleles

Autosomal Dominant Disease: occurs if there’s only 1 faulty allele
➢ Huntington Disease (Autosomal Dominant): Caused by mutation on 4th chromosome
of HTT gene. It is when a person can’t be able to move properly
➢ Cystic Fibrosis (Autosomal Recessive): Caused by mutation on 7th chromosome of
CFTR gene. It has mucus on lungs that leads to trouble in breathing
➢ Hemophilia (Sex linked recessive): Small wounds of blood clotting could be fatal
➢ Color Blindness (Sex linked Recessive): Happens when a person can’t see red & green
 3.5) Genetic Modification & Technology
Gene Transfer
1. DNA Extraction: Gene of interest is isolated from the organism. It is amplified/copied by
using Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR)
2. Digestion and Ligation: Plasmid and gene is cut with Restriction endonuclease enzyme.
Gene is spliced (stick) into plasmid vector by DNA Ligase
3. Transformation & Expression: Recombinant Plasmid is inserted into host cell. Antibiotic
selection may be used to select successful transgenic cells and express new protein

Polymerase Chain Reaction

Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) – an artificial method of replicating/copying DNA under
laboratory conditions

This PCR Technique is used to amplify large quantities of a specific sequence of DNA. Each
reaction cycle will double the amount of DNA

Gel Electrophoresis
Gel Electrophoresis – a laboratory technique that is used to separate and isolate proteins/DNA
fragments based on their mass

Samples are placed in block of gel and electric current is applied which causes the sample to
move through the gel (from positive to negative side)
Sample of different sizes separates and travels at different speeds (smaller samples are less
impeded so they move faster through the gel)

DNA Profiling
DNA profiling - a technique by which individuals can be identified and compared by their
genetic sequences.

Short Tandem Repeats (STR) - Individuals will have different length of particular DNA
segments. These segments are amplified by PCR and separated by gel electrophoresis
It is commonly used in Forensic investigations (matching suspect to the crime scene) and
paternity tests (using DNA sequence to identify child’s mother or father)

Genetic Modified Organisms/Crops

Environmental Benefits Environmental Risks
➢ Pest-resistance crops can be made so less spraying of ➢ Other organisms can be affected too
pesticides ➢ Genes can spread to other plants (cross pollination =
➢ Longer shelf life for crops (less spoilage) super weeds), damage of crops
➢ Greater quantity, short growing time period and less land ➢ GMO crops may reduce biodiversity
needed ➢ It encourages overuse of herbicides
➢ Can grow in a wide range of environments (more yields) ➢ Could trigger unexpected health issues (e.g. allergies)
➢ Reduce farming costs

Bt corn is a transgenic crop that produces an insecticide . it may impact the survival of monarch
butterflies
 Cloning
Clones – groups of genetically identical organisms derived from a single original parent cell.
Organisms that reproduce asexually will produce genetically identical clones.
ANIMAL CLONING (Natural) PLANT CLONING (Natural) HUMAN CLONING (Natural)

Binary Fission - The parental organism Vegetative propagation - small pieces can Identical twins (monozygotic) are created
divides equally into two clones. be induced/produced to grow independently when a fertilised egg (zygote) splits into 2
identical cells, each forming an embryo
Budding - Cells split off from parent, This is because adult plants possess
generating smaller clones totipotent meristematic tissue capable of Non-identical twins (dizygotic) are created
cellular differentiation when an unfertilised egg splits into two
Fragmentation - New organisms grow cells and each is fertilised by a different
from separated fragment of parent organism Stem cutting - a separated portion of a sperm
plant stem that is used to regrow a new
Parthenogenesis - Embryos are formed clone/plant via vegetative propagation Identical twins are clones of one another
from unfertilised ova (via the production of (genetically identical)
a diploid egg cells by female) Non-identical twins share 50% of same
DNA

Artificial Cloning
Methods have been developed for cloning adult animals by using differentiated cells.
EMBRYO CLONING ADULT CLONING (Somatic Cell Nuclear Transfer)

➢ Animals can be cloned from an embryo by separating ➢ Somatic Cell Nuclear Transfer (SCNT) - involves
the embryonic cells into groups replacing haploid nucleus of unfertilised egg with a
➢ As embryonic stem cells are pluripotent, each cell can diploid nucleus from an adult donor
potentially form cloned offspring (at very early stage)
➢ The nucleus is removed from an adult body cell (diploid)
➢ If these embryonic cells are separated artificially in the and fused with an enucleated egg cell
laboratory, each group of cells will form cloned ➢ An electric shock stimulates division of the egg cell and
organisms the growing embryo is implanted into a surrogate
➢ As this method occurs after random fertilization, it is not
possible to control the genetic features of potential ➢ The traits that the clones will develop will be genetically
clones identical to the donor
BIOLOGY UNIT 4 –
ECOLOGY

Study Guide
 4.1) Species, Communities and Ecosystem
Ecology
Ecology – the study of relationship between living organisms and it’s interactions with the
environment/surroundings

In an ecology, there will be influence of energy flow and environmental surroundings

SPECIES Groups of organisms that can potentially interbreed to produce fertile
offspring.

When members of different species breed (crossbreeding), it is not

possible to produce offspring
POPULATION Group of organisms of same species who live in
same area at same time.

If 2 populations live in different areas, they are unlikely to interbreed

with each other

COMMUNITY Group of populations living and interacting with each other forming
relationships

HABITAT The environment in which species normally live (original/native place)

ECOSYSTEM A community and it’s environmental interactions and factors

Biotic – includes living things (eg. Trees, Animals)
Abiotic – includes non-living things (eg. Air, Water, Sunlight)

Modes of Nutrition
Autotrophs (producers) – synthesizes its own organic molecules by using light or chemical
energy
Heterotrophs (consumers) – obtains organic molecules/nutrients from other organisms
• Consumers - Absorbs organic molecules from living or dead organisms (ingestion)
• Detritivore - Obtains organic molecules from non-living organism (internal digestion).
Detritus – substances that eats dead/decayed organic matter
• Saprotroph - Obtains organic molecules by releasing digestive enzymes from dead
organic matter (external ingestion)

Heterotrophs could not survive without autotrophs, as they rely on organic molecules

Mesocosm
Mesocosm – enclosed environments with controlled conditions manipulated by scientists. It can
be used to study sustainability

Ecosystems have the potential to be sustainable over long periods of time, however it requires
Energy Availability, Nutrient Availability and Waste Nutrient Recycling
 4.2) Energy Flow

Nutrient Cycling
Supply of inorganic nutrients is maintained by nutrient cycling. Most ecosystems rely on a
supply of energy from sunlight.

There are limited supplies on Earth of chemical elements. So chemical elements are constantly
recycled after they are used in an ecosystem

Energy Conversion
For biological communities, initial energy source is sunlight. Living organisms can harvest
this energy through energy conversion
AUTOTROPHS HETEROTROPHS

Autotrophs (producers) – obtains inorganic Heterotrophs (consumers) – obtains organic

nutrients from air, water, carbon dioxide and molecules/nutrients and use it for growth and
convert them into organic compounds respiration (ATP)

Light energy used to make organic carbon Producers releases energy/inorganic byproducts.
compounds via photosynthesis Sometimes energy is lost to surroundings as heat

Food Chain & Web

Food Chain – a linear feeding relationship between species in a
community.
Food Web – a diagram showing how food chain are linked together into a
complex relationship
(Organisms have more than 1 food source, predator and trophic level)

Trophic level – the position of an organisms that occupies within a

feeding sequence
(PRODUCERS – 1st trophic level, CONSUMERS - next trophic levels)

Arrows represents energy transfer and matter as 1 organism is eaten by

another

Pyramids of Energy & Energy Loss

Pyramids of Energy – graphical diagram of energy amount at each
trophic level (kJ m2 year-1).
Pyramid can never be inverted and only 1/10th of preceding level

Energy loss - Not all stored energy is transferred upon feeding.

Loss of the energy is released via cell respiration is lost as heat in the
ecosystem (energy is only 10% efficient, 90% energy is lost as waste or unconsumed)

Living organisms cannot convert heat to other forms of energy.

 4.3) Carbon Cycle

Carbon Cycle
Carbon is exchanged via variety of forms.
o Atmospheric Gases: Mainly Carbon Dioxide (CO2), and Methane (CH4)
o Oceanic Carbonates: Includes bicarbonates dissolved in water, calcium carbonates in
coral and shells
o Organic Materials: Includes conversion from inorganic into organic carbon compounds
(via photosynthesis by autotrophs)

Carbon Cycle Diagram

• Carbon Atoms diffuse from the

atmosphere into ecosystem
o Via Photosynthesis, Sedimentation
• Carbon atoms is released to the
atmosphere from ecosystem
o Via Respiration, Pollution

Carbon Cycle Circulation Process

Carbon Cycle Circulation Process

PHOTOSYNTHESIS Autotrophs convert CO2/inorganic into organic compounds via photosynthesis

RESPIRATION Heterotrophs obtain organic compounds via feeding (eating plants)

Breakdown of organic compounds (via cell respiration to produce ATP), releases
CO2 as bi product)
DECOMPOSITION Aerobic conditions (oxygen): Saprotrophs bacteria breakdown organic material
and decompose into the soil
Anaerobic condition (no oxygen): Saprotrophs doesn’t perform decomposition
FOSSILIZATION/PEAT Organic matter not fully decomposed in acidic/anaerobic soil will becomes peat
FORMATION and turn into fossils
When peat is compressed under layers of sediment, heat and pressure is removed
to turn into coal/fossils
COMBUSTION Fossil fuels is used for combustion reactions (CO2 and H2O as waste products) to
power industrial process

POLLUTION Burning/combustion of fossil fuels is responsible for accumulation of CO2 in the

atmosphere, releasing harmful toxins into the air
SEDIMENTATION In Aquatic ecosystems, CO2 dissolves into water to form Hydrogen Carbonate
ions. These ions interact with the rock to form limestone
METHANE Methane is produced from organic compounds by methanogenic Archean’s. It
requires anerobic conditions (wetlands, marine sediments)
Methane is oxidized to carbon dioxide and water in the atmosphere.
4.4) Climate Change

Greenhouse Gases
Greenhouse Gases – gases that contribute to largest warming effect within the atmosphere.
➢ Carbon dioxide (CO2) and water vapour (H2O) are the most significant greenhouse gases.
➢ Methane (CH4) and nitrogen oxide contributes also but less impact

Carbon dioxide is released into atmosphere by cell respiration, burning fossil fuels. Water vapour
is formed by evaporation and transpiration

Greenhouse Effect
Greenhouse Effect – a natural process where the atmospheric behaves
like a greenhouse gas to trap & retain heat

It helps the Earth to maintain moderate temperature needed for

organism’s survival.
The impact of a gas depends on its ability to absorb long wave
radiation as well as on its concentration in the atmosphere.

Greenhouse Effect Process

1. Incoming radiation from the sun is short wave radiation (Ultraviolet and Visible Radiation).
Some pass through the Earth’s atmosphere, some is reflected from the atmosphere
2. Earth absorbs this shortwave radiation and heats up the surface
3. Heated/Warm surface has the tendency to radiate (releases) at longer wavelength (infra-red
or heat)
4. Greenhouse gases absorbs this radiation and re-radiate this long wave radiation. Hence heat
is trapped within the atmosphere

High Greenhouse Gas concentration and Gases that absorbs long-wave radiation will lead to
global warming impact

Other Factors contributing to climate Change (Human Activity)

1. Main greenhouse gas that’s responsible in the atmosphere is
Carbon Dioxide
➢ Fossil fuels are combusted/burnt to release energy, CO2 gas is a
biproduct
➢ There’s increased reliance on fossil fuels since the start of the
industrial revolution 200 years ago
2. Impact of agriculture
➢ Deforestation in open lands (removal of trees) which there’s less
CO2 removed from the atmosphere
➢ Increased farming and agriculture involve land clearing for cattle grazing. Ruminant
cattles produces methane from waterlogged soils.

There is a positive correlation between rising CO2 levels (since industrial revolution) and
average global temperature that contributes to global warming
 BIOLOGY OPTION C –
ECOLOGY & CONSERVATION

Study Guide
C1) Species and Communities
Survival Factors
Limiting factor – a component of ecosystem that limits distribution & numbers of population
(defined as optimal survival conditions of species)
➢ Biotic factors – interactions of organisms (within species & between species).
➢ Abiotic factors – environmental conditions (light, temperature, soil, etc)

Law of tolerance - populations have optimal survival conditions within minimal and maximal
thresholds (as population is exposed to limiting factor, survival rate declines)
Distribution of species to limiting factor is represented by bell shaped curve with 3 regions
➢ Optimal zone – central region of conditions favoring maximal survival rate
➢ Zone of stress – left/right of optimal zone (organisms can survive but with less
reproductive rate)
➢ Zone of intolerance – outermost region which organisms can’t survive

Species distribution
Quadrats & transects measures animal/plant distribution in response to
increase in abiotic factors
o Quadrats – rectangular frames of known dimensions (estimates
population densities).
o Transects – straight line along abiotic gradient (record population
data)

Quadrats can be placed at regular intervals along the transect line in order to
generate population data (shows varying distribution pattern of species)
Transects are used to assess species distribution in correlation with any abiotic
factor that varies across distance (includes temperature, light levels, pH)

Kite graph - used to represent changes in species distribution in a clear and

effective fashion
Width of kite shows abundance of organisms at a particular point along a transect
 Ecological Niche
Ecological niche – describes functional position & role of an organism within an environment
Each species plays a unique role within a community because of the unique combination
of its spatial habitat and interactions with other species.

If 2 distinct species share same niche, it results in competition of available resources among
different species (results in 1 species being lowered by presence of another)
No niche overlapping Competitive Exclusion Resource partitioning

When grown alone under 1 species obtains more resources Species changes use of niche and
particular environment, 2 similar than another, leading other divide/share resources
species thrive species to become extinct

Some species won’t occupy entire niche due to presence/absence of other species (Species need
to occupy smaller subset of niche)
FUNDAMENTAL NICHE REALISED NICHE
Fundamental niche – entire set of conditions Realized niche – set of conditions used by
which organism survives/reproduces organisms after interacting with other species

It is theoretical habitat and unlikely to be fully It is the actual habitat that’s completely occupied by
occupied due to presence of competitors presence of competitors

Species Interaction
In nature, all organisms interact via abiotic environment and other organisms.
Symbiosis - describes close/persistent interaction of 2 species. It can be beneficial to 1
organisms or both organisms
MUTUALISM COMMENSALISM PARASITISM

Mutualism – Both species being Commensalism – 1 species Parasitism – 1 species benefitted,

benefited from interaction benefitted, another species is other species is harmed
unaffected
Eg. Zooxanthellae (algae) Eg. Ticks infesting human skin,
photosynthesize within protective Eg. Monarch butterflies storing feeding off the host and causing
environment to feed the coral, poisonous chemicals (by milkweed) diseases
removes waste products to prevents predators from
consuming it

Keystone species
Keystone species – species that has disproportionately large impact on the environment due to
it’s abundance. It may also influence communities in number of ways
o Predators – exerts pressure on low trophic levels to prevent control over resources.
Mutualism – supports life cycle of variety of species in a community.

Eg.Sea stars (predator) prey on urchins and mussels, preventing mussel overpopulation and coral
reef destruction by urchins
Keystone species are not the dominant species in a community nor they have predators
 C2) Communities & Ecosystem
Trophic Levels & Food Chain
Trophic levels – the position that an organism occupies within a feeding sequence (Producers
are always in 1st trophic level and followed by consumers

Food chain - shows the linear feeding relationships between species in a community
Food web - diagram showing how food chains are linked together into more complex feeding
relationships in a community
o Unlike a food chain, organisms in a food web can occupy more than one trophic level

Energy Conversions
Ecological production – refers to rate of generations of biomass in an ecosystem (Units:
Kg m-2 day-1
Biomass – total dry weight of organic matter in organisms or ecosystem, (it’s the biological
produced organic matter). Energy is then converted into biomass
o Energy is lost from inedible materials, excretion/undigested material or respiration
PRIMARY PRODUCTION (Sunlight is main energy) SECONDARY PRODUCTION
Primary production – describes production of chemical Secondary production - describes the accumulation of
energy in organic compounds (by producers) biomass by heterotrophic organisms (consumers) across
generations
GPP (Gross Primary Production) - amount of chemical
energy that a producer creates as biomass Biomass generation is transferred by organic compounds
NPP (Net Primary Production) – amount of chemical (trophic levels) via feeding
energy not consumed by respiration It may be categorized according to total and net amount
of biomass

Feed Conversion Ratio

Feed Conversion ratio – measures efficiency of animal in converting food into desired output
Mass of food consumed
Feed Conversion Ratio =
Mass of desired output
o Lower the FCR ratio, more efficient the food production

Low feed conversion ratio is obtained by minimising the potential losses of energy for animals
o Restricting animal movement (loss in energy, respiration), Feeding practices (food is
digested effectively). Killing animals at young age (old animals have high FCR)

Ecosystem Types
Ecosystem – interaction of living and non-living things in an community/environment
o It can be described as closed/open based on whether matter moves in/out in a system
o Stable ecosystem will emerge in an geographical area according to climate conditions
Closed Ecosystem – exchanges energy but not matter in surroundings.
Open Ecosystem – exchanges energy and matter in surrounding environment

Biome – geographical area that has particular climate and sustaining community of animals &
plants (Eg. deserts, Tropical Rainforests, Temperate Grass land, etc)
 Ecosystem Analysis
Climograph – graphical representation of basic climate conditions at a
given location (Shows Temperature, and Rainfall)
o Deserts have high temperature, low precipitation. Rainforests have
high temperature & precipitation

Ecosystem with high productivity will supply more energy to consumers

Eg. Tropical Rainforests has more net productivity (due to suitable temperature and necessary
water supply)

Gersmehl Diagram
Gersmehl Diagram – a diagram showing the differences in nutrient
flow and storage between different ecosystem types

Nutrients are stored in biomass (total mass or living organisms),

litter (organic matter at the soil) or soil (top layer of earth composed
of rock particles)

Nutrients can be transferred between nutrient sinks and may be cycled via environmental inputs
and outputs (It is affected by climatic factors + temperature)

Ecological Succession
Ecological Succession – describes the process/sequence of increasingly complex community
develop over time
Climax community - reached when succession has ended, and the community has all of its
characteristics
PRIMARY SUCCESSION SECONDARY SUCCESSION

Primary succession occurs when communities develop Secondary succession happens when one ecosystem is
on new land (without soil) replaced by another (existing soil)
Pioneer Species – organisms which colonize the
region/area (it will cause changes) It starts in existing soil that leads to removal of existing
biota, allowing new ecosystem to develop
Soil mineral content increases through breaking down
rocks by roots. Soil will become aerated for living Environmental disturbances destroy pre-existing climax
community. Fast growing plants will grow as there’s soil
This is the location where new communities emerge and overtake old ecosystem’s place.
from unhabituated land.
 C3) Impact of Humans on Ecosystem
Effect of deforestation on Nutrient Cycling
Deforestation – permanent removal/destruction of forest via removal/clearance of trees
➢ Less trees means less moisture in the air and precipitation. There’s less litter and soil
leading to rapid loss in soil nutrients (water eroded, removed from soil)
➢ Soil becomes acidic releasing iron + aluminium forming infertile soil (nutrient poor) =
lack of vegetation and reduction in nutrient cycling
➢ Clearance of trees leads to Soil layer becoming thin and eroded

Invasive Species
Endemic Species – species that’s native to geographic area.
Alien Species – species that’s transferred from native environment to new environment
Introduced alien species will be detrimental to the environment (Invasive)
Invasive species threaten biodiversity of ecosystem that replaces native species

According to Competitive Exclusion, 1 species obtains more resources than another leading
other species to become extinct in the wildlife
o Advantages: Possess larger fundamental niche (more occupation), faster reproduction rate
and may possess certain features suited to the environment
o Disadvantage: Cane toad was introduced to Australia in 1935 to control beetles damaging
sugar cane crops. It failed to limit the beetle population
Cane toad has reproduced rapidly (invasive), endangering native wildlife and killing native
species

Population Control
Controlling the population of invasive species once they have become established is difficult and
typically very expensive
PHYSICAL CONTROL CHEMICAL CONTROL BIOLOGICAL CONTROL
Physical Control – involves removal Chemical control – involves use of Biological control – involves using
of invasive species by manual chemical agents (toxins, pesticides) living organism (or diseases) to control
mechanisms invasive species
It includes using chemical agents that
It includes imposing barriers/fences damages species internal organs and Biological control may eat invasive
which the species can be reduced by spread to higher trophic levels species or become diseased. Biological
hunting/trapping control agents must be monitored for
unintended side effects
 Biomagnification
Biomagnification – process where chemical substances become concentrated at higher trophic
levels
Bioaccumulation – process where chemical substances become concentrated in particular
organisms
o It occurs because organisms at higher trophic levels
consume more (toxins is also consumed and
experience increased concentration/contamination)

ADVANTAGES (+) DISADVANTAGES (-)

▪ Affordable and effective at killing mosquitoes that ▪ DDT spraying is associated with health side affects
carry malaria (cancer, reduced fertility)
▪ Health costs with malaria treatments reduces when ▪ DDT is biomagnified that may be detrimental to the
DDT spraying is used species (typically birds)

DDT - a chemical substance that’s sprayed on crops to eliminate malaria mosquitoes

Plastic pollution
Plastic – a type of polymers found in bags, bottles, etc. Plastics are not biodegradable that stays
in the environment for centuries (detrimental to nature)
Organic Pollutants - Plastic debris will leach chemicals into the water and also absorb toxic
contaminants

Both macroplastic and microplastic debris is ingested by marine animals (assuming it’s food
sources), may lead to biomagnification and lead to death of marine species
MACROPLASTIC MICROPLASTIC
Macroplastic – smaller visible plastic debris Microplastic – large visible plastic debris

Macro plastic debris are degraded and broken down into Microplastic absorbs more organic pollutants due to
microplastic by UV radiation small size (more Surface Area)

Sea turtles commonly mistake plastic debris as food in ocean/seas.

Ingestion of plastic can be fatal and stuck in stomach/esophagus

Plastic debris can also become wrapped around the turtle, restricting
movement and developmental growth
 C4) Conservation of Biodiversity

Indicator Species
Indicator Species – An organism used to assess a specific environmental condition. They are
sensitive to specific environmental conditions and have a limited range of tolerance

Their population growth or reduction indicates changes in the

environment, making them a useful means of monitoring change

Biotic indices – Compares the relative frequency of indicator

species and provides overall assessment of environmental health
➢ A high biotic index indicates the presence of many pollution-
sensitive organisms, denoting an unpolluted environment
➢ A low biotic index indicates a polluted environment, due to a
relative abundance of pollution-tolerant organisms

Σ(𝑛 ×𝑎 )
𝑖 𝑖
Biotic Index = (Ni - number of individuals of a species, ai – tolerance rating of species,
𝑁
N – Total number of species)

Biodiversity
Biodiversity - describes the variety and variability of all living organisms within a given
ecological area.
It is used to refer to number of species and ecological variation

SPECIES RICHNESS SPECIES EVENESS

It describes the number of different species present in an It describes the relative abundance of different species
area (more species = greater richness) in an area (similar abundance = more evenness)

Simpson’s reciprocal index can be used to measure the relative biodiversity of a given
community
➢ A high index value suggests a stable site with many different niches and low
competition (high richness and evenness)
➢ A low index value suggests a site with few potential niches where only a few species
dominate (low richness and evenness)
N(𝑁−1)
Simpson′ s Index = Σ𝑛(𝑛−1) (DI – Simpson’s index, N – Total number of individuals collected,
n - number of individuals of a species)
 Biogeographic Factors
Biodiversity within a given ecosystem will be affected by a number of biogeographic factors. It
will also affect species diversity
➢ Larger habitats promote biodiversity than smaller habitats (more available niches will
lead to less competition)
➢ Edges tend to have greater biodiversity, as different habitats with different abiotic factors
exist
➢ Habitat corridors between parts of a fragmented habitat can connect disparate regions to
improve genetic diversity
ISLAND EFFECT EDGE EFFECT

Biodiversity is proportionate to island sizes (large Diversity of species within an environment will change
island size has greater biodiversity) on it’s ecosystem’s boundaries

Large islands will support greater range of habitats and It is greater at 2 borders of ecosystem as different factors
more available niches (more population). will favour certain species
Large islands will have greater productivity (more Edge Effect on biodiversity will be greatly influenced by
formation of food chains) particular conditions caused by ecological disturbance

Conservation
Conservation - involves the protection and maintenance of natural resources – such as trees,
water and wildlife
IN SITU CONSERVATION EX SITU CONSERVATION

In situ conservation - preservation of plant and animal Ex situ conservation - preservation of plant and animal
species within their natural habitat species outside their natural habitats
It may require active management of nature reserves or It may be required for critically endangered species when
national parks (preserved in natural reserves or parks) urgent intervention is required (preserved in zoos)

➢ It allows species to live in environment which they are ➢ It allows for greater control of essential conditions like
adapted (maintains animal’s normal behavior) climate, nutrition. It Increases chances for breeding
➢ It retains their natural habitat and remains available for ➢ Such conservation methods do not prevent potential
other endangered species destruction of their natural habitats
BIOLOGY UNIT 5 –
EVOLUTION

Study Guide
 5.1) Evidence for Evolution
Evolution
Evolution – describes the change of heritable characteristics over time/generations. As time
passes by, there will be variation in genes and alleles encoding for the trait

Evidence for Evolution

EVIDENCE FROM FOSSILS EVIDENCE FROM SELECTIVE BREEDING

Fossils – preserved remains/traces of any organism from Selective breeding – a form of artificial selection where
the past man controls in the breeding of species
Breeding members of a species with desired trait, it will
Evidence: Preserved remains of fossils show direct become common in successive generations
evidence of evolution and ancestral forms
Traces show indirect evidence of ancestral form Evidence: Targeted breeds can show significant
(footprints, burrows) variation in a (relatively) short period

Law of fossil succession – fossil records show Eg. Dog breeding shows different variations.
organisms changes that occurred in sequence of Herding dogs are bred for intelligence to follow orders
development Racing dogs are bred to be sleek and run fast

Comparative Anatomy
Comparative Anatomy – involves structures that explains the similarities and difference in
functions and physiological structure of the common ancestor
HOMOLOGOUS STRUCTURE ANALOGOUS STRUCTURE
➢ Has common/same ancestor ➢ Different Ancestor
➢ Arise via divergent evolution ➢ Arise via convergent evolution
➢ Similar in physiological structures ➢ Difference in physiological structures
➢ Different function/purposes ➢ Similar function/purpose

Eg. Pendactlyl limb with similar bone structure but Eg. Wings for flying purpose but different structure
different uses for bats and butterflies

Evidence: Scientists can analyze the similarities and differences between physical structures

Speciation
If 2 populations of a species become geographically separated. They will experience different
adaptation to ecological conditions and possess different traits

Speciation – evolutionary process in which 2 population diverge into separate species.

In a divergent evolution, 2 species cannot interbreed anymore
5.2) Natural Selection

Natural Selection
Charles Darwin theorized that today’s living species changed overtime and stemmed from 1
single ancestral organism.

Natural Selection – the process which organisms are adapted to the environment that shows the
variation of traits between member in a population (gene pool).

Natural Selection Conditions

➢ INHERITED VARIATION - There’s genetic variation/difference between species in a
population
➢ COMPETITION - Overproduction of offspring may cause struggle over resources, survival
➢ ENVIRONMENTAL PRESSURES - Environmental influences leads to new trait
variations between offspring
➢ ADAPTATION - Individuals’ traits that are better suited/used to environment tend to
survive and produce more offspring
➢ GENOTYPE FREQUENCY - Individual that reproduce pass on these traits/characteristics
to the offspring which there will be change of traits within species
➢ EVOLUTION - Overtime, there’s change in allele/gene frequency within the population

Sources of Inherited Variation

 MUTATION: Changes in gene sequence composition will lead to change in heritable
characteristics of an offspring
 MEIOSIS: Produces new combination of alleles either by crossing over (genetic
exchange) or independent assortment
 SEXUAL REPRODUCTION: Fusion of genetic material from male & female gametes
will create new genes/alleles combination in offspring

Galapagos Finches Case Study

Darwin visited Galapagos Island to observe the birds. There were
subgroups of birds identified as finches.

The finch’s beak has adapted to the food type they ate that showed
the variation of the beak’s sizes and shape. They slowly occupy the
niches on the Galapagos Island (Adaptive Radiation)

The isolation on the island over longer period of times lead to

undergo speciation. They experienced different environmental
condition and variation in the traits

Selection Pressure
Selection Pressures – external pressures that affects the organism’s ability to survive in an
environment.
It can be positive (increase the proportion of trait) or negative (decrease the proportion of trait
Predators, Resources affects the population survival whereas weather, environment doesn’t
 5.3) Classification of Biodiversity
Binomial System
Binomial System of Nomenclature – a system where all living species are classified. Every
organism is designated with a scientific name

Genus written first and capitalized, species is written later (eg. Homo sapiens)

Taxonomy
Taxonomy – involves with classifying group of organisms based
on shared characteristics.
It is used to show evolutionary relationship and predicts
characteristics shared by species.

Hierarchy – a structure from different levels which relates to

different level of classification (Taxonomy used is KINGDOM,
PHYLUM, CLASS, ORDER, FAMILY, GENUS AND
SPECIES)

3 Domains of Life
All living organisms in this ecosystem are classified into 3 domains
➢ ARCHAEA - Prokaryotic cells without nucleus and consists of
extremophiles
➢ BACTERIA - Prokaryotic cells without nucleus and consists of pathogenic forms
➢ EUKARYA - Eukaryotic cells that contains a nucleus bound membrane
DNA Histone Introns Ribosomes Cell Wall Lipids of Cell
Chromosomes Proteins of Genes Membrane
ARCHAEA Circular Present Present 70’s Present – not ARCHAEA lipid
Genome ribosomes made of membrane contains
peptidoglycan lipids different
BACTERIA Circular Absent Absent 80’s Present - not from BACTERIA
Genome ribosomes made of and EUKARYA
peptidoglycan
EUKARYA Linear Present Present 80’s Some Present -
Chromosomes ribosomes not made of
peptidoglycan

Natural Classification
Natural classification - involves grouping organisms according to common ancestry rather than
by common characteristics

Allows for species to be identified by their evolutionary pathways and enables prediction of
traits within a group
Taxonomists sometimes reclassify groups of species when new evidence shows that a previous
taxonomy contains species that have evolved from different ancestral species.
Dichotomous Keys
Dichotomous key - involves sequentially dividing organisms into two categories until every
organism is individually identified
5.4) Cladistics

Clade
Clade – a group of organisms that have evolved from a common
ancestor. Each clade consists of an ancestral organism and all of
its evolutionary descendants.

Members of a clade will possess common characteristics as a

result of their shared evolutionary lineage

Cladograms
Cladogram – tree diagrams where each branch point represents the split of 2 new groups from a
common ancestor.

Each branch point (node) represents a speciation event by which distinct species are formed via
divergent evolution. It shows the sequence of divergence and evolutionary relationship
• Root – the ancestor common to all organism within the
cladogram
• Nodes – speciation that gives rise to 2 or more daughter
• Outgroup - most distantly related species in the
cladogram,
• Clades – common ancestor and it’s descendants

Closely related species are separated by fewer nodes

Molecular Clock
All organisms use DNA and RNA as genetic material and the
genetic code. Overtime, there will be mutation leading to new
traits

Amino acid Sequence - involves using DNA or RNA base

sequence to compare closely or distantly related organisms
(More similar base sequence of 2 species, closely related they are)

They may also use non-coding DNA or amino acid sequence to

compare mutation rate

Molecular clock - particular gene has a stable mutation rate that

can be used to estimate the time of evolutionary divergence based
on the number of DNA differences
 BIOLOGY UNIT 6 –
HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY

Study Guide
 6.1) Digestion and Absorption

Human Digestive System

Human Digestion – involves the breakdown of food in our body through physically or with the
help of chemicals/enzymes.
Organ Function
Mouth Food is broken down via chewing in mouth. It is mixed by saliva
(produced by salivary glands) and initiates starch digestion
Esophagus Long pipe where food travels from mouth to stomach via peristalsis

Stomach Food is mixed with digestive juices (gastric acidic juice of pH 2) to aid
digestion and initiates protein digestion
Liver Secretes fluid (bile) and chemicals for breakdown/emulsification of fats
into smaller droplets
Gall Bladder Stores bile from liver and releases into small intestine

Pancreas Produces digestive enzymes (lipase, amylase, protease) for digestion of

food. It also produces Insulin hormone.
Small Intestine A long tube where food nutrients are absorbed (carbohydrates, proteins,
fats)
Large Intestine Absorption of water and digests remaining substances

Peristalsis and Muscle Contraction

Peristalsis – unidirectional movement of food from mouth to large
intestine. This is caused by contraction of longitudinal muscles

Segmentation – Involves contraction and relaxation caused by circular

muscles. It absorbs and mixes food with enzymes in stomach and small
intestine.

Contraction of circular and longitudinal muscles of small intestine mixes the food with enzymes
and moves it along the gut

Digestive Enzymes
Enzyme What it digests? Broken down in Products

CARBOHYDRATES Salivary Glands, Sugars/Glucose Salivary Glands Starch = Maltose

Amylase (Mouth) & Small = Glucose
Intestine
PROTEINS Protease, Pepsin Proteins Stomach, Small Proteins =
Intestine Polypeptides = Amino
Acids
LIPIDS/FATS Lipase Fats Small Intestine Fats = Fatty Acids &
Glycerol
NUCLEIC ACIDS Nuclease DNA/RNA Small Intestine Nucleic Acids =
Nucleotides
 Small Intestine & Villi
Small Intestine – long tube where it absorbs food and nutrients. It is composed of 4 main
tissues.

SEROSA A protective outer

coating
MUSCLE LAYERS Outer layer of
longitudinal muscle
and inner layer of
circular muscle
SUBMUCOSA Connective tissue that
contains blood vessels
and lacteals
MUCOSA Epithelial lining of
small intestine where
it absorbs nutrients in
inner layer

Villi – finger like projection found in inner epithelial lining of small intestine. Villi increases
surface area where absorption of nutrients occurs
• Microvilli: Epithelial membrane that further increases surface area
• Rich Blood Supply: Dense blood capillaries/vessels transports absorbed nutrients
• Single Layer: minimizes diffusion distance between lumen and blood
• Lacteals: Absorbs lipids/fats from the small intestine lining
• Intestinal Glands: Exocrine pits releases digestive juices
• Membrane Proteins: Facilities transport of food nutrients into epithelial lining

Absorption
Absorption – the process where food monomers pass through the epithelial lining via membrane
transport methods (maintains concentration gradient and 1 way movement)
➢ Active Transport - Glucose & Amino acids are co-transported across the epithelial
membrane by active transport of sodium ions
➢ Facilitated Diffusion - Monosaccharides & Minerals/Vitamins are transported
➢ Simple Diffusion - Lipids/Fats are passed down to lacteals directly
➢ Osmosis - Water is absorbed in small and large intestine.

Starch Digestion
Starch digestion starts at salivary glands (mouth) and continued in the small intestine. Amylase
digests Amylose and hydrolyze into Maltose.

This Maltose is fixed into epithelial lining of small intestine. Hydrolysis of maltose results in
glucose monomer that can be stored as energy in our body

Insulin and Glucagon is also released from pancreas into the bloodstream to regulate blood
glucose levels
 6.2) Blood System
Blood Circulation
Human heart is a 4 chambered organ consisting of atrium and
ventricle
Atrium - a reservoir in which the blood return to the heart from the
body via the veins.
Ventricles – a pump in the blood is expelled from the heart to the
body via arteries

LEFT SIDE OF HEART: Pumps oxygenated blood around the body (Systematic Circulation)
RIGHT SIDE OF HEART: Pumps deoxygenated blood to the lungs (Pulmonary Circulation)

Arteries, Veins & Capillaries

ARTERIES VEINS CAPILLARIES
➢ Arteries – conveys blood from ➢ Veins – collects blood from ➢ Capillaries – site where there’s
heart ventricles to body tissues, tissues at the atrium exchange of CO2 and O2 in
lungs ➢ Pumps at low pressure tissue and blood
➢ Pumps at high pressure ➢ Wide lumen diameter ➢ Pumps at low pressure
➢ Narrow lumen diameter ➢ Thin walls (less muscle and ➢ Very Narrow Lumen
➢ Thick wall (Muscle and Elastic elastic fibers) Diameter
Fibers) ➢ Veins possess valve to prevent ➢ Thin Wall (made up of single
➢ Muscle Fibers: Artery wall to backflow of blood layer cells)
prevent rupture ➢ Skeletal Contraction: squeezes ➢ Blood flows at capillary very
Elastic Fibers: Artery wall to vein and causes blood to flow slowly for maximum exchange
stretch and expand upon pulse from the site
flow

Heart Structure
2 Atria at top (collects blood back to heart, pumps down to ventricle)
2 Ventricles at bottom (pumps blood from heart to arteries)
➢ Atrioventricular Valve (Between Atria and Ventricle)
➢ Semilunar Valve (Between Arteries and Ventricle)

Aorta (Pumps oxygenated blood)

Pulmonary Vein (Collects oxygenated blood)
Pulmonary Artery (Pumps deoxygenated blood)
Vena Cava (Collects deoxygenated blood)

Sinoatrial Node (SA Node): Right Atrium

Atrioventricular Node (AV Node): AV Valve
 Heart beat
Heart contraction is myogenic (occurs from the signal that’s initiated by heart muscle cells).
Sinoatrial Node (SA Node) - Specialized clusters of heart muscle cells located at the right
atrium where the heartbeat is initiated. SA Node acts as a primary pacemaker

Pacemaker – a structure that’s responsible for regulating heart muscle contraction in which the
heart muscle acts together. If SA node fails, secondary pacemaker AV node is used to regulate)

1. SA Node sends electrical impulse that stimulates heart muscle contraction (causes right
atrium to contract)
2. This electrical impulse is sent to AV node.
3. Once received, it sends signals via nerve bundles (Purkinje Fibers) in both left and right
ventricle causing ventricular contraction
4. There’s sequence of event that’s used to ensure that there’s delay between atria and
ventricular contraction (time to fill the blood and pump)

Heart Rate
Heart Rate – rate in which is determined within the heart by the pacemaker and regulated by
external signals
NERVE SIGNALLING HORMONE SIGNALLING

Pacemaker is under control from the brain (Medulla) Hormones – chemical messengers that’s released
into the bloodstream
Medulla of the brain sends down nerve impulse to
the heart, maintaining heart rate and blood flow Heart rate is increased by hormones like Adrenaline
to prepare for vigorous physical activity (increases
heart rate by activating neurotransmitters)

Cardiac Cycle
Cardiac Cycle – describes the series of the event taking place in
the heart during the heartbeat
It is a period of contraction (systole) and relaxation (diastole)

When blood flows from atria to ventricle, it is the period of

systole (ventricular contraction at high pressure)
When blood travels down the heart via arteries, it is the period of
relaxation/diastole (atria pressure decreases and relax)

Heart Disease
Coronary Arteries – arteries that supply high quantity of oxygenated blood to the heart muscles
and maintaining heartbeat
Atherosclerosis – hardening/narrowing the coronary arteries that reduces lumen diameter and
elasticity of the wall fiber
Fatty deposits known as cholesterol/plaque develop in the arteries that restricts blood flow
causing blood clotting in coronary artery.
Causes: High intake of fats, high obesity, smoking, sex, lack of exercise
 6.3) Defense against Infectious Disease
Blood Clotting & Coagulation Cascade
Clotting (Hemostasis) – the process which broken blood vessels are repaired when damaged. It
helps prevent blood loss from the body
1. Clotting factors are released from damaged region, triggering platelet structural change
2. Clotting factors causes platelets to stick/adhere at the damaged region to form a solid
plug to prevent blood going out
3. Clotting factors trigger inactive prothrombin into activated enzyme Thrombin
4. Thrombin catalyzes the conversion of soluble plasma protein (fibrinogen) into insoluble
fibrious form (fibrin)
5. Fibrin strand form insoluble mesh of fibers around the platelet plug that traps blood cells
to form a temporary clot
6. When the damaged region is completely repaired, an enzyme (plasmin) is activated to
dissolve the clot

3 Lines of Defense
Pathogen – disease causing substances that disrupts our normal physiology
Phagocytes – type of white blood cells/leukocytes that engulfs/ingests bacteria & pathogens
Lymphocytes – type of white blood cells with single nucleus that’s found in lymphs
1ST LINE OF DEFENSE (SURFACE) 2ND LINE OF DEFENSE (INNATE 3RD LINE OF DEFENSE (ADAPTIVE
IMMUNE SYSTEM) IMMUNE SYSTEM)
▪ It is the surface barriers that ▪ A principle component in this 2nd ▪ A principle component in this 3rd
prevent the entry of pathogens defense line is phagocyte white defense line is lymphocytes and
▪ Our skin protects external structure blood cells antibodies cells
and consists of thick/dry tough ▪ Innate immune system – it doesn’t ▪ Adaptive immune system –
region. It secretes differentiate pathogens and responds differentiates between particular
chemicals/enzymes to restrict same way every time pathogens and responds rapidly
bacterial growth ▪ Phagocytes circulate/move around ▪ B cells – antibody producing cells
▪ Our mucous membrane protects the blood in response to an infection and targets specific pathogens
internal structure. It secretes mucus ▪ Damaged tissue release chemical, T cells – regulator cells that release
(fluid) to remove pathogens triggering white blood cells to the chemicals to activate B cells
infected site ▪ Antibodies targets specific pathogen
▪ Pathogens are engulfed/ingested by and enhances immune system
phagocytes and fused into vesicles

Antibodies
Antigen – a substance that the body recognizes as a foreign cell, causing immune
response
Antibody – a protein produced by B cells + plasma cell specific to a given
antigen

It is made up of 4 polypeptide chains joined by disulphide bonds. It is a Y shaped structure.

Variable Region - End of the arms where the antigen binds at the recognition site. Differs
between antibodies
Each type of antibody recognizes unique antigen and makes antigen-antibody interaction specific
Antibiotics
Antibiotics – compounds that inhibit/kills bacterial growth by targeting the prokaryotic
metabolism (targeting 70’s ribosomes, cell wall)
As Eukaryotes doesn’t have cell wall, it will target pathogenic bacteria

Antibiotics isn’t useful in treating viruses as viruses don’t possess metabolism and takes over
host cells. Antiviral treatments are used to treat viruses, enzymes (via reverse transcription)

Penicillin – a type of antibiotic that is said to have

antibiotic properties.
Penicilin began to grow on the plate and inhibited the
bacterial growth.

Antibiotic Resistance (Natural Selection)

Over successive generation, small group of bacterial may develop antibiotic resistance via gene
mutation. Other bacteria can also be resistant by transferring plasmids (via bacterial conjugation)

As bacteria reproduces at higher rate, bacteria resistance strains genes increase and evolve with
resistant genes
Introduction of antibiotic (selection pressure) has caused the antibiotic resistance gene to become
more frequent (evolution)

Prevalance of resistant bacterial strains is increasing rapidly with human populations due to
overuse of Antibiotics. Using antibiotics sometimes may not treat bacteria effectively

HIV Virus (Human Immunodeficiency Virus)

HIV Virus – a virus that infects T cells or white blood cells that disables body’s immune system.
Such symptom is classified as AIDS (Acquired Immune Defiency Syndrome)
People who are diagnosed with HIV Virus must have AIDS Symptoms

HIV targets helper T lymphocytes and following the period, the virus goes inactive for some
period. The virus become active and begins to spread, destroying T lymphocyte cells

Reduced T cells will result in shortage of antibodies resulting in low immunity. Body becomes
susceptible to infection and may eventually result in death if not treated.
6.4) Gas Exchange
Ventilation
Ventilation – involves with the exchange of air between the atmosphere/air and the lung which
is done by the action of breathing
Gas Exchange – exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide between the alveoli and bloodstream

Gas exchange is a passive process in which the ventilation system maintains concentration
gradient (O2 is consumed by cells and CO2 is produced as a waste product via respiration)

Respiratory System
Right lung has 3 lobes and left lung as 2 lobes.

Air enters the respiratory system through our nose/mouth.

Air is then passed down through the trachea then to bronchi.

Inside each lung, bronchi divide into smaller airways

(bronchioles). Each bronchiole terminates with sacs that is
the alveoli.

Alveoli functions as site of gas exchange. It has a thin

epithelial layer to minimize diffusion and surrounded by
rich capillary network.

Lungs has a large surface area to maximize gas exchange

Pneumocytes
Pneumocytes – cells that line in alveoli and comprise majority of inner-surface of the lungs

TYPE I Pneumocytes
Type I – thin alveolar cells that’s adapted to carry out
gas exchange in the alveoli and capillaries

It is extremely thin and minimizes gas diffusion

distance

TYPE II Pneumocytes
Type II – secretes pulmonary surfactant solution
creating a moist surface in the alveoli

This creates a moist surface that reduces surface

tension (prevents sides of alveoli from adhering to each
other and collapse of lung)
 Breathing Mechanism
Breathing - active movement of respiratory muscles that enables the passage of air into and out
of the lungs.
Contraction of respiratory muscles changes the volume of the thoracic cavity/chest

Pressure is inversely proportional to volume (volume of the chest increases, pressure decreases &
volume of the chest decreases, pressure increases)
➢ When chest pressure is less than atmospheric pressure, air moves into lungs (Inspiration)
➢ When chest pressure is more than atmospheric pressure, air moves out of lungs (Expiration)

Respiratory Muscles
Inspiration (inhaling) and expiration (exhaling) are controlled by two sets of antagonistic muscle
groups
When inspiratory muscles contract, expiratory muscles relax (and vice versa)
INSPIRATION (Diaphragm and External EXPIRATION (Abdominal Muscle and Internal
Intercoastal) intercoastal)

➢ Diaphragm muscles contract, causing diaphragm ➢ Diaphragm muscles relax, causing diaphragm to
to flatten, lung volume increases curve upwards, lung volume decreases
➢ External intercostals contract, pulling ribs upwards ➢ Internal intercostal muscles contract, pulling ribs
and outwards (expanding chest) inwards and downwards (reducing chest)
➢ Additional muscle groups may help pull the ribs up ➢ Abdominal muscles contract, pushing diaphragm
and out upwards
➢ Additional muscle groups may help pull the ribs
downwards

Spirometry
Spirometer – device that measures the amount of volume/rate in which
the air is inhaled/exhaled
It detects the change in ventilation rate in which the person in breathing.

As exercise intensity increases, it leads to greater frequency of breaths,

increasing tidal volume leading to more gas exchange

Lung Disorders
LUNG CANCER EMPHYSEMA

Cancer - uncontrolled cell proliferation, leading to Emphysema - abnormal enlargement of the alveoli. It
tumors. form huge air spaces and lower surface area for gas
Lungs possess a rich blood supply (for gas exchange), exchange
increasing the chances of metastasis (spread of
cancer) Cigarettes chemicals damages alveoli, releasing
elastase that destroys alveoli elastic fibers in the wall
Factors: Smoking, Radiation exposure, genes
 6.5) Neuron & Synapses
Neurons
Neurons – specialized cells that functions to transmit electrical impulse
within the nervous system. It converts sensory info into electrical impulse
➢ Dendrites – short branch fibers that converts chemical into (other
neurons) into electrical signals
➢ Axon – elongated fiber that transmit electrical signal to the end
➢ Soma – cell body having a nucleus where metabolic process occurs here
➢ Myelin sheath – improves electrical impulse speed along the axon via saltatory
conditions (neurons jump/hops between nodes of ranviers)

Resting Potential
Neurons pump sodium and potassium ions across the membranes to generate a resting potential.
Resting Potential – neuron that’s not transmitting a signal that has difference in charge across
membrane (approx. -70mV)

Maintenance of resting potential is controlled by Sodium-Potassium ions using ATP. It expels

3 Sodium (Na+) outside and 2 Potassium (K+) ions inside

Action Potential
Action Potential – rapid changes across the membrane when a neuron is firing. Action
potentials are ‘all or none’ and propagated if a certain threshold potential is reached (-55mV)
DEPOLARIZATION REPOLARIZATION REFRACTORY PERIOD

Sodium channels open, which the Potassium channels open, which the Sodium & Potassium channels open,
sodium ions (Na+) pump in potassium ions (K+) pump out which sodium ions (Na+) pump out
and potassium ions (K+) pump in
Goes from negative to positive. Goes from positive to negative.
Sodium ions is concentrated outside Potassium ions is concentrated inside Resting potential is restored

Nerve Impulse
Nerve Impulse – action potential propagated/moved along the
axon of neurons.

It occurs when it reaches threshold potential (-55mV) when

there’s electrical signal to open the voltage gated ion.
If threshold potential level isn’t reached, there’s no neurons
and action potential occurring
 Synapse
Synapse – Physical/Junction gap that separates between neurons and receptor of the cell.
Neurons transmit signal across synapses by converting electrical signal into chemical signal

1. When action potential or neurons reaches axon terminal,

voltage gated ion opens
2. Calcium (Ca2+) diffuse into the cell, promoting fusion of
vesicles containing neurotransmitter. Neurotransmitter is
released from axon terminal via exocytosis
3. Neurotransmitters bind to specific receptors on the post-
synaptic membrane
4. Opening of ion channels generates an electrical impulse in the
post-synaptic neuron, propagating the pre-synaptic neuron
signal
5. Neurotransmitters released into the synapse is recycled (by
reuptake pumps) or degraded (by enzymatic activity)

Neurotransmitters
Neurotransmitters - chemical messengers released from neurons that functions to transmit
signals across the synaptic cleft

Neurotransmitters are released in response to depolarisation of the axon terminal of a

presynaptic neuron.
It binds to receptors on post-synaptic cells and trigger or prevent the response
ACETYLCHOLINE NEONICOTINOID

Acetylcholine – a neurotransmitter that is used Neonicotinoid – a type of pesticides that binds to

between neurons and muscle fibers. acetylcholine receptors, triggering response
It is produced in the pre-synaptic neuron by
combining choline and acetyl. It is useful to protect crops from pest species. High
level may result in paralysis
Acetylcholine is fused into vesicles and released
into the synaptic cleft during transmission. Insects have strong acetylcholine receptors. Using
It binds to the receptor for short period of time and Neonicotinoid pesticide is toxic to insects,
must be removed to prevent overstimulation. effective in getting rid of pest species

Once reaches post-synaptic neuron, it is broken

down by acetylcholinesterase enzyme.
 6.6) Hormones, homeostasis & Reproduction
Insulin & Glucagon
Our body needs to maintain blood glucose levels. 2 hormones are responsible which are Insulin
and Glucagon
HIGH BLOOD GLUCOSE LOW BLOOD GLUCOSE

Insulin – hormone that’s released from Beta () cells Glucagon - hormone that’s released from Alpha ()
that decreases blood glucose concentration cells that increases blood glucose concentration

It involves glycogen synthesis (liver) that increases It involves glycogen breakdown (liver) that decreases
glucose breakdown glucose breakdown

Diabetes
Diabetes – a disorder/disease that results from high glucose concentration for long time
➢ TYPE I DIABETES: Occurs in early childhood, lack of insulin in body. It requires
insulin treatment to regulate the levels
➢ TYPE II DIABETES: Occurs in late childhood, doesn’t respond to insulin. It requires
controlled diet and lifestyle

Thyroxin
Thyroxin - hormone secreted by the thyroid gland in response to signals from
hypothalamus initiated by thermoreceptors (skin)
It increase the metabolic rate (generates heat and energy) to maintain the body temperature.

It only releases when there’s lack of body temperature to produce heat in body
(work’s best in colder temperatures)

Leptin
Leptin – hormone secreted by adipose tissue that regulates fat storage body that binds to
receptors on hypothalamus

Overeating causes more leptin in our body (obese) and not become sensitive to leptin. Leptin
injecting might reduce hunger and limit food intake for obese people

Melatonin
Melatonin – hormone produced by the pineal gland within the
brain in response to changes in light initiated by photoreceptors
(eyes)
Melatonin is secreted in response to periods of darkness,
resulting in higher concentrations/levels at night, regulating our
sleep cycle

Circadian Rhythm - body’s physiological responses to the 24-

hour day-night cycle. During sleep, there will be physiological
changes like brain wave activity, hormonal production
 Sexual Development
Humans have 46 chromosomes (22 Autosomes pairs, 23rd pair is sex chromosomes).
Male: XY and Female: XX
MALE DEVELOPMENT FEMALE DVELOPMENT

SRY Gene – Y chromosome has a gene that codes Without TDF, there will be development of ovaries
for Testis Determining Factor (TDF), causing the (Estrogen & Progesterone)
development of testis (Testosterone)
Females have pre-natal reproductive organs, monthly
Males have pre-natal development of gentile, egg release and has breast development
maintains male sex drive (libido) and has body hair

Testosterone causes pre-natal development of male genitalia and both sperm production and
development of male secondary sexual characteristics during puberty.

Estrogen and progesterone cause pre-natal development of female reproductive organs and
female secondary sexual characteristics during puberty

Human Reproductive System

Testis Produce sperm and testosterone
Male Reproductive System Scrotum Hold testes at lower than core body
temperature
Epididymis Store sperm until ejaculation
(eject/removing semen from body)
Sperm Duct Transfer sperm during ejaculation
Seminal Secrete fluid containing alkali, proteins
Vesicle & and fructose that is added to sperm to
Prostate make semen
Gland
Urethra Transfer semen during ejaculation
and urine during urination
Penis Penetrate the vagina for ejaculation of
semen near the cervix

Ovary Produce eggs, estrogen and progesterone

Oviduct Collect eggs at ovulation, provide a site
Female Reproductive System for fertilization then moves the embryo to
uterus
Uterus Provide for the needs of the embryo and
then fetus during pregnancy
Cervix Protect the fetus during pregnancy and
then dilate to provide a birth canal
Vagina Stimulate penis to cause ejaculation and
provide a birth canal
Vulva Protect internal parts of the female
reproductive system
Endometrium Mucous membrane lining in uterus. It
thickens for preparation of implantation
Menstrual Cycle
Menstrual Cycle - describes recurring changes that occur within female reproductive system to
make pregnancy possible. It lasts roughly 1 month (28 days)
➢ Pituitary hormones (FSH and LH) are released from the anterior pituitary gland and act
on the ovaries to develop follicles
➢ Ovarian hormones (estrogen and progesterone) are released from the ovaries and act on
the uterus to prepare for pregnancy
Positive Feedback - increases the change/output. It results in more secretion
Negative Feedback – reduces the change/output. It brings back to stable state and stops the
cycle

Menstrual Cycle Process

1. FOLLICULAR PHASE: FSH stimulates growth of ovarian follicles. It produces Estrogen
that inhibits FSH secretion. (Negative feedback) Estrogen acts on uterus to stimulate
thickening of endometrium
2. OVULATION: Estrogen stimulates anterior pituitary gland to secrete hormones (Positive
feedback). It results in more LH that causes release of egg (ovulation)
3. LUTEAL PHASE: Ruptured follicle develops into degenerated corpus luteum that secretes
high progesterone levels. Estrogen & Progesterone inhibits FSH and LH, thickens
endometrial lining (pregnancy)
4. MENSTRUATION: If fertilization occurs, embryo implants into endometrium and release
hormones. If not, corpus luteum degenerates, Estrogen & Progesterone levels drop

In Vitro Fertilization (IVF)

In Vitro Fertilization (IVF) - refers to fertilisation that occurs outside of the body.
➢ Drugs are used to stop FSH & LH Production that also stops Estrogen & Progesterone to
control egg production
➢ Superovulation involves using artificial doses/medicine to collect eggs from female (via
using FSH to develop follicles)
➢ Extracted eggs are incubated along with collecting sperm sample from male
➢ Women takes progesterone treatment for endometrium development
➢ Healthy embryo are selected and transferred to female uterus
➢ 2 weeks after, pregnancy test is taken for determining success of this process