Tissues

A tissue is a group of similar cells and cell products that arise from the same region of the
embryo and work together to perform a specific structural or physiological role in an organ.

In other words, it is a group of cells working together mainly inside an organ.

Human body is composed of 4 basic types of tissue:

1. Epithelial tissue - “covering” (surfaces, linings, glands)

2. Muscular tissue - “movement”

3. Nervous - “control” (transmit info)

4. Connective tissue -“support” (fill space, structure, strength, transport, storage)

1 PHRM 102: Cell Biology & Anatomy

Abdullah-Al-Faysal, Lecturer, DOP, EWU
 1. Epithelial tissue
Tissues composed of layers of cells that cover organ surfaces such as surface of the skin and
inner lining of digestive tract.

The tissues that serve for protection, glandular secretion, and absorption.

General Features

1) Closely packed cellular arrangement: are composed of closely aggregated polyhedral cells
which are connected through tight junctions. They have very little extracellular matrix and
little intercellular space.

2) Form ducts and secretory portions of glands:

a) Exocrine Glands (have ducts): secrete to some surface

b) Endocrine Glands (lack ducts): secrete to

bloodstream by diffusion

3) Avascular: no blood vessels in epithelial tissues,

cells derive nutrients by diffusion from blood
vessels in surrounding connective tissue.

4) Basement membrane: Epithelial tissues are

supported by a basement membrane which
separates them from other tissues. This basement membrane can be thought of as a sticky
layer to keep the epithelial cells attached. 

Functions

• Selective diffusion: transfer of gases, nutrients and waste products between the blood
and surrounding tissues.

• Protection: Epithelial cells from the skin protect underlying tissue from mechanical
injury, harmful chemicals, invading bacteria and from excessive loss of water.

• Sensation: Sensory stimuli penetrate specialized epithelial cells. Specialized epithelial

tissue containing sensory nerve endings which is found in the skin, eyes, ears, nose and
on the tongue.

• Secretion: In glands, epithelial tissue is specialized to secrete specific chemical

substances such as enzymes, hormones and lubricating fluids (e.g. saliva, mucus, etc.).

2 PHRM 102: Cell Biology & Anatomy

Abdullah-Al-Faysal, Lecturer, DOP, EWU
• Absorption: Certain epithelial cells lining of the small intestine absorb nutrients from the
digestion of food.

• Excretion: Epithelial tissues in the kidney excrete waste products from the body and
reabsorb needed materials from the urine. Sweat is also excreted from the body by
epithelial cells in the sweat glands.

• Cleaning: Ciliated epithelium assists in removing dust particles and foreign bodies which
have entered the air passages.

Classification

a) Based on their functions:

1. Covering epithelia: cover or line all body surfaces, cavities and tubes.

2. Glandular epithelia: form the functional units of secretory glands

b) By the number of cell layers

i. Simple: single cell layer thick. It is located where diffusion, absorption, filtration, and
secretion are principal functions.

Some of these cells have cilia that create currents for the
movement of materials across cell surfaces. Others have
microvilli that increase the surface area for absorption.

ii. Stratified: Stratified epithelia have two or more

layers of cells. Stratified epithelia have a primarily
protective function that is enhanced by rapid cell
divisions. Cells in the bottom layer divide, and the
daughter cells move towards surface maturing and
then degenerating.

iii. Pseudostratified: Appears multilayer but is only one cell layer thick.

c) By cell shape

i. Squamous: squamous means scale-like. Cells are flat, width is much greater than
height.

ii. Cuboidal: cells appear approximately square.

iii. Columnar: height is greater than width.

3 PHRM 102: Cell Biology & Anatomy

Abdullah-Al-Faysal, Lecturer, DOP, EWU
 iv. Transitional: A special form of epithelium, in which the cells can alter their shape.
When the epithelium is relaxed they appear cuboidal but when stretched they
appear squamous.

Type Description Location Function

Simple Squamous Composed of flattened, alveoli of lungs, passive

epithelium irregularly shaped cells. lining body transport of
cavities gases and
(mesothelium), fluids
lining blood
vessels
(endothelium)

Simple Cuboidal Composed of a single layer kidney, salivary Secretes and

epithelium of tightly fitted cube-shaped glands, pancreas absorbs
cells.

Simple Columnar Single layer of tall cells; digestive tract, Absorbs; it

epithelium some cells bear cilia; layer gall bladder also secretes
may contain mucus mucous and
secreting unicellular glands enzymes
(goblet cells)

4 PHRM 102: Cell Biology & Anatomy

Abdullah-Al-Faysal, Lecturer, DOP, EWU
Pseudostratified Appears stratified, nuclei at trachea and Secretes
Columnar epithelium varying depths. May contain upper respiratory mucus
goblet cells and bear cilia   tract

Stratified Squamous Cells at surface are oral cavity, protective

epithelium squamous, basal cells are cervix, anal canal
cuboidal and divide
constantly

Stratified Cuboidal Generally two layers of cube different glands Protective

epithelium like cells tissue

Stratified Columnar Several cell layers Rare (very large Secretes and
epithelium ducts & part of protects
male urethra)

Transitional Resembles both stratified Lines the Allows the

epithelium squamous (surface cells) and bladder, urethra urinary
stratified cuboidal (basal and the ureters organs to

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Abdullah-Al-Faysal, Lecturer, DOP, EWU
 cells) expand and
stretch

Glandular Epithelium
Glandular epithelial cells are specialized epithelial cells that secrete bodily products,
sometimes called simply glands. Glands include two types:

Endocrine Glands Exocrine Glands

No duct system Ducts to release products

Products, called hormones, are secreted Release their products onto the free
directly into the blood surface of the skin or of the open cavities of
the body

Classification of Exocrine Glands

1. Unicellular: Made of only one glandular epithelium cell. Goblet cells are the only human
example.

2. Multicellular: Multiple cells make up one gland.

a) simple (one unbranched duct): sweat gland

b) compound (branched ducts): parotid gland

Type of Secretion

Serous Mucous Mixed

6 PHRM 102: Cell Biology & Anatomy
Abdullah-Al-Faysal, Lecturer, DOP, EWU
Thin, watery protein-rich Viscous secretion with Mixed glands (e.g., most
secretion (enzyme), e.g.: lubricating or protective salivary glands) contain both
pancreas. function (mucus), e.g.: types of cells.
stomach surface.

Skin
The skin is an ever-changing organ that contains many specialized cells and structures.

 Skin is the largest organ of the body.

 Skin is the major barrier between the inside and outside of your body

 It has an area of 22 square feet in adults

and weighs about 5 kilograms.

 The thickness of skin varies from 0.5mm

thick on the eyelids to 4.0mm thick on
the heels of our feet.

Three layers of skin

A) Epidermis

The epidermis is the outer layer of skin. The

thickness of the epidermis varies in different
types of skin. It is the thinnest on the eyelids
and the thickest on the palms and soles.

The epidermis contains 5 layers. The layers are:

 stratum corneum
 stratum lucidum
 stratum granulosum
 stratum spinosum
 stratum basale

The cells of the bottom layer, the stratum basale, divide and push already formed cells into
higher layers. As the cells move into the higher layers, they flatten and eventually die.
7 PHRM 102: Cell Biology & Anatomy
Abdullah-Al-Faysal, Lecturer, DOP, EWU
The top layer of the epidermis, the stratum corneum, is made of dead, flat skin cells that
shed about every 2 weeks.

There are three types of specialized cells in the epidermis.

 The melanocyte produces pigment (melanin)

 The Langerhans' cell is the frontline defence of the immune system in the skin

 The Merkel's cells are sensitive to touch (mechanoreceptors).

B) Dermis

The dermis also varies in thickness depending on the location of the skin. The dermis
contains many specialized cells and structures.

a) The hair follicles are situated here with the arrector pili muscle that attaches to each
follicle.

b) Sebaceous (oil) glands and apocrine (scent) glands are associated with the follicle.

c) This layer also contains eccrine (sweat) glands, but they are not associated with hair
follicles.

d) Blood vessels and nerves course through this layer. The nerves transmit sensations
of pain, itch, and temperature.

C) Subcutaneous Tissue

The subcutaneous tissue is a layer of fat and connective tissue that houses larger blood
vessels and nerves. This layer is important in the regulation of temperature of the skin itself
and the body.

8 PHRM 102: Cell Biology & Anatomy

Abdullah-Al-Faysal, Lecturer, DOP, EWU
Functions of skin

1. Protection: it protects against UV light, mechanical, thermal and chemical stresses,

dehydration and invasion by micro-organisms.

2. Sensation: skin has receptors that sense touch, pressure, pain and temperature.

3. Thermoregulation: various features of the skin are involved in regulating

temperature of the body. For example sweat glands, hair and adipose tissue.

4. Metabolic functions: subcutaneous adipose tissue is involved in production of

vitamin D and triglycerides.

2. Muscles
Muscle is composed of fibers, nerves and connective tissues and account for over 40% of
the body weight. The fibers contract to produce tension on the associated tissues or
tendons.

Function of muscle

 Locomotion: One of the most obvious functions of muscle tissue is locomotion.

When muscles contract, the fibers pull or relax bones to which they are attached,
thus causing locomotion.

9 PHRM 102: Cell Biology & Anatomy

Abdullah-Al-Faysal, Lecturer, DOP, EWU
  Muscle contraction: also the primary means of moving lymph in the lymphatic
vessel. The circulation and return of venous blood is also partly dependent on
muscle contraction.

 Heat production: The contraction of muscle produce heat, which keeps the body
warm during the winter cold months.

 Framework: The muscle provides the framework for the body in addition to
maintaining posture and flexible joints.

Types of muscle

There are three types of muscle tissues:

a) Skeletal muscle: forms the large skeletal muscles responsible for gross body
movements and locomotion.

b) Cardiac muscle: found only in the heart and responsible for the contraction of heart.

c) Smooth muscle: found in the walls of visceral organs and a variety of other locations,
where it provides elasticity, contractility, and support.

Characteristics Skeletal muscle Smooth muscle Cardiac muscle

Location Attached to skeleton Wall of hollow organs, Walls of heart
vessels, respiratory
passage ways.
Function Contracts rapidly and Produces peristalsis, Causes the heart to
strongly to move the controlling of contract and makes
bone and body. diameter of eyeball the blood pumped.
and blood vessel.
Type of control Voluntary Involuntary Involuntary
Shape of fibers Elongated, Elongated, spindle Elongated, cylindrical
cylindrical, blunt ends shaped, pointed ends fibers that branch and
fuse
Striations Present Absent Present
Number of Many One One
nuclei per fiber
Speed of Most rapid Slowest Intermediate
contraction
Ability of Least Greatest Intermediate
remain
contracted
10 PHRM 102: Cell Biology & Anatomy
Abdullah-Al-Faysal, Lecturer, DOP, EWU
 3. Nervous tissue
Nervous tissue is specialized for the conduction of electrical impulses that convey
information or instructions from one region of the body to another.

About 98% of nervous tissue is concentrated in the brain and spinal cord, which are the
control centers for the nervous system.

Nervous tissue is composed of two types of cells, neurons and glial cells.

A) Neurons

A neuron is a nerve cell that is the basic building block of the nervous system. There are
approximately 100 billion neurons in the human brain. It carries messages between the
brain and other parts of the body.

Neurons stop reproducing shortly after birth, but new connections between neurons form
throughout life.

Parts of a Neuron

Cell body: main part of a neuron is the cell body, which is also known as the soma. The cell
body contains the nucleus and most of the major organelles.

Dendrites: receive information from other neurons. Information flows through a neuron
from the dendrites, across the cell body, and down the axon.

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Abdullah-Al-Faysal, Lecturer, DOP, EWU
Axon: a fiber that emerges from the cell body. Axon propagates the nerve impulse, which is
communicated to one or more cells. They are also called nerve fibers.

 Myelin: Axons are wrapped by an insulating substance called myelin, which is actually
made from glial cells.

 Node of Ranvier: Myelin is separated into equally spaced segments. Each gap is called a
node of Ranvier.

Synapse: Each connection between an axon branch and a dendrite is called a synapse.

B) Glial Cells

Glial cells or neuroglia are the other type of cell found in nervous tissue. They provide the
physical support for nervous tissue, as well as maintaining the chemical composition of the
tissue fluids and defending the tissue from infection.

There are six types of glial cells. Four of them are found in the CNS and two are found in the
PNS.

Locatio Glial Cell Type Function

n

CNS Astrocyte (star-like shape with  provide both mechanical and

long cytoplasmic processes) metabolic support for neurons
 they contribute to the blood-brain
  barrier and control transport of
substances from the blood to neural
tissue

12 PHRM 102: Cell Biology & Anatomy

Abdullah-Al-Faysal, Lecturer, DOP, EWU
 Oligodendrocyte (named for its forms a part of the myelin sheath for a
characteristic limited number of few axons
dendritic processes)

Microglia cell (named for its provide a protective function to nervous

characteristic small size) tissue in that they can become phagocytic

Ependymal cell  form the linings of the ventricles of

the brain and the central canal of the
spinal cord
 make a contribution to the production
of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) 
PNS Schwann cell forms a part of the myelin sheath for an
axon

Satellite cell encapsulate and provide protection and

support for the cell bodies of peripheral
neurons in the many peripheral ganglia

Some definitions

Neurotransmitters: are the chemicals that are released from a nerve cell which thereby
allow the transmission of signals from one neuron to the next across synapses.

The blood-brain barrier (BBB): a layer of tightly packed cells that make up the walls of brain
capillaries and prevent substances in the blood from diffusing freely into the brain. Passage
across the cell membranes is determined by solubility in the lipid bilayer or recognition by a
transport molecule.

13 PHRM 102: Cell Biology & Anatomy

Abdullah-Al-Faysal, Lecturer, DOP, EWU
Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF): clear, colourless liquid that fills and surrounds the brain and the
spinal cord and provides a mechanical barrier against shock. CSF is produced by the choroid
plexus.

4. Connective tissue
Connective tissue connects the epithelium to the rest of the body. Other connective tissues
include bone, fat, and blood, as well as tissues that provide structure, store energy reserves,
and transport materials throughout the body.

Functions of connective tissue:

1) To join together the other tissues of the body (tendons and ligaments) 

2) Support (trachea, bones) 

3) Protect underlying organs (skull) 

4) Transport (blood) 

5) Nutritive functions (blood) 

6) Immune function (lymphocytes/white blood cells)

7) Storage sites and insulation (Fat tissue)

Structural Elements of Connective Tissue

Connective tissues vary widely in appearance and function, but they all share two basic
components:

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Abdullah-Al-Faysal, Lecturer, DOP, EWU
 a) Specialized cells

b) Extracelluar Matrix

 Fibers

 Ground substance

a) Specialized cells

 Mesenchymal cells: embryonic cells which persist in the adult and are capable of
differentiation and proliferation during regeneration.

 Fibroblasts: are the most abundant permanent residents of connective tissue.

Fibroblasts are responsible for secreting collagen and other elements of the
extracellular matrix of connective tissue. 

 Macrophages: are large cells scattered throughout the matrix. They engulf
pathogens or damaged cells that enter the tissue.

 Adipocyte: a large internal fat droplet, which distends the cell so that the cytoplasm
is reduced to a thin layer and the nucleus is displaced to the edge of the cell.
Adipocytes function primarily as warehouses for reserve energy.

 Lymphocytes: migrate throughout the body. Some lymphocytes may develop into
plasma cells, which produce antibodies.

 Mast cells: are small cells that are common near blood vessels. The cytoplasm of a
mast cell is filled with granules containing histamine, heparin and serotonin.

 Melanocytes: synthesize and store the brown pigment melanin, which gives tissue a
dark color and absorb ultra violet light.

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Abdullah-Al-Faysal, Lecturer, DOP, EWU
b) Extracellular Matrix

Fibers

Three types of fibers occur in connective tissue:

1.     Collagen fibers: consist of a bundle of fibrous protein subunits, wound together like the
strands of a rope. Like a rope, a collagen fiber is flexible, but it is stronger than steel when
pulled from either end.

 Tendons: which connect skeletal muscles to bones; consist almost entirely of

collagen fibers.

 Ligaments: are similar to tendons, but they connect one bone to another.

2.     Reticular fibers:  form an irregular, fine meshwork in certain tissues, which supports
the cellular components, for example, in the spleen, liver and marrow tissue.

3.     Elastic fibers: contain the protein elastin and capable of returning to their original
length after being stretched. Tissues and organs subject to expansive forces contain elastic
fibers, such as, walls of arteries, vocal cords, skin and bronchi.

Ground Substance: Ground Substance fills the spaces between cells and surrounds
connective tissue fibers. It is composed chiefly of a group of substances called
proteoglycans.

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Abdullah-Al-Faysal, Lecturer, DOP, EWU
  Hyaluronic acid: Complex combination of polysaccharides and proteins found in
connective tissue proper.

 Chondroitin sulfate: Jellylike ground substance of cartilage, bone, skin and blood
vessels.

 Other ground substances: Dermatan sulfate, keratan sulfate and heparan sulfate.

The chief function of these materials appears to be to help maintain the proper homeostatic
environment for cells and fibrous elements.

Classification of Connective Tissues

Based on physical properties, connective tissue can be classified into:

1. Connective tissue Proper (contains all of the basic components of connective tissue
in reasonable proportion)

2. Supportive connective tissue (Cartilage and Bone)

3. Fluid connective tissue (Blood and lymph)

1. Connective Tissue Proper

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Abdullah-Al-Faysal, Lecturer, DOP, EWU
 a) Loose Connective Tissue (contains many cells, a loose arrangement of fibres and
moderately viscous fluid matrix)

i. Areolar connective tissue

ii. Adipose connective tissue
iii. Reticular connective tissue

b) Dense Connective Tissue (high density of extracellular fibers and relatively smaller

proportions of ground substance and cells). Major cell type is fibroblasts.

i. Dense regular connective tissue

ii. Dense irregular connective tissue
iii. Elastic connective tissue

2. Supportive Connective Tissue:

a) Cartilage:

Jelly-like matrix (chondroitin sulfate) containing collagen and

elastic fibers and chondrocytes surrounded by a membrane
called the perichondrium. Chondrocytes occur within spaces in
the matrix called lacuna. Unlike other connective tissue,
cartilage is avascular.

b) Bones

Bone is composed of intercellular calcified matrix. The cells of bones are:

1. Osteoblast: responsible for the formation of new bone.

2. Osteoclast: very large multinucleate cell that is responsible for the breakdown of
bones.

3. Osteocytes: are osteoblasts which have become trapped inside of the bone matrix.
The osteocyte lies within a small chamber
called a lacuna, which is within the bone
matrix.

4. Lining cells: inactive forms of osteoblasts that

cover the surfaces of the bone.

Bone marrow: soft, spongy tissue that lies within the hollow interior of long bones. In
adults, red bone marrow in large bones produces new blood cells.

Type Description Location Function

18 PHRM 102: Cell Biology & Anatomy

Abdullah-Al-Faysal, Lecturer, DOP, EWU
Embryonic Connective Gel-like ground Found in the Gives rise to all
Tissue: Mesenchyme substance with fibers embryo other connective
and spindle-shaped tissues
mesenchymal cells

Areolar connective Gel-like matrix Widely distributed Wraps and

tissue contains all three fiber under epithelium cushions organs
types

Adipose connective Matrix similar to Found under skin, Padding and

tissue areolar connective around heart and insulation
tissue with closely kidneys
Energy storage of
packed adipocytes
two types:
White fat: adults,
triglyceride
storage
Brown fat:
infants, high
mitochondria
content for heat
generation

Reticular connective Consists of fine Lymph nodes, Form a

tissue interlacing reticular bone marrow and framework
fibers and reticular spleen (stroma) that
cells supports many
organs

Dense regular Bundles of parallel Found in tendons, High strength

19 PHRM 102: Cell Biology & Anatomy
Abdullah-Al-Faysal, Lecturer, DOP, EWU
connective tissue collagen fibers which ligaments and attachment and
are aligned with aponeurosis stabilize positions
direction of force (connecting
muscle to muscle)

Dense irregular Irregularly arranged Found in the Withstands

connective tissue collagen fibers dermis and fibrous tension and
organ capsules provides strength

Elastic connective Fibroblasts with elastic Vertebral Allowing

tissue fibers ligament, artery stretching of
walls various organs

Hyaline cartilage Matrix contains fine, Ribs, nose and Provide stiff
closely packed trachea flexible support
collagen fibers and reduce
friction between
bones

Elastic Cartilage Threadlike network of Found in external Flexible, shape

elastic fibers ear, epiglottis holding support

Fibrocartilage Matrix contains dense Intervertebral Absorbs

20 PHRM 102: Cell Biology & Anatomy
Abdullah-Al-Faysal, Lecturer, DOP, EWU
 collagen fibers with discs and in discs compression
little ground substance of the knee joint shock

Bone (Osseous) Hard, calcified matrix Bones Support, lever for

connective tissue containing many movement and
collagen fibers storage of
minerals.
Osteocytes are found
in lacuna and highly Bone marrow is
vascularized the site of blood
production

Blood connective It is a highly specialized Contained within Transport

tissue viscous liquid (plasma) blood vessels respiratory gases,
containing the blood nutrients, wastes
cells. and defense cells
Erythrocytes: red throughout the
blood cell to carry body
oxygen
Leukocytes: white
blood cell for the
immune response
Thrombocytes:
platelets for clotting

Lymph Connective Connective tissue that Contained in Purify and return

Tissue contains lymphocytes lymphatic vessels fluid to blood
in a clear fluid

21 PHRM 102: Cell Biology & Anatomy

Abdullah-Al-Faysal, Lecturer, DOP, EWU
22 PHRM 102: Cell Biology & Anatomy
Abdullah-Al-Faysal, Lecturer, DOP, EWU