Parts of Speech / Full Discussion

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Nouns
A noun represents a person, place, thing, or idea. Nouns are used in sentences in two different
ways: as subjects (performers of action), or objects (receivers of action).

The word comes from the Latin "nomen," meaning "name." Word classes like nouns
were first described by the Sanskrit grammarian Pāṇini and ancient Greeks like
Dionysios Thrax, and were defined in terms of their morphological properties. For
example, in Ancient Greek, nouns inflect for grammatical case, such as dative or
accusative.

What is Noun? A noun is a kind of word that is usually the name of something such as a
person,place,thing,quality or idea.

Types of Nouns

Common and Proper Nouns

A common noun is any nonspecific person, place or thing.

A proper noun is any specific person, place, living being, or thing. A proper noun can
be a name, places, companies, and trademarks. In the English language, all proper
nouns are capitalized, which makes them easy to recognize.
Examples

In comparing common and proper nouns, the word cat can be used to describe many
things, which makes it a common noun. Describing an animal as a thing happens in
grammar but not biology since they're living beings. (J.D. Meyer) However, you could
be more specific and identify a certain cat as being Garfield or Felix, which would make
it a proper noun.
Special Classes of Nouns

• Concrete noun names something that can be perceived with the five senses (sight,
sound, touch, smell and taste).
Examples: air, flower, food, water
• Abstract noun names something that can't be perceived with the five senses.
Examples: love, God,truth, belief, sympathy
• Collective noun names a collection or a group of similar things.
Examples: flock, herd, pack, etc.
• Mass noun a noun that is very rarely plural and is never with articles 'a' and 'an'.
Examples: advice, equipment, fruit, information, weather
 • Compound noun is made up of two or more words forming a unit idea.
Examples: skyscraper, rubout, commander-in-chief'

Properties of Nouns

1. Person
2. Number
• Singular in number indicates one object only.
Examples: bus, girl, boy, town, stone
• Plural in number indicates two or more objects. Most noun form their plural
by adding -s or -es Examples: bag-bags, tree-trees, glass-glasses, church-
churches
3. Gender determines the sex of a noun.
• Masculine gender indicates the male sex.
Examples: brother, gander, nephew, father, John
• Feminine gender indicates the female sex.
Examples: mother, sister, doe, Mary
• Common gender indicates uncertainty of sex which is either male or
female.
Examples: teacher, parent, horse, cat, child
• Neuter gender indicates that an object is without sex.
Examples: rock, leaf, sea, mountain, hill, paper
4. Case shows the relation of a noun to other words in the sentence or phrase.
• Nominative case indicates that a noun is doing or being something in the
sentence. A noun in the nominative case can be either a subject or predicate
but not both in the sentence.
• Objective case indicates that a person or a thing is being acted upon. A noun
in the objective case can be use as object of the verb or object of the
preposition.
• Possessive case indicates that a person or a thing owns something. The
possessive form of a noun is usually formed by adding an apostrophe (') or
an apostrophe s ('s)

Uses of Nouns

1. Subject refers to the word about something is said in a sentence.

2. Predicative nominative or predicate noun renames, identifies or explains the
subject in a sentence. It is normally placed after a linking verb.
3. Direct object refers to the receiver of the action in a sentence. It answers the
question What? or Who?
4. Indirect object tells to whom, to what, for whom or for what a thing is done.
5. Object of the preposition answers the question What? or Whom? after the
preposition.
6. Appositive refers to a noun that identifies or provides further information about
another word in the sentence.
• Essential appositive makes the meaning of a sentence clear. It is usually
not set off by a comma.
 •Non-essential appositive may be omitted in the sentence without changing
the meaning of it.
7. Objective complement adds to the meaning of or renames the direct object. It
appears only with these verbs: appoint, call, consider, declare, elect, judge, label, make,
name, select or think.
8. Direct address is the name or word by which a person is addressed. It is set off by a
comma.

Identifying Nouns

In the following paragraph, taken from Black Beauty by Anna Sewell, all nouns appear
in bold lettering. The first place that I can well remember was a large
pleasant meadow with a pond of clear water in it. Some shady trees leaned over it,
and rushes and water-lilies grew at the deep end. Over the hedge on one side we
looked into a plowed (British English: ploughed) field, and on the other we looked
over a gate at our master's house, which stood by the roadside; at the top of
the meadow was a grove of fir trees, and at the bottom a running brook overhung
by a steep bank.

Exercises
Proper Noun and Common Noun

Identify if the noun is a proper noun or a common noun.

1. cat

Common noun

1. Florida

Proper

1. umbrella

Common

1. Wikipedia

Proper

1. water

Common

1. shorts
Common

1. alcohol

Common

1. Samsung

Proper

1. song

Common

1. Cinderella

Proper Give a proper noun that is related to the common noun.

1. television
2. shoes
3. singer
4. actor
5. country
6. book
7. laptop
8. cellphone
9. tree
10. ball point pen

Give a common noun that is related to the proper noun.

1. Snow White
2. Google
3. Ford
4. Sunflower
5. Asia
6. Hawaii
7. Meet the Robinsons
8. Don't Quit
9. Kobe Bryant
10. Supercalifragelisticexpialidocious
Other Exercises
Identify the nouns in the sentences below. There may be more than one noun
per sentence.
1. Janet is the name of a girl.

2. Off-key whistling is annoying to me, but not to everybody.

3. Cleanliness is next to godliness.

4. The World Wide Web has become the least expensive way to publish information.

Identify the nouns in the paragraph below. Text is from the first stave of A
Christmas Carol by Charles Dickens.
5. The air was filled with phantoms, wandering hither and thither in restless haste, and
moaning as they went. Every one of them wore chains like Marley's Ghost; some few
(they might be guilty governments) were linked together; none were free. Many had
been personally known to Scrooge in their lives. He had been quite familiar with one
old ghost, in a white waistcoat, with a monstrous iron safe attached to its ankle, who
cried piteously at being unable to assist a wretched woman with an infant, whom it
saw below, upon a door-step. The misery with them all was, clearly, that they sought to
interfere, for good, in human matters, and had lost the power for ever.

Pronoun
A pronoun replaces a noun in a sentence. The noun that is replaced is called an
antecedent.
Pronouns can be classified in following different ways:

Types of Pronoun

Personal Pronoun

Possessive
Type Nominative Possessive Objective
Noun

First
Singular I my me mine
Person
 Second
you your you yours
Person

he his him his

Third
she her her hers
Person

it its it its

First
we our us ours
Person

Second
Plural you your you yours
Person

Third
they their them theirs
Person

Interrogative who whose whom whose

Note: The possessive forms my, your, his, her, its, our and their function as adjectives
when they modify a noun.
Cases of Personal Pronouns

1. Nominative case - the pronoun is used as a subject or predicate

nominative/subjective complement.
Example:
I am beautiful.(subject)
The winner is she.(predicate nominative/subjective complement)
2. Objective case - the pronoun is used as a direct object, indirect object or object of the
preposition.
Example:
We met them in Florida. (direct object)
You have to award him the medal. (indirect object)
Are you finally going out with her? (object of the preposition)
3. Possessive case - the pronoun is used to show ownership or possession.
Example:
 That folder is mine.
These paintings are theirs.

Compound Personal Pronouns

Compound personal pronouns are formed by adding -self or -selves to some personal
pronouns.

Reflexive Pronoun

Reflexive pronoun may be used as a direct object or indirect object. It usually comes
after the verb.
Intensive Pronoun

Intensive pronoun is used to emphasize that the action is done by the antecedent.
List of Reflexive and Intensive Pronouns

Person Singular Plural

First Person myself ourselves

Second Person yourself yourselves

Third Person himself, herself, itself themselves

Relative Pronouns

Relative pronouns like that, which, who, whom and whose are used to introduce most
adjective clauses and to connect them to the main clause.

• That refers to either a person, animal or thing.

• Which refers to animals or things.

• Who refers to persons. It is usually used when the noun it refers to is the doer of the
action or when the noun it refers to is the subject within the clause.
• Whom refers to persons. It is usually used when the noun or pronoun it refers to is the
receiver of the action or when the noun or pronoun is used as the object within the
clause.
• Whose refers to persons, animals or things. It is used to denote possession.
Demonstrative Pronouns

Demonstrative pronouns like this, that, these and those are used to point out specific
persons or things.

Interrogative Pronouns

Interrogative pronouns are used to ask questions. They are who, whom, whose, which and
what.

Indefinite Pronouns

Indefinite pronouns are pronouns that do not refer to a particular person or group of
persons.

Singular Indefinite Pronouns

another either neither other

anybody everybody nobody somebody

anyone everyone no one someone

anything everything nothing something

each much one

Plural Indefinite Pronouns

both few many several

Singular or Plural Indefinite Pronouns

all enough most plenty

 any more none some

Adjective
An adjective is a part of speech used as a modifier that describes a noun or pronoun:

1. Traditional toys are still popular.

2. You have an interesting job.
3. Your suggestions are helpful.
4. You are gorgeous.
Positions of Adjectives

There are three positions where an adjective can be placed - before a noun, after a noun, or
in the predicate. These positions of adjectives are called attributive, postpositive and
predicative respectively.

Attributive Position
An adjective is in an attributive position when it is placed before the noun it modifies. For
example,

1. I found some hilarious pictures. (Hilarious pre-modifies 'pictures'.)

2. Clever people won't stay in such an environment. (Clever pre-modifies 'people'.)
However, pronouns cannot be pre-modified.THEY MOST OFTEN COME IMMEDIATELY
BEFORE A NOUN THIS IS THE ATTRIBUTIVE POSITION .

Postpositive Position
An adjective is in an postpositive position when it comes after the noun it modifies.
Postpositive adjectives are not as common as attributive and predicative ones, but they are
found in a number of fixed expressions. They are also used to post-modify indefinite
pronouns because pronouns cannot be pre-modified. For example,

1. We have plenty of rooms available. (Available postmodifies 'rooms'.)

2. There is nothing special. (Special post-modifies 'nothing'. 'There is special nothing' is
not acceptable.)
Predicative Position
An adjective is in an predicative position when it is placed in the predicate of a sentence. In
that case, it modifies the subject of the sentence via a linking verb or other linking
mechanism. For example,

1. Most students are happy. (Happy modifies 'students' via the linking verb 'are'.)
2. She looked sad. (Sad modifies 'she' via the linking verb 'looked'.)
Most adjectives can be placed either in the attributive or the predicative positions.
However, a small number of adjectives are restricted to one position only. For example,
some adjectives such as 'previous' can only occur in the attributive position. For example, it
is unacceptable to say 'this chapter is previous.' Conversely, some adjectives such as 'afraid'
can only occur predicatively. For example, it is unacceptable to say 'the afraid students did
not say anything.'

Functions of Adjectives

There are two main uses of adjectives, namely describing and classifying.

Describing Function/Descriptive Adjective

An adjective can be used to describe the quality of a noun. It helps answer the question
"what is X like?", where X is the noun. For example,

1. The quick fox jumps over the lazy dog. ('Quick' describes the fox. 'Lazy' describes the
dog.)
Describing adjectives can be modified by adverbs of degree like 'very' or 'extremely'.

Common Descriptive Adjectives

A common descriptive adjective is not capitalized.
Example:
The sultry Mariah entertained her fans.
Proper Descriptive Adjectives
A proper descriptive adjective, being derived from a proper noun, is always capitalized.
Example:
I prefer the Chinese deli to the Japanese restaurant.
Classifying Function/Limiting Adjective
An adjective can be used to classify a noun. It indicates quantity, number or a limit to the
word it modifies. It helps answer the question "what is the type of X?", where X is the noun.
For example,

1. These two British tourists know how to speak Italian. ('British' tells us the 'type'
(nationality) of the tourists.)
Classifying adjectives cannot be modified by adverbs of degree like 'very' or 'extremely'.

2. I prefer red wine to white wine. ('Very red wine' and 'very white wine' are not
acceptable, because 'red' and 'white' function as classifying adjectives here.)
Types of Limiting Adjectives
• Numerical adjectives may be cardinal (one, two, three,...) or ordinal *first, second, third,...)
• Identifying adjectives are such, same and similar.
• Articles are a and an (indefinite articles) and the (definite articles).
• Nouns used as adjectives modify another noun or a pronoun.
 • Pronoun Used as Adjectives
o Demonstrative adjectives are this, these, that and those.
o Possessive adjectives show ownership. They are my, your, his, her, its, our and
their.
o Interrogative adjectives ask questions. They are which, what, whose and whose.
When used they should immediately be followed by a noun.
o Indefinite adjectives are grouped into three:
▪ used with singular nouns - another, each, either, little, much, neither
and one.
▪ used with plural nouns - both, few, many and several.
▪ used with singular or plural nouns - all, any, more, most, other and
some.
• Verbs are used with adjectives when they modify a noun or a pronoun. These verbs are
usually in the present participle and past participle forms.
• Complementary adjectives refer to the direct object and tell the result of the action of the
verb on the direct object.

Comparatives and Superlatives

We change describing adjectives into comparatives and superlatives for making

comparisons. The comparative form is used when one thing is compared with another. The
superlative form is used when one thing is compared with any other thing in the domain of
discussion.

For adjectives with more than two syllables, we always add more before the adjective to
form its comparative, and most to form its superlative. For example, the two forms of
'comfortable' are 'more comfortable' and '(the) most comfortable'.

For adjectives with one or two syllables, we normally change the ending of the adjective to
-er to make its comparative, and -est to make its superlative. For example, the two forms of
'fast' are 'faster' and 'fastest'.

However, there are some of these short adjectives that can only take 'more/most'. For
example, the comparative form of 'active' is 'more active' instead of 'activer'.

There are even some of these adjectives that can either take 'more/most' or '-er/-est'. For
example, 'commoner' and 'more common' are both acceptable.

Order of Adjectives

When more than one adjectives are used to describe a noun, they are usually put in a
certain order.

Article/Pronoun used as adjective

 Intensifier

Quality

Size

Age

Color

Participle

Noun used as adjective

Head noun

Examples
1. A beautiful young French woman (but not 'a French beautiful young woman')
2. A large blue paper bag (but not 'a paper blue large bag')
As a rule of thumb, if the adjective is more about personal opinion or judgement, it is
further away from the noun. As a result, classifying adjectives are always closer to the noun
than describing adjectives. We say 'expensive white wine' instead of 'white expensive
wine'. If two adjectives are both classifiers, the order is usually domain specific - based on
how people categorise a certain noun.

Verb
A verb is a word or group of words expressing an action or a state.

Categories of Verbs

Generally, verbs fall into any of four basic categories, based upon their functions. Many
verbs have more than one function and therefore can be considered to fall into more than
one category.

1. Action verbs describe physical or mental action.

 • Transitive verbs take a direct and/or indirect object.
• Intransitive verbs take no object.
(Note: Passive verbs always are intransitive, but they become transitive when
changed to the active mood.)
2. Linking verbs connect the subject of a sentence to its complements: a predicate noun, a
predicate pronoun or a predicate adjective. They do not express action and thus may be
considered intransitive. They include:
• The forms of “to be,” (am, is, are, was, were, be, being, been, become and became.)
• Various verbs related to the senses (appear, feel, look, smell, sound, taste, etc.)
• Verbs expressing condition or placement of the subject
(become, grow, remain, seem, stay, etc.)
3. Auxiliary verbs are used to inflect various verb tenses, moods, etc. The auxiliary verbs are:
• The forms of “to be,” (am, is, are, was, were, be, being, been.)
• The forms of “have,” (has, have, had.)
• The forms of “do,” (do, does, did.)
4. Modal verbs are used to express influence over the subject of the sentence, e.g.
duty/obligation, ability/permission, volition, or necessity. The modal verbs are as follows.
• May, might, and must
• Can and could
• Will, would, shall, and should
• Ought (to), had better and had best
• Have to and need to
• Used to
• Dare

Some verbs can function as either linking or action verbs depending on how they are used.

• The drainage smelled foul. (Linking verb)

• The dog smelled the blooming flowers. (Action verb)

Other verbs can function as either linking or auxiliary verbs, again depending on usage.

• The man in the bow tie was barking mad. (Linking verb)
• The woman was trying to help him anyway. (Auxiliary verb)

Verb Phrases

Verb phrases are formed by the combination of linking or auxiliary/modal verbs with main
verbs to complete an idea.

Linking/Auxiliary/Modal Main
+ = Verb Phrase
Verb Verb

is + singing = is singing
 would have
would have + gone =
gone

will have
will have been + working =
been working

Principal Parts of Verbs

The principal parts are a verb’s basic forms, from which its other forms can be created by
inflection or conjugation. In English, there are three principal parts. These are the simple
present indicative, the simple past indicative, and the past perfect indicative.

It is worth noting that lists or recitations of principal parts in English often omit the third
principal part’s auxiliary verb, rendering it identically to its grammatically distinct
participial form.

There are two kinds of verb in English, regular (or weak) and irregular (or strong). Regular
verbs’ second and third principal parts are identical (with the exception that the third
principal part takes the auxiliary verb “have”), e.g. play, played, (have) played. Irregular
verbs’ second and/or third principal parts contain at least a stem vowel change, e.g. do, did,
(have) done.

Regular Verbs
Regular, or weak, verbs form the second principal part by appending -(e)d to the first
principal part. (Note that for some verbs, the final consonant is doubled before adding the -
ing.) The third principal part is formed by appending -(e)d to the first principal part,
combined with use of the auxiliary verb “have.”
The Participle I (more commonly called the “present participle”) is formed by appending -
ing to the first principal part. The Participle III (more commonly called the “past
participle”) is identical in inflection to the third principal part sans auxiliary verb.

Following is a list of some regular verbs in their different parts.

Simple Present Simple Past Past Perfect

Present Participle Past Participle

carry carried (have) carried

carrying carried

cruise cruised (have) cruised

cruising cruised
 dance danced (have) danced
dancing danced

drop dropped (have) dropped

dropping dropped

evolve evolved (have) evolved

evolving evolved

jump jumped (have) jumped

jumping jumped

picnic picnicked (have) picnicked

picnicking picnicked

scream screamed (have) screamed

screaming screamed

work worked (have) worked

working worked

Irregular Verbs
Irregular, or strong, verbs have different ways of forming their principal parts. They can be
described as belonging to one of five classes

Class 1
Class 1 verbs have the same form across all three principal parts.

Simple Present Simple Past Past Perfect

Present Participle Past Participle

burst burst (have) burst

bursting burst

cost cost (have) cost

costing cost

cut cut (have) cut

cutting cut

hit hit (have) hit

hitting hit
 hurt hurt (have) hurt
hurting hurt

put put (have) put

putting put

read read (have) read

reading read

set set (have) set

setting set

shut shut (have) shut

shutting shut

Class 2
Class 2 verbs have a vowel change in the simple past and past perfect tenses. Note
that got is both Class 2 and Class 3, taking an optional -en in the third principal part.
Simple Present Simple Past Past Perfect
Present Participle Past Participle

bring brought (have) brought

bringing brought

catch caught (have) caught

catching caught

fight fought (have) fought

fighting fought

flee fled (have) fled

fleeing fled

fling flung (have) flung

flinging flung

get got (have) got/gotten

getting got/gotten

lead led (have) led

leading led

lend lent (have) lent

lending lent
 lose lost (have) lost
losing lost

say said (have) said

saying said

seek sought (have) sought

seeking sought

shine shone (have) shone

shining shone

sit sat (have) sat

sitting sat

sting stung (have) stung

stinging stung

swing swung (have) swung

swinging swung

teach taught (have) taught

teaching taught

wind wound (have) wound

winding wound

Class 3
Class 3 verbs take a vowel change in the simple past and form the past perfect by adding an
-(e)n to the simple past. Note that bear, bite, and shear do not follow this pattern exactly.
Simple Present Simple Past Past Perfect
Present Participle Past Participle

bear bore (have) borne

bearing borne

beat beat (have) beaten

beating beaten

bite bit (have) bitten

biting bitten

break broke (have) broken

breaking broken
 choose chose (have) chosen
choosing chosen

freeze froze (have) frozen

freezing frozen

shear sheared (have) shorn

shearing shorn

speak spoke (have) spoken

speaking spoken

steal stole (have) stolen

stealing stolen

swear swore (have) sworn

swearing sworn

tear tore (have) torn

tearing torn

wear wore (have) worn

wearing worn

Class 4
Class 4 vowels change i in the present to a in the simple past and u in the past perfect.
Simple Present Simple Past Past Perfect
Present Participle Past Participle

begin began (have) begun

beginning begun

drink drank (have) drunk

drinking drunk

ring rang (have) rung

ringing rung

shrink shrank (have) shrunk

shrinking shrunk

sing sang (have) sung

singing sung
 sink sank (have) sunk
sinking sunk

spring sprang/sprung (have) sprung

springing sprung

swim swam (have) swum

swimming swum

Class 5
Class 5 verbs take a vowel change in the simple past but form the past perfect from the
present.

Simple Present Simple Past Past Perfect

Present Participle Past Participle

blow blew (have) blown

blowing blown

come came (have) come

coming come

do did (have) done

done

draw drew (have) drawn

drawing drawn

drive drove (have) driven

driving driven

eat ate (have) eaten

eating eaten

fall fell (have) fallen

falling fallen

give gave (have) given

giving given

go went (have) gone

going gone

grow grew (have) grown

growing grown
 know knew (have) known
knowing known

ride rode (have) ridden

riding ridden

rise rose (have) risen

rising risen

run ran (have) run

running run

see saw (have) seen

seeing seen

shake shook (have) shaken

shaking shaken

slay slew (have) slain

slaying slain

take took (have) taken

taking taken

throw threw (have) thrown

throwing thrown

write wrote (have) written

writing written

Tenses of Verbs

A verb takes different forms to show when an action occurs. These forms are called tenses.
The table below shows the six basic tenses (the three simple tenses and the three perfect
tenses) and the special forms of a verb: the six progressive forms and two emphatic forms.
Problems in using the tenses are also included. Note: In the formation of the passive voice,
only two progressive forms are included.

Simple Tense
Simple Present Tense
The simple present tense encompasses the past, present and future time.
Formation:
 Active Passive

-3rd person singular, present form

+-s/-es -am,is,are + past
-other singular/plural forms, use participle
unchanged present form.

Uses
1. Expresses present action or condition
2. Expresses regularly occurring action or condition
3. Expresses constant action or condition
4. Expresses introduction to a quotation
5. Expresses past historical action or a piece of literature as if happening now to make
description more vivid and realistic
6. Expresses future time when sentence contains adverb or phrase indicating the future
7. Expresses action or condition as in present perfect tense

Simple Past Tense

The simple past tense indicates that an action terminated in the past.
Formation:

Active Passive

-regular verbs +-d / -ed

-was, were + past
-irregular verbs, use past
participle
form

Uses
1. Expresses action or condition that happened at a definite time in the past
2. Expresses action or condition that began and ended in the past
3. Expresses polite speech

Simple Future Tense

Perfect Tense
Present Perfect
I have lived in Culiacan for six years.

Past Perfect
Future Perfect
Special Forms of a Verb

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Example Example Example Example

Example Example Example Example

Problems in Using Tenses

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Example Example Example Example

Example Example Example Example

Example Example Example Example

Improper Shifts in Tense and Form The same tense must be express two or more actions
that occur in the same time.

• A shift in tense within a sentence or between consecutive sentences must be avoided.

Incorrect: I watched television and my brother plays computer last night.

Correct: I watched television and my brother played computer last night.

• A shift in tense may be necessary to show a logical sequence of actions or the relationship of
one action to another. This is considered correct.
Example: The Beatles had performed (past perfect) in small German clubs before
they conquered (past) the international scene. By the time our team wins (present) the
World Cup, the Ice Age will have returned (future perfect).

Voices of Verbs

The voice of verbs indicates whether its subject is the performer or the receiver of the
action the verb expresses.

• Active voice shows that the subject is the doer or performer of the action. It is preferred in
writing because it is more forceful and direct than the passive voice.
• Passive voice shows that the subject is the receiver of the action. it is used in the following:
o to express an action when the doer of the action is unknown.

o to describe an ongoing experience

o to avoid giving a direct order or to state a rule.
o to express action when the doer is not important.

Moods of Verbs

Mood identifies the manner in which a verb expresses an idea.

The Three Moods of Verbs

1. The indicative mood states a fact or asks a question.
2. The subjunctive mood is used to express:
• a wish or a condition that is contrary to fact.

• a command or request after the word that.

3. The imperative mood gives a command or makes a request. Verbs in this mood are always
in the present tense and second person.

Note: The indicative and subjunctive moods have the same forms except for the following:

• In the third=person singular, the -s is omitted from verbs.

• The form of the verb to be is always be in the present subjunctive mood.
• The form of the verb to be is always were in the past subjunctive mood.

Commonly Confused Verbs

Bring and Take

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 Bring Bringing brought brought

Hang

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Example Example Example Example

Example Example Example Example

Learn and Teach

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Example Example Example Example

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Let and Leave

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Example Example Example Example

Lie, Lay and Lie

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lie lying lied lied

Lay Laying laid Laid

lie lying lay lain

Rise and Raise

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Sit and Set

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Preposition
A preposition connects the relationship between a noun, pronoun and phrase to other
parts of the sentence. Whatever object or phrase the preposition is introducing is called the
object of the preposition.

Each bold word in the following sentences are examples of prepositions:

The box is on the desk. The box is under the desk. The box is leaning against the desk. The
box is beside the desk. He held the box over the desk. He looked at the box during lunch.
In each sentence a preposition is used to locate the box in time or space. People use
prepositions every day without even realizing it. Think of a preposition as a way to relate
the object to the rest of the sentence.

List of Prepositions
Some Commonly Used Prepositions

about before down of throughout

above behind during off to

across below except on toward

after beneath for onto under

against beside from out underneath

along between in outside until

among beyond inside over up

around but into past upon

as by like since with

at despite near through without

Compound Prepositions

according to except for in response to

as well as in accordance with in spite of

because of in addition to inside of

 by means of in place of instead of

by way of in relation to on account of

Object of the Preposition

The object of the preposition is always a noun, a pronoun or a noun equivalent.

Examples
1. With poise, Gwyneth Paltrow walked to the stage and accepted her Academy Award. (The
noun poise is the object of the preposition with.)
2. The Palace welcomed the Prince of Monaco and scheduled a sightseeing tour for him. (The
pronoun him is the object of the preposition for.)
3. The director asked about proposing the summer programs for the University.
(Proposing the summer programs for the University is a group of words functioning as
noun or is a noun equivalent. It is the object of the preposition about.)

Prepositions Indicating Time

1. Use on before days of the week, before months followed by the day or before the time
indicating the day, month and year.
2. Use in to indicate year, before months not followed by the day or before the month and year
without the day.
3. Use for to refer to a period of time stating the number of hours, days or weeks.
4. Use during to refer to a period of time.
5. Use since to refer to a period of time from the past to the present.

Prepositions Indicating Place or Position

1. Use between when you speak of two persons, places or things.
2. Use among when you speak of three or more persons, places or things.
3. Use on in an address with only the name of the street.
4. Use at when referring to places which indicate the general location.
5. Use in when the given location is more specific.
6. Use in when something is already inside.
7. Use into when there is movement involved in the placement of something.

Conjunction
A conjunction is a word or words used to show the relationship between one notion and
another notion. There are two main types of conjunction: the coordinative conjunction,
which joins phrases of equal importance and rank, and the subordinative conjunction,
which joins a phrase with another phrase that is dependent on it.
Coordinative Conjunctions

A coordinative conjunction joins two sentences together that do not rely on each other for
meaning. We can split the coordinative conjunctions into four smaller groups: the
cumulative, the alternative, the adversative, and the illative.

Cumulative
A cumulative conjunction is used to add one thought to another. Examples of cumulative
conjunctions include
• and
• both...and
• not only
• but also
• as well as

Alternative
Used to indicate a choice between one notion and another. For example:

• or
• either...or
• else
• otherwise
• neither...nor

Adversative
Used to contrast one notion and another.

• but
• yet
• however
• nonetheless
• despite
• still

Illative
These show that one notion is implied, inferred or proved by another.
 • then
• thus
• therefore
• so
• for

Subordinating conjunctions

Subordinating conjunctions express relationships of time, manner, cause or reason,

comparison, condition, or purpose. They are used to introduce subordinate clauses that are
not complete

Interjection
An interjection is a word or group of words that is used to express surprise, fear, pain or
other emotions. It is not grammatically related to other words in a sentence, so it functions
independently. It may be followed by an exclamation point, or a comma when part of a
complete sentence.

List of Interjections

ah goodness hurray tsk

aha gracious oh well

alas great omigosh/omg whew

dear hello/hi ouch wow

gee hey psst yipee

Examples
• Ouch! You hurt my knee.
• Hello, how have you been?
Prepositions, Conjunctions, and Interjections

Preposition
A preposition is a word used to express some relation of different things or thoughts to
each other, and is generally placed before a noun or a pronoun: as,
• "The paper lies before me on the desk."

In that sentence, before is the preposition, me is the governed term of a preposition,

"before me" is a prepositional phrase, and the verb lies is the prior term of a preposition.
"On the desk" is the other prepositional phrase, and lies is its prior term.
To a preposition, the prior term may be a noun, an adjective, a pronoun, a verb, a participle,
or an adverb; and the governed term may be a noun, a pronoun, a pronominal adjective, an
infinitive verb, or a participle.

Although overlooked in common speech, prepositional phrases should not be placed at the
end of a question: as,

• "Who do I give this to?"

• Say, "To whom do I give this?"

Prepositional phrases can be placed at the end of a sentence: as,

• "She did not sign up for tennis."

Some words are linked with their prepositions, e.g. compared with, similar to,
and different from (possibly different than in USA).
Commonly used prepositions include:

• About—In concern with; engaged in; intent on; on the point or verge of; in act of;
concerning; with regard to; on account of.
• Above—In or to a higher place; on or over; superior to; surpassing; beyond; higher in
measure or degree.
• Across—From side to side; athwart; crosswise; quite over.
• After—Behind in place; below in rank; later in time; subsequent to; following; in search of;
in pursuit of; concerning; in relation to; in imitation of; in conformity with; after the manner
of; according to; in accordance with; in proportion to.
• Against—Abreast; opposite to; facing; towards; in opposition to; counter to; in contrariety
to; adverse to; by of before the time; in preparation for.
• Along—By the length.
• Amid(st)—In the midst or middle of; surrounded or encompassed by; among.
• Among—Conjoined; associated with; making part of.
• Around—On all sides of; encircling; encompassing; at random through; about; on another
side of.
• As—Similar of like. It can be used as conjunction and preposition.
• At—Expresses the relations of presence, proximity to, nearness in place or time, age or
order, state or condition, employment or action, point or position, rate or value, source,
occasion, reason, consequence or effect, direction toward an object or end; occupied with.
• Before—In front of; preceding in space, order, rank, right, worth, or time; ahead of; earlier
than; previously to; anterior to; an advance of; farther onward; in presence or sight of; face
to face with; under the jurisdiction of; open for; free of access to; in the power of.
• Behind—At the back part; in the rear; toward the back part or rear; backward; out of sight;
remaining.
• Below—Under, or lower in place; beneath; inferior to; unworthy of; unbefitting.
• Beneath—Lower in place; under; underneath; lower in rank, dignity, or excellence.
• Beside(s)—Over and above; separate or distinct from; in addition to; other than; else than.
• Between—In the space which separates; betwixt; from one place to another; shared by
both; affecting mutual relation; with relation to two.
• Beyond—On the further side of; further on or away than; at a place or time not yet reached;
out of the reach or sphere of; further than; greater than; exceeding or surpassing.
• During—In the time of; as long as the action or existence of.
• Except—With exclusion of; leaving or left out; excepting.
• For—In consideration of; in view of; with reference to; the cause, occasion, motive or
inducement of; the reason of; in favor of; in promoting which; on account of which;
indicating the object of an act; toward which; in the character of; instead of which; during;
in or through the space or time of; in prevention of which.
• From—Lessening or losing proximity to; leaving behind; by reason of; out of; by aid of;
indicates the point of space or time at which the action or state is regarded as setting out or
beginning; the source; the cause; the correlative of to.
• In—With reference to space or place, circumstances or conditions, a whole, physical
surrounding, personal states, reach, scope, movement or tendency, limit of time.
• Into—To the inside of; expressing penetration beyond the outside or surface; indicating
insertion, inclusion, or passing to another form or condition.
• Like—Similar of as. It can be used as conjunction and preposition.
• Of—Out from; proceeding from; belonging to; relating to; concerning; about; belonging to;
connected with; indicating origin, source, descent, possession or ownership, relation of
subject to attribute, material, part, source of a purpose or action, distance in space or time,
identity or equivalence, agent, or passage from one state to another.
• Off—Not on; away from.
• On—At, to or against the surface; by means of; with; adjacent to; in addition to; besides;
indicating dependence or reliance; at or in the time of; during; in consequence of; toward;
for; at the peril of; for the safety of; by virtue of; with the pledge of; to the account of; in
reference or relation to; occupied with; in the performance of; in the service of; connected
with; of the number of; forward; onward; in continuance; without interruption or ceasing;
adhering; not off; attached to the body; in progress; proceeding.
• Over—Above, or higher than; across; from side to side of; on the whole surface of;
throughout the whole extent of; superiority in excellence, dignity, condition, value or
authority; across or during the time of; from beginning to end of; beyond; in excess of; in
addition to; more than; across; crosswise.
• Past—Beyond, in position, degree or time; further than; beyond the reach or influence of;
above; exceeding; more than; by.
• Through—From one end to the opposite; between the sides or walls of; by means of; by the
agency of; over the whole extent of; among or in the midst of; to the end; to a conclusion; to
the ultimate purpose.
 • To—Indicates motion, course, or tendency toward a limit; connects adjectives, nouns and
verbs with their governed terms and contains less the idea of appropriation than for; a sign
of the infinitive; extent; limit; degree of comprehension; inclusion as far as; effect; end;
consequence; apposition; connection; antithesis; opposition; accord; adaptation;
comparison; addition; union; accompaniment; character; condition of being.
• Toward(s)—In the direction of; with respect or reference to; regarding; concerning;
tending to; in behalf of; near; about; approaching to.
• Under—Below or lower; lower than; beneath; denoting relation to some thing, condition or
person that is superior, or to something that comprehends, includes or furnishes a cover.
• Underneath—Under; beneath; below.
• Until—To; unto; towards; up to; till; before.
• With—Denotes relation of nearness, proximity, association, connection, opposition or
hostility, connection of friendship, support, alliance, assistance, countenance,
accomplishment of cause, means, instrument, simultaneous happening, immediate
succession, consequence, possession or appendage; among; in the company of.
• Without—On or at the outside of; out of; not within; out of the limits of; out of reach of; in
absence of, separation from, or destitution of; not with use or employment of;
independently of; exclusively of; with omission; unless; except.

A short syntax
A noun or a pronoun made the object of a preposition, is governed by it in the objective
case, as "From whom."

Prepositions show the relations of words, and of the things or thoughts expressed by them,
as "He came from Rome," except the following cases: the preposition to, as "To learn to die,"
and the preposition for, as "For us to learn."

Conjunction
A conjunction is a word used to connect words or sentences in construction, and to show
the dependence of the terms so connected: as,
• "You and he are happy, because you are good."—Murray.

Conjunctions are divided into two general classes, copulative and disjunctive; and a few of
each class are particularly distinguished from the rest, as being corresponsive.

A copulative conjunction is a conjunction that denotes an addition, a cause, a consequence,

or a supposition: as,
• "He and I shall not dispute; for, if he has any choice, I shall readily grant it."

The copulatives: and, as, both, because, even, for, if, that, then, since, seeing, so.
A disjunctive conjunction is a conjunction that denotes opposition of meaning: as,
• "Though he were dead, yet shall he live."—St. John's Gospel.
• "Be not faithless, but believing."—Id.

The disjunctives: or, nor, either, neither, than, though, although, yet, but, except, whether,
lest, unless, save, provided, notwithstanding, whereas.
The corresponsive conjunctions are those which are used in pairs, so that one refers or
answers to the other: as,
• "John came neither eating nor drinking."—Matt., xi, 18.
• "But if I cast out devils by the spirit of God, then the kingdom of God is come to you."—Ib.,
xii, 28.

The corresponsives: both, and; as, as; as, so; if, then; either, or; neither, nor; whether, or;
though, yet; although, yet.

A short syntax
Conjunctions connect words, sentences, or parts of sentences, as "Between me and you,"
except the following cases: introducing a sentence, as "That you have wronged me,"
corresponding conjunctions, as "Neither sun nor stars," and either and neither, as "It is not
dangerous neither."

Interjection
An interjection is a word that is uttered to indicate a strong or sudden emotion. The
following are the principal interjections, arranged according to the emotions which they
are intended to indicate:
• Of joy; yoo! hey! oi! yeah!
• Of sorrow; oh! ah! hoo! alas! alack! lackaday! welladay! or welaway!
• Of wonder; gotit! ha! strange! indeed!
• Of wishing, earnestness, or vocative address; (often with a noun or pronoun in the
nominative absolute;) O!
• Of praise; well-done! good! bravo!
• Of surprise with disapproval; whew! hoity-toity! really! no-way! what!
• Of pain or fear; oh! ooh! ah! eh! O dear! Oh, no!
• Of contempt; fudge! pugh! poh! pshaw! pish! tush! tut! humph! fine!
• Of aversion; foh! faugh! fie! fy! foy!
• Of expulsion; out! off! shoo! whew! begone! avaunt! aroynt!
• Of calling aloud; oi! yo! dude! hollo! holla! hallo! halloo! hoy! ahoy! hey!
• Of exultation; ah! aha! hazza! hey! heyday! harrah!
• Of laughter; ha, ha, ha; he, he, he; te-hee, te-hee.(lol)
• Of salutation; welcome! hail! all-hail!
• Of calling to attention; ho! lo! la! law! look! see! behold! hark!
• Of calling to silence; hush! hist! whist! 'st! aw! pst! shhh! zip it!
• Of dread or horror; oh! ha! hah! what!
 • Of languor or weariness; heigh-ho! heigh-ho-hum!
• Of stopping; hold! soft! avast! whoh! halt! stop! hold-on! calm!
• Of parting; farewell! adieu! good-bye! good-day! see ya!
• Of knowing or detecting; oho! ahah! ay-ay!
• Of interrogating; eh? ha? hey? no?

A short syntax
Interjections are put absolute, either alone, or with other words, as "Ah Dennis!"

A short syntax
An infinitive can be joined to every part of speech: a noun, as "Obtain felicity," an adjective,
as "Desirous to speak," a pronoun, as "What to accuse," a finite verb, as "Come to seek," an
infinitive, as "To wait to consider," a participle, as "Bent to unhoard," an adverb, as "How to
act," a conjunction, as "More than praise it," a preposition, as "About to write," and an
interjection, as "O to forget her!".

An infinitive may stand for the following: a supplement to verb, as "Go to seek," purpose, as
"Labour not to be rich," an object of passion, as "He loves to ride," a cause of passion, as "I
rejoice to hear it," the subject of proposition, as "To steal is sinful," the object of
proposition, as "To enjoy is to obey," a coming event, as "Things to come," a necessary
event, as "It is to be remembered," something previously suggested, as "The gift to know it,"
and measure, as "Enough to show."

Gerunds
Gerunds are nouns built from a verb with an ing suffix. They can be used as the subject of a
sentence, an object, or an object of preposition. They can also be used to complement a
subject. Often, gerunds exist side-by-side with nouns that come from the same root but the
gerund and the common noun have different shades of meaning. Examples: breath
and breathing, knowledge and knowing. Yet, distinguishing between a gerund, and a verb
can sometimes cause trouble. For example:
• "Swimming has to be the best sport ever." (Swimming is gerund.)
• "I went swimming today." (Not a Gerund, because it is not an idea.)

Examples of gerunds as the subject of a sentence are:

• "Backpacking is a rewarding pastime."

• "Stretching can loosen up muscles."
• "No smoking." (I.e., no smoking is allowed / you may not smoke here.)

As an object:
 • "We all love to go bowling on the weekend."
• "He loves eating chips."

An object of preposition:

• "They complained of hearing strange sounds from the next cabin."

• "They sang about being eaten by bears to allay their fears."

And as a complement to a subject:

• "One of the most dangerous things to do on the lake is ice-skating."

Participles
Participles are forms of verbs which are used as adjectives. A participle is a word derived
from a verb, participating the properties of a verb, and of an adjective or a noun; and is
generally formed by adding ing, d, or ed, to the verb: thus, from the verb rule, are formed
three participles, two simple and one compound; as, ruling, ruled, having ruled.
English verbs, not defective, have severally three participles; which have been very
variously denominated, perhaps the most accurately thus: the present, the past, and the
past perfect. Or, as their order is undisputed, they may be conveniently called the first, the
second, and the third.

The present participle is that which ends commonly in ing, and implies a continuance of
the being, action, or passion: as, being, acting, ruling, loving, defending, terminating.
Therefore:
• Talk becomes talking
• Jump becomes jumping
• Open becomes opening
• See becomes seeing

The present participle, when simple, is always formed by adding ing, or it is formed by
prefixing being to some other simple participle; as, being reading, being read, being
completed.
The past participle is that which ends commonly in ed or en, and implies a completion of
the being, action, or passion: as, been, acted, ruled, loved, defended, terminated. Therefore:
• Talk becomes talked
• Jump becomes jumped
• Open becomes opened
• However, See becomes seen

The past participle is always simple, and is regularly formed by adding d or ed to the radical
verb: those verbs from which it is formed otherwise, are either irregular or redundant.
The irregular verb see also did not have a regular past participle. As with most irregular
words, there is no good "general rule" which applies, but often ed is replaced by 'en'. More
irregular verbs with irregular past participles are:
• Be, been
 • Break, broken
• Eat, eaten
• Slide, slid

The past perfect participle is that which takes the sign having, and implies a previous
completion of the being, action, or passion: as, having loved, having seen, having written;
having been loved, having been writing, having been written.
The past perfect participle is always compound, and is formed by prefixing having to the
past participle, when the compound is double, and having been to the past or the present
participle, when the compound is triple: as, having spoken, having been spoken, having
been speaking.

A short syntax
Participles relate to nouns or pronouns, as "Reading Plato," except the following cases: the
preceding phrase, as "To leave them, appearing a duty," an abstract action or being, as "To
seem compelled, is disagreeable," substitute for infinitive, as "Afraid of trying," and
substitute for a noun, as "This is talking."

Examples
• He is talking to her.
• They are jumping into the pool.
• We had eaten the pie.

Each of these cases has a verb acting as an adjective, describing the subject.

In case you were wondering, had plus a past participle is called a past perfect, or in the
United Kingdom, the pluperfect.