IT – Chapter 3

COMPUTER HARDWARE instructions and performs the arithmetic and logic

operations required for the processing of data. Then, it
TOPIC OUTLINE sends the processed data or result to the memory.
1 Central Processing Unit (CPU)  acts as an administrator and is responsible for
2 Memory Unit supervising operations of other parts of the computer
3 Instruction Format  fabricated as a single Integrated Circuit (IC) chip,
4 Instruction Set a.k.a. microprocessor. The microprocessor is plugged
5 Instruction Cycle into the motherboard of the computer (Motherboard is a
6 Microprocessor circuit board that has electronic circuit etched on it and
7 Interconnecting the Units of a Computer connects the microprocessor with the other hardware
components).
8 Performance of a Computer
 without the CPU, the computer will be useless
9 Inside a Computer Cabinet
CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT
INTRODUCTION
1 ARITHMETIC LOGIC UNIT (ALU)
 performs the arithmetic and logic operations
COMPUTER HARDWARE
on the data that is made available to it
1 COMPUTER ARCHITECTURE
TWO UNITS
 structure and behavior of the computer
1 ARITHMETIC UNIT
 includes the specifications of the components
 performs arithmetic operations on the
Specifications of the Components e.g., instruction
data that is made available to it—addition,
format, instruction set and techniques for
subtraction, multiplication and division
addressing memory, and how they connect to the
other components. 2 LOGIC UNIT
 responsible for performing logic
2 COMPUTER ORGANIZATION
operations
 organizational structure
 performs comparisons of numbers,
 deals with how the hardware components
letters, and special characters
operate and the way they are connected to form
 Logic operations include testing for
the compute
greater than, less than or equal to
3 COMPUTER DESIGN
condition
 hardware to be used and the interconnection of
 performs arithmetic and logic operations, and
parts. Different kinds of computer, such as a PC
uses registers to hold the data that is being
or a mainframe
processed
computer may have different organization;
however, basic organization of the REGISTERS
computer remains the same.  temporary storage area to hold the data;
sudden shut down of computer without saving the
documents will lost.
THREE MAIN COMPONENTS OF COMPUTER
e.g., Google docs automatically saves real-time
1 INPUT/OUTPUT (I/O) UNIT
but should be connected to internet.
 user interacts with the computer via the I/O
 if it exceeded the storage, the computer will
unit
encounter hanging, lagging, freezing
PURPOSE: to provide data and instructions as
WAYS: saving file temporarily, clear cache
input to the computer and to present relevant
 assists what the CPU processes
information as output from the computer
WORK: holds what it processes at a time, either
2 CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT (CPU) 32-bit or 64-bit
 controls the operations of the computer and  high-speed storage areas within the CPU, but
processes the received input to generate the have the least storage capacity
relevant output  not referenced by their address, but are directly
3 MEMORY UNIT accessed and manipulated by the CPU during
 stores the instructions and the data during the instruction execution
input activity, to make instructions readily  store data, instructions, addresses and
available to CPU during processing intermediate results of processing
 also stores the processed output  the CPU’s working memory
 The data and instructions that require
CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT processing must be brought in the registers of
CPU before they can be processed.
 the processor e.g., two numbers are to be added, both numbers
 the brain / spinal cord of computer are brought in the registers, added and the result
 has a set of registers which are temporary storage is also placed in a register.
areas for holding data, and instructions.
 uses the registers to store the data, instructions during REGISTERS
processing 1 ACCUMULATOR (ACC)
 executes the stored program instructions, i.e.,  stores the result of arithmetic and
instructions and data are stored in memory before logic operations
execution. For processing, CPU gets data and
2 INSTRUCTION REGISTER (IR)
instructions from the memory. It interprets the program
 contains the current instruction most

LJL 1
IT – Chapter 3
events during processing etc.
recently fetched  holds the CPU’s Instruction Set: list of all
3 PROGRAM COUNTER (PC) operations that the CPU can perform
 contains the address of next FUNCTION: considered synonymous with that of
instruction to be processed a conductor of an orchestra. The conductor in an
4 Memory Address Register (MAR) orchestra does not perform any work by itself but
 contains the address of next location manages the orchestra and ensures that the
in the memory to be accessed members of orchestra work in proper
5 Memory Buffer Register (MBR)  coordination.
temporarily stores data from memory or
the data to be sent to memory MEMORY UNIT
6 Data Register (DR)
 stores the operands and any other data MEMORY UNIT
1 CACHE MEMORY
 The data and instructions that are required
during the processing of data are brought from the
secondary storage devices and stored in the RAM.
For processing, it is required that the data and
instructions are accessed from the RAM and
stored in the registers. The time taken to move the
data between RAM and CPU registers is large.
This affects the speed of processing of computer,
and results in decreasing the performance of
CPU.
 very high-speed memory placed in between
CPU Registers RAM and CPU: increases the speed of processing
 storage buffer that stores the data that is used
 The number of registers and the size of each more often, temporarily, and makes them
(number of bits) register in a CPU helps to available to CPU at a fast rate. During processing,
determine the power and the speed of a CPU. first checks cache for the required data. If data is
 The overall number of registers can vary from not found in cache, then it looks in the RAM for
about ten to many hundreds depending on the data.
type and complexity of the processor.  To access the cache memory, CPU does not
 The size of register, word size, indicates the have to use the motherboard’s system bus for data
amount of data with which the computer can transfer. (The data transfer speed slows to the
work at any given time. The bigger the size, the motherboard’s capability, when data is passed
more quickly it can process data. The size of a through system bus. CPU can process data at a
register may be 8, 16, 32 or 64 bits. much faster rate by avoiding the system bus.)
e.g., a 32–bit CPU is one in which each register is
32 bits wide and its CPU can manipulate 32 bits
of data at a time. Nowadays, PCs have 32–bit or
64–bit registers. 32-bit processor and 64-bit
processor are the terms used to refer to the size of
the registers. Other factors remaining the same, a
64-bit processor can process the data twice as fast
as one with 32-bit processor.
NOTE Illustration of cache Memory
We buy computers based on its purposes.
2 CONTROL UNIT (CU)  built into the processor, and may also be
 does not do any actual processing of data; located next to it on a separate chip between the
organizes the processing of data and instructions CPU and RAM. Cache built into the CPU is faster
 acts as a supervisor, and controls and than separate cache, running at the speed of the
coordinates the activity of the other units of microprocessor itself. However, separate cache is
computer roughly twice as fast as RAM.
 coordinates the input and output devices of a  The CPU has a built-in Level 1 (L1) cache and
computer. It directs the computer to carry out Level 2 (L2) cache. Some CPUs have a separate
stored program instructions by communicating cache chip on the motherboard: Level 3 (L3)
with the ALU and the registers. CU uses the cache. Nowadays, high-end processor comes with
instructions in the Instruction Register (IR) to built-in L3 cache, like in Intel core i7. The L1, L2
decide which circuit needs to be activated. It also and L3 cache store the most recently run
instructs the ALU to perform the arithmetic or instructions, the next ones and the possible ones,
logic operations. When a program is run, the respectively. Typically, CPUs have cache size
Program Counter (PC) register keeps track of the varying from 256KB (L1), 6 MB (L2), to 12MB
program instruction to be executed next.  tells (L3) cache.
when to fetch the data and instructions, what to  very expensive, so it is smaller in size.
do, where to store the results, the sequencing of Generally, computers have cache memory of sizes

LJL 2
IT – Chapter 3
256 KB to 2 MB. instructions
STORAGE DEVICES EXAMPLES
DELETING CACHE MEMORY: All saves data  Hard disk drive
will be gone; can able to hold information that  floppy drive
you usually use for future  optical disk drives
WHY DELETE? To refresh the performance of  The data and instructions that are currently not
computer being used by CPU, but may be required later for
2 PRIMARY MEMORY processing, are stored in secondary memory.
 main memory of the computer  has a high storage capacity than the primary
 used to store data and instructions during memory
execution of the instructions  cheaper than the primary memory
semiconductor memory  takes longer time to access the data and
TWO KINDS instructions stored in secondary memory than in
1 RANDOM ACCESS MEMORY (RAM) primary memory
 volatile TYPES OF STORAGE DEVICES
 stores data when the computer is on.  Magnetic tape drives
The information stored in RAM gets  disk drives
erased when the computer is turned off;  optical disk drives
provides temporary storage for data and
instructions INSTRUCTION FORMAT
 stores data and instructions during the
execution of instructions. The COMPUTER PROGRAM
data and instructions that require
processing are brought into the RAM  set of instructions that describe the steps to be
from the storage devices like hard disk. performed for carrying out a computational task
CPU accesses the data and the instructions
from RAM, as it can access it at a fast The program and the data, on which the program
speed than the storage devices connected operates, are stored in main memory, waiting to be
to the input and output unit. processed by the processor. This is also called the stored
program concept.

INSTRUCTION

Interaction of CPU with memory  designed to perform a task and is an elementary

operation that the processor can accomplish
 The input data that is entered using the  divided into groups called fields
input unit is stored in RAM, to be made The remainder of the instruction fields differs from one
available during the processing of data. computer type to other.
Similarly, the output data generated after COMMON FIELDS OF INSTRUCTION
processing is stored in RAM before being 1 OPERATION CODE
sent to the output device. Any  represents action that the processor must
intermediate results generated during the execute
processing of program are stored in RAM.  tells the processor what basic operations to
 provides a limited storage capacity due perform
to its high cost 2 OPERAND CODE
 defines the parameters of the action and
2 READ ONLY MEMORY (ROM) depends on the operation
 non-volatile memory, but is a read only  specifies the locations of the data or the
memory. operand on which the operation is to be
 The storage is permanent in nature, and performed. It can be data or a memory address.
is used for storing standard processing
programs that permanently reside in the
computer; comes programmed by the
manufacturer Instruction format
SECONDARY MEMORY
 non-volatile
 used for permanent storage of data and
instructions; the information can be stored for a Instruction format for ADD command
long time (years), and is generally permanent in
nature unless erased by the user. The number of bits in an instruction varies according to
 A program or data that has to be executed is the type of data (could be between 8 and 32 bits).
brought into the RAM from the secondary
memory. INSTRUCTION SET
provides back-up storage for data and
 a processor has a set of instructions that it understands

LJL 3
IT – Chapter 3
 a.k.a. instruction set architecture is a part of the
computer architecture. It relates to programming,
instructions, registers, addressing modes, memory
architecture, etc.
 the set of all the basic operations that a processor can
accomplish

Examples of some instructions

 The instructions in the instruction set are the language

that a processor understands. All programs have to
communicate with the processor using these instructions.
An instruction in the instruction set involves a series of
logical operations (may be thousands) that are performed
to complete each task. The instruction set is embedded in
the processor (hardwired), which determines the machine
language for the processor. All programs written in a
high-level language are compiled and translated into
machine code before execution, which is understood by
the processor for which the program has been coded.

Figure 2.7 Examples of some instructions

Two processors are different if they have different

instruction sets. A program run on one computer may not
run on another computer having a different processor.
Two processors are compatible if the same machine level
program can run on both the processors. Therefore, the
system software is developed within the processor’s
instruction set.

Microarchitecture is the processor design technique used

for implementing the Instruction Set. Computers having
different microarchitecture can have a common
Instruction Set. Pentium and Athlon CPU chips
implement the x86 instruction set, but have different
internal designs.

LJL 4