materials

Article
Theoretical Analysis and Verification on Plastic Deformation
Behavior of Rocket Nozzle Using a Novel Tube
Upsetting-Bulging Method
Yizhe Chen 1,2,3 , Shilong Zhao 1,2 , Hui Wang 1,2, *, Jun Li 3 and Lin Hua 1,4, *

1 Hubei Key Laboratory of Advanced Technology for Automotive Components,

Wuhan University of Technology, Wuhan 430070, China
2 Hubei Collaborative Innovation Center for Automotive Components Technology, Wuhan 430070, China
3 Jiangsu Xinyang New Material Co., Ltd., Yangzhou 225000, China
4 Hubei Engineering Research Center for Green & Precision Material Forming, Wuhan 430070, China
* Correspondence: [email protected] (H.W.); [email protected] (L.H.)

Abstract: The rocket nozzle is one of the core components to ensure the safe flight of rockets.
To overcome the problems of multi-step forming, the occurrence of defects, and severe plastic
deformation in traditional technology, a novel forming method named tube upsetting-bulging
(TUBG) is put forward. With the support of internal pressure, a tube is deformed with an upsetting
and bulging process at the same time. The tube is thickened at the small end and thinned at the
large end. A nozzle with sharply varying diameters can be obtained. A theoretical model of TUBG
that considers wrinkles and rupture is built. The influence factors of internal pressure during TUBG
are discussed. Experiments and simulation works are conducted to analyze the plastic deformation
process of TUBG. Results show that mechanical properties and geometrical parameters have an
obvious influence on critical internal pressure. The proposed theoretical model can be used to predict
a forming zone without wrinkles, rupture, and severe strain values. A well-formed nozzle can be
obtained using the predicted forming zone, which verifies the correctness of the theoretical analysis.
It can be found that TUBG is a novel potential method to fabricate rocket nozzles with high efficiency
Citation: Chen, Y.; Zhao, S.; Wang, and quality without defects.
H.; Li, J.; Hua, L. Theoretical Analysis
and Verification on Plastic
Keywords: rocket nozzle; tube upsetting-bulging; plastic deformation; critical pressure
Deformation Behavior of Rocket
Nozzle Using a Novel Tube
Upsetting-Bulging Method. Materials
2023, 16, 1680. https://doi.org/
1. Introduction
10.3390/ma16041680
The rocket nozzle is the key device and power source of the rocket engine [1]. It
Academic Editors: Anna Dziubińska
converts the chemical energy generated by a propellant into kinetic energy, which can
and Wojciech Presz
provide the driving force for the rocket. Therefore, the rocket nozzle is extremely important
Received: 19 January 2023 to the safe flight of the rocket [2–4]. The rocket nozzle is subjected to 6–10 Mpa pressure
Revised: 13 February 2023 and high temperature (2800–3400 K) gas erosion when working [5–7].
Accepted: 15 February 2023 In previous studies, the spinning process is widely used to make rocket nozzles [8,9].
Published: 17 February 2023 Spinning is a method that uses the movement of a rotary wheel to press the blank rotating
with a mold. It causes continuous plastic deformation of metals and finally obtains the
hollow rotation parts [10]. However, with the requirements of lightweight and high
strength, spinning still has the following disadvantages: 1. Spinning requires multi-step
Copyright: © 2023 by the authors.
forming. When a rocket nozzle is manufactured, the spinning process needs to be carried
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
out two or more times [11]. 2. For parts with thin wall thickness, it is easy to wrinkle
This article is an open access article
and rupture at the same time. 3. The degree of plastic deformation is large. Due to
distributed under the terms and
the reciprocating action of the rotary wheel, the microstructure of the rocket nozzle is
conditions of the Creative Commons
elongated. Therefore, the grain is easy to grow up abnormally after heating, which does
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
not meet the requirements under high temperatures and pressure [10]. With the increasing
4.0/).
difficulty of space exploration missions, the requirements for the rocket nozzle are becoming

Materials 2023, 16, 1680. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma16041680 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/materials

Materials 2023, 16, 1680 2 of 22

significantly stricter. The abovementioned disadvantages in the traditional methods have

limited the development of the rocket nozzles inevitably.
The light weight of aerospace and vehicle-carrying equipment has been attracting
attention [12,13]. For thin-wall hollow structural components, a common forming process
is high-pressure tube hydroforming (HPTH) [14–16]. In this method, internal pressure is
applied to force the tube to expand into the required shape in a closed die cavity −much
like blowing up a balloon [16]. A tube blank of the initial type selected for manufacture
must have less than the circumference of the lowest section of the product to use HPTH.
However, internal pressure is the main and only driving force in the HPTH. When the size
of tube deformation is large, pressures of hundreds of Mpa are needed [17]. In addition, due
to the influence of friction caused by high pressure, the material of the tube has difficultly
flowing, which can cause serious thickness thinning or even cracking [18,19]. As a result of
the limitation of the ultimate expansion coefficient of the tube, the maximum expansion
rate of the tube section is generally 20–33% [20].
Another method to make the thin-wall hollow structural components is the tube
upsetting [21,22]. It can reduce the diameter of the tube through the mold [23]. Obviously,
in order to manufacture the required parts by tube upsetting, the circumference of the
selected initial tube blank must be greater than the maximum section of the product.
Therefore, when the circumference of the tube decreases, wrinkles are always the main
defects in the tube upsetting [24,25]. In particular, for the thin wall hollow tube without
internal support, when a large degree of tube upsetting deformation occurred, it is more
likely to appear as dead wrinkles, which leads to the failure of forming.
The tube-forming methods mentioned above have certain limitations (wrinkles that
cannot be suppressed, bursting risks under the action of high pressure). Therefore, Chu
Guannan et al. proposed a new method called tube hydro-forging [26]. Under the support
of internal pressure, the stamping of the outer mold is used to shape the tube into the
desired shape. In this scheme, internal pressure only plays a supporting role. The pressure
required for forming is reduced to 30% of the hydraulic forming. As a result, the use of
high pressure is avoided, and the wrinkles of the tube are suppressed. However, the above
forming schemes are all developed for the square tube members with the small size of the
vehicle. When the upsetting rate of the cross-section reaches more than 56%, this scheme is
limited greatly. In addition, when the thickness of the part is reduced to less than 0.5 mm,
the tube can easily lose stability and wrinkle.
Especially for rocket nozzles, as a thin-wall annular component, which has a sharply
varying diameter from one end to the other end. It is thickened at the small end and thinned
at the large end. When a tube with a smaller diameter is used in the manufacture of a
rocket nozzle, it carries the risk of rupture depending on high-pressure tube hydroforming
(HPTH). When a tube with a larger diameter is used in the manufacture of a rocket nozzle,
there is still a risk of wrinkles, even with the support of internal pressure, because of the
large degree of deformation.
For a long time, studies on the deformation of thin-wall tubes only stayed on the
single deformation (stamping, upsetting, bulging, hydroforming), the case of combining
upsetting and bulging simultaneously has not been examined or reported. For this purpose,
we proposed a new tube-forming method called tube upsetting-bulging (TUBG). Different
from the traditional methods, the deformation of upsetting and bulging occur on the
different parts of the same tube in TUBG. A theoretical model of TUBG that considers
wrinkling and rupturing is built. The influence factors of internal pressure during TUBG
are discussed. Experiments and simulation works are conducted to analyze the plastic
deformation process of TUBG.

2. Principle of Tube Upsetting-Bulging Method

2.1. Forming Processes
The schematic diagram of the TUBG studied in this paper is shown in Figure 1. For
the rocket nozzle, as shown in Figure 1a, the small end is thicker, and the large end is
 2. Principle of Tube Upsetting-Bulging Method
2.1. Forming Processes
The schematic diagram of the TUBG studied in this paper is shown in Figure 1
Materials 2023, 16, 1680 the rocket nozzle, as shown in Figure 1a, the small end is thicker, and3the of 22 large en

thinner. Compared with the high-pressure tube hydroforming or tube upsetting, du

TUBG, instead of a single bulging or upsetting, the different parts of the tube are u
thinner. Compared with the high-pressure tube hydroforming or tube upsetting, during
and expanded, respectively. In the process of tube upsetting-bulging (TUBG), by con
TUBG, instead of a single bulging or upsetting, the different parts of the tube are upset and
ling the movement
expanded, respectively.of
Inthe
the punch,
process of the tube
tube is deformed under
upsetting-bulging (TUBG), thebyforce of the punch
controlling
mold.
the By operating
movement the pump,
of the punch, the tubethe pressure under
is deformed provided by the
the force liquid
of the punchdrives the tube to
and mold.
plastic
By deformation.
operating the pump, theAspressure
a result, one end
provided of liquid
by the the tube is the
drives upsetting, andplastic
tube to have the other en
deformation.
bulging. The Aswall
a result, one endof
thickness of the
the tube is upsetting,
smaller and the other
end increases and theend wall
is bulging.
thickness o
The
larger end decreases because of the same volume of the metals. Combiningend
wall thickness of the smaller end increases and the wall thickness of the larger the above
decreases because of the same volume of the metals. Combining the above processes, the
cesses, the thickness of the smaller end and larger end of the nozzle is controlled. In
thickness of the smaller end and larger end of the nozzle is controlled. In this scheme, since
scheme,
one end ofsince oneisend
the tube of theand
upsetting tubetheisother
upsetting and thewe
end is bulging, other
call end is bulging,
this process tube we cal
process tube upsetting-bulging.
upsetting-bulging.

Figure1.1.Nozzle
Figure Nozzle of rocket
of rocket and schematic
and schematic of TUBG.
of TUBG. (a) The
(a) The rocket rocket
nozzle, (b)nozzle, (b) The
The schematic of schematic
TUBG of T
withinitial
with initial internal
internal pressure
pressure P0, (c)The
P0 , (c)The tube
tube after after upsetting
upsetting with
with higher higher
internal internal
pressure pressure
P1 , (d) The P1, (d
tube
tubeafter bulging
after withwith
bulging much higher
much internal
higher pressurepressure
internal P2 , (e) The
P2perfectly
, (e) Theformed rocket
perfectly nozzle.rocket nozz
formed

Taking a certain type of rocket engine nozzle as an example, the diameter ratio of the
Taking a certain type of rocket engine nozzle as an example, the diameter ratio o
small end to the big end is 31.67%. The wall thickness of the small end is thicker, and the
small
wall end toofthe
thickness thebig end
large endisis31.67%.
thinner. The wall thickness
According of the
to the principle of small end is thicker, and
upsetting-bulging,
wall thickness of the large end is thinner. According to the principle
it is advisable to use an appropriate diameter in the middle of the nozzle as the diameterof upsetting-bul
of
it isoriginal
the advisable
tube. to use an
During appropriate
TUBG, the tube isdiameter
supportedin bythe middle
a rubber of the with
container nozzle as the diam
liquids,
which
of thecan provide
original internal
tube. pressure.
During TUBG,Thethe
upper
tubehalf
is of the tube meets
supported by athe punchcontainer
rubber of the with
stamping machine, it is knocked into the cavity of the mold under the action of the punch
uids, which can provide internal pressure. The upper half of the tube meets the pun
until it is completely fitted. In this process, the perimeter of the tube decreases, the section
the stamping machine, it is knocked into the cavity of the mold under the action o
of the tube is reduced, and the wall thickness increases. Subsequently, the internal pressure
ispunch untilThe
increased. it iscross-section
completelyisfitted. In this
expanded, andprocess, the perimeter
the wall thickness of the
is thinned tube
until decreases
it fits
section
into of the tube is reduced, and the wall thickness increases. Subsequently, the inte
the mold.
pressure is increased. The cross-section is expanded, and the wall thickness is thin
2.2. Advantages of Novel Method
until it fits into the mold.
From the principle of TUBG, the tube only has soft contact with the rubber container in
the whole process of forming. There is no reciprocating effect of the rigid wheel. Compared
2.2. Advantages of Novel Method
with the traditional spinning forming, the product of TUBG has excellent surface properties.
It willFrom the principle
be conducive of TUBG,
to the coating thethermal
of the tube only has soft
insulation contact
layer on thewith theof
surface rubber
the conta
rocket
in thenozzle,
wholewhich improves
process the reliability
of forming. Thereofisthe
nonozzle in the service
reciprocating process
effect effectively.
of the rigid wheel. C
At the same
pared withtime, to meet the spinning
the traditional size requirements
forming,of the
the target
productparts,
of the upsetting
TUBG and
has excellent su
bulging sections can be formed at one time. Therefore, it shortens the production cycle and
properties. It will be conducive to the coating of the thermal insulation layer on the su
improves the qualification rate, which also ensures the dimensional accuracy better.
of the rocket nozzle, which improves the reliability of the nozzle in the service pro
 pressure only plays a supporting role. It greatly reduces the demand for
pressure. Therefore, the influence of friction caused by high pressure is wea
same time, upsetting and bulging occur in different parts of a single tube,
Materials 2023, 16, 1680
the traditional severe plastic deformation into two parts. The forming 4 of 22
quali
uct is better improved. In addition, because two opposite deformation beha
a single tube in one process, TUBG can be used to manufacture compone
Compared
variations inwith the traditional
diameter from tube
small forming methods,
to large ends.in the process of TUBG, the
deformation force driving the upsetting is provided by the stamping machine. Internal
pressureIt only
can plays
be seen that if the
a supporting role.internal
It greatly pressure
reduces the is too low
demand duringhigh
for internal upsetting
the tendency
pressure. tothe
Therefore, wrinkle.
influenceIfofthe internal
friction caused pressure is too
by high pressure high during
is weakened. At thebulging
same
the tendency to rupture. These are two typical geometric defects inthethe ups
time, upsetting and bulging occur in different parts of a single tube, which divides
traditional severe plastic deformation into two parts. The forming quality of the product
process.
is Therefore,
better improved. according
In addition, becauseto two
theopposite
size and properties
deformation of theoccur
behaviors materials,
on it i
aunderstand the process,
single tube in one influencing
TUBG can factors
be used oftowrinkling
manufactureand rupturing.
components On this b
with large
variations
mum pressurein diametertofrom small to large
eliminate ends.
wrinkling and the maximum pressure to prev
It can be seen that if the internal pressure is too low during upsetting, the tube has
can be determined. Further, the forming zone which meets the forming ne
the tendency to wrinkle. If the internal pressure is too high during bulging, the tube has
tablished.
the tendency toTorupture.
achieve this
These arethe
twocorresponding analytical
typical geometric defects model will be propo
in the upsetting-bulging
process.
section. Therefore, according to the size and properties of the materials, it is important to
understand the influencing factors of wrinkling and rupturing. On this basis, the minimum
pressure to eliminate wrinkling and the maximum pressure to prevent rupturing can be
3. Theoretical
determined. Analysis
Further, the forming zone which meets the forming needs will be established.
To achieve this the corresponding analytical model will be proposed in the next section.
3.1. Theoretical Model
3. Theoretical
As shown Analysis
in Figure 2, during TUBG, it is important to determine the
3.1. Theoretical Model
mum support pressure to prevent wrinkling and the critical maximum rup
As shown in Figure 2, during TUBG, it is important to determine the critical minimum
to prevent
support breaking.
pressure Therefore,
to prevent it isthe
wrinkling and necessary to propose
critical maximum rupture a pressure
TUBG theoretic
to
a correction
prevent coefficient.
breaking. Therefore, itSubsequently, the relative
is necessary to propose formingmodel
a TUBG theoretical zone,with
according
a
correction coefficient. Subsequently,
ical calculation, can be determined. the relative forming zone, according to the theoretical
calculation, can be determined.

Figure
Figure 2. Outer and inner
2. Outer and forces
innerwhere leadwhere
forces wrinkles and ruptures.
lead wrinkles and ruptures.
3.1.1. Mechanism of Wrinkles Suppression
3.1.1.
WhenMechanism of Wrinkles
upsetting occurs, Suppression of the metals, the perimeter of the
due to the incompressibility
tube section decreases, and the thickness increases. For wrinkling cases, it is assumed that
When upsetting
the circumference of the roundoccurs, due unchanged
tube remains to the incompressibility ofpressure
[27]. When the internal the metals,
is th
the tube
lower section
than the criticaldecreases, and the thickness
value, the cross-section increases.
of the wrinkled For in
tube is shown wrinkling
Figure 3b. cases
With internal pressure support, the perfect upsetting tube is shown in
that the circumference of the round tube remains unchanged [27]. When the Figure 3c.

sure is lower than the critical value, the cross-section of the wrinkled tub
Figure 3b. With internal pressure support, the perfect upsetting tube is sh
3c.
Materials 2023,
Materials 2023, 16,
16, 1680
x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 5of
of 22
22

Figure
Figure 3.
3. Cross-sectional
Cross-sectional topography
topography of
of tube,
tube, (a)
(a) Initial
Initial tube,
tube, Tube
Tube after
after upsetting
upsetting (b)
(b) with
with wrinkles
wrinkles
and (c) without wrinkles (from the perspective of the XOZ plane).
and (c) without wrinkles (from the perspective of the XOZ plane).

When the upsetting process is completed, there are two results: the tube keeps perfect
or it wrinkles. The appearance
appearance of of wrinkles
wrinkles can
can be regarded as the behavior to release the
tube’s internal energy. The strain energy E11 contained
contained in the unwrinkled
unwrinkled tube is greater
than the strain energy E22 contained
contained inin the
the wrinkled
wrinkled tube.
tube. The
The energy
energy released
released by
by wrinkling
wrinkling
can be written as E00.. The
The relationship
relationship exists
exists as
as follows:
follows:

0 =
E0E= 1−
E1E− E2E2 (1)

Under
Under the
the action
action of
of critical
critical internal pressure P
internal pressure PLL,, when
when the
the tube
tube with
with aa wrinkled
wrinkled area
area
of A is suppressed, the energy can be written
of A is suppressed, the energy can be written as:as:

E = PL  dA = PL A (2)
Z
0 P
E0 = dA = PL A (2)
L

The process of inhibiting wrinkles can be seen as a force F, forcing the wrinkles to
moveThe process of
a distance. inhibiting
When wrinkles
studying can bebehavior
the wrinkle the F,
seen as aofforce forcing
thin plate,the
Caowrinkles to
et al. [28]
move a distance. When studying the wrinkle
deduced the critical internal pressure as: behavior of the thin plate, Cao et al. [28]
deduced the critical internal pressure as:
3 ( E1 − E2 )
P =3( E1 − E2 ) (3)
PL L= 4ϕ s (3)
4ϕs
ϕ is the height of wrinkles and s is the length of wrinkles.
ϕ is the height of wrinkles and s is the length of wrinkles.
In
In the past, when
the past, when scholars
scholars studied
studied the
the upsetting
upsetting behavior
behavior of
of tubes,
tubes, the
the shape
shape of
of the
the
wrinkled part y was regarded as a sine wave [26,27], which can be expressed as a function
wrinkled part y was regarded as a sine wave [26,27], which can be expressed as a function
with xx as
with as an
an intermediate
intermediate variable:
variable:

yy== ϕ(1 1−−cos

ϕ
2 (
cosaxax
) ) (4)
(4)
2
Assuming without the internal pressure, when the displacement of u occurs at the
Assuming without the internal pressure, when the displacement of u11 occurs at the
edge of the wrinkle, the frequency a of the corresponding mode can be expressed as:
edge of the wrinkle, the frequency a of the corresponding mode can be expressed as:

a= 2π
2π
(5)
a =s − 2∆u1 (5)
s − 2Δu1
In the work of previous scholars [26], s – 2∆u1 can be expressed as seε 1 . Therefore, the
ε
In ϕthe
height of work of previous
wrinkles [26], s − 2Δu1 can be expressed as se 1 . Therefore,
scholars as:
can be expressed
the height ϕ of wrinkles can be expressed as:
2y
ϕ= (6)
1 − cos2 y2π
x
ϕ= seε 1
2π (6)
1 − cos according
The length of the wrinkles can be expressed ε
x to the means of calculus as:
se 1
Z s−∆u q
1
The length of the wrinkles can
s =be expressed
1+according
y2 dx to the means of calculus as:(7)
0
 0

Consequently, ϕ can be expressed as:

2s
Materials 2023, 16, 1680 ϕ= eε1 − e2ε1 6 of 22
π
When studying the wrinkling behavior, Cao et al. [28] deduced the strain en
Consequently, ϕ can be expressed as:
tained in the unwrinkled tube as follows:
2s p ε
ϕ= e 1 − e2ε 1 (8)
π sKt 2 3 n+1
E 1 = (ε − ε1 ) the strain energy
0 [28] deduced
When studying the wrinkling behavior,
contained in the unwrinkled tube as follows:
n + 1
Cao et al.
3
ε0 is the pre-strain. In this √
sKt experiment,
2 3
n+1the pre-strain of the tube witho
E1 = (ε 0 − ε1) (9)
mation can be regarded as 0. n + 1 3
There
ε 0 is theis a relationship
pre-strain. betweenthe
In this experiment, the stress and
pre-strain of thestrain of thedeformation
tube without material as follo
can be regarded as 0.
There is a relationship between the stress and σ ofεthe material as follows:
n
=K
strain

where K is the strength coefficient, Kεn n is the strain-hardening exponent.

σ =and (10) σ
effective
where K isvalues.
the strength coefficient, and n is the strain-hardening exponent. σ and ε are
After
effective upsetting, the shape of the tube from the perspective of the XOY plane
values.
in Figure 4.
After upsetting, the shape of the tube from the perspective of the XOY plane is shown
in Figure 4.

(a) (b)
Figure 4.Schematic
Figure 4. Schematicdiagram of theof
diagram tube (a)tube
the initial(a)
state and (b)
initial afterand
state upsetting (fromupsetting
(b) after the perspective
(from the p
of the XOY plane).
of the XOY plane).
During the tube upsetting process, it meets the simple loading conditions. From the
During
full volume the tube
theory, upsetting
the correlation process,
between ε and it meets
σ can the simple
be rewritten as: loading conditions.
full volume theory, the correlation
0 between
0 0 ε and σ can be rewritten as:
εr εθ εt
0 = 0 = (11)
ε r εθ' ε t'
' 0
σr σθ σt
= equation
Using the law of equal proportionality, theσabove
= can
r
'
σ '
θ σ t' be rewritten as:
0 0 0 0
r ε −ε
t ε −ε
Using the law of equal proportionality,
0
θ
0 =
θ
0 0 the above equation can be rewritte
(12)
σr − σθ σθ − σt

ε r' − εθ' εθ' − ε t'

=
σ r' − σ θ' σ θ' − σ t'
According to the theory of thin plate and the theory of thin-wall shell [29
the diameter is much larger than the thickness, the principal stress σt perpendic
direction of the material surface is considered 0, the above equation can be rega
Materials 2023, 16, 1680 7 of 22

According to the theory of thin plate and the theory of thin-wall shell [29,30], since
the diameter is much larger than the thickness, the principal stress σt perpendicular to the
direction of the material surface is considered 0, the above equation can be regarded as:

εr − εθ ε − εt
= θ (13)
σr − σθ σθ

Record the angle between the contour of the mold and the axis as α, ε t can be written as:
r
σθ + σr 1 + (1 + µ cot α)(1 − R) R
εt = − ε =− r ln (14)
2σθ − σr θ 2 − (1 + µ cot α)(1 − R) R0

For tubes with stable upsetting, there is an equilibrium equation:

dσr
R + σr − σθ (1 + µ cot α) = 0 (15)
dR
In the upsetting area, the compressive stress σθ can be expressed as:

σθ = βY (16)

β is a constant. In the study of this forming process, 1.15 can be taken.

Because the degree of deformation varies from point to point within the deformation
area, the true stress Y can be expressed as:

Yb − σs R
Y = σs + ( )(1 − ) (17)
ln σb R0

In summary, the equilibrium equation can be written as:

Y − σs
 
dσr R
R + σr − 1.15 σs + ( b )(1 − ) (1 + µ cot α) = 0 (18)
dR ln σb R0

Integrate the above equation:

Yb − σs Yb − σs R2
 
Rσr = 1.15(1 + µ cot α) σs R + R( )−( ) +C (19)
ln σb ln σb 2R0

When R = r, σr = 0, C can be written as:

Yb − σs Yb − σs R2
 
C = −1.15(1 + µ cot α) σs r + r ( )−( ) (20)
ln σb ln σb 2R0

The distribution law of σr in the deformation zone of the workpiece can be written as:

Yb − σs
 
r Rr
σr = 1.15(1 + µ cot α)(1 − ) σs + ( )(1 − ) (21)
R ln σb 2R0

At the same time, under the condition that the material is not compressed,
Cao [28] et al. provide the formula for calculating the strain energy contained in the
wrinkled tube:
√ ! n +1 
t −n
  
2Kt 3t 2 −1 ϕ∆a
E2 = + tan (22)
n+1 3 ϕ2 ∆a 2 2
 same dimensions, so there are multiple relationships between the defined w
and the tube wall thickness:

s
N=
Materials 2023, 16, 1680
t 8 of 22

Combined with the above formula, the critical internal pressure Pcr1 of t
It can be observed that the wrinkle length s and the tube wall thickness t are the same
out wrinkling can be expressed as:
dimensions, so there are multiple relationships between the defined wrinkle length and the
tube wall thickness:
3K π  n
 3t   Nte N= 2ε1s
t  2   2 e −e
ε1 (23)2ε1 
pc1 = ε n +1
−  t
+    tan −1
 
ε1 Combined
2ε1
 3  
1 with the above formula,ε the critical
2ε1 2  N  
internal pressure Pcr1 of the εtube
e 
4N e − e   4 e −e
1

 
without wrinkling can be expressed as:
1
 
" √ !n  √ !#
Nte2ε 1 1 2 e −e
2ε 1
 
3Kπ n +1 3t t 2 −
ε1
p c1 = √ − √ + Rupturing
tan (24)
4N eε 1 3.1.2.
− e2ε 1 Mechanism 3 of Resistance
4 eε 1 − e2ε 1 to
ε1
2 N eε 1
After bulging, the shape of the tube from the perspective of the XOY p
3.1.2. Mechanism of Resistance to Rupturing
in Figure 5. For the bulging phase, it is generally assumed that the stress-st
After bulging, the shape of the tube from the perspective of the XOY plane is shown
distributed
in Figure 5. Foralong the wall
the bulging phase,thickness. The
it is generally radial
assumed stress
that is ignored.
the stress-strain Only the t
is evenly
sile stressalong
distributed is considered.
the wall thickness. The radial stress is ignored. Only the tangential tensile
stress is considered.

Schematic
Figure 5.5.
Figure diagram
Schematic of the bulging
diagram of theonbulging
the tube (from the tube
on the perspective
(from of the
the XOY plane).
perspective of the
Under the drive of internal pressure, the tube is expanded to the maximum diameter.
TakingUnder the drive
a unit width of internal
of the tube pressure,
for analysis, accordingthe tube
to the is expanded
equilibrium toofthe
conditions themaxim
round tube, it can be obtained that:
Taking a unit width of the tube for analysis, according to the equilibrium
x
the round tube, it can be obtained that:
Z
pr sin αdα = 2σt t (25)
0
x
It can be simplified as:

t0
p = σt
pr sin α dα = 2σ t t
(26)
r
It canstudying
When be simplified
the ultimateas:expansion coefficient of the tube, considering the thick
anisotropy of the material, Yang [31] et al. provide the influence coefficient of the above formula:
t
1+R p = σt
M= √
1 + 2R r (27)

RWhen studying
is the anisotropic the ultimate
parameter expansion
of the selected coefficient of the tube, conside
material.
Considering the influence of cold work hardening of the material, replace σt with σb ,
anisotropy of the material, Yang [31] et al. provide the influence coefficient
combined with the influence coefficient, and the critical pressure required for expansion
formula:
can be corrected to:
1+R t
p= √ (28)
1+ R
σb
1 + 2R r
M =
Assuming that the ratio of axial stress to circumferential stress is ξ, the initial critical
yield pressure obtained from the Tresca yield criterion is: 1 + 2 R

R is the anisotropic parameter

ps =
1of tthe selected material.
σs (29)
1−ξ r
Considering the influence of cold work hardening of the material, rep
σ b , combined with the influence coefficient, and the critical pressure requir
sion can be corrected to:
 Materials 2023, 16, 1680 9 of 22

During the bulging process, there are:

  
 σz = ln l
 L0  (30)
 σθ = ln r
R0

Combined with the above influence coefficients, when plastic deformation occurs, the
ring stress and axial stress are derived as:

(1+ R )2
  
 σθ = σe R
1+2R εe 1+ R ε z + εθ
(31)
(1+ R )2
 
 σ = σe R
z 1+2R εe 1+ R ε x + εz

To deform the tube without failure conditions such as rupture, Chow [32] et al. provide
a critical pressure including the thick anisotropy parameter when the tube is expanded:
 n
t0 1 + R n 1+R
p c2 = K √ √ (32)
r0 en 1 + 2R 2 1 + 2R

In summary, the selectable pressures pcr for this process are between pcr1 and pcr2 :
" √ !n  √ !# n
Nte2ε 1 2 eε 1 − e2ε 1
  
3Kπ 3t t 2 t 1+R n 1+R
√ ε 1 n +1 − √ + tan−1 ≤ pcr ≤ K 0 n √ √ (33)
4N eε 1 − e2ε 1 3 4 eε 1 − e2ε 1 2 N e1ε r0 e 1 + 2R 2 1 + 2R

3.2. Influencing Factors of Pressure

3.2.1. Materials
The proposal in this process is derived from two hypotheses: the length of wrinkles
gradually decreases until it disappears with the increase of internal pressure; the risk of
rupture gradually decreases until it disappears with the decrease of internal pressure. The
experimental results confirm the above two hypotheses.
Materials 2023, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW Figure 6 shows the critical wrinkling pressure of 20 steel and AA6061. For 20 steel,
with the increase of internal pressure, the wrinkles can be suppressed. When the internal
pressure reaches 10.4 MPa, the wrinkles eventually disappear. That means that the critical
wrinkling pressure of a 20 steel tube with a punch stroke of 100 mm is 10.4 MPa. When
the internal pressure
deformation. ForisAA6061,
higher than 10.4
the MPa, the
critical 20 steel tube
wrinkling can achieve
pressure stable
with upsetting
a punch stroke of
deformation. For AA6061, the critical wrinkling pressure with a punch stroke of 100 mm is
is 7.9 MPa. Compared to 20 steel, the critical wrinkling pressure of AA6061
7.9 MPa. Compared to 20 steel, the critical wrinkling pressure of AA6061 is 24% lower. is 24%

Figure
Figure 6. 6.
TheThe critical
critical wrinkling
wrinkling pressure
pressure of 20 steelofand
20AA6061.
steel and AA6061.

Figure 7 shows the critical rupture pressure of 20 steel and AA6061. It is cl

the picture that for tubes that have undergone bulging behavior, the risk of tube
can be reduced with the reduction of internal pressure. When the internal pressu
Materials 2023, 16, 1680 10 of 22

Figure 6. The critical wrinkling pressure of 20 steel and AA6061.

Figure
Figure77shows
showsthe thecritical
criticalrupture
rupture pressure
pressureof of
20 20
steel andand
steel AA6061.
AA6061. It isItclear fromfrom
is clear the
picture that for
the picture thattubes that have
for tubes undergone
that have bulging
undergone behavior,
bulging the riskthe
behavior, of risk
tubeof rupture can be
tube rupture
reduced with thewith
can be reduced reduction of internal
the reduction pressure.
of internal When the
pressure. internal
When pressurepressure
the internal is reduced to
is re-
13.9 MPa, for the 20 steel tube with a radius of 75 mm and a wall thickness
duced to 13.9 MPa, for the 20 steel tube with a radius of 75 mm and a wall thickness of 2 of 2 mm, the
rupture
mm, thedefect
ruptureeventually disappears.
defect eventually That means
disappears. themeans
That criticalthe
rupture
criticalpressure
ruptureispressure
13.9 MPa.is
When the internal pressure is lower than 13.9 MPa, the 20 steel tube can
13.9 MPa. When the internal pressure is lower than 13.9 MPa, the 20 steel tube can produce produce mold
bugling behavior
mold bugling without
behavior rupture.
without For AA6061,
rupture. the critical
For AA6061, rupture
the critical pressure
rupture is 7.2 MPa.
pressure is 7.2
Compared to 20 steel,
MPa. Compared to 20the critical
steel, rupture
the critical pressure
rupture of AA6061
pressure is 48.2%
of AA6061 is lower.
48.2% lower.

Figure 7.
Figure 7. The
The critical
critical rupture
rupture pressure
pressure of
of20
20steel
steeland
andAA6061.
AA6061.
Materials 2023, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 22
As
As shown
shownin inFigure
Figure8,8,the
theTUBG
TUBGforming
formingzone
zoneofof
2020
steel can
steel bebe
can obtained after
obtained combing
after comb-
the
ing above critical
the above pressure.
critical pressure.

Figure 8.
Figure 8. The
The forming
forming zone of TUBG.
zone of TUBG.

3.2.2. Mechanical Properties

In this paper, the critical rupture pressure is obtained for different strength coeffi-
cients, strain hardening exponent, and anisotropy. As shown in Figure 9, when the ani-
sotropy increases from 0.68 to 1.28, the critical rupture pressure gradually increases. For
tubes with a diameter of 60 mm, when the anisotropy increases from 0.68 to 1.28, the crit-
Materials 2023, 16, 1680 Figure 8. The forming zone of TUBG. 11 of 22

3.2.2. Mechanical Properties

3.2.2.InMechanical
this paper,Properties
the critical rupture pressure is obtained for different strength coeffi-
cients, strain hardening exponent,
In this paper, the critical ruptureand anisotropy.
pressure As shown
is obtained in Figure
for different 9, when
strength the ani-
coefficients,
sotropy
strain increasesexponent,
hardening from 0.68 and
to 1.28, the critical
anisotropy. Asrupture
shown pressure
in Figuregradually
9, when the increases. For
anisotropy
tubes with
increases a diameter
from of 60the
0.68 to 1.28, mm, whenrupture
critical the anisotropy
pressure increases
graduallyfrom 0.68 toFor
increases. 1.28, thewith
tubes crit-
aical
diameter
ruptureofpressure
60 mm, when the anisotropy
increases from 17.3 MPaincreases from
to 19.4 MPa,0.68with
to 1.28, the criticalrange
an increasing ruptureof
pressure
12.1%. For increases from
tubes with 17.3 MPa of
a diameter to 80mm,
19.4 MPa,
when with
thean increasingincreases
anisotropy range offrom12.1%.
0.68For
to
tubes with
1.28, the a diameter
critical of pressure
rupture 80mm, when the anisotropy
increases from 12.9increases from
MPa to 14.1 0.68with
MPa, to 1.28, the critical
an increasing
rupture
range ofpressure
9.3%. increases from 12.9 MPa to 14.1 MPa, with an increasing range of 9.3%.

Figure 9.
Figure 9. Critical
Critical internal pressure for
internal pressure for rupture
rupture with
with different
different anisotropies.
anisotropies.

As shown in Figure 10, when the the strain

strain hardening
hardening exponent
exponent increases
increases from
from 0.15–0.30,
0.15–0.30,
the critical
critical internal
internalpressure
pressuregradually
graduallydecreases.
decreases. When
When 0 < 0ε <<1εand
< 1 Kand
areKgiven, the strain
are given, the
strain hardening
hardening exponent
exponent n of then material
of the material decreases,
decreases, and theand
valuetheofvalue of σ is which
σ is larger, larger, means
which
means the material
the material has higher
has higher strength
strength and isand is difficult
difficult to rupture
to rupture duringduring the bulging
the bulging phase.
phase. For
For tubes with a diameter of 60 mm, when the strain hardening exponent increases from
0.15–0.30, the critical rupture pressure decreases from 14.7 MPa to 20.2 MPa, with a de-
creasing range of 37.4%. For tubes with a diameter of 80 mm, when the strain hardening
exponent increases from 0.15–0.30, the critical rupture pressure increases from 11.1 MPa to
15.2 MPa, with a decreasing range of 36.9%.
 tubes with a diameter of 60 mm, when the strain hardening exponent increases from 0.15
tubes with a diameter of 60 mm, when the strain hardening exponent increases from 0.15–
0.30, the critical rupture pressure decreases from 14.7 MPa to 20.2 MPa, with a decreasing
0.30, the critical rupture pressure decreases from 14.7 MPa to 20.2 MPa, with a decreasing
range of 37.4%. For tubes with a diameter of 80 mm, when the strain hardening exponen
Materials 2023, 16, 1680
range of 37.4%. For tubes with a diameter of 80 mm, when the strain hardening exponent
12 MPa
of 22 to 15.2
increasesfrom
increases from0.15–0.30,
0.15–0.30,
thethe critical
critical rupture
rupture pressure
pressure increases
increases from
from 11.1 11.1to
MPa 15.2
MPa, with a decreasing range of
MPa, with a decreasing range of 36.9%. 36.9%.

Figure 10. Critical internal pressure for rupture with different strain hardening exponents.

Figure
Figure
As 10.
10. Critical
Critical
shown in internal
internal
Figure pressure
pressure
11, when for strength
the rupture
for rupture with different
with different strain
coefficient strain hardening
hardening
increases exponents.
exponents.
from 700–1000 MPa,
the critical rupture pressure gradually increases. For tubes with a diameter of 60 mm,
As shown in Figure 11, when the strength coefficient increases from 700–1000 MPa,
when As
theshown
strengthincoefficient
Figure 11,increases
when the fromstrength
700–1000 coefficient
MPa, increases frompressure
700–1000 MPa
the critical rupture pressure gradually increases. For tubes withthe critical
a diameter rupture
of 60 mm, when
the critical
increases fromrupture
13.9 MPa pressure gradually
to 20.0 from
MPa, with an increases.
increasing For
rangetubes with For
of 43.8%. a diameter
tubes withofa 60 mm
the strength coefficient increases 700–1000 MPa, the critical rupture pressure increases
when
diameter
from theof
13.9 strength
MPa80 mm,
to 20.0 coefficient
when
MPa, the
with increases
strength
an increasingfrom
coefficient 700–1000
increases
range MPa,
from
of 43.8%. the critical
700–1000
For tubes MPa,athe
with rupture
criticalpressur
diameter
rupture
increases
of 80 mm, pressure
when increases
from the
13.9 MPa from
strength 10.5MPa,
20.0 MPa
tocoefficient to 14.9
with
increases MPa,
anfrom with an range
increasing
700–1000 increasing
MPa, of range of
the43.8%.
criticalFor41.9%.
tubes with
rupture
Strength
diameter
pressure coefficient
of 80 mm,
increases K
from describes
when the strength
the strength
10.5 MPa of the
coefficient
to 14.9 MPa, materials.
with an increases The material
increasing from
range700–1000with a higher
MPa, the critica
of 41.9%. Strength
value
ruptureof Kpressure
coefficient Khas higher
describes strength,
increases which
from
the strength means
of10.5
the MPa that it is
to 14.9
materials. Thedifficult
MPa, to rupture
with
material duringvalue
an increasing
with a higher the bulg-
range
of Kof 41.9%
ing phase.
has higher strength, which means that it is difficult to rupture during the bulging phase.
Strength coefficient K describes the strength of the materials. The material with a highe
value of K has higher strength, which means that it is difficult to rupture during the bulg
ing phase.

Figure11.
Figure 11. Critical
Critical internal
internal pressure
pressurefor
forrupture
rupturewith
withdifferent
differentstrength
strengthcoefficients.
coefficients.

As shown in Figure 12, it compares the critical rupture pressure between 20 steel
and AA6061 using TUBG. To meet the needs of this process, materials with large strength
coefficients, anisotropy, and a small hardening index should be selected. That means a
Figureforming
larger 11. Critical
zoneinternal
can be pressure
obtained.for rupture
When with different
the above strength
parameters coefficients.
change, these rules and
equations are still valid for other materials.
 efficients, anisotropy, and a small hardening index should be selected. That means a larger
forming zone can be obtained. When the above parameters change, these rules and equa
As shown in Figure 12, it compares the critical rupture pressure between 20 steel and
tions are still valid for other materials.
AA6061 using TUBG. To meet the needs of this process, materials with large strength co-
efficients, anisotropy, and a small hardening index should be selected. That means a larger
Materials 2023, 16, 1680 13 of 22
forming zone can be obtained. When the above parameters change, these rules and equa-
tions are still valid for other materials.

Figure 12. Comparison of critical rupture pressure between 20 steel and AA6061 using TUBG.
Figure 12.
Figure 12. Comparison of critical
Comparison of critical rupture
rupture pressure
pressure between
between 20
20 steel
steel and
and AA6061
AA6061 using
using TUBG.
TUBG.
3.2.3. Geometric Parameters
3.2.3. This
3.2.3. paperParameters
Geometric
Geometric obtains the forming zone for tubes with different thickness-diameter ra
Parameters
tios This
under
This paper
papertheobtains
condition
obtains the of a 100
theforming
forming mm
zone
zone for stamping
fortubes
tubeswith
with stroke.
different Inthickness-diameter
this work, theratios
thickness-diameter
different mold
ra- is un
changed.
under
tios under Therefore,
the condition ofthe
the condition outer
a 100
of amm 100contour
stamping ofstroke.
mm stamping the nozzle
In thisisIn
stroke. fixed.
work, The
this the smaller
mold
work, theismold thickness-diam
unchanged.
is un-
eter ratioTherefore,
Therefore,
changed. means
the outer the tube
contour
the outerhas a smaller
ofcontour
the nozzle
of thewall
is thickness.
fixed.
nozzle The When
smaller
is fixed. the thickness-diameter
Thethickness-diameter
smaller thickness-diam-ratio ratio
means the tube has a smaller wall thickness. When the thickness-diameter ratio is reduced
is reduced
eter ratio means fromthe1.67%
tube to
has1%, the thickness
a smaller of the tube
wall thickness. Whenisthe reduced from 2.5 mm
thickness-diameter to 1.5 mm
ratio
from 1.67%from to 1%, thetothickness of the tube is reduced from 2.5 mm2.5tomm 1.5 to
mm. The
The
is forming
reduced
forming zone
zone
is
1.67%is gradually
gradually reduced.
reduced.
1%, the thickness
As shown
ofAstheshown
in
tube isin
Figure
Figure
reduced
13, when
13,
from
the
when the thickness-diam
1.5 mm.
thickness-diameter
The
eterforming
ratio zone is the
= 1.67%, gradually
thicknessreduced. As
is 2.5 mm.shown incritical
Figure wrinkling
Thewrinkling 13, when the thickness-diam-
pressure is 7.8the
MPa, and
ratio
eter ratio = 1.67%, the thickness is 2.5 mm. The critical wrinkling pressure is MPa,
= 1.67%, the thickness is 2.5 mm. The critical pressure is 7.8 7.8 MPa,and and
the critical
critical rupturerupture
pressurepressure is 15 MPa.
is 15isMPa.
the critical rupture pressure 15 MPa.

Figure 13. The forming zone of TUBG (thickness-diameter ratio = 1.67%).

Figure13.
Figure 13.The
Theforming
forming zone
zone of TUBG
of TUBG (thickness-diameter
(thickness-diameter ratio =ratio = 1.67%).
1.67%).
As shown in Figure 14, when the thickness-diameter ratio = 1.33%, the thickness is
Asshown
2.0 mm.
As shown
The inin
critical Figure
14,14,
wrinkling
Figure when the
pressure
when thickness-diameter
is 10.3 MPa, and the
the thickness-diameter =ratio
critical
ratio = 1.33%,
rupture
1.33%, the thickness
pressure
the thickness is is
2.0 mm. The critical wrinkling pressure is 10.3 MPa, and the critical rupture pressure is
2.0 mm. The critical wrinkling pressure is 10.3 MPa, and the critical rupture pressure is
13.6 MPa. Compared to Figure 13, the critical wrinkling pressure is increased by 32.1%, and
the critical rupture pressure is reduced by 9.3%.
Materials 2023, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW 14 of 2

Materials 2023, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW 14 of 22

Materials 2023, 16, 1680 13.6 MPa. Compared to Figure 13, the critical wrinkling pressure is increased by 32.1%
14 of 22

and the critical rupture pressure is reduced by 9.3%.

13.6 MPa. Compared to Figure 13, the critical wrinkling pressure is increased by 32.1%,
and the critical rupture pressure is reduced by 9.3%.

Figure
Figure 14.
14.The
Figure14. Theforming
The zone
forming
forming of TUBG
zone
zone of TUBG (thickness-diameter
of TUBG ratio =
(thickness-diameter
(thickness-diameter ratio =ratio
1.33%).
= 1.33%).
1.33%).

As
As shown
Asshown
shownin inin
Figure 15,15,
Figure
Figure 15, when
whenwhenthe thickness-diameter
the thickness-diameter
the ratio =
thickness-diameter
ratio =ratio
1.33%,
1.33%, the thickness
thickness
= 1.33%,
the is
the thickness
is i
2.0
2.0 mm.
mm. The
The critical
critical wrinkling
wrinkling pressure
pressure is
is 11.0
11.0 MPa,
MPa, and
and the
the critical
critical rupture
rupture
2.0 mm. The critical wrinkling pressure is 11.0 MPa, and the critical rupture pressure i pressure
pressure is
is
11.9 MPa.
11.9 MPa. Compared
ComparedtotoFigure
Figure13,13, the
the critical
critical wrinkling
wrinkling pressure
pressure is increased
is increased by 41.1%,
by 41.1%, and
11.9 MPa.rupture
Compared to Figure 13, by
the20.6%.
critical wrinkling pressure is increased by 41.1%
andcritical
the the critical rupture pressure
pressure is reduced
is reduced by 20.6%.
and the critical rupture pressure is reduced by 20.6%.

Figure 15.
Figure 15. The
The forming
forming zone of TUBG
zone of TUBG (thickness-diameter
(thickness-diameter ratio
ratio =
= 1.00%).
1.00%).

Therefore,
Therefore,
Figure forthe
for
15. The forming thecomponent
component
zone of TUBGwith a small thickness-diameter
with (thickness-diameter
a small thickness-diameter ratio,
ratio, the
ratio = 1.00%). the process
process should
should
be be controlled
strictly strictly controlled as aofresult
as a result of a narrower
a narrower formingforming
zone. zone.

4. Therefore,and
Experiments forSimulation
the componentAnalysis with a small thickness-diameter ratio, the proces
4. Experiments and Simulation Analysis
should be strictly
4.1. Experimental controlled as a result of a narrower forming zone.
4.1. Experimental
The simulation and experimental equipment for TUBG are shown in Figure 16. The
The simulation
4. Experiments and and experimental
Simulation equipment for TUBG are shown in Figure 16. The
speed of the punch stroke is set to 2 Analysis
mm/s with friction coefficient µ = 0.05 between tube
speed of the punch stroke is set to 2 mm/s with friction coefficient μ = 0.05 between tube
4.1. mode.
and Experimental
When simulating, assume the extrusion model is isothermal. Both the mold
and mode. When simulating, assume the extrusion model is isothermal. Both the mold
and punch are set to a rigid body, and the tube is set to a deformed body. In this paper, the
The simulation
and punch are set to a and
rigidexperimental
body, and the equipment
tube is set tofor TUBG are
a deformed shown
body. in Figure
In this paper, 16. The
global seed method is selected to strictly control the grid density and determine the size of
speed
the of
global the
seedpunch
method
2 stroke is set
is selected to
to 2 mm/s
strictly with
control friction density andμdetermine
the grid coefficient = 0.05 between
the tube
the grid to be 1 mm .
size of the grid to be 1 mm 2.
and mode. When simulating, assume the extrusion model is isothermal. Both the mold
and punch are set to a rigid body, and the tube is set to a deformed body. In this paper
the global seed method is selected to strictly control the grid density and determine the
size of the grid to be 1 mm2.
Materials 2023, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW
Materials 2023, 16, 1680 Figure 16. The equipment and simulation model for 15TUBG.
of 22 (a
simulation model for TUBG.

Before the experiment, the shortened length in the a

calculation results showed that for tubes with a length o
the axial direction is 8 mm. It means only 4 percent of
direction during TUBG. Due to the small proportion, th
in experiments.
Combined with the results of theoretical analysis, u
supply internal pressure. The pump is connected to the
mold. The geometry of the mold limits the minimum an
Figure
Figure TheThe
16.16. equipment and simulation
equipment model for TUBG.
and simulation model (a) The
for equipment
TUBG. (a)forThe
TUBG, (b) The
equipment
zle. Through
simulation model for TUBG.
a catheter, the liquid in the pump can for
beT
simulation model for TUBG.
which in turn provides pressure. When TUBG begins, b
Before the experiment, the shortened length in the axial direction was calculated. The
punch,Before
calculation the
results tubethatisfordeformed
theshowed
experiment, thewith
tubes shortened under
a length length
of 200 mm,the
inthe
theforce of punch
axial direction
shortened length
the axial direction is 8 mm. It means only 4 percent of the length is required in the axial
in wasac
calculation results showed that for tubes with a length of 200 mm, the short
the pressure
direction during TUBG.provided
Due to the smallby the liquid
proportion, the lengthdrives
of this partthe
the axial direction is 8 mm. It means only 4 percent of the length is requir
tube to h
is negligible
in experiments.
direction
Combined during TUBG.
with the Due
results of to theanalysis,
theoretical small using
proportion,
the liquid the length
pressure pumpoftothis pa
supply internal pressure. The pump is connected to the tube. The tube is placed inside
4.2. Plastic Deformation Process
in experiments.
the mold. The geometry of the mold limits the minimum and maximum diameter of the
nozzle.Combined with the
Through a catheter, theliquid
results ofpump
in the theoretical analysis,
can be injected into a using the liquid pre
rubber container,
4.2.1. Simulation Accuracy
supply
which internal
in turn pressure.
provides The pump
pressure. When is connected
TUBG begins, to the
by controlling tube. Theoftube
the movement the is pla
punch, the tube is deformed under the force of punch and mold. By operating the pump,
mold. The geometry of the mold limits the minimum and maximum diame
During the upsetting process of hollow tubes, it is
the pressure provided by the liquid drives the tube to have plastic deformation.
zle. Through a catheter, the liquid in the pump can be injected into a rub
AsPlastic
4.2.
which shown inProcess
inDeformation Figure
turn provides 17, four
pressure. Whenwrinkles
TUBG begins, appear around
by controlling th
the mo
4.2.1. Simulation Accuracy
ished,
punch, with
the a deformed
tube is low pressure under the offorce9 MPa.
of punch Moreover,
and mold. By asoperat
During the upsetting process of hollow tubes, it is very easy to shrink and wrinkle. As
the
the pressure provided by the liquid drives the tube to have plastic deforma
wrinkle gradually evolves in size and becomes a dead w
shown in Figure 17, four wrinkles appear around the edge when the upsetting is finished,
with a low pressure of 9 MPa. Moreover, as the stamping process progresses, the wrinkle
failure of the forming process.
gradually evolves
4.2. Plastic in size and becomes
Deformation Processa dead wrinkle, which directly leads to the failure of
the forming process.
4.2.1. Simulation Accuracy
During the upsetting process of hollow tubes, it is very easy to shrink
As shown in Figure 17, four wrinkles appear around the edge when the u
ished, with a low pressure of 9 MPa. Moreover, as the stamping process p
wrinkle gradually evolves in size and becomes a dead wrinkle, which direc
failure of the forming process.

Figure 17. Wrinkle in XOZ plane during TUBG process with pressure of 9 MPa.
Figure 17. Wrinkle in XOZ plane during TUBG process with p

At the same time, it is worth noting that, during

Figure 17. Wrinkle in XOZ plane during TUBG process with pressure of 9 MPa.
forming process, the axial direction of the tube gradua
 Whether it is a beneficial wrinkle and whether it can be flattened in bugling remains to be
discussed.
In this process, the extrusion force required per unit area can be obtained according
Materials 2023, 16, 1680 to the empirical formula [33]: 16 of 22

2 R −R
Pα = σ μ (1 + C ) ln( 1 2 ) (34
r1 − r2 and experimental
At the same time, it is worth noting3that, during the simulation
forming process, the axial direction of the tube gradually evolves into annular wrinkles.
σ is the
As shown average
in Figure equivalent
18a,b, forceand
the emergence value; R1, R2 of
evolution arethis
thetype
outer diameterFigure
of wrinkle. and inner
18c diam
shows the wrinkle morphology after the experiment. It is considered
eter of the experimental tube; r1, r2 are the outer diameter and inner diameter ofto be the result of the thin
wall of the hollow cone; μ is the coefficient of friction. When the friction increases, it i
increased friction between the tube and mold. At the beginning of the forming process, the
contact area between the tube and mold is small. The value of friction has not yet reached
extremely difficult for the tube to complete a stamping process due to the press of interna
the critical value of wrinkling. When the contact area between the tube surface and the
pressure.
mold The tube
increases, is more
the value proneincreases
of friction to wrinkling. It istoextremely
and leads importantWhether
wrinkles eventually. to reduceit friction
between the tube and mold for the TUBG process.
is a beneficial wrinkle and whether it can be flattened in bugling remains to be discussed.

Figure18.
Figure 18.Wrinkles
Wrinkles in XOY
in XOY plane
plane during
during TUBGTUBGprocessprocess with a of
with a pressure pressure
20 MPa. of
(a)20 MPa.
The (a) The emer-
emergence
gence
of of wrinkle,
wrinkle, (b) The evolution
(b) The evolution of the(c)wrinkles
of the wrinkles, ,(c) The
The wrinkle wrinkleafter
morphology morphology after the experi-
the experiment.
ment.
In this process, the extrusion force required per unit area can be obtained according to
the empirical
4.2.2. Forming formula
Zone[33]:
When bulging, if the internal 2 pressure is R too−low,
R2 it is difficult to make the tube ex
Pα = √ σµ(1 + C ) ln( 1 ) (34)
pand to the predetermined shape, 3 which cannot r − r
1 fit2 with the mold and meet the shap
requirements. If the internal pressure is too high, not only better performance equipmen
σ is the average equivalent force value; R1 , R2 are the outer diameter and inner
is required,
diameter but
of the also the tube
experimental may
tube; r1 , be ruptured,
r2 are the outerwhich results
diameter and in the diameter
inner failure ofofnozzle
the man
ufacturing.
thin wall of the hollow cone; µ is the coefficient of friction. When the friction increases, it is
The difficult
extremely materialsforselected forcomplete
the tube to this experiment
a stamping are 20 steel.
process dueThe strength
to the press ofcoefficient
internal (K) i
800 MPa,The
pressure. hardening index
tube is more (n)toiswrinkling.
prone 0.2, anisotropy (R) is 0.88,
It is extremely wall thickness
important to reduce is 2 mm, diam
friction
between
eter is 75the
mm,tubeand
andlength
mold for the TUBG
is 200 process.
mm. Combined with the formula in this article, the form
ing zone is given, as shown in Figure 19. The initial well-formed upsetting process doe
4.2.2. Forming Zone
not require internal pressure support. As the punch stroke increases, the required suppor
When bulging, if the internal pressure is too low, it is difficult to make the tube ex-
internal pressure gradually appears and increases. Combine the support pressure with
pand to the predetermined shape, which cannot fit with the mold and meet the shape
the rupture pressure, forming zone of TUBG in this experiment is given.
requirements. If the internal pressure is too high, not only better performance equipment is
required, but also the tube may be ruptured, which results in the failure of nozzle manufac-
turing.
The materials selected for this experiment are 20 steel. The strength coefficient (K) is
800 MPa, hardening index (n) is 0.2, anisotropy (R) is 0.88, wall thickness is 2 mm, diameter
is 75 mm, and length is 200 mm. Combined with the formula in this article, the forming
zone is given, as shown in Figure 19. The initial well-formed upsetting process does not
require internal pressure support. As the punch stroke increases, the required support
internal pressure gradually appears and increases. Combine the support pressure with the
rupture pressure, forming zone of TUBG in this experiment is given.

Figure 19. Forming zone of TUBG in this experiment.

 eter is 75 mm, and length is 200 mm. Combined with the formula in this ar
ing zone is given, as shown in Figure 19. The initial well-formed upsetting
not require internal pressure support. As the punch stroke increases, the req
Materials 2023, 16, 1680 internal pressure gradually appears and increases. Combine the 17 ofsupport
22
the rupture pressure, forming zone of TUBG in this experiment is given.

als 2023, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW 17 of 22

Figure
Figure 19.19. Forming
Forming zone ofzone
TUBGof
in TUBG in this
this experiment. experiment.
4.2.3. Deformation
4.2.3. Analysis
Deformation Analysis
As shown in As Figure
shown20, the process
in Figure 20,ofthe
TUBG is shown.
process of TUBG Theisfirst
shown.stageThe
of TUBG is of TUBG is
first stage
shown in Figure 20a. The
shown tube completes
in Figure 20a. The the
tube well-formed
completes upsetting processupsetting
the well-formed with the sup-
process with the
port of internal pressure.
support However,
of internal there areHowever,
pressure. three wrinkles in the
there are force
three transmission
wrinkles in the area.
force transmission
As the experiment
area. progresses and pressure
As the experiment increases,
progresses and as shownincreases,
pressure in Figure as20b, two wrin-
shown in Figure 20b, two
kles are flattened. Mostare
wrinkles parts of the tube
flattened. Mosthave been
parts fitted
of the to the
tube havemold.
beenFinally, asthe
fitted to shown
mold. Finally, as
in Figure 20c,shown in Figure
after the internal20c, after the
pressure internalto
increases pressure
the set increases
value, all to the set value,
wrinkles all wrinkles are
are flat-
tened, and noflattened, and noArupture
rupture occurs. occurs.rocket
well-formed A well-formed rocket nozzle is obtained.
nozzle is obtained.

Figure 20. Mises stress20.

Figure distribution of formed
Mises stress partsofusing
distribution TUBG.
formed parts(a) The TUBG.
using first stage of TUBG,
(a) The (b) of TUBG, (b) The
first stage
The shape of the nozzle that two wrinkles are flattened, (c) A well-formed rocket nozzle.
shape of the nozzle that two wrinkles are flattened, (c) A well-formed rocket nozzle.

In order to explore thetoaccuracy

In order of the
explore the forming
accuracy zone,
of the the upper
forming zone,and lower and
the upper limits of limits of the
lower
the forming zone are taken respectively. As shown in Figure 21a–c, when P = 13.9 MPa,
forming zone are taken respectively. As shown in Figure 21a–c, when P = 13.9 MPa, the evolution
the evolution process
process of oftube
tubebulging
bulgingisisdiscussed.
discussed.With
Withthe
theincrease
increaseofof internal
internal pressure,
pressure, the wrinkles are
the wrinkles are flattened
flattened to ato a certain
certain extent.
extent. Finally,
Finally, after after forming,
forming, thewas
the tube tubeperfectly
was perfectly
molded.
molded.
 The shape of the nozzle that two wrinkles are flattened, (c) A well-formed rocket nozzle.

In order to explore the accuracy of the forming zone, the upper and lower limits of
the forming zone are taken respectively. As shown in Figure 21a–c, when P = 13.9 MPa,
the evolution process of tube bulging is discussed. With the increase of internal pressure,
Materials 2023, 16, 1680
the wrinkles are flattened to a certain extent. Finally, after forming, the tube was perfectly 18 of 22
molded.

Figure 21. Mises stress21.

Figure distribution of formed
Mises stress parts of
distribution in cases
formedof parts
11.9 MPa and 13.9
in cases MPa.
of 11.9 (a–c)
MPa andThe
13.9 MPa. (a–c) The
evolution process of wrinkle morphology when P = 13.9 MPa (d–f) The evolution process of wrin-
evolution process of wrinkle morphology when P = 13.9 MPa (d–f) The evolution process of wrinkle
kle morphology when P = 11.9 MPa.
morphology when P = 11.9 MPa.
Materials 2023, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW
In order to explore thetoforming results under the different
In order explore the forming results under thepressure
different in the forming
pressure in the forming zone,
zone, this paper
thisdiscusses the forming
paper discusses conditions
the forming under Punder
conditions = 11.9PMPa.
= 11.9AsMPa.
shownAsin Figure
shown in Figure 21d–f,
21d–f, with the increase
with of internal
the increase pressure,
of internal the wrinkles
pressure, are flattened
the wrinkles to a certain
are flattened extent.extent. Finally,
to a certain
Finally, the tube
thefits
tubeinto
fitsthe
intomold and forms
the mold a well-formed
and forms part. part.
a well-formed It alsoIt indicates that the
also indicates that the wrinkles
wrinkles formed the wall
under thickness
this coefficient change,
of friction its
are ability
beneficial.
formed under this coefficient of friction are beneficial. to resist ablation during the working
For the rocket nozzle
For
hanced. the to be formed,
rocket nozzleitstowall thicknessitsshows
be formed, wall athickness
gradual thinning
shows a phe-
gradual thinning
nomenon from the small end
phenomenon to the
from thelarge
smallend.
end With
to thethe improvement
large end. With the of the uniformityofofthe uniformity
improvement
In this process, the theoretical calculation of Section 3 shows that the
of the wall thickness change, its ability to resist ablation during the working process
isisenhanced.
thickened after upsetting, and the wall thickness is thinned after bulging
orderIn this process, the
to explore theoretical
the calculationdistribution
wall thickness of Section 3 shows underthat the wall thickness
different pressure, th
is thickened after upsetting, and the wall thickness is thinned after bulging. However, in
ing strain is extracted for analysis. As shown in Figure 22, compared to P =
order to explore the wall thickness distribution under different pressure, the corresponding
strainis extracted
strain evolution for of the bulging
analysis. As shownsegment
in Figure 22, under
compared13.9toMPa is MPa,
P = 11.9 moretheuniform
strain
MPa,evolution
consideringof the bulging
that segment
due to under 13.9 MPa pressure,
the greater is more uniform.the For P = 13.9wrinkling
greater MPa, b
considering that due to the greater pressure, the greater wrinkling behavior in the force
force transmission zone of the material occurs. After repeated action of the
transmission zone of the material occurs. After repeated action of the internal pressure
sure bulging
bulging shape, anshape, an uneven
uneven strain strain
distribution distribution
phenomenon occurs.phenomenon occurs.

Figure
Figure Strain
22.22. distribution
Strain in cases ofin
distribution 11.9 MPa of
cases and11.9
13.9 MPa.
MPa and 13.9 MPa.
Therefore, when manufacturing nozzle parts, a process scheme with a larger value of
Therefore,
P should when
be selected in manufacturing
the forming nozzle
zone. Especially parts,
compared a process
with
to spinning, scheme
which uses a
of P should be selected in the forming zone. Especially compared to spinnin
a steel plate to make the rocket nozzle, TUBG has a smaller degree of defor
on this, many defects are avoided.
 Figure 22. Strain distribution in cases of 11.9 MPa and 13.9 MPa.

Therefore, when manufacturing nozzle parts, a process scheme with

Materials 2023, 16, 1680 of P should be selected in the forming zone. Especially compared to22spinnin
19 of
a steel plate to make the rocket nozzle, TUBG has a smaller degree of defor
on this, many defects are avoided.
steel plate to make the rocket nozzle, TUBG has a smaller degree of deformation. Based on
Furthermore, the strain distribution along the axial direction is extrac
this, many defects are avoided.
in Figure 23. Inthecontrast,
Furthermore, when P
strain distribution = 11.9
along MPa,
the axial the real
direction value isasmore
is extracted, shown fitted
in to
value. In the real strain distribution, the location of the mutation is the same
Figure 23. In contrast, when P = 11.9 MPa, the real value is more fitted to the theoretical
value. In the real strain distribution, the location of the mutation is the same as the wrinkle
position during the simulation. It is considered that the appearance of bene
position during the simulation. It is considered that the appearance of beneficial wrinkles
hascaused
has caused the sudden
the sudden change change in value
in the strain the strain
there. value there.

Figure
Figure 23.23. Comparison
Comparison ofbetween
of strains strainscalculated
between calculated
prediction prediction
and simulation and
result. simulation resu
4.2.4. Experimental Results
4.2.4.
Materials 2023, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW Experimental
Figure Results
24 shows the outline of a rocket nozzle. For this component, the diameter ratio
of small end to large end is 31.67%. When it is formed, the difficulty is that the small end
Figure 24 shows the outline of a rocket nozzle. For this component, the
diameter is 75 mm, and the large end diameter is 200 mm.
of small end to large end is 31.67%. When it is formed, the difficulty is that
diameter is 75 mm, and the large end diameter is 200 mm.

TheThe
Figure 24.24.
Figure diameter changeschanges
diameter of the target
of part
theintarget
this process
part scheme.
in this process scheme.
In the process of TUBG, under the pressure of 13.2 MPa, the rocket nozzle of the
above In
sizethe process
can be of TUBG,
manufactured without under the pressure
any wrinkling and rupturingof defects.
13.2 MPa, theinrocket
As shown
Figure 25a-(1), with an internal pressure lower than the critical value,
above size can be manufactured without any wrinkling and rupturing defe an imperfect upsetting
process occurs. Wrinkles appear on the tube. As shown in Figure 25a-(2), within the given
in Figure 25a-(1), with an internal pressure lower than the critical value, an
setting process occurs. Wrinkles appear on the tube. As shown in Figure 2
the given forming zone, the tube undergoes a well-formed TUBG process. A
rocket nozzle is obtained. As shown in Figure 25a-(3), under the pressure abo
 Figure 24. The diameter changes of the target part in this process scheme.

In the process of TUBG, under the pressure of 13.2 MPa, the rocket nozzle of the
Materials 2023, 16, 1680 20 of 22
above size can be manufactured without any wrinkling and rupturing defects. As shown
in Figure 25a-(1), with an internal pressure lower than the critical value, an imperfect up-
setting process occurs. Wrinkles appear on the tube. As shown in Figure 25a-(2), within
the givenzone,
forming forming thezone,
tube the tube undergoes
undergoes a well-formed
a well-formed TUBG TUBG
process.process. A well-formed
A well-formed rocket
rocket nozzle
nozzle is obtained.
is obtained. As shown
As shown in Figure
in Figure 25a-(3),
25a-(3), under under the pressure
the pressure above above the critical
the critical value,
value, annular
annular wrinkles wrinkles
appear appear
in theinforce
the force transmission
transmission zonezone of the
of the tube.
tube. It isIt considered
is considered that
that excessive
excessive internal
internal pressure
pressure increases
increases friction,
friction, whichwhich
leadsleads
to thetoappearance
the appearance of wrin-As
of wrinkles.
kles. Asinshown
shown Figurein25b,
Figure 25b, the
the wall wall thickness
thickness of thenozzle
of the perfect perfectobtained
nozzle obtained
in Path 2inisPath 2 is
measured.
measured.
The thicknessThevalues
thickness
fromvalues from element
the finite the finiteanalysis
element results
analysisare
results
also are also extracted.
extracted. From the
From the
small endsmall
to theend
bigto theofbig
end theend of the
rocket rocketthe
nozzle, nozzle, the thickness
thickness shows ashows
trend froma trend from to
thicker
thicker towhich
thinner, thinner, which
meets the meets the requirements
requirements for the useforofthe
theuse of the
rocket rocket nozzle.
nozzle.

Figure 25.
Figure 25. Rocket
Rocket nozzle
nozzlemaking
makingbybyTUBG
TUBGand anditsitsthickness
thicknessvalue. (a)The
value. forming
(a)The zone
forming andand
zone rocket
rocket
nozzle making by TUBG, (b) The wall thickness of the perfect nozzle.
nozzle making by TUBG, (b) The wall thickness of the perfect nozzle.

5. Conclusions
5. Conclusions
The
The traditional
traditionalforming
formingprocess
processofofthe
therocket
rocketnozzle
nozzlehashasthe problems
the problems of of
multi-step
multi-step
forming, the
forming, the occurrence
occurrenceof ofdefects,
defects,and
andsevere
severeplastic
plasticdeformation.
deformation. This
Thisstudy proposed
study proposed a a
novel tube
novel tube upsetting-bulging
upsetting-bulging(TUBG) (TUBG)method.
method.Both Boththeoretical
theoretical and
andexperimental
experimental works
works
are conducted
are conductedtotoanalyze
analyzeplastic
plastic deformation
deformation behavior.
behavior. Detailed
Detailed conclusions
conclusions candrawn
can be be
drawn
as below:as below:
1.
1. AA theoretical
theoreticalmodel
modelfor forwrinkling
wrinklingand andrupturing
rupturingisisbuilt.
built.Based
Basedonon
thethe
energy
energy
method, a theoretical critical internal pressure is established, which can avoid
method, a theoretical critical internal pressure is established, which can avoid wrinkling and wrinkling
and rupturing.
rupturing. The The
model model considered
considered the the factors
factors suchsuch as materials
as materials andand geometric
geometric param-
parameters.
eters.
For For a certain
a certain degree degree of deformation,
of deformation, the critical
the critical pressure
pressure is improved
is improved with
with thethe in-
increase
crease
of the of the strengthen
strengthen coefficient
coefficient and anisotropies
and anisotropies but but decreases
decreases as as
thethe hardeningexponent
hardening expo-
nent increases.
increases. A theoretical
A theoretical forming
forming zonezone
for for
TUBETUBE is established,
is established, which
which decreaseswith
decreases withthe
the decrease
decrease of the
of the thickness-diameter
thickness-diameter ratio.
ratio.
2. A finite element analysis model is set up. The accuracy of this model is verified by
the wrinkling behaviors of different cross-sections. The plastic deformation behavior of
TUBG is analyzed. During deformation, the small end is compressed and thickened. The
large end is stretched and thinned. Wrinkles appear at the beginning of the deformation,
which can unfold in the later stages. The finite element analysis results show that the strain
distribution is consistent with the theoretical predictions.
3. An experimental platform is established, and verification is carried out. Three
loading paths are selected near the forming zone for testing. When the pressure is less than
the critical value, an imperfect upsetting process occurs with wrinkles appearing. When the
loading path is inside the forming zone, a well-formed rocket nozzle can be obtained. When
the pressure is higher than the critical value, axial wrinkles appear due to the increased
friction force.
4. The study shows that TUBG combines the advantages of traditional schemes. Using
the predicted forming zone, a well-formed nozzle can be obtained with high efficiency. The
strain distribution of the specimens is relatively uniform.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, Y.C. and H.W.; methodology, S.Z.; software, H.W.;
writing—original draft, J.L.; writing—review and editing, L.H. All authors have read and agreed to
the published version of the manuscript.
Materials 2023, 16, 1680 21 of 22

Funding: This research was funded by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant No.
52175360), and the Young Elite Scientists Sponsorship Program by China Association for Science and
Technology (Grant No. 2021QNRC001).
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: The data used to support the findings of this study are available from
the corresponding authors upon request.
Acknowledgments: The authors would like to acknowledge the financial support from the National
Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant No. 52175360), and the Young Elite Scientists Sponsorship
Program by China Association for Science and Technology (Grant No. 2021QNRC001).
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Nomenclature
PL critical internal pressure σr radial stress
E0 energy released by wrinkles σθ circumferential stress
E1 strain energy in unwrinkled tube εr radial strain
E2 strain energy in wrinkled tube εθ circumferential strain
A area where wrinkles appear f friction coefficient
ϕ the height of wrinkles t thickness of the tube
S the length of wrinkles L length of the tube
y the shape of the wrinkled part Y correction coefficient when upsetting
a the frequency of the mode Pcr1 critical wrinkling pressure
r internal diameter Pcr2 critical rupturing pressure
K strength coefficient M correction coefficient when bulging
n strain hardening exponent Ps critical yield pressure
R anisotropy coefficient Pcr selectable internal pressure
ε0 pre-strain

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